Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MODELING
(Second
Edition)
E. Mortenson
Michael
John
New
Wiley
York
and
Chichester
\342\226\240
Sons,
Inc.
.
Weinheim
. Brisbane
. Singapore
- Toronto
PREFACE
Geometric
is
now
come
image
construction
Geometric
Many
have
and
contenders
Cup
designs,
pleasing
beyond
phenomena
even speeds
the
design
our movie
challenges
virtual
fantastic
more
ever
with
more
of
displays
graphic
America's
of
construction
consumer
to visualize
power
anyone's
scientists
gives
modeling
and
efficient,
lowering
and
automobiles,
aircraft,
more
safer,
possible
products\342\200\224making
and
of
manufacture
and
of computer-
It is the basis
devices.
accurate
and
fast
the
diagnostic
It has
world-wide.
practiced
of medical
aided design
and
studied,
taught,
modeling
and
to slay
dragons
passed
of Geometric
publication
for
those
of us
years
Modeling. They have been productive
in the field. During this time two compelling circumstances
working
and
of this second edition. The first is the
affected
the
creation
and
exciting
have
motivated
progress occurring
second
applications.The
of
readers
the
first
substantial
revision
is
teachers,
a descendant
both
reflecting
from
comments
the
edition\342\200\224students,
clearly
Although
itself,
modeling
geometric
new
and
supercomputers
modeling
to
workstations
and
PCs.
demands
and
spread
The
from
usefulness
client
alike.
a maturing
affordability
of
of
a generation
professionals
developments
have
applications
almost
of vigorous
a result
as
research
ongoing
within
of
mainframes
of geometric
discipline.
computers,
and
modeling
has
ix
broadened
now
and
industries
the
and
Commercials
television
and
cinematography
need
millennium\342\200\224the
for
growing
and
describing
the
at
look
comprehensive
of Geometric
edition
second
The
the
all
comparing
more
elements
into
and showing
students,
teachers,
those
will serve
edition
and
resource,
visualization,
or
primary
reasons,
three
are
There
assemble
of geometric
functions
important
functions. Chapter
Chapters
are
through
their mathematical
the
and
to
attempts
its
discusses
briefly
including
content
The
fillets).
history
bicubic
quadric,
parametric
and
operations,
solids,
nonlinear
controlled
10 addresses
and B-Spline;
Bezier,
still
Surfaces,
B-Spline,
the
as well as simple
of
and
Bezier,
Hermite,
instanciation
and
transformations
Hemiite,
these
mathematics.
underlying
mostly
reflect
is geometric
What
question,
the
text
this
the
curves:
about
all
and
shape
of intersections,
of
organization
and
to
solids),
computation
answer
to represent
example,
(for
geometry
and
It
For
disciplines.
modeling:
and
surfaces,
forms
those
concomitant
modeling?
on the
and programming
algorithms
offsets,
focus
special
application-oriented
is as free
Its language
textbook.
supplementary
omitted.
are
techniques
the
as
primarily
of
same
others.
many
among
a textbook,
intended to be used
well as a professional tutorial and reference,
of
necessary
and its
modeling
for
it is intended
of geometric
second
teaching
for modeling
assemble
and
first edition,
scientific
and
robotics,
manufacturing,
While
modeling,
structures
shape
field
the
in
professionals
to
how
primary
and
and
of geometric
the
Like
modeling.
geometric
mathematical
models.
complex
concepts
important
in
current
third
the
Modeling
core
indispensable
bringing us into
practitioners
applications to be knowledgeableand
as virtual
such
fields
of type
reality,
control
and
design
new
with
this\342\200\224and
automotive
and
aerospace
diverse
such
includes
the
in
esoteric
world
of
parameterized
deformations.
shapes,
sweep
of the power
of
contemporary
allowing
us
to
of
Chapter
11
is complex
model
construction,
the
and
beginning
with
application
of
models. Chapter 12
Preface
synthesis. Appendices
Appendix
the
on
discussion
presents
not
the scope
and
offsets
For
text.
this
of
nontensor
textbook,
mentioned,
matrix
geometric
has
modeling
a one-
for
in
level
graduate
any
methods.
in
recent
as computer
long
recognized in its
of computer
ingredient
I must
model
of
an
virtual
or
object
the
simulation
questions,
results
pertain
process.
of
must
Progress
we
Can
a warning
repeat
the
we
such
special effects,
of
as
well
models.
geometric
Finally,
skills,
been
art, cinematographic
and
effective
and
elementary
the
of
text.
this
application.
applications
or two-
Programming
U is, of
a primary
course,
many fields
graphics and computer-aided design and manufacturing,as
more
models
science,
computer
of
importance
of
Euler
and
used
be
can
physics,
and
vector
and
general
patches,
geometry,
analytic
calculus,
are
they
schemes,
engineering,
including
mathematics.
applied
extensive
here.
or
disciplines
product
parameterization
As
Geometric
Modeling
semester course at the upper division
a
An
models.
well-understood,
Although
example,
nonstandard
blends,
respectively
accepted,
yet widely
geometric
included.
not
matrices,
of
transformations
referenced
and
vectors
review
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of relational
methods
emerging
various
frequently
bibliography,
either
and
summarizes
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newly
\342\226\240
xi
that
remember
the
answers
and
what
when
is
we
being
first to the
or process'
methods
behavior
is an art and
from
the
model's
science in itself.
behavior.
The
and
accuracy
of modeling
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The
of
history
of unique
is one
modeling
geometric
between
cooperation
from
both.
industry and academia, and material presented
Many
and refine the theories and techniques of
worked
individuals
to develop
draws
here
geometric
and
modeling,
in
referenced
and
the
in
listed
are
works
and
researchers
whose
applications
have
bibliography
my acknowledgment
anonymous
are
contributions
important
of
who
developers
have contributed
whose
most
the
repeat
well-known
both
those
all
I must
So
text.
this
of
many
growing
very
created
of
family
existence
a new discipline.
and
industrial,
scientific,
capability.
the
thank
and
comments
valuable
of the
readers
many
first edition
endowed
professional
with
the
skills
of
a large
university
are
the equal
of
staffs
to
make
with
(now
my editors
the
two
Carol
particularly
library,
the diligence
that found
anywhere.
of
resources
their
these
Although
library-
County
and staff of
directors
libraries,
public
County
to offer
Librarian
Reference
the
thank
I especially
suggestions.
production
they have so
of this
edition
and
I also thank
and
Kaufmann),
Morgan
Marjorie
and
thoughtfully
an enjoyable
experience.
Harry
the
especially
of
of
the
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
XIII
xiv
\342\226\240
Acknowledgments
Dr.
thank
John
S. Letcher,
for
Porter,
on
George
relational
preparing
thanks
the
as Chapter
synthesis
to
the
field
to my wife Janet,
manuscript
the
for
that
Inc.,
of
drawing
panelization
cover
and
S. Letcher,Jr., D
for permission
A. Dickson
geometric
12)
Chapter
(see
an important contribution
Finally,
the
use
the
and
to
permission
of AeroHydro
geometric
program.
article
This
Cover).
and founder
Jr..president
of
MultiSurf
AeroHydro's
Michael
H.
Seth
Shook,
geometric
we
had
no
capability.
equation-editing
effort to
this
Even
edition.
E.
Michael
Port
Mortenson
Townsend
October
1996
CONTENTS
vii
ix
Preface
xiii
Acknowledgments
Introduction
1.2 History
Modeling?
II
Mathematics
1.3
Tlie
1.4
Conventions
16
and Notation
19
2 Curves
and
Explicit
Implicit
of
19
Curves
of Curves
Equations
23
2.4 Conic
2.5
Hermite,
22
31
Curves
Bezier.
and
B-Spline
Curves:
An Overview
32
34
XV
xvj
Contents
\342\226\240
39
Curves
Hermite
3/1
39
Forms
and Geometric
Algebraic
47
Form
Matrix
3.3
42
50
Vectors
Tangent
and Subdividing
54
60
3.5 Truncating
3.7
Four-Point
Hermite
Conic
3.8
61
Interpolation
Hermite
3.9 Composite
64
Curves
74
Curves
81
4 Bezier Curves
4.1 Bezier
83
Functions
Basis
89
Points
4.2
Control
4.3
Truncating
97
and Subdividing
105
4.5
108
Curves
Bezier
Rational
113
Curves
B-Spline
5.1 Nonuniform
126
Functions
5.3
Cubic
and
Quadratic
Basis
B-Splinc
Functions
134
5.5 Continuity
Basis
Between
5.7
Rational
Nonuniform
5.8 Representing
5.9
6
Cubic
Beta
137
Functions
B-Spline
Curves
Parametric
6.4 Hermite,
140
143
6.2 Quadric
6.3
139
142
Splines
Surfaces
6.1 Explicit
128
130
5.6 Conversion
113
of Surfaces
144
145
Surfaces
Equations
of Surfaces
149
156
Contents
158
a Surface
on
Points
6.5
159
Nets
6.6 Curve
161
7/1
169
Surface
Hermite
Bicubic
The
169
Forms
and Geometric
Algebraic
179
7.3
Tangent
180
7.4
Normals
Vectors
Twist
and
182
184
Form
7.5 Sixteen-Point
of
7.6 Reparameterization
7.7
and
Truncating
186
Patch
Subdividing
191
a Patch
192
Hcrmitc Surfaces
7.8 Composite
213
217
Surfaces
Bezier
8.3
A 3 x 5
8.4
Converting
Bicuhic
Bezier
and
in a Bezier Surface
Elevation
8.6 CompositeBezier
9.2
9.3
Matrix
Open
Closed
B-Spline
Surfaces
10.1
Solids
Parametric
The
227
228
235
237
10 Solids
10.2
223
228
Form
and
222
227
Surfaces
9 B-Spline
Forms
225
Patch
Bezier
Rational
Hermite
224
Surfaces
8.7
220
Rectangular
Between
8.5 Degree
218
Patch
Bezier
Bicubic
The
217
Bezier Patch
8.2
203
Surfaces
Blend
7/10
xvii
\342\226\240
Tricubic
Solid
237
240
xviii
Contents
\342\226\240
in a Solid
Embedded
Surfaces
and
Curves
103
253
Elements
Parameterized
and
Instances
10.5
257
260
Shapes
264
Solids
10.6 Sweep
275
281
11 ComplexModel Construction
11.1
282
Models
of
Topology
11.2
310
Models
Graph-Based
318
Models
11.3 Boolean
356
11.5 Space-PartitioningModels
12
Geometric
Relational
367
373
Synthesis
373
Introduction
12.1
378
Model Structure
12.2 Relational
383
12.4Serialization
387
12.5
388
Entities
Relational
12.6
Detailed
12.7
Applications
401
Example
404
in
Relational
411
Geometry
415
Conclusions
12.9
APPENDIX
Vectors
417
APPENDIX
\320\222
Matrices
431
APPENDIX
\320\241
Transformations
439
CI
Translation
G2
Rotation
C.3 Rotation
C.4
Rotation
441
444
in the Plane
in
Space
about
the
in Space about an
Principal
Axes
Arbitrary Axis
447
453
Contents
C.5
Reflection
C.6
Dilation
C.7 Multiple
and
Shear
Sequential
Transformations
xix
\342\226\240
457
462
467
Bibliography
473
Index
509
INTRODUCTION
Tills
introduces
chapter
motivating
is
What
in
and
theory
of
because
importance
ways
suggesting
history
what
and
academia
application,
perhaps
personalities,
The
modeling?
of
it
industry,
the
answer
question,
is itself
tells us about
the interplay of
as well as ideas and
of geometric
modeling
more
forces
these
managing
of the forces
context
geometric
growing
the
in
modeling
geometric
effectively
This
chapter
of
modeling
geometric
and
this
algebra, topology, numerical methods, vectors,
chapter
discusses
their use. The chapter concludes with a summary of the
briefly
and
text's conventions
notation
and
1.1
Geometric
the
modeling
and
eyes
scheme.
