Health Communication

ISSN: 1041-0236 (Print) 1532-7027 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hhth20

Consumption of Pornography, Perceived Peer

Norms, and Condomless Sex
Paul J. Wright, Robert S. Tokunaga & Ashley Kraus
To cite this article: Paul J. Wright, Robert S. Tokunaga & Ashley Kraus (2016): Consumption
of Pornography, Perceived Peer Norms, and Condomless Sex, Health Communication, DOI:
10.1080/10410236.2015.1022936
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2015.1022936

Published online: 11 Jan 2016.

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HEALTH COMMUNICATION
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2015.1022936

Consumption of Pornography, Perceived Peer Norms, and Condomless Sex

Paul J. Wrighta, Robert S. Tokunagab, and Ashley Krausa
a

The Media School, Indiana University; bDepartment of Communicology, University of Hawaii at Manoa

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ABSTRACT

Sexual scripts in pornography rarely include condoms. Many U.S. college students consume pornography
and have unprotected sex. Yet no study appears to have investigated whether pornography consumption
is correlated with having unprotected sex among U.S. college students. This article reports results from
two studies of pornography consumption and condomless sex among U.S. college students. Pornography
consumption was directly associated with a higher likelihood of condomless sex in study 1. This finding
was replicated in study 2. Study 2 also explored whether perceptions of peers use of condoms partially
mediates the association between pornography consumption and condomless sex. Pornography
consumption was associated with lower estimations of peers condom use, and lower estimations of
peers condom use were associated with personally engaging in condomless sex.

College students are a population at increased risk for sexually

transmitted infections (STIs) (Eisenberg, Lust, & Garcia,
2014). The heightened autonomy and independence that
accompany the transition to college afford students many
opportunities for sexual experimentation (Lam & Lefkowitz,
2013; Wright, Randall, & Hayes, 2012). Many students
have sex with multiple different partners during their time
at college. Many students also engage in behaviors associated
with a heightened risk for STIs, such as anal sex and sex with
relative strangers. In 2012, the American College Health
Association (ACHA) surveyed U.S. college students from
141 schools (ACHA, 2012). More than a quarter reported
having multiple sexual partners in the last year and just
under a quarter reported having had anal sex. Grello, Welsh,
and Harper (2006) and LaBrie, Hummer, Ghaidarov, Lac, and
Kenney (2014) studied college students casual sex behavior at
universities in Eastern and Western states, respectively. More
than half of the students in the LaBrie et al. study reported
engaging in casual sex and nearly 25% reported having casual
sex with partners they had met the same day. More than half
of the sexually experienced students in the Grello et al. study
reported engaging in casual sex and nearly 40% reported that
their most recent casual sex experience was with a stranger.
Condom use is the most reliable way sexually active college
students can decrease their risk of STIs (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2014). But many college students
report having sex without condoms (American College
Health Association, 2012).
It has been suggested that pornography (i.e., media content
depicting nudity and explicit sexual acts) may be an influence
on sexual risk behavior (Haggstrom-Nordin, Hanson, & Tyden,
2005). Many U.S. college students view pornography (Morgan,
2011; Paul, 2009; Weinberg, Williams, Kleiner, & Irizarry,
2010). Yet few studies have assessed whether consuming
CONTACT Paul J. Wright, PhD
2016 Taylor & Francis

paulwrig@indiana.edu

pornography is related to condomless sex, and no study

appears to have explored whether pornography consumption
predicts condomless sex among U.S. college students. This
article reports results from two studies of pornography
consumption and condomless sex among U.S. college students.
Responding to the call of Wingood et al. (2001) for research on
youth, pornography, and contraceptive behavior, study 1
explores whether pornography consumption is directly
associated with a higher probability of condomless sex. Study
2 attempts to replicate the findings of study 1. Additionally,
responding to the call of Peter and Valkenburg (2011a) for
research on the mediating role of perceived peer norms, study 2
explores whether perceptions of peers use of condoms partially
mediate the association between pornography consumption
and condomless sex.

Condomless sex among college students

Many college students engage in condomless sex. In the
ACHA (2012) study of 141 schools, approximately 95% of
male and female students who had oral sex in the last 30 days
did not use a condom. Just under 50% of male students and
more than 50% of female students who had vaginal sex in the
last 30 days did not use a condom. More than 60% of male
students and more than 75% of female students who had anal
sex in the last 30 days did not use a condom.
Smaller scale studies have also found high rates of condomless
sex among college students. A survey of students from a
Northeastern university found that nearly half reported not
using a condom the last time they had sex (Parsons, Halkitis,
Bimbi, & Borkowski, 2000). In a four-wave panel study of
students from a Northeastern university, students were asked
how frequently they used condoms during penetrative sex
(Lam & Lefkowitz, 2013). At each wave the average student

The Media School, Indiana University, 1229 East 7th St., Bloomington, IN 47405.