MODELING?
IS GEOMETRIC
WHAT
arises
from
its
the
with
response arises
The
early
that
term
1970s,
an
from
its
is
time
awareness
of
the
elegant
of
reality
the
designer's
often
subtle
foundation.
modeling
geometric
a
the
and
matrices,
of
rapidly
computer
and
graphics
and computer-
Introduction
\342\226\240
aided
and
design
The
technologies.
manufacturing
of geometric
decipline
modeling
of
collection
or to express some
These
metaphor.
include
methods
modeling, algebraic
modeling, primarily
the
in
foundations
numerical
to
ties
methods,
Computer-aided
whereas
of
geometry
modeling,
The
representation.
of some
a model
construct
we
When
object,
exist
already
may
object
and
theory,
and
we create
it
for
interpretation
some
of
than
usually easier to test
within limits, in the same
the
actual
is to give shape or form to it. In
and
analyze
actual
the
as
way
object.
by a set of
a shape
geometric
axioms
the
of
course, correspond
Geometric
to
priori
the
is
modeling
of
properties
of
process
and
it responds,
then,
something,
we
modeling,
we
model
analyze
of the modeled
as representative
evaluate
An effective model is
geometric
intended
never
mathematical
These
axioms.
of
set
a
satisfying
are
geometry
object,
To model
contemporary
define
the
to visualize.
we wish
that
process
physical
analysis.
computational
object
may
strong
substitute\342\200\224a
it may
has
complexity
algebraic
physically,
is
geometry
branches
geometric
Computational
computation
geometric
Boolean
classical
of
geometry.
its
has
and
contemporary extension
concerned
allows
(CSG),
geometry,
algebraic
topology,
differential
including
geometry,
geometry
CSG
geometry.
us to combine simple
mathematical
solid
constructive
as
encountered
usually
modeling,
differential
It is here
of
equations
parametric
using
Computer-aided
the mathematics
applies
(CAGD)
design
geometric
computational
geometric
appropriate
computer-aided
and
geometry,
an
of
terms
in
process
physical
the
that
object
creating
these
of clay
or wood
is modeled.
and
statements
relationships.
were
models
Traditionally,
made
smaller
real thing.
description
to evaluate
we
Now
use
and
before
that
abstraet,
in
contrast
to create
was
usually
a physical
much
or hypotheticalobject,
has a geometric
to
model
committing
modeling
geometric
or phenomenon
process
analytical
easier
the
as sketches
or rendered
or
mathematical
to
simulate
models
Physical
in itself, is
abstract, because it is
a
of
worthy
object
or process,
model
than
phenomenon.
This
\320\256
is
real
(the
way
important
characteristics
of interest),
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or
For
geometric
and
functional
of
of
modeling,
of
and
of
power,
complex enough to be of
is
computer
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explicit
to
our
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by
vector and
is, in fact,
a computer
Using
and
models
analyze
even
So,
importance.
background
satisfied
once
two-dimensional
with
and
modeling
computer
the
Obviously,
long
of
association
that visualization
demonstrates
graphics
us to deter-
allow
models
These
models.
three-dimensional
three
identify
1. Representation
model
only
important
or
the
can
modeling:
a geometric
create
must
we
where
we
once.
aesthetic
of geometric
categories
of an existing object,
2. Ab initio design,
functional
application
model
we
and
of
representations
valid
geometric
the
though
if only in the
it is ever present,
or
sophisticated
engine.\"
were
complete
with
process,
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numerical
of
arsenal
complex description of an
computer.
construct
studies,
L%geometry
we
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It
computer.
practical
any
as our implied
Where
capabilities,
geometry,
an
and
theory,
geometric-modeling
unable
be
would
we
operations.
rendering
analytic
the potentially
to capture
to the entire
its
and
design
modeling.
differential
transmit
to
an
is
geometric
manufacturing
and
geometric
using
methods
and
graphics
the
becomes
qualities
the abstract
used
commonly
computer
or
Beyond
uncontrollable).
example,
or
object
information.
convey
analyze
or too small),
slow,
too
fast,
to
to
relative
simpler
real
the
with
experiment
of size
because
model
(the
complexity
or
measure,
more practical
real
the
for
substitute
economical
and
convenient
create
test,
be
may
We
study.
separate
still successfully
are
or mock-ups
\342\226\240
design
criteria.
defining
and
new
to
object
revising
some
satisfy
a hypothetical
we
create
object's
shape
that
Introduction
\342\226\240
3.
three
These
the
it.
categories
create
first
geometric
must be suitable
and
evaluation.
we can use its geometric model to guide the
for
existing object.
and
drawings
of
on
demands
now
can
geometric
and
virtual
are
reality
Many
visual
robotics,
vision,
computer
and
systems
and
and
and
techniques
have
new
much
seamless engineering
of
effort
this
and
using
to rapidly
ability
engineer's
design
complex models.
Engineering analysis is
of solid modelers.
sophistication
models.
fi.iitc-element
of
analysis
The
area
an
effects
They
mechanical
these
of
also
not
mimic
create
in
solid
those
only
manufacturing,
with
the
increasing
permit
are
then
static
to a variety
subjected
quickly
of
change
undergoing
parts
loads
of simple
combinations
will
In
process.
manufacturing
at creating
aimed
sculpting
modeling,
of this possible.
much
made
on these
rely
advertising
in solid
the engineer's
The
drafting.
and
Advances
systems,
drafting,
texture,
and
techniques.
work continues
manufacturing
of
appearance
films
feature
in
modeling
their
contributing
effects
the
including
objects,
sculptured-surface
design
Computer
graphics
two-dimensional
color-shaded
realistic
produce
each
making
capabilities.
geometric-modeling
special
Development
conditions.
provides
engineering
including
object,
Now
modeling.
geometric
routinely
translucence,
structural
When
object.
to be
continue
three-dimensional
of
renderings
than
the
of
it
design,
virtual
polygonal,
the
process,
the
of
manufacture
we
displays.
graphics
and
been
much
of
development
display
this
in
point
any
a specific
selecting
finally represents
graphics, computer-aided
have
manufacturing
systems
At
computer
Computer
new
the model
information
After
analysis
is complete,
production
order to
of the model in
an image
generate
evaluate
and
interpret
visually
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we
where
Rendering,
of
and dynamic
of loading
and accurately
displayed,
Computer-aided
kinematic
possible,
and
check
because
clearances
analysis
designers
between
of
complex
mechanisms
also
becomes
also
to
possible
other
ask
or
screwdriver
sufficient clearance for
whose location allows only limited access? or Is
Perhaps
of
automatic.
completely
database,
and
and
production
assurance
and
robotics
to
automated
the
finished
of
their
offer
now
intelligent
will
of
theory
is
systems
of
more
natural
vision(Where
reasoning
in
may
lie
am
I?
is it?)
What
Virtual
spaces.
a new
geometric
integrative
solutions
partial
and
the kinds
effectiveness
of
of
and
artificial
senses
an
and
science.
art
applied
models
modeling
and
reality
and
computer
of the model, an
and
of
and
done
need
in
geometric
and
yield
modeling
understanding
and
it might
However,
may
a better
(physical
how
visualization
require
answer
best
how
modeling
geometric
contemporary
modeling
possible
computer
to spatial
amenable
scientific
and
quantitative),
the
geometric
We
an
for
need
As models become
manufacturing
models
applications.
applied.
own,
results.
Much work remains to be
theoretical
using
is growing.
in these
of
theory
general
to create, on their
qualitative
require
sensory
models susceptible
in
other
the
(both
equivalence
configuration
geometric
and
self-validation
automatic
geometric
understanding
tactile,
modeling
geometric
require
as
cast
appropriately
environment
overarching
encourage
inference.
Geometric modeling
However,
visual,
immediate
their
of
model
geometric
to artificial
robots
will be programmed
robots
Ultimately,
from
for
products
computer
to produce
fields
these
now
also
processes.
systems
of
and
machine
parts
to be
of parts
models
for
instructions
Automated inspection
quality
improving
synthesis
via a
furnish,
may
geometric
unambiguous
that
systems
designers
assembly
application
makes
modeling
manufactured.
possible,
is
tool path-verification
Engineering
complete
generate
spot-
modeling
geometric
geometric
example,
robotic
for
possible
applications
For
manufacturing.
computer-aided
are
it
a joint?
to reach
welder
reach
to
wrench
questions,
often-neglected
\342\226\240
5
mathematical),
be measured.
geometric
some future
more
comprehensive
on
both
fronts\342\200\224
of why we model,
and
of
of the
We need to explore
modeling
can
work
Introduction
\342\226\240
and
limits
these
within
understanding
the
of
the
between
relationship
1.2
in
model,
a model.
choose
we
how
and
the
its model,
and
object
minimizeambiguities
better
them. Wc need a
to overcome
help
perhaps
HISTORY
the
to
years,
of
application
modelinggoes
to naval
sections
conic
one
over
back
when
architecture,
of
hulls
engineers and ship builders designed and lofted
ships'
based
on by then well-known
methods for constructing conic curves. More
lines
the
recently,
the
of
shapes
were
aircraft
and
ships
in
and stored
lofted
manually
Then
the
forever
in
These,
manufacturing.
geometric
for
developed
systems
graphic
computer
modeling.
of today's
roots
The
do
we
way
the
of
descendants
are
turn,
computer-aided
earliest
the
in
design
and
Air
Force's
U.S.
SAGE
at MIT,
was
computer system of the 1950s.Ivan
working
the earliest
among
pioneers in this field with his Sketchpad system.This
Sutherland
(1963),
and
other
early
and
the
extending
improving
stimulated
the
However,
engineering
used
structural
in
the notable
with
and
analysis
of
they
of
basis
the
that early
during
rendition
the
on
design
exception
in aerothermody-
used
models
analogous
is
that
modeling
and
and
process,
drafting
modeling.
for
possibilities
and
design
engineering
development
geometric
today's
wonderful
suggested
systems
graphics
namic analysis.
the
subtractive
simple
extracting
to
translate
the
not
was
shape
until
possible
from
information
an
early
geometry
and
as
highly
the
a basis
model
cutter
and
understanding
the
Illinois
were
languages
drawing
into a computerof
Institute
Technology,
from
a geometric
at
of
way
successful
a new
the
control
and
of an object's
information
shape
calculate
to
manufacturing
with
begins
modeling
geometric
of numerical
of machine
motions
modeling
of
history
this
classical
using
work.