P. J. WRIGHT ET AL.

reported having had condomless sex. Likewise, the majority of

students from a Western university reported that they did not use
a condom the last time they had casual sex, in a study by Lewis,
Granato, Blayney, Lostutter, and Kilmer (2012).
Smaller scale studies that have reported results separately for
male and female students also correspond with the findings of
the ACHA (2012) report. In a survey at a Northeastern college,
Wang (2013) asked students to recall condom use during sex
they had within the past 2 weeks. Just under one-third of
female students and more than one-quarter of male students
reported having had condomless sex. Similarly, results from a
study of students attending a Western university conducted by
Farmer and Meston (2006) indicated that more than 50% of
male and female students did not use a condom during their
most recent sexual encounter.

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Condomless sex in pornography

Content-analytic studies indicate that condoms are infrequently
used in pornography. Brosius, Weaver, and Staab (1993)
analyzed a random sample of 50 pornographic movies available
in Germany (the majority of which originated in the United
States). Contraception was mentioned in 1% of scenes. Sun,
Bridges, Wosnitzer, Scharrer, and Liberman (2008) studied a
sample of 44 male or female directed pornographic movies that
a United States-based adult industry trade organization had
identified as frequently rented. Condoms were present in
approximately 7% of male-directed and 5% of female-directed
scenes. Grudzen et al. (2009) analyzed scenes from 50 movies
randomly selected from the largest distributor of heterosexual
adult films in the United States. Condoms were used in less
than 10% of anal intercourse scenes and only 3% of vaginal
intercourse scenes. Bridges, Wosnitzer, Scharrer, Sun, and
Liberman (2010) studied 50 movies randomly selected from a
list of films identified as best-selling and most-rented by a
United States-based adult industry trade organization.
Condoms were used in just under 11% of scenes. Gorman,
Monk-Turner, and Fish (2010) analyzed a random sample of
45 videos on popular free pornography websites. A condom
was used in only one video. Vannier, Currie, and OSullivan
(2014) studied a random sample of 100 videos on popular
free pornography websites. Condom use was depicted in 2%
of videos.

Sexual script theory

Through what mechanisms might exposure to pornography
affect college students condom use behavior? The concept of
sexual scripting provides a theoretical foundation for the
hypothesis that sexual media influence consumers sexual
behavior (Gagnon & Simon, 2005; Wright, Malamuth, &
Donnerstein, 2012). Sexual scripts are socially constructed
guidelines for human sexual behavior. Sexual scripts indicate
what is behaviorally normative and appropriate. Sexual scripts
also forecast the outcomes of particular sexual behaviors (e.g.,
rewards or punishments).
Drawing on the scripting concept as well as numerous other
theoretical perspectives (e.g., social cognitive, cultivation, media
priming, uses and gratifications, and media dependency

theories), Wright (2011) developed a script acquisition,

activation, application model (3AM) of sexual media socialization. Script acquisition refers to the learning of a novel script
due to media exposure. For example, a viewer of pornography
may learn a sexual script for condomless anal sex followed
immediately by condomless oral sex (Sun et al., 2008). Script
activation refers to media exposure priming an already
acquired script. For instance, an individual may already be
aware of a script for condomless vaginal sex followed by facial
ejaculation, but may have the accessibility of this script
increased by seeing it enacted in pornography (Bridges et al.,
2010). Script application refers to the use of a script that has
been acquired and activated to guide a behavioral decision.
Following Bandura (2001) and Huesmann (1986), the 3AM
predicts that sexual media exposure is most likely to lead
to behavioral enactment when sexual scripts are portrayed
as normative and pleasurable. As reviewed previously,
condomless sex is the norm in popular pornography. That
sex in pornography is pleasurable is inherent in the genre.

Pornography consumption among U.S. college

students
Exposure to sexual media is the first step in the socialization
process, as individuals cannot be affected by sexual scripts they
do not observe. A large number of studies have now established
that many college students in the United States have viewed
pornography. Morgan (2011) surveyed students from a
Northwestern university. More than 90% of men and 50% of
women indicated that they had consumed pornography. Brosi,
Foubert, Bannon, and Yandell (2011) and Foubert, Brosi, and
Bannon (2011) gathered data from students at a university in
the Midwest. More than 80% of men and nearly 50% of women
reported viewing pornography in the prior 12 months. Simons,
Simons, Lei, and Sutton (2012) collected data from students
at a Southern university. Three-quarters of men and one-third
of women said they had viewed a pornographic movie in the
past year.
While an exposure experience is a prerequisite for an
effect, more recent and more frequent exposure should
increase the probability that consumers will model behaviors rewarded in sexual media (Wright, 2011). Recent
exposure should increase the accessibility of sexual scripts
in the short term (Berkowitz & Rogers, 1986). In a study of
male and female students from two Midwestern schools,
close to 50% said that they had looked at pornography in
the past 30 days (Buzzell, Foss, & Middleton, 2006).
Repeated exposure should increase the accessibility of sexual scripts in the long term (Bushman & Huesmann, 2006).
Paul (2009) asked students from an Eastern school about
their exposure to 15 pornography genres. On average, men
reported at least some weekly exposure to all genres and
women reported at least some weekly exposure to nine
genres. Wright and Tokunaga (2015) asked male students
from a Western university about their general level of
pornography consumption. More than 50% said they
viewed pornography at least once a week. Wright, Arroyo,
and Bae (2015) asked female students from a Western
university about how frequently they visited pornographic

HEALTH COMMUNICATION

websites. The average participant reported multiple

visitations. In sum, recent studies suggest that many
college students in the United States have been exposed to
pornography and that some students engage in regular,
repeated pornography viewing.