Using
of an object to be
APT,
a parts
machined
from
programmer
raw
stock
\342\226\240
7
History
and
controlled
numerically
oriented
sculptured
pioneering
of
other
work
problem-
generating
I
C. Ferguson
S. A. Coons (1963,1965), also at MIT,
began important work in nonrational free-form curves and
and
Hermite
cubic
the
using
surfaces,
Coons1
scheme.
interpolation
it
\316\225
(1959,
jau
for
and
advanced
an
languages.
at Boeing
(1964)
of the
beginning
MIT, developed
programming
graphics
for
model,
in industry.
for
language
the
marked
revolution
machinery
(NC)
In the mid-1960s,
compiler
This
tools.
machine
computer-controlled
the
reference
which
instructions,
cutting
incorporates
de
P.
of
about
At
Motors
General
time,
developments.
significant
H. D Meriwether (1966,1967),
extended
who
and
cubic
the
of
usefulness
and
understanding
and
and
the
recording
through
Of
itself.
process
manufacturing
versatility of the
modcVs
still
as witness
fruit,
bearing
rational
or
B-Spline
the simple
surface
of
limitations
This
aircraft
Southern
broken
bicubic
scheme
aircraft
California,
structural
was
and
aesthetics,
shapes,
NC
the
the
approach
philosophical
free-form
interested
languages
of
in
shape-modeling
of
mathematics
parametric
and
automotive
of
geometry
in Seattle,
St. Louis,
styling\342\200\224body
were
departments
engineering
the
solid
and
surfaces
sculptured
in
stimulated
further
the
Meanwhile,
highlights.
are capable
shapes.
by a growing need
was
surfaces.
quadric
like NURBS,
forms,
and applications
and aerodynamic
in
and
programming
was reinforced
Detroit
industries.
and
on the universality
an emphasis
representation
the
into
lines, circles,conies,
of the
evolution
design
and
curve
put
on
and
form;
and analysis,
representational
NURBS
that
fact
this
course,
of a design was
and
use
process\342\200\224the
model
mathematical
of
the
was
Hermitian
bicubic
geometry
prize
the
considerably
made
also
McDonnell,
effort
Douglas
system. Several
its DAC-1
developed
and
for
looking
new
including
geometry,
better
ground
Coons1
notation
patches and Bezier's (1974) special surfaces,
introduced
by A. R. Forrest
(1971). From a productive decade of
with
ending
in
the
mid
1970s,
there
the
emerged
the
idea
Introduction
\342\226\240
of
and
curves
piecewise
the
surfaces,
in computer
workers
some
Meanwhile,
more
form
to
of many individual
together
joining
shapes.
complex
graphics
now
modeling
geometric
methods
and
reducing
and
lines
of
composed
curves
each
where
drawing,
the
defining
constructed interactively.This
engineering
data.
digitized
interpreting
is
line
as
intended
were
in
or curve
element
in
the
same
the
and it is usually
way
is constructed
as
computer
is
model
A wireframe
much
or
tools
drafting
of an object,
edges
done
schemes. These
and polygonal
wireframe
of
areas
two
in
work
began
as an
separately
a list
and
of lines
curves.
Current
dimensional
and
representations
For
deficiencies.
are
there
faces
three
realizable
of nonsense
dimensional
information
for
this. Figure
a
in
interpenetrate
often
well-known,
this
way
that
usually
systems
have
internal
no
makes
the
of a physically
interpretation
Figure
in
surfaces
13 illustrates
are
models
wireframe
of
to prohibit
tests
interactive
three-
constructing
enhanced
considerably
three-dimensional
example,
ambiguous.
frequently
because
have
of
procedures.
severe,
wireframe
inferred
between
the
wireframe
this limitation.
ambiguity.
lines
and
curves.
kind
three-
Figure
History
Figure
Polygon
systems,
structure
of
vertices,
edges,
faces.
extensively
with
edge.
animation
The
with
and
picture-generating
polygonal
modeling
systems
This is true
because
schemes
polygonal
used as research
tools for computer graphics display
highly sophisticated.
technology,
the leading
and
associated
algorithms
picture-manipulating
been
create
have
objects.
or
modeling schemes were initially developed
pietures
but there
is a considerable
gray area between polygon and
and
the
distinction
is not always
clear. The polygonal data
referenced
are often
nonsense
Wireframe
to
renderings,
wireframe
1.2
in
and
hidden-surface
part
or
ray-tracing
techniques
at
10
Introduction
\342\226\240
in farm
Contour
hi ion noi
Figure
to
surfaces
traditional
industries
with
The
were
much
F Riesenfeld (1974b)introduced
to computer-aided
and
design. Barsky
geometric
followed
surfaces
and
curves
M. G. Cox (1972),
for
much
and
development
of
this
12).
Taken
surfaces
geometric
More
work.
of
application
new
led the
for
framework
object-oriented
geometric
these
together
(1946),
foundation
J. S. Letcher (1995)
recently
B-Spline
popular NURBS
mathematical
the
laid
and
I. Schoenberg
B-SpHnes).
successful
computer-aided
rational
(nonuniform
surfaces
and
Bezier
the
of
after, culminating
and R.
formulations
Rational
mentioned
curves
B-Spline
applied
of
patches
1970s, W. J. Gordon
in the
later,
analysis
cubic
parametric
formulations of Bezier,as
Not
successes.
early
well-known
were
They
with
versatile.
and
accurate,
processes.
manufacturing
and aircraft
automotive,
shipbuilding,
more
faster,
something
of the
techniques
lofting
the
replace
sculptured
methods,
in the
grounded
curves
parametric
and
design.
Solid
a relative
modeling,
newcomer,
objects.
geometric
complete
The
when
and
representing
of
objects.
There
Voelker
solid
(1977).
geometry
Perhaps
(CSG),
at
the
pioneered
farthest
by
frontier
three-
analyzing
is to create unambiguous
some of the
to overcome
is intended
been several
have
(B-reps)
A. A. G. Requicha
of geometric
and
and
modeling
\316\227.
\316\222.
and
The Mathematics
still
a wider
awaiting
It
areas.
the
Furthermore,
of
optimization
has
shapes
looks
modeling
1.3
and
alteration
more
increasingly
gained
attention,
stimulating
of
geometric
it is bound
and
bright,
the various
hybridize
interactive
of
possibilities
reconsideration
three
including
geometries.
and
combine
to
all
in
technology
made
efforts
be
techniques,
modeling
APT
development
independent,
largely
in the
roots
representations
this is not
However,
later development
the seemingly
tenuous
few
has
but
modeling
to sculptured
wireframe
models.
solid
in
culminating
of geometric
the evolution
that
from
descent
of
line
the
assume
to
is tempting
surfaces,
in
detail.
greater
followed
as its surface
represented
fully
work
twenty
much
in
as
are
object
where
properties.
over
an
oT
of its potential
recognition
11
\342\226\240
THE MATHEMATICS
first
At
to
appears
glance,there
be
a large
have
equivalent
form.
implicit
parametric
The
representations
polynomial
and Bezier
Hermite
the
are special cases of the B-Spline
nonrational
cases of the rational forms. This text proceeds
are special
forms
restricted
and
special
to
the
representations
and
form,
more
representations
the
from
more
inclusive
and
general
curves and
of unrelated
menagerie
of
study
from
surfaces
operations),
of
review
brief
vector
The
used
in
is perhaps
modeling.
vector
offers
distinct
intuition
seems
only
components
a
methods.
Here is
to
our
fit
geometric
object, because
notion of objectivity is easily obscured
it
Boolean
(including
theory
numerical
and
and
curves
of these techniques
important
set
mathe-
of them.
some
geometric
most
methods,
interpolation,
of several
parametric equations of
The
geometry.
use
extensive
makes
modeling
geometric
advantage
individually
over
classical
if
are
we
and
of displacement.
limited
separately.
analytic
geometry
to
working
This
with
Vector geometry
by minimizing
Introduction
dependence
often
allow
until
later
the
a computational
of
stages
vector
Operations
and
perpendicularity
while
parallelism.
several
handle
VectoTS,
just
reveai
geometric
These
operations
of course,
direction.
and
displacement
such as
relationships,
methods
algebraic
support
carry
geometric
retaining
than
vectors
least,
very
system to be postponed
process.
the
At
once.
at
equations
component
Appendix
presents
review of vectors.
geometric
of
way
storing
matrix
of
on
operations
matrix performs
as
matrix
Appendix
properties.
special
in
determinants
good idea
in this book, it is a
expressions
their
with
reacquainted
\320\222
become
to
both
reviews
determinants.
and
matrices
and
operations
of
interpretation
encounter
also
will
we
by operating
of many geometric-
foundation
is the
operator
geometric
of points
a set
on
transformation
geometric
and
Approximation
pass reasonably
to
required
pass
through,
or interpolate,
ways
an
Under
curves.
or
must
a curve
scheme,
two
describe
interpolation
of fitting a curve
or
approximation-fitting
is
Here we use
each
data
scheme, however, the curve
through
point.
the powerful but simple theorem that says
line
exactly
interpolates
two given points, a eonic curve
(is defined
by and passes through)
four points, and so on.This suggests a
a cubic
points,
interpolates
must
pass
straight
three
interpolates
polynomial
of
n:
degree
f(x) =
These
polynomials
are
of the form
is, a function
that
av
used
widely
axx
for
\302\267
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\317\215/
because
interpolation
they can be
of
a
finite
number
evaluated, differentiated, and integrated easily
steps by using just the basic arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction,
in
and
and
multiplication.
sensitive
of
polynomials
Using
to
the
choice
of
the
interpolation
method.
However,
same
the
of points is very
At appropriately
chosen points,
as the number
points.
very
differing
if
order
little
interpolating
from
that
function
of the
best
is badly
behaved,
The Mathematics
an
producing
of interpolation
in the sequence
anywhere
shape
unacceptable
13
\342\226\240
of data
distribution
the
points, then it may be poor everywhere.
points
may lead us to expect a smooth, convex interpolating curve. However,
instead
be a curve
with many inflection
may
points, that is, one that
For
example,
result
the
wiggles.Using piecewisepolynomials
That
problem.
segments
corresponding
can
we
is,
successive
fitting
by
successive
[ow-degree
data
of
groups
points.
curve
a composite
construct
is
In fact, as Farin
now
of a string of curve
theoretical
of
mostly
to
curves
polynomial
this
sidestep
consisting
approach
to
us
allows
usually
because
value,
acceptableshapes.
and
methods
Numerical
modeling
geometric
unlimited
This
capacity
polynomial
of
\316\267
degree
at
of
that
means
Horner's
to
rule
difference
forward
the
and
intervals
equal
of
the algorithms
because
necessary
precision
are
analysis
the
be
a general
evaluate
variable
cannot
computations
to evaluate
method
parametric
with
are
both
discussed
in
Section 2.6,
might
be
the sliding
conditions-
We
tangent
the
isolate
method.This
roots
ur
such
method
that
u}
0.
1.4
Newton's
better
the
likely
name
l(u)
Figure
was
he
(since
method
14
Introduction
\342\226\240
in
root
one
and
interval
this
discontinuities or inflections(see
with no
function
the
let
We
1,4).
Figure
Then
where
the
then
Oand
>
or
shift
doubtful. Here
is
ut
1/'(\320\270()1
increment
an
ul when
\320\270| +
0. If f(ut)
ut-
is zero
small,
very
to a solution is
is very
\320\276\321\202
example:
= 90u2
f(u)
30\321\2133-3\321\2132
\320\224\321\213)
9\321\213-15
\320\261\321\213
30\320\270\321\215-\320\227\320\2702
9\302\253-15
=
\320\230\321\206-1
\320\230,
90\320\2702
\320\261\321\213
0.850596
0.416667
->
0.850596
-> 0.720948
0.697539
0.697539
->
\320\275,-0.697539
formulas
Quadrature
evaluate
The
integrals.
under
curve
assumption
underlying
defined
some
by
is
function,
say/ftO-Thus
dA=
f(u)du
\\
CI
is
where
\320\224\320\270)
(\321\217\320\224)
The
(see
an
FiguTe
Newton-Cotes
explicit
formula
that
can
be evaluated
at any
\321\213
in
the
Tange
1-5).
quadrature
formulas
assume
equally
first
fout
spaced oTdinates,
formulas
\320\260\321\202\320\265:
Mathematics
The
IS
\342\226\240
1.5
Figure
Quadrature.
w
=
\320\2732
[/\320\253
rule)
(TTapezoidal
\320\224\321\213\321\214)]
\321\203
w
=
\320\220\321\212
\342\200\224\320\251\321\206\320\260)
Af{uh)
\320\227\320\2751
\"g-t/\320\253
+ 3/K)
+ 3/K)
(Simpson
\320\224\320\270\321\201)]
rule)
+ /K)]
4\316\2671
\320\233
32/ti<u)
\342\204\226\320\264)
12\320\233\"\321\201)
32/i\302\243'j)
7/i\"i)]
\"90
A, is the
wheTe
For
example,
higheT-OTder
lotal
area and
is
the
width
of
a single
A5 is the lotal
formulas.