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Research on pornography consumption and

condomless sex
Despite the consistent finding that condom use is infrequent
in popular pornography, studies have rarely correlated
pornography consumption with condom behavior. Studies
that have been conducted have differed in terms of who is
sampled, how pornography consumption is assessed, and
how condom behavior is measured. Accordingly, results have
been somewhat inconsistent (Braun-Courville & Rojas, 2009;
Wright & Randall, 2012; Wright, 2013). Several studies,
however, have found the anticipated association between higher
levels of pornography consumption and lower likelihood of
condom use.
Wingood et al. (2001) surveyed female adolescents in the
United States. Girls who were viewers of pornography were
less likely to have used contraception the last time they had
intercourse and less likely to have used contraception in the
last six months. Luder et al. (2011) surveyed Swiss high
school students. Boys who had consumed pornography
were less likely to have used a condom the last time they
had intercourse than boys who did not consume pornography. Sinkovic, Stulhofer, and Bozic (2013) surveyed Croatian
young adults. In this study, condomless sex was assessed
in combination with other risky sexual behaviors such as
having concurrent sexual partners and having sex with
strangers. A younger age at first pornography exposure was
associated with a higher probability of sexual risk taking for
both young men and women. In a rare longitudinal study,
Peter and Valkenburg (2011a) surveyed Dutch adolescents
and adults. Baseline pornography consumption predicted
condomless sex among Dutch men 6 months later.

Study 1
To summarize, many college students in the United States
inconsistently use condoms but engage in sexual behaviors
that elevate their risk for STIs. Popular pornography rarely
depicts condom usage, and pornography consumption is
common among college students in the United States. A
scripting perspective on sexual behavior would suggest that
the more individuals consume pornography depicting condomless sex, the more likely they are to develop scripts for
sex that do not involve condoms. Yet few studies have
assessed pornography consumption and condom use in general and no study appears to have tested whether pornography
consumption and condom use are linked among U.S. college
students. The purpose of this articles first study is to redress
this gap in the literature.
H1: More frequent consumption of pornography among
college students is associated with an elevated likelihood of
engaging in condomless sex.

Method
Participants
Participants in study 1 were 310 college students enrolled in
communication courses at a large public university in the
United States. Data were collected via a confidential online
survey. One-hundred and sixty-nine participants were male
(54.52%; coded 0) and 141 were female (45.48%; coded 1). All
participants were 18 years of age or older (M = 20.41,
SD = 1.84). White participants comprised 79.68% of the sample
(n = 247), 8.39% were Hispanic (n = 26), 5.48% Asian (n = 17),
2.58% Middle Eastern (n = 8), 2.26% Black (n = 7), and 1.29%
other (n = 4). One participant (0.32%) declined to state their
ethnicity. As Whites were the vast majority of participants, they
were coded 0 and other participants were coded 1.
The majority of participants identified as Christian (64.52%,
n = 200), 15.48% as Jewish (n = 48), 1.94% as Muslim (n = 6),
0.65% as Buddhist (n = 2), and 1.93% as an alternate religion
(n = 6). The remaining participants (15.48%, n = 48) did not
belong to any religion. Participants who indicated that they did
not belong to a religion were coded 0 and participants who
indicated that they belonged to a religion were coded 1. The
majority of participants identified as heterosexual (96.45%,
n = 299). Eleven participants identified as gay (3.55%).
Participants who identified as heterosexual were coded 0 and
participants who identified as gay were coded 1.
Measures
Pornography consumption. Pornography is typically consumed
via websites, videos, and magazines (Bridges et al., 2010; Hardy,
Steelman, Coyne, & Ridge, 2013; Peters, Morrison, McDermott,
Bishop, & Kiss, 2013). Accordingly, participants were asked
how often they had visited pornographic websites (response
options: 1 = never to 6 = more than fifteen times; M = 3.76,
SD = 2.16), how many pornographic videos they had seen
(response options: 1 = none to 6 = more than fifteen; M = 3.73,
SD = 2.11), and how many pornographic magazines they had read
(response options: 1 = none to 6 = more than fifteen; M = 2.29,
SD = 1.61). These response options are similar to those used
in prior studies of U.S. college students consumption of pornography (Paul, 2009). The items were summed and averaged to
form a pornography consumption index (higher scores equate to
more consumption; Cronbachs alpha = .84, M = 3.26, SD = 1.72).
Condomless sex. Prior studies of pornography consumption
and condomless sex have typically asked participants whether
or not they used a condom during their last sexual encounter
(e.g., Braun-Courville & Rojas, 2009; Luder et al., 2011;
Wright & Randall, 2012). A few studies have used a more
encompassing assessment. Wingood et al. (2001), for example,
expanded the chronological range of assessment from last
sexual encounter to the prior 6 months. In line with recent
longitudinal pornography research employing year or more
lags (Brown & LEngle, 2009; Wright, 2012; Ybarra, Mitchell,
Hamburger, Diener-West, & Leaf, 2011), the present study
asked participants whether they had engaged in either
vaginal or anal intercourse without a condom in the prior
12 months (0 = no, 1 = yes). Approximately 58% had engaged
in condomless sex in the prior year.