Figure
1.6
Quadrature
divisions.
division.
quadrature
continues
for
16
Introduction
\342\226\240
AnotheT
Gaussian
appToach,
allows
There
are,
of
many
course,
for
abandons
quadrature,
(evaluated)
otheT
any
at
equal
optimal
Each
formulas.
on
based
problem
particular
locations.
\321\202\320\276\321\202\320\265
quadrature
and
spacing
should
its
applicability,
1.4
NOTATION
ANO
CONVENTIONS
of the
Hereisaiist
common
\321\202\320\276\321\202\320\265
also be explained
Cartesian
righl-handed
coordinate
As
used.
first
when
in this
used
notations
and
symbols
for
conventions,
unless noted
is assumed
system
text. In
otherwise.
fl,fe,c,.. .
Scalars,constantcoefficients:lowercase
letters
ajb,p,r,s,...
Vectors:
lal
of
length
Magnitude,
letters
lower-case
boldface,
\320\260,
of
\320\276\321\202
\320\277\320\276\321\202\321\202
vector
Matrices:
\316\221,\316\222,\316\234,...
..
\316\221^,\316\222_1,\316\234_1,.
MT,...
B7,
A7,
...
m,h
\320\252\321\204
Q>n
boldface,
letters
uppercase
Matrix
inveTSe
Matrix
transpose
Matrix
elements
or other
array
elements
a',p',A',P',,
or
IAI
s, r, u, v,
\317\207,
Transformed
wf.. .
PaTametric variables
coordinates
Cartesian
\320\270
Union
\316\267
InteTSection
matrix
Quaternions
\316\275, \316\266\320\276\320\263\321\205|,\320\273\320\263\320\263,\320\245\320\267
or
vectOT
Determinants
\\A\\
Q,,..
5,
\320\233,
..
Difference
t=
is
an
elemen
t of
For all
[a,b]
Closed interval,continuous
;
\\a
b]
Closed
interval,
integral
or
values
discTete
values
(a,b)
Open
interval,
continuous
values
17
\342\226\240
Differentiation:
dy
\321\203
dx
d2y
yxx~-
dx2
dx
X\320\271--
du
d2x
vflHJ
dud
and so foTth.
n!
n\\
. means
ij
The notation
for
and
Bezier,
Hermite,
i\\(n-i)\\
tor
here
and
comparison
numbers
Hennite
cuTve:
of
these
The
foTms.
used
in this text
are
They
numbers
wheTe
expressions
notation
is far
surfaces
universal, forms.
in both
reference
The
the
in
and
curves
B-Spline
they
canonical
in
\320\260\321\202\320\265
parentheses
\320\260\321\202\320\265
fiTst
found
in
text.
the
=
\321\200(\320\270)
\320\225\321\214\320\233\321\217(\320\270)
(\320\227.\320\237)
\320\263
-\320\236
\320\2501,\320\222
\321\200(\320\275)
Bezier
(3
20)
curve:
P(h)
\302\243pA\302\273
(4.2)
\320\263
-\320\236
=
\320\270\320\234\320\271\320\240
\321\200(\320\270)
B-Spline
(4.7)
curve:
\320\273
=
\321\200(\320\270)
\316\243
\320\240'\320\233\320\270\320\241\")
(5-1)
\316\257-0
=
p^)
UM.,PK
(5.16)
\316\271*0
=
p(\")
wo
=
()
<M9>
18
Introduction
\342\226\240
Hetmite
surface:
ft
\317\201(\302\273.
w)=\316\243
1=
=
0
\320\237\321\203*
UMFBM^W
\321\200(\320\270,\320\270>)
Bezier
v^m^h
\316\243
smface:
->
\320\273>
=
\317\201(\316\257\316\257,\316\234')
(I
\321\200,\320\220.\320\226*\320\230
\342\226\240=
0
UMbPMjJ'W7'
p(M,w)
B-Spline
\316\243
\316\243
smface:
-1
-\"\342\226\240
\\
=
p(\302\253,w)
2,
d
\317\201-\316\233\316\272\316\237\316\237^\317\207\316\227
\316\226
II
O/*
p>
\302\243\302\243\320\273,7\320\240,\320\233\320\273(\302\273)\320\273'1,\320\230
/I
CURVES
parameter
of
family
describes
definition
Another
freedom.
as the locus of
defined
often
are
Curves
records
History
points.
curve as
of
one
dimension,
help us to visualize a curve
a
to
but
they
are
not
curves
describe
mathematically
Of
useful
and
is
category
expressed
representing
the
with
and
2.1
and
Bezier,
is
one
but the
fact
a rectangle
that
particular
has
four
is
angles
equal
has
rectangle
direct-
in question,
is
required
two
is intrinsic to the
vertical
to
determine
sides
and
reference-
of
frame
that
the
of
discussion
OF CURVES
EQUATIONS
fact
a series of
us to determine
a
B-Spline
for
methods
An intrinsic property
on only
that
the figure
depends
not its relation to a coordinate system or other externa!
The
The
solution,
inverse-point
INTRINSIC
include intrinsic
equations.
parametric
require
problems
of its
expressions-Ways
modeling
Hermite,
may
to geometric
importance
modeling
Many
in
powerfully
sense
analytical
for geometric
definitions
Such
intuitive
more
only.
our
length
improve
analytical.
explicitly
one
with
having
path
and
behavior,
a point moving
degree
of
a curve as the locus of a oneon the idea of a
variations
many
rectangle,
is extrinsic,
which
vertical.
19
Intrinsic
of
descriptions
Imagine that
are
you
a figure
in
standing
a simple
or convenient reference points, and that
do
to
experiment
this
is easy,
in intrinsic
First, you decide to walk
geometry
square
path;
because
the intrinsic definition of a square is simple. From
walk
ahead,
orientation,
say, 10 paces; turn to your right 90 degrees,
and walk 10
turn
90 degrees
right
again, and walk 10 more paces.
should
at your starting
be back
position.
Repeat this one more time,
reference
The 90-degree turns certainly do not require
system,
can easily
since
various \"local\" methods to determine these
imagine
you
want
you
in
initial
any
and
position
more
paces;
and
you
external
any
is
10
obviously
local
purely
operation.
works
for a
and
what
exercised a procedural intrinsic definition
square,
a circle.
with
works equally well with other Figures.
Again,
square
How many different
start
intrinsic procedures can you find
anywhere.
a circle?
are more
This
demonstrates
that intrinsic
definitions
in
local than traditional Cartesian coordinate definitions.
a little
deal
with
geometry
piece at a time.
These exercises may strengthen our intuitive appreciation of
are
not rich
but
in analytical
For this we must
they
description,
potential.
a
of
this
Try
for
walking
definitions
Intrinsic
intrinsic
an
look at an example
arc
its
an
length
intrinsic
the
length
intrinsic
these
[t
and
of how much
is a measure
course,
is interesting
defined,
and
the
two
requires
\317\204as
intrinsic
functions
a plane
from
deviates
curve
space
(2.1)
g(s)
curve
much it tries to
(how
from
curve
s;
-=\342\204\226)
Torsion
equation.
its curvature
one expressing
equations,
of
of
and
arc
equations.
to make
so-called
a distinction
natural
between
A
equations.
torsion
\317\204,
arc
and
length
s:
(2.2)
/(-,v)=0
has
certain
special
imposes a condition on the curve,so
0 is
but many curves may have these properties. For example,
properties,
a natural
all plane curves, and 1/p = 0 is also
equation
characterizing
natural
all straight
lines. An additional
independent
equation
characterizing
more.
still
Solving
equation g(l/p,ivv) = 0 of the curve determines
This equation
that
it
\317\204
the
the
two
natural
=
equations/(1/\317\201,\317\204,.\316\275)
and
g(llpxs)
natural
curve
= 0
simultaneously
for
Intrinsic
1/p
and
as
\317\204
determine
equations
curve
intrinsic
s produces
of
functions
equations.
its position
for
except
uniquely,
define
completely
with the
the curve
of
equation
\317\207
\320\272
A parametric
the equationsx
the equations
The
axis.
\316\270
the
is
dxlds
description
= *(s) and
these
for
arc
with
by
s and
between
intrinsic
the
from
of a curve
the
\316\270
is
length.\316\275
to
tangent
an
intrinsic
cos
= cosO
and
and
arc
length
andy(s)
with
begins
are related
by
dy
sinO
(2.4)
ds
with
equations
\316\270
its
functionsx(s)
y(s).Tht
equation
of
terms
in
ds
dQIds,
\316\270
subtended
angle
relationship
emerges
1/p,
dx
Differentiating
variation of
to plane
limited
curve.
the
Curvature,
curve,
the
21
\342\226\240
Two natural
in space.
and
2.1
Figure
using
of Curves
Equations
for
dylds
sin
to s and substituting
respect
the
\316\270
yields
simultaneous
\320\272
for
differential
equations
tfx
ds2
+ K(s)dy
tfy
ch]
Figure
2.1
Intrinsic
ds
K(s)dx
= 0
(2,5)
ds
definition
of a curve.
22 *
Curves
IMPLICIT
ANO
EXPLICIT
k(j).
OF CURVES
EQUATIONS
function
curvature
given
two second-order
these
solve
we
procedures,
equations
2.2
numerical
appropriate
Using
of
the
takes
curve
form
general
(2-6)
y=\342\204\226
this
In
or
closed
cannot
represent
one
is only
there
form,
\321\203
each
for
value
and implicit
of the coordinate
their
calculating
In
properties.
be useful, usually as
of this
an
has
form
there
but
parameterization.
intersections
determine
if
is
point
given
more
are
Seder
methods
equations
curve
with
difficult
implicit
forms that
to
amenable
of
computation
allows us to
it or the other.
representation.
parametric
between
conversion
The implicit
the
on
are
later characteristic
or on one side of
The
points.
modeling
not
are
the
expedites
of
classification
the
and
formulation
implicit
prove to
parameter-based
larger,
form,
implicit
corresponding
and
equations
implicit
have demonstrated
In fact, mathematicians
scheme.
the choice
curves
the
modeling
limitation,
to
adjunct
by
(2.7)
of
ease
the
spite
is avoided
limitation
forms
affects
system
it
Consequently,
form
f(x,y)
explicit
value.
This
curves.
multiple-valued
Both
\317\207
and
parametric
Ax
By
forms.
implicit
curve
are
+ C=0
and
respectively.
about
information
analysis
special
a very
simple
geometric
analysis
the
plane
curve1.
following
for
the
Ey
conditions
the
F=Q
conic.
of the equation
to
characteristics
of the coefficients
Dx
geometric
determine
of an implicitly defined
modeling
process.
curve
For
Parametric
If
f{x,
y)
point,
an
given
2. If f(x4y)
the parabolas
If
3-
the
curve
is symmetric
about
the*
the
curve
is symmetric
about
the
=
the
PARAMETRIC
for
axis;
\321\203
the
line*
about
the
line
about
symmetric
xy
hyperbola
example,
for
\321\203,'
symmetric
\317\207
for
-\321\203;
\342\200\224k2.