P. J. WRIGHT ET AL.

correlational support for this hypothesis among college

students in the United States.

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Results
The purpose of study 1 was to examine whether college
students who consume more pornography are less likely to
use condoms. A two-step hierarchical logistic regression
analysis was conducted to examine the association between
pornography consumption and condomless sex. As prior
research suggested that age, gender, ethnicity, religious
affiliation, and sexual orientation may be related to pornography consumption or condomless sex (Malamuth, 1996; Stein,
Silvera, Hagerty, & Marmor, 2012; Wright, Bae, & Funk,
2013), these variables were entered in step 1 as controls.
Zero-order correlations between the controls and pornography consumption and condomless sex in the present study are
presented in Table 1.
The results of the hierarchical logistic regression analysis
are presented in Table 2. The addition of pornography
consumption in step 2 improved model fit [2(1) = 9.48,
p < .01]. Higher levels of pornography consumption were
associated with an increased probability of condomless sex.
Specifically, a one-unit increase in pornography consumption
was associated with a 1.33 increase in the odds of having not
used a condom during vaginal or anal intercourse in the last
year [95% CI: 1.10, 1.61]. Hypothesis 1 was thus supported.

Study 2
In addition to suggesting a direct effect of pornography
exposure on sexual risk behavior through the personal
observation that sex without condoms is highly pleasurable,
the 3AM suggests an indirect effect through lower perceptions
of peers condom use. Referencing adolescents exposure to
mainstream media sex and youth-targeted media, Wright
(2011) states:
High levels of exposure to youth-targeted media should make it
easy to recall examples of teen sex which should lead to larger
estimates of sexual behavior among young people.
Perceived descriptive norms can then be used to make a quick
assessment of an activated sexual script (e.g., that one should
accept or initiate a sexual advance or forgo using a condom).
(pp. 358359)

In other words, the 3AM suggests that sexual media

exposure affects perceptions of peers sexual behavior, which
then affect perceivers own sexual behavior. There is evidence
from prior studies suggesting the validity of both these
postulates.
Pornography consumption and perceptions of others
sexual behavior

Brief discussion
By depicting particular sexual behaviors as rewarding, sexual
media are theorized to incentivize engagement in these
behaviors and to increase the probability that consumers will
model these behaviors. Pleasurable condomless sex is a
regular feature of pornographic scripts. Accordingly, some
scholars have suggested that pornography consumers may be
less likely to use condoms. The results of study 1 provide

Several correlational analyses have found that pornography

consumption is associated with estimates of peers sexual
behavior. A survey of Dutch adolescents found that the
more youth viewed pornography, the more likely they were
to believe that the majority of their peers had already engaged
in sexual intercourse (Peter & Valkenburg, 2009). A survey of

Table 1. Zero-Order Correlations.

Variable
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Agea
Condomless sexb
Genderc
Ethnicityd
Perceptions of peers condom usee
Pornography consumptionf
Religious affiliationg
Sexual orientationh

.15**
.15**
.12*
.18**
.26**
.08
.05

.01

.03
.11*
.20**
.18**
.01
.02

.32**
.01

.10*
.09
.60**
.03
.13**

.10
.12*
.11

.04
.01
.23**
.09

n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a

.14**
.05
.07

.32**
.12*
.65**
.06
n/a

.08
.06

.08
.01
.16**
.03
n/a
.14*

.08

.08
.02
.11
.25**
n/a
.05
.06

Note. Study 1 correlations appear above the diagonal. Study 2 correlations appear below the diagonal. Significance: *p < .05. **p < .01.
a
Higher scores = older. bHigher score = condomless sex. cMale = 0, female = 1. dWhite = 0, all other = 1. eHigher scores = higher estimation of peers condom use.
f
Higher scores = more consumption. gNo religious affiliation = 0, religious affiliation = 1. hHeterosexual = 0, Gay = 1.

Table 2. Hierarchical Logistic Regression Analysis Predicting Condomless Sex.