CURVES
OF
EQUATIONS
is
curve
the
-x),
\302\261f(-y,
example,
= k2.
xy
hyperbola
5_ If f(x4 y)
2.3
as
curve
the
\302\261f(y,x),
the
example,
= r>
x2+y-
=*?.
parabola^
4_ Uf(x4y)
23
\342\226\240
y2.
=\302\261f(~xfy),
f(x,y)
a circle
example,
the
=\302\261f(x.-y),
for
transformation);
appropriate
Curves
is symmetric
the curve
-y),
\302\261f(-x,
of
Equations
Ordinary,
functions,
such as
most
modeling.
single-valued
explicit
used in geometric
shapes
First,
coordinate
the
[t
system,
the
determines
most
of
shapes
the
is
of
most
fact,
affect
not
chosen
of
in values
results
or
Second,
to
parallel
planes
the
by
not
functions
by
\317\207
way
a single
=
function
ordinary
y(u)
of
\321\205(\320\270),\321\203
\321\203(\320\270),\320\267\320\277\320\260
\316\266
some
in
and surfaces of
not
are
and
easily
shapes
like
of
and
programming
in geometric
modeling
=
\321\203
/(\321\205),
is
curve
two-dimensional
but
by
set
of two
curve is
a natural
vector
u. A three-dimensional
parameter
\321\205
this
function.
nonparametric
preferred
=x(u)fy
defined by
representation.
coordinate
explicit
the curves
Finally
properties.
system.
a
by
an ordinary
the
of points, not
functions,
system. For shapes defined
infinity for some slopes on the model, or results
that
of any
coordinate
arbitrary
require
the shape.
mathematical
ill-defined
other
applications
modeling
should
system
andsome
points
represent
points themselves
fit through a set
or surface
a curve
cannot
=f{x),
independent
intrinsically
between
the
relationship
shape
resulting
are
objects
\321\203
These
z(u).
curves
have
and,
hy
simple
extension,
\320\234\320\275)
y(u)
\317\206)]
(2.8)
for a surface.
p(u, w) = [x(u4
w)
x{u4
w)
z(uw)]
(2.9)
24
\342\226\240
Curves
avoid
equations
functions.
They also
Parametric
parametric
many of the
problems associatedwith
curves
are
drawn
non-
by a
a point.
defines
most
of the
equations generate the sets of points defining
in
this
text.
The
curves, surfaces, and other geometric elementsdiscussed
of a
following
equations are an example of the parametricrepresentation
curve
to plot the curve for all
Figure
2.2). Of course, it is not possible
(see
Parametric
values
significance
The
of
\320\270
from
to
the
curve
in
-\302\253to
modeling
the
figure
-\320\270\302\273.
We
must
select
an
in
terval
that
has
some
situation
and that has computational convenience.
is plotted for an interval on it of \320\270
the
\320\265[-1,1], for
equations
Figure 2.2
parametric
curve.
Parametric
Equations
of Curves
\342\226\240
25
= 3tr
\317\207
+ l
y=us-u
z = 2u +
a specific
Substituting
values
of
x,
parametric
value of
z. Each value of
y, and
produces three
of these
each
into
independen t
equations
a point
\320\270
generates
arc the
These
well.
as
curves
other
variable
is the
\320\270
\320\235\320\265\320\263\320\265,
(2.10)
variable.
produces specific
on the curve. This
and
It is
x=a +
where a,b,c, and
\317\200\316\271)
(c +
Another
= b
z =
nnt
This
curve is a
particular
=
and
at
+ /)
c]
ending
p(l)
[(\320\271
to
\316\231,\316\267\316\271,\316\267.
proportional
\320\265
\320\270
[0,1].
z = u*
=i,i
\321\203
and
a point
other
acosu
words,
= bu
it
versatility
is interesting
of
the
or
at
axis
\316\266
to see
reveals
equation
in
in
xytz
this
represents
form
parametric
how
it
\316\267
\316\277
t-al
to
adapts
direct relationshipbetweenthe
discussion
1].
(2-13)
It is the locus of
distance a from it (in
a helix of radius = a). At the same time, the helix moves parallel
at a rate proportional
to the angle of revolution\320\275.
If b < 0, then
the
around
revolves
to the \316\266
axis
the helix is right-handed.
The
[1
p(l)=
z
y-\316\261\317\215\316\267\316\271\316\271
is a left-handedcircularhelix,
that
twisted cubic.Because
is
example
x =
This curve
(2.12)
of a
form
one
also
Ue[0,l],it ishoundedbyp(0)=[0 0 0]
final
(2.11)
is
example
x =
The
c + nu
\\a
cosines
p(0)
point
direction
with
\320\273)],
+
and
arc
constants
\316\231,\316\267\316\271,\316\267
kt
Cartesian
machine
is apparent in
these examples,and
functions
expressing
The
x,y,zfollowing
For example, one
curve-defining
variables
relationship.
ways-obvious
a surface.Two
screw.
a constant
i,y,z,say,
F(x,y,z)
\302\256
G(x,y,z)
= 0
(2.14)
represent the
intersectionof two
implicit equationsof a
inherently unbounded;
third, say
for
implicit
and
\321\203
in
\316\266
equations
terms
of x,
point on the
the
of
equations
projecting
form of
A curve
dimensions.
produces
y = y(X)
(2.15)
z(x)
These equations
or the equations
similarly expressingany
Each of
the curve onto
and
(2.14),
they,
of a variable
coordinates
of the
two
of the third
as functions
curve
curve.
are the
however,
the
Solving
a curve.They
is locally
which
surfaces,
three
in
curve
two
are
surfaces
cylinders.
projecting
=
=
and
\321\203\321\203(\320\270),
Solving the first of the three parametric
equations \317\207
x(u),
=
of a curve for \320\270
as a function
of x, that is, u(x), and substituting the
\316\266z{u)
result into the two remaining
the explicit Equations
expressions,
produces
(2.15). From one point of view, these explicit equations, when supplemented
= \320\273;,
the
\320\273;
are
also
of the curve; that is,
by
equations
identity
parametric
= \317\207
\317\207
Now the
is the
parametric
=
\317\207
Z(x)
y(X)
(2.16)
with
difficulty
parameter is also the coordinate\320\264\320\263.\320\242\320\252\320\265
obviously unacceptablelimitationon
of x,
range
to the interval
be normalized
must
variable
the
\317\207
e [0,1],
this approach
because the
or a similar finite
function of
a parametric
Introducing
the
problem:
=
\302\253
\342\200\224
(2.17)
X-l \342\200\224Xo
This
=
\320\273:
x(u)
It
x0 to
expression
satisfies
compromising
the normalization
the range
of
(2.16) yields
=
\317\207
x(u),
= \317\207
=
\317\207
(\320\270),
\321\203 y(u),
and
+ (\321\205\320\263
\317\2070
\321\2050)\321\206
this
Substituting
and
z[x(u)],
=
These
are
the
\316\266
\316\266(\316\271\316\271).
large
class
into parametric
into
relationship
Equations
simplify to
forms
introduced
parametric
of explicit functions easily converts
=
\316\266
\321\203\321\203[\320\273-(\320\275)],
(2.18)
ue[0,l],
^.provided
which,
of course,
form.
y{u)
z=
z(u)
is a
bounded
continuous,
one-
segment
by
(2.19)
Parametric
of
Equations
where
e
\320\270
the parametric
variable \320\270
is ordinarily
and
the
on the
sense
positive
[0,1],
= 0
\320\275
oneat
curve
The
increases.
and
the
a fixedpolynomial
constrained
to the
Curves
27
\342\226\240
closed interval
form,
basis
defining
functions
that
generate
curves
with
the Hermite,
characteristic set of properties. Specialbasisfunctions
generate
and
in
discussed
and
Bezier,
B-Spline curves,
Chapters3,4, 5, respectively,
We can treat the coordinates of any point
on a parametric
curve as the
a
of
vector
2.3
ill
ustrales
this
and
other
components
\321\200(\320\275).
Figure
important vector
elementsof
to
scale.
tangent
Here
vector
to
Unless
noted otherwise,
the tangent vectors arc not drawn
is
the
to
the
vector
p(w)
point x(u),y(u),z(u),and p\"(u) is the
the curve at that
obtained
by differentiating
point,
\321\200(\320\275):
curve.
(2.20)
du
The
vector
components
r._.
These are
the
of
p\"(w)
are
Mu)
du
y<
.. = dy(u)
derivatives.
parametric
du
When
z\" =
\320\270
appears
dz{u)
(2.21)
du
as
a superscript,
it
the
differentiation with respect to w. The relationship
between
and
the
of
is
derivatives
derivatives
Cartesian
parametric
ordinary
space
indicates
and similarly
dy
dyidu
dx
dxidu
Figure
2.3
Elements
of a
parametric
curve.
coordinates
two-dimensional
curve
Plots
plots,
Figure
algebraic
It
x,y,z.
and
developed
three-dimensional
expressed.
defined
spaces
defined
by the familiar
which a geometric model is fully
space of a curve is the set of three
space
is the space in
The parameter
and
(\320\273-,\320\275),
(\321\203,\320\270),
by
(\316\266,\320\270)\302\267
Any
parametric
space.
cross
space.
the decomposition
demonstrates
2.4
of a specificcurvewhose
is
representation
= -6.5u3
x(u)
+ 9u2
+ l
181^-2
y(u) =-12a3+
z(u) =
+ 0.5u
-10.25\316\2673
14.75\320\2742
(2.22)
+
1.5u
- 2
-1 \342\226\240
\316\273\316\271
= -\316\231
\320\273\302\267'/
1
1
*0
= 1 \316\271
\"\302\267
- 0.5
\302\273*S
0.5
*-\302\273
*~y'i
= \320\236
= 0.25
\321\212\302\253
Figure
1A Parameter
space of a curve.
Parametric
Curves
of
Equations
\342\226\240
29
where
x\" =
-\\9.5ttl +
=
\320\243' -36\320\2752
z\" =
-30.75u2
l8u
+
.5u
36\320\275
(2.23)
+ 1.5
+ 29.5n
the parametric
shows
figure
are
These
mathematically
how
coefficients.
we wi II discuss
Later,
algebraic or geometric
interval using a procedure called reparameterization.
Different
and
the
vertical
scales on these plots affect
apparent
slope
vectors.
We
them
replot
The algebraic
so that
the
and shape.Eachvalue of
unique point on the curve in model
variable
if
by successive
generated
v. and
.\317\204,
only
one
\320\275-axis
\316\266
is independently
coefficient
this
horizontal
of the tangent
are
scales
as its size
values
and
\316\275-,
\320\273'-,
\320\263-,
to change
in
equal.
as well
space
2.4) defines a
it, in Figure
sets of \317\207,\316\275,\316\266
the
successive
space. Plotting
w values
the
creates
entire curve. Each
and a different curve results even
controlled,
it (for
example,
is changed.
over
its
domain.
Here
and
\320\273;,
\316\275,
arc
\316\266
the
dependent
variables
u.
whose values are determinedhy the independent
variable
of
We can infer many characteristics of a curve hy inspecting
the graphs
the component curves. Figure2.5shows
several
cases that are easily
special
curves in model space. Here we see a
verified by sketching
the
resulting
to a point (a degenerate curve of zero length),
a straight
curve
contracted
a
a
on
the
values
or
line,
plane curve,
spacecurve, depending
assigned to its
in the figure, and
coefficients.The Cartesiancoordinatesx,y,z arc stacked
we plot
another informative graphictechniqueis to superimpose
them.
Thus,
the value of the parametric variablealong the horizontal
axis and plot and
axis.
superimpose the model-space variablesalonga commonvertical
have many advantages over other formsof
Parametric
equations
representation.