Step 1
Agea
Genderb
Ethnicityc
Religious affiliationd
Sexual orientatione
Step 2
Pornography consumptionf
Model Nagelkerke R2 and 2
a

Nagelkerke R2 change

2 Change

.02

5.38

B (SE)
0.00
0.01
0.67
0.08
0.64

.04

(0.07)
(0.25)
(0.30)
(0.32)
(0.67)

Odds ratio

95% CI odds ratio

0.00
0.00
5.06*
0.05
0.90

1.00
0.99
0.51
1.08
1.89

[0.88,
[0.61,
[0.29,
[0.57,
[0.51,

8.95**

1.33

[1.10, 1.61]

1.14]
1.61]
0.92]
2.03]
7.02]

9.48**
0.29 (0.10)

.06

Wald

14.86

Higher scores = older. bMale = 0, Female = 1. cWhite = 0, All other = 1. dNo religious affiliation = 0, Religious affiliation = 1. eHeterosexual = 0, Gay = 1. fHigher
scores = more consumption.

HEALTH COMMUNICATION

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German adolescents separated their analyses by gender and

found that pornography exposure was correlated with higher
estimates of peers sexual activity for both boys and girls
(Weber, Quiring, & Daschmann, 2012).
Experimental studies demonstrate the causal impact of
pornography consumption on estimates of others sexual
behavior. In an experiment with college students conducted
by Zillmann and Bryant (1982), increasing amounts of exposure to pornography caused correspondingly higher estimates
of the percentage of adults who have oral, anal, and group sex.
A later experiment by Zillmann and Bryant (1988) found that
pornography exposure caused college students to make higher
estimates of the number of young men and women in the
United States who have extramarital sex. Self-reported and
experimental pornography exposure were also correlated
with college students estimates of the prevalence of sexual
behavior in Malamuth and Check (1985).
Perceptions of others sexual behavior and perceivers
sexual behavior
The position that peoples perceptions of others behavior
influence their own behavior has been advanced by many
social scientists. Perceptions of others behavior in a given
reference group are generally referred to as descriptive
norms. Descriptive norms motivate personal behaviors by
providing evidence of the most typical actions that referential
others are performing (Cialdini, 2001). Descriptive norms
hasten information processing by providing a heuristic shortcut for decision making. People tend to act in accord with the
behavior of similar others because fewer mistakes are likely to
be made by following the tested and reliable actions of others
in ones social group (Cialdini, 2001). Descriptive norms
are better predictors of behavior than injunctive norms, or
perceptions of the behaviors others state they value (Cialdini,
Kallgren, & Reno, 1991).
Descriptive norms figure prominently into theories of persuasion and behavioral prediction (Burns, 1992; Cialdini,
2001; Rivis & Sheeran, 2003). The focus theory of normative
conduct (Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990), for instance,
argues that information about the behaviors of others in a
group is embedded in social situations. Individuals focus on
the available normative information when deciding what
course of action to take. The theory of normative social
behavior (Rimal & Real, 2005) and expansions of the theory
of planned behavior (Park & Smith, 2007; Sheeran & Orbell,
1999) also posit a strong relationship between descriptive
norms and the prevalence of a behavior. Meta-analyses of
several different behaviors demonstrate that descriptive
norms serve as an important source of general behavioral
influence (Borsari & Carey, 2003; Rivis & Sheeran, 2003).
Descriptive norms can be helpful in explaining the decisionmaking processes involved in sexual behaviors. Descriptive
norms for condoms use among college students are related to
their intention to use condoms (White, Terry, & Hogg, 1994).
The decision to use or not use condoms is closely tied to
whether others are believed to be using condoms during sex.
Schaalma, Kok, and Peters (1993) discovered that intentions
to use condoms among adolescents relied in part on the belief

that close friends used condoms to prevent HIV infection.

Recent longitudinal research also suggests the importance of
considering descriptive norms when predicting young peoples
sexual behavior. In a panel study conducted by Peter and
Valkenburg (2009), a strong correlation was found between
adolescents perception of their peers sexual experience at
baseline and their own sexual experience 6 months later. In
sum, theory and research support the hypothesis that the less
college students perceive their peers use condoms, the less
likely they themselves will be to use condoms.
Summary
To summarize, the 3AM contends that sexual media can affect
consumers sexual scripts directly and indirectly. Direct
impacts are posited via the portrayal of particular behaviors
as sexually rewarding. The portrayal of particular behaviors as
rewarding provides consumers with a direct incentive to
engage in the portrayed behaviors. Indirect impacts are
posited via changes in perceptions of what is normative sexual
behavior among similar others. Changes in perceptions of the
normative behavior of others impacts personal behavior
because of the influence that others behavioral patterns
have on personal courses of action. The following two
hypotheses are thus proposed:
H1: More frequent consumption of pornography among
college students is directly associated with an elevated
likelihood of engaging in condomless sex.
H2: The association between more frequent consumption of
pornography among college students and an elevated likelihood of engaging in condomless sex is partially mediated by
lower perceptions of peers condom use.