Here
are
the most
important
ones:
30
\342\226\240
Curves
J'rj
\342\200\224O-Vi
JO?
fa)
Pmm
(b)
Straight
line
6.\316\231\316\212
soC-
\320\231
Straight
line
(d)
Plane curue
(f)
Space curve
=0^\"
''
\320\236
(e)
Figure
Plane
curue
2.5 Special
curves shown in
parameter
space.
Conic
\342\226\240
allow
They
of variables
separation
Curves
31
\342\226\240
point
coordinates.
\342\226\240
It is
\342\226\240
There
more
are
\342\226\240
easy
or
without
curves
constrained
\342\226\240
The
all slopes
accommodate
They
same
izations.
beeause
contraction
affecting
2.4
the
when
different
Filip
effects
they
See Ball(1984),
the
directly on them.
without computational breakdown.
be performed
may
\342\226\240
Extension
degrees
\342\226\240
Transformations
\342\226\240
The
equations as vectors.
to express parametric
is treated alike.
variable
easy
\342\226\240
Each
and others
on shape.
Ball
(1989).
of parameterization
is
parameter
parameter-
sometimes
chosen
CONIC CURVES
A
any
conic
curve
by a
is defined
second-degree
equation
Ax2
second-degree implicitequation.Conversely,
a conic. The standardformis
defines
+ Cy2
+ 2Bxy
+ 2Dx
+ 2Ey
+ F=
(2.24)
equation becomes
(2.25)
PQPr=0
where
\320\220 \320\222 D
=
Q
\320\222\320\241\320\225
\316\225
(2.26)
and
\316\241-[\320\273-\321\2031]
\320\240
is given
\320\235\320\265\320\263\320\265
by homogeneous
coordinates.
(2.27)
32
\342\226\240
Curves
Conic curve
2.1
Table
IQI
\320\272
conditions
Olher
*0
0
0
characteristics
Parabola
>0
C*0,Fr-CF
Two
real
parallel
\317\213
Two parallel
CiO.F-CFkO
\342\226\2400 Two
C = B = 0.D2-AF>
parallel
C = B = 0.D:~/l/7== 0
Two parallel
C = B
= (\\D'-AF<
<0
*0
-CIQI > 0
<0
*0
-CIQI
<0
<0
*0
.0
Two parallel
Point
2.1
conic
classifies
lints
coincident
lines
innginary
ellipse
ellipse
Imaginary
Two intersecting
transformations.
curves
using
under
If
\320\233
+ \320\241.
\320\272=\320\220\320\241-
the type
Q indicate
and
lines
are invariant
conic equation
These include
of the
determinant
lines
Hyperbola
characteristics
rotation
imaginary
real lines
lines
Real ellipse
< (1
\317\213
Certain
lines
C^O.F'-CF^O
<()
translationand
Type
and
the
of conic curve.Table
these characteristics.
arc
Parabola:
= air
\320\273;
y =
2au
(2.28)
Hyperbola:
= a
\317\207
sec
y~b
taii\320\270
= a
\317\207
cos it
\320\270
\320\270
\320\265
f-\317\200,\317\200]
(2.29)
\316\271\316\271\316\265[-\317\200.\317\200]
(2.30)
Ellipse:
sin
h
>\342\226\240
2.5
BEZIER,
HERMITE,
The
next
parametric
curves,
AND B-5PLINE
\316\267
CURVES:AN
OVERVIEW
three
B-Spline
Hermite,
Bezier,
and
B-Spline
Curves:
An Overview
\342\226\240
33
The cubic
nonrational
form is a special case ol a rational
form.
the
curve and bicubicHermitepatch
earliest
forms
were
among
in
and
used
Their
relative
geometric
modeling.
simplicity and
investigated
them
makes
natural versatility
good starling
points for studying curvesand
The
curves are a special case of the Bezier and
surfaces.
Hermite
B-Spline
a
form
is
itself
c
aseof
the
The
and
the
Bezier
forms,
special
B-Spline.
curves form the basic elementsof splines:
and
curves
Hermile,
Bezier,
B-Spliue
that
consist
of individual
parametric curve segments joined to forma single
at the segment joints. Wc are
whose
is controlled
c
urve
continuity
composite
the
cubic
interested
in
polynomial representations, becausethis is
primarily
of
the lowest
describing nonplanarcurves.A brief
degree capable
comparison
of their
most important
characteristics follows.
In its standard fonn for
Hermite interpolationis not restricted
to points.
a cubic
Hermite
curves
it uses both points and derivative data.For example,
end
and the tangent vectors at those points.
curve is defined by its two
points
It interpolates
all its control
to subdivide.
However,
points and is fairly
easy
if not
its lack of invariance underaffine
transformations
can be troublesome
accounted for. This curve's name is identified
with
Charles
Hennitc
a French mathematician of considerable accomplishmentsin
(1822-1901).
the
of cubic and quintic polynomials.
areas
The Beziercurve is defined by a set of control points,the numberof which
of the Bernstein polynomial basis functions
that
determines
the
degree
curve interpolates its first and last control points and
describe
its shape.This
is tangent to the first and last sides of the open polygon definedby these
It exhibits
the convex hull properly and is the easiestof the curve
control points.
to subdivide.
forms
However, it does not offer local control, because
the
the
of any control point produces shapechange throughout
position
changing
two.
Each
Hermite
curve.
The
B-Spline
curve is a
a set
of
of
The
control points which the curve ordinarilydoesnot interpolate.
degree
of
its polynomial basis function is defined independently
of the number
of curve shape is possiblebecausechanges
in
control
control points.
Local
not
do
and
control
control
location
point
propagate shape change globally,
influence
points
only a few of the nearby curve segments. A valuable
is that they are invariant under affine
transformations.
property of B-Splines
Filip
some
of curves cannot he
and Ball (1989) and others point out that
types
this is true for a
For
example,
practically representedas B-Splines.
a very high degree
intersection
curve, which is likely to require
procedurallydefined
its
for
polynomial
representation.
cubic
B-Spline
Barsky
(1981) introduced a generalization of the uniform
while
called the beia-spline. This form permits parametricdiscontinuities
34
\342\226\240
Curves
of the
continuity
preserving
unit
and
tangent
curvature
vectors
at joints.This
that
are
provides two additional parameters,calledbiasand tension,
of
the
which
the
a
curve
or
control
vertices
and
of
surface
independent
by
shape
can be manipulated. A rational formulationof the bela-spline
is reported
in
Bat-sky (1993) and earJier by Joe (1987).
in common.
curves and Bezier curves have many
B-Spline
advantages
Control points influence curve shape in a predictable,
natural
way. making
them good candidatesfor use in an interactive
Both types of
environment.
curve are variation diminishing,axis-independent,
and
and both
multivalued,
exhibit the convex hull property. However,it is the local control of curve
that
shape possiblewith B-Splines
gives this form an advantage over the
Beziertechnique,
as docs
the ability lo add control pointswithout
increasing
the degree
of the curve.
2.6
POINTSON
CURVE
of a series of points on it
p(w), we calculate the coordinates
for
different
of the parametric variable, which requires that
we
values
evaluatea
of
is
at
increments
w.This
as
polynomial
predetermined
process known
the
Other
tasks
that
solution.
we
determine
direct-point
modeling
require
lo a point p(w) which is given
the value of the parameter \320\270
in
corresponding
To
a curve
plot
terms
of its
coordinates
is the
\320\273;,
\316\266.
This
\321\203,
inverse-point
solution.
Direct-Point Solution
Homer's
polynomials,
polynomial
multiplications
and
value
the
and
surfaces,
x, y,
coordinates
\316\266
including
Hermite, Bezier,
on these
of points
as
of
on a
additions
three
functions.
polynomial
parametric
coordinatesof
polynomial,
curves
are required
given
\320\263\320\263
p(u)
Toevaluatethe
polynomial
p{ii)-u\342\200\236u\"
=
of
+ari.liiJ'-i
[(mi
+ b)u
degree
+ c]u + d
(2,31)
\316\267
+ al,_2u\"~1+
\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240
+ \320\260,\320\270
+ \320\260\320\277
(2,32)
we
rule as
Horner's
generalize
p(w)=
=
p(u)
\302\253()
a<>
a2)u + \302\253i]w-+\342\226\240
[(a3if +
+(h}ii
n,wc
are
additions
/ilh-dcgrcc
polynomial.
Clearly,
for each of the three
necessary
n =
for
\316\267
-2
for
n =
for
= 4
\316\267
a straight-line
with
steps to
point.
\316\267
Combining
yields:
program
\321\214/ +
\316\241
and
\316\267
multiplications
coordinatesof
rule
Horner's
for
program of 2n
a straight-line
develop
a general
evaluate
+ a(l
+ \320\260\320\267)\320\270
+
\\\\(\320\2604\320\270
(12]11
p{u)=
\342\226\240
35
follows:
+ <i[)w
(fl2W
Curve
on a
Points
\342\226\240=1
for
\321\2170
/ \316\220\320\2602\320\270
t<-tu
for
/i-2
for
= 3
\320\273
+ a0
p<-t
I <-
ayit
I +
t <-
t <-
\302\2532
\320\250
tw
ff-
\317\201*-\316\257+\316\257\316\220\316\277
points on
To evaluate
nested
P(w) =
0IO-h)Po
Bczier
cubic
we
scheme,
multiplication
(j
find
curve
using a
variation on Horner's
that
(l-\302\243i)
\342\204\226
+
(2J\302\2732P2
(l-u)+l3|u-p3
where
\320\226
are
that
binomial
coefficients.
recursively
computes
we
Alternatively
of points on a
polynomial
curve
formal
may
for
of the
differencemethod,to
parametricvariable.
= cu + d
equation
We
evaluate
for/j
p(u)
Pi = p(i/n),i<=[0: 1],and
values
successive
values of the
value.
of
displaying
[0,1].
is
pl+i - p, +
is constant:
oi'p(if)
used
that the
observe
we
\320\265
\320\270
polynomial p(it) by
method
This
p(u)
+ 1 equally
the
adding
in the
effectively
evaluate
a set of values
p, where
difference between two
we
f/n.Thus,
constant
and
find
cln lo
successive
the previous
curves.
algebrato combine
three
the
<*!.. .
d2.,
Qi
of forward
levels
;+
3\316\257
+
1)4
rr
differences:
\321\201
\342\226\240
(2\316\257+\316\231\316\232
rr
-\316\263\316\267
l)^rr + ^rr
,= 6(,+
(2.33)
ba
A,
If
We
thi ese
initialize
and
variables
at
\317\201
0, where
u~
= \342\226\240
0 and
p=d
d,
\321\201
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
ir
rr
it
ba
2b
IV
\320\237
IT
(2-34)
ba
\342\200\224
\316\254\316\233=
\316\267'
Thus,
pt>
= d.
To calculate
at
\317\201
the
next
and each
require threeadditions:
d2
+
i\342\200\224dz
di
d]
<\342\200\224
d, +
(U_
p> <-p
+dt
successive increment, wc
Points on
must
Wc
to
plt.
this three-step
methods
cubic
for evaluating
evaluation.
However,
each
for
multiplications
point. Wc can
One
\316\267
additions
the
with
difficulty
\342\226\240
37
values
generating
forpi
for
polynomials
forward
difference
for
each
resulting
in
additions
three
uses
a loop that
limes,
algorithm\302\273
p, dt.d?.
variables
four
the
repeal
Other
a Curve
degree,
n.
method is
of degree
must
we
that
increments to ensure
evaluate
or
to
curve
smooth
for
display
enough
provide
points
sufficient data for analysis.
It is a good idea to subdivide the parameterrange
halves
and develop
by
simple expressions for the location of the curveat its
for Hermitc
curves (Section 3.5). Another
midpointas we demonstrate
as more points on the curve
are
is
that
errors
accumulate
round-off
difficulty
this
Sec
sufficient
often
Using
precision
problem.
computed.
mitigates
Shanlzand
for further discussion of this subject.
Chang
(1988)
of equal
we
to produce a
enough
Effectsof
numher
tl\\e
select
carefully
that
Parameterization
the
Frequently,
on a
parameter
values
discussion
this
of
Judd
produce
rarely
solution
direct-point
problem
(1978,1980),
intervals
rcsuits.
parameter
in model
Equal
the
of
and
Inverse-Point Solution
Many
require
algorithms
modeling
that we
the
find
value
of the
parametric
the
variable corresponding to a given point.Forexample,
\316\266
\320\273\\\321\203.
given
coordinates of a point
on (or very near) a cubiccurve
in model
space, wc must find
the corresponding value of w, the inverse-point,solution.Th.is
problem
implies
These
are, of course.
equations
calculating the roots of three cubicequations.
=
+ [}JI2
\316\233'
CXU
\316\257\316\257,-\316\234'1
V
= \302\253..\302\273*
+ b,tt2
=
+ bzuz
\316\266\320\260\320\274}
A difficulty
from each
significance
practice
of
the
coordinates
point
to assume,
Instead,
wc
+ c,tt
+ rfh.
find
the
for example,
point
on
\317\201
disparity,
themselves
the
that
curve
f/,
\321\201-\320\270
+ d7
methods
that
exactly
and
the
\320\270
values
(roots)
equal. Compulation
source
and
the
\342\226\240
\320\227\320\222
Curves
Figure
2.6
Vector
interpretation
of the inverse-pointsolution.
will
We
(his
curve
must be zero.This
thai
means
(p-q)-P\"
methods
available
are
point
for
\317\201
for
(p
[0,1] are
iie
interval
to solve
in
a quintic
such an
(2.35)
in
this
Ip ql.Thepoint \317\201
yielding
the distance between them.
which
ql is
results
= 0
to compute
interval
the
a
determines
value
minimum
CURVE
HERMITE
of a
description
algebraic
and
their
the
shape of a
3.1
ALGEBRAIC
The
of the
magnitude
curve
AND
algebraic
tangent
without
GEOMETRIC
form of
three polynomials:
FORMS
parametric
cubic
curve
is given by
the following
39
40
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
x(u)
y(u)
+ bxul
\320\271\320\263\320\2753
+ b,.uz
+ d,
c\\.u
\316\257\317\204\316\275\316\220\316\2573
+
+
z(u) =
restrict the
We usually
or
12
[0,1].
called
coefficients,
and
in
positions
not
is
equation
interval 0 to 1. inclusive,
creating a curve segment.The
determine
a unique curve,
in the
values
the curve,
in
position
different
Therefore,
space.
coefficients
algebraic
less cumbersome
only
p(fi)
the
p(u) is the
vector
correspond
p(ii)
= au3
vector
a vector
allows
us to
notation,
+ \320\252\320\2702
+ \321\201\320\270
+ d
equivalents
to
the
suggests
even
p(\")
using the
point
scalar algebraic
Cartesian
coordinates
of the
an
Equation (3.2)
yet
the
notation:
summation
using
Finally,
in
of
also
become
(3.1)
where
space.
these three
Writing
\320\270
to
coefficients,
algebraic
and
different
bounds
includingits size,shape,
same shape
size
have
(3.1)
+ brii2
+ d\316\257\316\257-\316\257\316\2575
c-,\316\271\316\271
parameter
restriction
This
\320\270
\320\265
+ dx
\321\201,\320\270
more
(3.2)
a<\"'
\316\243
i-O
necessary
produces
=
\320\260,\321\213'or
\321\200(\321\213)
where
the
the
power
are
a\342\200\236
basis
the
algebraic
representation
Xj
coefficients
andx;
of a curve.
The algebraiccoefficients
are
not
the
most
a^u'
is thejth component.Thisis
convenient
way of
equations:
of a curve
in typical
Forms
and Geometric
Algebraic
\302\267
41
p(0)=d
p(l)
= a
p\"(0)
= c
+b+t
+ 2b+c
p\"(l)-3a
where
=
1 into
\320\270
0 into
substituting
the equation
\320\270
p\"(u)
yields
four
obtains p(l).
p\"(l).
Solving
the
yields
Equation
+ 2b\302\273+ c.
\320\227\320\260\320\263\320\223
differentiating
Finally,
and
=
\320\270
substituting
of lour
p(w)
0 and
simultaneous
coefficients in terms of
set
this
algebraic
conditions:
a = 2p(0)-2p(l)+p\"(0)
b =
-3p(0)
\320\270
substituting
with
-
\320\270
to
respect
1 into
this
equations in
the boundary
p\"(l)
+ 3p(l)-2p\302\273(0)-p\"(l)
=
\302\273r
p\"(0)
d = p(0)
this
simplify
using the
equation
- In1
(\302\2733
/?,(\320\274)
= 2\321\213-,-\320\227\321\2132+1
F2(u)
= ~2u'+3u2
,
+ (iil - u2)p'O)
(3.3)
(3-4>
+ u
Now we
p(\302\253)
point
+ ii)p\"(0)
following substitutions:
\316\241\316\257
\316\273
= \320\270
~2u\320\263\320\273(\320\270)
We
into Equation
coefficients
further
\320\272
values.
l-\\(u)V(0)
+ F2(u)p(
I) +
\320\236\320\224\321\200\"(0)
\320\222\320\224\321\200\"(1)
the
simplify
P('0=
''i(\302\253)pu+
/'\320\263(\\321\2001")F,(u)pt
+ F4(u)p\"i
p\"
arc
(3-5)
end-
(3.6)
the
geometric
42
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
There
cubic
these
to
As
curve.
Hermite
3 components
(4 vectors \317\207
per vector)
the
and
fully
unambiguously
equations of the
later
more
is
see
in
we will
detail.it useful to specify
= 0 and
at the endpoints of a cuTve.
where
\320\270
variables
of freedom
\320\260\321\202\320\265
12 degrees
must specify
that we
shape-controlling
define
= 0 and
is computationally
easy to evaluatethe polynomialsat \320\270
when joining many curves together end-to-end
to form more
curves, we must control what is goingon at thoseends.
complex
Thesecurves,
like
all parametric
curves, are directional in the sense that
= 1.
\320\270
=
\320\270
First.it
I. Second,
3.2
constraints.
FUNCTIONS
BASIS
HERMITE
in the derivation
of the geometric
are
the
functions
defined
form. They
algebraic
by
Equations
3.1 shows each function as a curve over the domain
of the
(3.4).
Figure
in the unit interval \320\270
\320\265
parameter
[0,1].
Three
characteristics
of these basis functions are:
important
1.
appear
the
from
form
hold
Universality\342\200\224they
for
Hermite curves.
all cubic
2. Dimensionalindependence\342\200\224they
are
because
model-spacecoordinates,
they
3. Separation of
boundary
This
means
condition
to
alter
boundary
condition
condition
a single
affecting
each
only
dependent
effects\342\200\224they
the
allow
coefficients to be decoupledfrom
that we
the
for
identical
are
each
of the
three
on u.
constituent
other.
specific
boundary
the other
boundary
conditions.
functions
blend
the effects
\342\226\240
43
0
!
_|
\316\271
-L^i^
|'
I
'
-.
1
1\342\200\224
\342\200\224\316\271
\342\200\224\316\271\342\200\224'\342\200\224'\342\200\224~
l.o
il
1
'
1
.
\342\200\224-
\342\226\240f\\
\342\226\240
\320\263
\342\200\224\316\271
1 \342\226\240
i
0.2
3.1
Figure
nation of orthogonalcurves
an examplewhere
)
\316\223
\342\226\240
1
|
\316\271
Hermite
Cubic
and
\316\271
1
follows
functions
pi',
= [25
5 0]
44
[66
pi'=[8
shortly.)
Figure 3.2
shows
0]
\321\200\320\270=[5
pi
basis functions.
-6
0]
0]
The dashedcurve shows the effect of multiplying y0\" hv 0.5. Notice how each
hasis function contributes to the total shape of the curve.
to that described
also
A
for the position vector \321\200(\320\263()
situation
analogous
and
and
holds
the
vector
second
vector
for
derivative
tangent
p\"(\302\253)
\321\200\"\"(\320\274),
respectively,
where
P\"(\")
= ffo(\
du
and
<l2p(u)
\321\200\"\"(\320\274)
du~
44
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
Figure
Differentiating
3.2
curve
Equations
four orthogonal
into
decomposed
curves shaped by
basis
the
functions.
(3.4) yields
F1(u)=
\320\261\320\263\320\263
F'Mu) =
-bu2 + bu
- bu
- 4\320\274
= \320\227\320\2752
+
\320\2403'(\320\275)
and
F'4'(u) =
12u- 6
Ff(u) = ~\\2u
F\302\245(u)
/T(u)
6u-4
= 6u-2
+ b
45
HermiteBasisFunctions \342\226\240
We
compute
and
coefficients,
at
p\"\"(u)
on a
point
any
the
on
operating
curve by using
geometric
that
=
F4(u)Va
p\"(\302\253)
\320\257(\320\270)\321\200,
FS(\302\253)p5
(3.9)
FX(u)p4
and
=
(3-10)
FT(\302\253)pt
F\"iu) and
functions
basis
The
+ Ff(u)pl+
+ F'l%u)Pi
FT(u)p0
p\"(\302\253)
respectively.
1.
Furthermore,
condition.)
F,(u)
are
so that
ii = uandii=1.This
3.4,
because
orthogonal
= 1,
and
3.3
Figures
= 0,
F2(u)
to
have
this
describe
the
property
to the
u=
at
as
cuTve
1, expected.
only p] contributes
position
of the /*\"?(\302\253)coefficients
The
that F'-ftu) = F4(u) =
orthogonality
requires
= 1 at \320\270
=
= 0 and
F'Hu) = 1 and that F'{(u)
F$(u) = Fi(u) = 0and F\"4(u)
Fu4(u)
= 1. The
of the F\"\"(u)
cannot
be demonstrated,
because these
orthogonality
condi
coefficients blend the standardboundary
tions
p0. pi, po, and p\".Instead
at
that
means
= 0
\320\270
only
p0 contributes
and
say
that
\320\235\"%\320\270),
and
The
F]{u)
symmetry
and
F2(u),
between
related
\320\276\321\202
F3(\302\253)
and
pairs of
blend
that
us
to reverse
H\\\"iu)
= \320\257
\320\242(\302\253)
\320\257?\"(\320\274)
/^(\320\270), allows
\317\2010,
\317\201,.
example
the direction of
that
the endpoints
provided
parameterization and preservea curve'sshape,
are
There
are interchanged and the tangentvectordirections
TeveTsed.
for otheT odd-degree
functions
HeTmite polynomials, such as the
similar basis
basis functions are seldom used, because
Even-degTee
polynomial
quintic.
odd
number
of
have
an
degTees of freedom. This prohibitsestablishing
they
conditions
at
symmetrical
the
summation
notation,
Using
boundary
we
the cuTve
generalize
segment endpoints.
Equation
as follows:
(3.11)
pH=jj>A\302\273
where
(3.6)
the
degTee
= 3,
\316\267
of the cubic
Hermite
basis
functions
becomes
F0i3(\302\253).
46
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
1
*\342\226\240
J
V
\320\273
t
V
\321\207,
-1.6
or
'\317\204
\317\204\342\200\224\316\271
-*'
\320\247^
\\
.\342\200\224. \342\200\224
.