Method
Participants
Participants in study 2 were 418 college students enrolled
in family studies and human development or human
communication studies courses at two large public
universities in the United States. Data were collected via a
confidential online survey. Participant characteristic codes
from study 1 were applied to study 2 unless otherwise noted.
Eighty-nine participants were male (21.29%) and 329 were
female (78.71%). All participants were 18 years of age or older
(M = 21.20, SD = 2.75). White participants comprised 53.35%
of the sample (n = 223), 19.38% were Hispanic (n = 81),
14.83% Asian (n = 62), 1.67% Middle Eastern (n = 7), 3.83%
Black (n = 16), and 2.15% other (n = 9). Twenty participants
(4.78%) declined to state their ethnicity. Given the larger
number of participants who declined to state their ethnicity
in this study, ethnicity was dummy coded (Reinard, 2006)
into two variables in main analyses. White participants were
the comparison group (coded 0), while those who identified
as other ethnicities and those who declined to state their
ethnicity were the contrast groups (coded 1). The majority
of participants identified as Christian (62.20%, n = 260),

P. J. WRIGHT ET AL.

4.55% as Jewish (n = 19), 0.96% as Muslim (n = 4), 2.63% as

Buddhist (n = 11), 0.48% as Hindu (n = 2), and 17.46% as an
alternate religion (n = 73). The remaining participants
(11.72%, n = 49) did not belong to any religion. The majority
of participants identified as heterosexual (97.37%, n = 407).
Eleven participants identified as gay (2.63%).

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Measures
Pornography consumption. The same items for pornography
consumption from study 1 were used in study 2. Participants
were asked how often they had visited pornographic websites
(M = 2.18, SD = 1.55), how many pornographic videos they
had seen (M = 2.58, SD = 1.58), and how many pornographic
magazines they had read (M = 1.45, SD = 0.96). When
summed and averaged, the descriptive statistics for these
items were Cronbachs alpha = .84, M = 2.07, SD = 1.21.
Condomless sex. The same question for condomless sex
from study 1 was used in study 2. Approximately 52% of
participants had engaged in condomless sex in the prior year.
Perceptions of peers condom use. Three questions adapted
from Marn, Gmez, Tschann, and Gregorich (1997) were
used to index perceptions of peers condom use. Participants
were asked about peers of their gender (i.e., males were asked
about male friends, females were asked about female friends).
For males the questions were How many of your closest male
friends do you think insist that they wear a condom every
time they have sex?, How many of your closest male friends
do you think insist that a condom be used with every partner
they have?, and How many of your closest male friends do
you think refuse to have sex without a condom? For females
the questions were How many of your closest female friends
do you think insist that their partner wear a condom?, How
many of your closest female friends do you think insist that a
condom be used with every partner they have?, and How
many of your closest female friends do you think refuse to
have sex without a condom? Response options ranged
from (1) almost none to (5) almost all. When summed and
averaged, the descriptive statistics for these items were
Cronbachs alpha = .81, M = 2.90, SD = 1.05.
Results
The purposes of study 2 were twofold. The first purpose was
to see whether the results of study 1 would replicate (i.e., to
see whether there was a direct association between pornography consumption and condomless sex). The second purpose
was to explore whether the association between pornography
consumption and condomless sex was partially mediated by
perceptions of peers condom use. As in study 1, age, gender,
ethnicity, religious affiliation, and sexual orientation were
included as controls. Zero-order correlations between the
controls, a summative index of pornography consumption, a
summative index of perceptions of peers condom use, and
condomless sex in study 2 are presented in Table 1. The
proposed mediated model is presented in Figure 1.
A confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the goodness
of fit of the measurement model before conducting the main

Pornography
Consumption

Peers Condom
Use

Condomless Sex

Age

Gender

Ethnicity

Religious Aff.

Sexual Ornt.

Figure 1. Model of the proposed direct and indirect effects of pornography

consumption on condomless sex through perceptions of peers condom use.

analysis. The measurement model consists of a pornography

consumption latent factor that measures three indicators (i.e.,
websites, videos, magazines), a perceptions about peers
condom use latent factor, a condomless sex observed variable,
and the control variables. The latent and observed variables
were allowed to covary freely in the model. The results
demonstrated that the measurement model fit the data well,
2(34) = 98.15, p < .001, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .067, 90%
CI [.052, .083], SRMR = .04.
A structural equation modeling approach was used to test
the direct and indirect effects of pornography consumption
on condomless sex (note that the term effects is used in a
statistical sense only; the data are correlationale.g., Gabe &
Willliams, 1986). In the model, a direct path from pornography consumption to condomless sex and the indirect
paths through perceptions of peers condom use were estimated. The proposed structural model demonstrated good fit
to the data, 2(33) = 54.79, p < .001, CFI = .97,
RMSEA = .056, 90% CI [.028, .082], SRMR = .04, indicating
that no specification errors exist. The standardized path
coefficients are presented in Figure 2. The direct path from
pornography consumption to personal condomless sex was
significant ( = .33, SE = .097, p < .001). The significant
direct effect replicates the results of study 1, providing support for the prediction that higher levels of pornography
consumption are related to condomless sex. Hypothesis 1
was thus supported. The paths from pornography consumption to perceptions of peers condom use ( = .26,
SE = 0.11, p < .05) and in turn to personal condomless sex
were also significant ( = .23, SE = .08, p < .01). Therefore,
greater pornography consumption was associated with lower
estimates of peers condom use, and lower estimates of peers
condom use were associated with a higher likelihood of
personal condomless sex.
Although these paths were significant, they do not provide a stringent test of mediation. A 5000 bias corrected
bootstrapping resampling procedure was used to rigorously
test the mediation of perceptions of peers condom use in
the relationship between pornography consumption and
personal condomless sex. Bootstrapping empirically estimates the sampling distribution of the product of coefficients through iterative resampling. Mediation is
substantiated when the bootstrapped confidence intervals

HEALTH COMMUNICATION

.26*

Pornography
Consumptiona

Peers Condom
Useb

.11

.09

.06

.16

Aged

.23**

Condomless Sexc

.33**

.10

Gendere
.04

Ethnicity 1f

.001
.12

.03

.04

Ethnicity 2g
.13

Religious Aff.h
.25**

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Sexual Ornt.i

Figure 2. Structural equation model of the proposed direct and indirect effects
of pornography consumption on condomless sex through perceptions of peers
condom use.
Note. The parameter estimates provided in the model are standardized
coefficients. aHigher scores = more consumption. bHigher scores = higher
estimation of peers condom use. cHigher score = condomless sex. dHigher
scores = older. eMale = 0, Female = 1. fWhite = 0, other ethnicities = 1.
g
White = 0, declined to state ethnicity = 1. hNo religious affiliation = 0,
Religious affiliation = 1. iHeterosexual = 0, Gay = 1. *p < .05, **p < .01,
*** p < .001.

(CIs) around the indirect effect do not include zero. The

results supported the proposed mediation of peers condom
use on ones own condomless sex, Indirect Effect = .041,
SE = 0.019, 95% CI [.012, .089]. Hypothesis 2 was thus
supported.
Brief discussion
Study 2 proposed a theoretical model wherein pornography
consumption has a direct effect on condomless sex by portraying condomless sex positively and an indirect effect on
condomless sex by increasing the belief that peers rarely use
condoms. Analysis of study 2 data was not incongruent with
this conceptual model. Replicating the results of study 1,
pornography consumption was directly associated with a
lower probability of condom use. Extending on study 1,
perceptions of peers condom use was a significant mediator
of this relationship. Students who consumed more pornography were less likely to perceive that their peers used condoms.
The more students perceived that their peers engaged in
condomless sex, the less likely they themselves were to use
condoms.

General discussion
Data recently gathered by the ACHA (2012) indicate that
college students in the United States are an STI risk population. Many students engage in high-risk sexual behavior, but a
minority of students consistently use condoms. Elucidating
the reasons for students condomless sex has been identified
as an important task.
Social and behavioral scientists from several disciplines
have pointed to pornography as a potential influence on
risky sexual behavior (Braun-Courville & Rojas, 2009;

Haggstrom-Nordin et al., 2005; Wright & Arroyo, 2013).

Sexual script theory provides the theoretical basis for this
position (Wright, Malamuth, & Donnerstein, 2012).
Content-analytic studies consistently find that condom
use is not a feature of most pornographic scripts
(Gorman et al., 2010; Grudzen et al., 2009; Vannier
et al., 2014).
After finding an association between pornography
consumption and condomless sex among adolescent girls
recruited from health departments and clinics, Wingood
et al. (2001) called for additional research on pornography
consumption and sexual risk behavior among American
youth. Despite consistent evidence that college students in
the United States view pornography, no study appears to
have examined associations between condomless sex and
pornography consumption in this population. One goal of
the present research was to respond to this need. Another
goal of the present research was to respond to Peter and
Valkenburgs (2011a) call for the exploration of factors
that may mediate linkages between pornography consumption and condomless sex. Peter and Valkenburg suggested that youth may infer condomless sex among peers
following exposure to pornography (see also Wright,
2011). Such an inference may then lower their likelihood
of using condoms.
Each of these suppositions was supported in the present
research. Study 1 asked students about their pornography
consumption and condom behavior. Specifically, students
were asked how frequently they viewed pornographic
websites, magazines, and movies and whether they had
engaged in vaginal or anal intercourse without a condom
in the last year. Even after adjusting for the influence of
age, gender, ethnicity, religious affiliation, and sexual
orientation (Malamuth, 1996; Stein et al., 2012; Wright,
Bae, & Funk, 2013), pornography consumption was associated with a higher likelihood of condomless sex.
Study 2 asked students about their pornography consumption, perceptions of peers condom use, and personal
condom behavior. Age, gender, ethnicity, religious affiliation, and sexual orientation were again assessed and controlled. Pornography consumption was both directly and
indirectly associated with condomless sex. As in study 1,
more frequent exposure to pornography was linked to a
reduced probability of condom use. Additionally, higher
levels of pornography consumption correlated with lower
levels of perceived condom use among peers, and lower
levels of perceived condom use among peers were associated with a higher likelihood of condomless sex.
In sum, in the present data, U.S. college students condomless sex was predictable as a function of their consumption of pornography. Lack of condom use was also
predictable as a function of perceived peer norms for
condomless sex, and perceived peer norms for condomless
sex were predictable as a function of pornography viewing. These findings provide correlational support for the
theoretical perspective that pornography encourages condomless sex directly by highlighting the pleasurableness of
unprotected sex and indirectly by affecting perceptions
about the normativeness of condomless sex.

P. J. WRIGHT ET AL.

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Limitations and future directions

Several important limitations of these findings must be
noted. First, selective exposure is a possible alternative
explanation for the association between pornography exposure and condomless sex. From a sexual scripting
perspective, exposure to unprotected sex in pornography
increases the likelihood that consumers will incorporate
condomless sex into their own sexual scripts. From a
selective exposure perspective, an association between
pornography consumption and unprotected sex is due to
people who do not use condoms selecting sexual media
consistent with their preexisting sexual scripts.
Directionality is not decipherable in the present studys
data. It should be noted, however, that one prior longitudinal study has assessed the possibility of both sexual scripting
and selective exposure. Peter and Valkenburg (2011a)
conducted a two-wave panel study of pornography
consumption and condomless sex among Dutch adolescents
and adults. Contrary to the selective exposure perspective,
earlier condomless sex was unrelated to later pornography
exposure. Conversely, in support of the sexual scripting
perspective, earlier pornography consumption was
associated with later condomless sex among adult male
participants. It should also be noted that a number of recent
longitudinal pornography studies exploring other variables
have found consistent support for the sexual scripting
perspective but little support for the selective exposure
perspective (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008, 2010, 2011b;
Wright, 2012; Wright & Bae, 2013; Wright & Funk, 2014).
Selection dynamics may also explain the associations
between pornography consumption and perceptions of
peers condomless sex and perceptions of peers condomless
sex and personal condomless sex (Chia & Lee, 2008; Peter &
Valkenburg, 2011b; Rivis & Sheeran, 2003). Individuals who
perceive that their peers do not use condoms may select
sexual media consistent with this perceived group norm.
Individuals who themselves do not use condoms may select
peers who also engage in risky sex. Longitudinal research is
needed to explore further the possibility of selective exposure
and other selection dynamics. A multiple-wave panel design,
for example, would allow for bidirectional correlational
analyses of pornography consumption and condomless sex,
pornography consumption and perceptions of peers condomless sex, and personal condomless sex and perceptions of
peers condomless sex.
Additionally, all analyses of correlational data may be
subject to third-variable confounding (Little, Card, Preacher,
& McConnell, 2009). For example, in the present study important demographic characteristics such as age, gender, religious
affiliation, and ethnicity were controlled. More nuanced
characteristics that may also affect the use of condoms or
pornography consumption, such as the nature of the sexual
relationship and beliefs about casual sex, were not controlled,
however. Consequently, experimental research on condom use
intentions is also needed (condom use intentions predict condom use: Albarracn, Johnson, Fishbein, & Muellerleile, 2001).
A three (no pornography exposure, exposure to pornography
without condoms, exposure to pornography with condoms) by

three (no descriptive norm manipulation, low peer condom use

manipulation, high peer condom use manipulation) experiment would allow for an assessment of the casual impact of
pornography exposure and perceived peer norms on condom
use intentions. A three-condition pornography experiment
(no pornography exposure, exposure to pornography without
condoms, exposure to pornography with condoms) with a
subsequent self-report index of perceptions of peers condom
use would allow for an assessment of the causal impact of
pornography consumption on perceived peer norms, which
could then be correlated with condom use intentions. Of
course, all participants in such experiments would need to be
thoroughly debriefed about the possible impact of pornography
consumption and perceived peer norms on risky sexual behavior and the STI risks posed by unprotected sex. Pornography
literacy interventions have been found to mitigate potential
negative effects of exposure (Allen, DAlessio, Emmers, &
Gebhardt, 1996). STI risk interventions have been found to
have positive effects on youths condom beliefs and behaviors
(Caron, Godin, Otis, & Lambert, 2004).
Three additional limitations and corresponding future
research directions are important to note. First, the paucity of
prior research on pornography consumption and condomless
sex among U.S. college students coupled with the convenience
sampling techniques employed in the present research suggests
caution in terms of generalization. Additional research with
more diverse and generalizable samples is needed before a
definitive statement can be made that pornography consumption is a reliable correlate of U.S. college students propensity
for condomless sex. Second, the gender distribution in study 2
was skewed toward women. Replicative studies of college
students pornography consumption, perceptions of peers
condom use, and condom behavior are needed that more
proportionately sample male and female students. Third, as
some pornographic depictions do feature condoms, future
studies should ask students how often the content they view
features protected and unprotected sex. From a scripting
perspective, it is the presentation of sex sans condoms, not
the presentation of explicit sex in and of itself, that increases
the probability pornography consumers will personally engage
in condomless sex. Measurements of exposure to pornographic
depictions without condoms specifically should correlate more
strongly with college students engagement in condomless sex
than with measurements of pornography exposure in general
(e.g., Wright, 2009).

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