\320\270
% ^
^
n'~
\317\205
-0.A
1.0
/
\321\203
\342\200\242
\316\244
>
\320\276
/
r~
'A'
^'
-0.4
Figure 3.3
Fot the
First
quintic HeTmitecuTve,
=
basis
derivative
= 5
\316\267
(\320\270) b0F0,s(\302\253)
\317\201
for
example,
we might
curves.
and
+ bjFJ5(u)
b2F2s(u) + b4F4j(u)
wheTe,
function
+ b2F2.5(u)
+ b5FSi5(\302\253)
b, =
p0
pi
b2 = pi,
(3.12)
Matrix
Figure
3.4
Second
b3 =
Form
\342\226\240
47
curves.
p'i
b^pS\"
bs=pi\"
is
important.HoweveT,care
in
required
Tight
side
constructing
of Equation
the b, and
(3.12) is
not
so
sets,
/*\",,\342\200\236(\302\253)
3.3
MATRIX FORM
Matrixalgebra
and
mathematical
form
for
its
notation
representing
scheme
a curve.
48
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
often becomesimple
matrices:
the productof
and analysis
ations, transformations,
can rewrite Equation (3.2) as
We
matrix
\320\2701 \320\270
1][\320\260
p(ii)=[ii3
operations.
two
\321\201d]r
(3.13)
Letting
U=
\320\223\342\200\236\320\267
\320\270
if
A = [a
rewrite
then
can
we
Equation
1]
for the
similarly
\321\201
(3.13) as
p(\302\253)
and
z(u)f
y(u)
\321\200(\320\270)
=[*(\")
(3.14)
= UA
geometric form
p(u)=[F,(u)
\320\222\320\224 \320\236\320\224][\321\200\320\276
p,
p\"0
F2(u)
(3.15)
p',f
now let
If we
FA(u)]
F3(u)
\302\245=[\320\252(\320\270)
Fz(u)
and
B=[po
we
then
can
rewrite
Equation
pS
p,
\317\201\317\212]\316\223
(3.15) as
P=FB
that
Given
geometry
algebTa
F=
By
(he matrix
the
Hermite
matrix
then
matrix containing the geometric coefficients,
using
and
we can develop a relationship betweenthe algebraic
geometric
From
forms.
A is
(3.16)
inspection,
Equation
-
[(2\320\2303
(3.4), we
3u2 +
we see
1)
obtain
(~2u3 + 3u2)
- lu2
(u2
of this
side
right
(ir1-
+ u)
(3.17)
u2)]
as
equation
2-211
F=\\u
I]
-3
0
.10
matrix is the Hermitebasistransformation
basis
by MF. This matrix controls the
the
Hermite basis polynomials Fj(u)and
monomial
The
4x4
denote
F = UMf
-1
-2
(3.1!
10
0
0.
matrix,
transformation
basis
which
we will
the
between
u! orU.so
that
(3.19)
Matrix
(3.19) for
Equation
Substituting
(3.20)
that
means
A =
and,
\342\226\240
49
(3.16) produces
p(u) = UMfB
This
Form
(3.21)
\316\222
\316\234,
that
conversely,
(3.22)
B=M>A
where
\"\320\276\320\276\320\276\320\223
.3
0.
(3.23)
We
that
Equations
forms,
and
algebraic
or
geometric
coefficients.
For a
of basis
are
functions
given polynomial degree, different
species
For
we
let
interchangeable through a matrix transformation.
Br
example,
=
a
matrix
of
control
a
curve
points defining
UMfBf using
represent
p(u)
basis functions F = UMf.Then,\316\257\316\277\317\204
another
of basis functions we let
system
G= UMcandfind a set of control points B(, that reproduces
the same curve.
=
This means it must be true that \320\270\320\234\321\201\320\222<;
so that BG = M^jMpBF.
UMfBfl
Later, we will see that under certain conditions we can convert between
Hermiie
and
Bezier
curves
using this approach.
Rewriting Equations (3.9)and (3.10) in the more compact matrix form
yields
p\"(u)= F'B
or
p\"(u)
= UMj!B
and
=
p\"\"(w)
or
F\"\"B
p\"\"(u)
UM\302\243\"B
where
\320\240'=[(6\320\2702-6\320\270)
(-6\320\2702
+ l)
+ 6\320\270)
(3ii2-4ii
(3\316\271\316\2712-2\316\271\316\271)]
and
F\"\" =
[(12\320\270
6)
(-12\320\274
+ 6)
(6\302\253
4)
(6\320\270
2)]
50
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
basis matrices
The
and
M\302\243
are
M'/!'
-6
m; =
TANGENT
3
and
-6
-4
3.4
Mf
-2
1
\317\213
\317\213
\317\213
\317\213
12
-6
\317\213
-12
-4
-2
VECTORS
the
defining
the
the
Specifying
how
and
for
accounts
only
10 of
derivative of
length of the
the interior
affects
work
vectors
tangent
coordinates
curve.
parameterization
Here is
a curve
on
point
slopes
by
Equations
and
from
(3.1).
supplied by the coordinatesx0,y0,z0
\321\205\321\212\321\203\321\212\320\263\321\212
directly
the components
of po and p.. Four moreare supplied
the
direction
cosines,
by
two from each end. Rememberthat there are only two independent
direction cosines
at any point on a three-dimensional curve.The third
direction
cosine
is a function of the other two, becausethe
sum
of the
of the squares
three direction cosinesequals
one.
This
means
that there are two more
the shape of a curve.
to control
degreesof freedomavailable
The slopesrepresented
vectors
tangent
by
p|j and p,' are thosein
Six are
parameter
space.The
Z* = dzldx
The
components
z. These
are
for \321\203
and
from yx = f/xu
and
resolves
vector
tangent
and^y
dx(l)ldu,and
similarly
=
directly related to the Euclidean slopes\321\203*
dyldx
z' =
and
z\"/x\".
extra
two
degrees
of
following
way: A tangent vector operatesat eachendof the cubic
Hermite
as
shown in Figure 3.5.Not only do these vectors define the
curve,
slopes al each end,but each vector also has a magnitude associated with it.
The
of freedom
and
magnitudes
degrees
supply the eleventh and twelfth
contribute to the controlof the shape
of a curve's interior.
The direction cosinesof the tangent
to a point \320\270
a curve
on
the
comprise
in
freedom
the
=
the
where
components of a unit vector t(u), where\320\246\320\275)
\317\201\"(\316\272)/\316\231\317\201\"(\316\272)\316\231,
direction
are
cosines
\320\246\320\270),
ty(u),
From
\316\231\316\25200\316\231
V?J(m)
where
where
\320\272
represents
the
i\302\273
\316\265
Furthermore,
[\320\236\320\224].
magnitude
toits
specificpoini,corresponding
+ T\\(u)
if
=
\320\272
of p\"(it)- We
\320\270
value,giving
we know that
geometry,
elementary
1\320\263(\320\270).
= 1
then
1\321\200\"(\320\274)1,
\321\200\"(\320\274)
kt(u),
51
Tangent Vectors\342\226\240
3.5
Figure
are
cosines
as
= k0%
related
is a
fact, an
slopes
yet
geometric
the
different
and
\320\272$
effect
of
family
entirely
each end, or we
shows
three
So
variables.
independent
as
(3-24)
\316\234\316\271\316\223
curves
Hermile
infinite
magnitudes
are
coefficients
h3t0
p,
very interesting
cubic
of
property
two
of geometric
matrix
B = [p0
This
andp'/
= l.only
by lt(u)l
can expressthe
now we
po
vectors.
Tangent
the
we
can control
By varying kQ and \320\272\321\212
the location
of some intermediate
kv
of varying
kti
and
coefficients
coefficients.The
=
4.0
jc\342\200\236
k, while
have
y0
20=0
4.0
z, =
0.5547
f0;
-0.5547
0
f\342\200\236
= 24.0
\320\273
far
= 0.8320
/\"o,
0.8320
flv
= 4.0
X]
tu =
curvature
at
point.Figure3.6
fix
can
= 0
=
the other
52
\342\226\240
Hermite
Curve
10
3
^4.
10
*-I
20
la)
10
.1*.
\316\257\316\2234
,\316\220^\316\223-\342\200\224\"7\316\223\316\223\"-\316\2574^-\317\216\342\200\224\342\200\224\"
= 10
*X7
10
20
.,
lb)
Figure
(a)
3.6
Effect
Symmetrical
(b)
Symmetrical
of tangent
slopes and
slopes
magnitudes.
TangentVectors
\342\226\240
53
curves
The
and
their
problems.
When
chord
the
length
magnitudes
between
of the
of the tangent vectorsexceedsomemultiple
the curve begins
the endpoints of the curve segment,
lo exhibit undesirablecharacteristics,
such
as loops
and cusps. Conversely,
a
curve.
The
chord length is Ipi flat
very low magnitudesproduce relatively
= 20 for each curve in
pol
Figure3.6,and a loop is produced in the curve when
=
ka
kx = 80 (that is, four times the chord length).
At
first
it appears
that by manipulating magnitudes of p(j and p\" we can
on
force points
the curve to any location. But let us see what happens
lo the
=
to \320\2720.5. The values of the basis functionsal this point
point corresponding
= 0.5, F2(0.5) = 0.5,F2(0.5)
=
= -0.125, so lha I
are /^(0.5)
and
0.125,
E,(0.5)
p(0.5)
pg
Substituting
= koto
and
= 0.5(po
p\"
kjtu
+ \317\201,)+
0.125(\317\201\"\316\261-\317\201\317\212)
we obtain
\316\261\316\22025(\316\233\342\200\236\317\2120
\316\233,\316\220,)
shown
curves
The
in Figure
of the
for
p(0.5)
direction
as follows:
point
(0.125^\316\2740
(0.1251,)^
t0 and
on
the
\317\201(\316\257\316\257,)
curve.
54
\342\226\240
Hermite
Curve
3.7 Effect
Figure
3.5
of
p(0.5).
AND SUBDIVIDING
TRUNCATING
it.
subdividing
a curve
break
can
There
are
many
requires a mathematicaloperationcalled
a change in the parametric
operation
produces
nor
the
shape
position of the curveis
invariance
as shape
and
parameterization
Ideally,
reparamelerization.
so
interval
changed.This
under
function
=
\316\275
describes
\320\224\320\274)
example, reversing
rameterization.
variable. This
the
precise
of parameleriza lion is
= -\320\270,where
this we use \316\275
To
do
neither
is often
effect
referred
this
the
to
The
reparamelerization.
direction
the
that
is changed. For
shape
new
the
or
parametric
of the
position
and
The
and
Truncating
transformation
the condition
from
\342\226\240
55
Subdividing
in
3.8b
of geometric
matrix
requires
interchanging
p] in
coefficients
and similarly interchanging the tangent vectors
reversing
=
their
signs. So, given the geometry matrix
p!
pjj
p\"]T before
reversing the direction of parameterization,after reversingit becomesB',
the
and
\320\222
where
B'=[p,
-p?
pn
[p\342\200\236
-pg]r.
Here we see
Figure 3.9shows a more generalform of reparameterization.
two possible parameterizationsfor a single curve, where the curve is initially
from
the
variable
u, to uyTo change this so that
parameterized
parametric
let
be B, =
from
to
we
the
the
first
case
coefficientsin
v,
ranges
geometric
v;,
=
in
and
the
second
The
endcase B2
[p< P; p'i p\"]r,
[q, q, q', q)]T.
in a straightforward way They
are related
be
coordinates
must
point
=
=
and
invariant to
of
so
that
otherwise,
any change
parameterization
q, py;
q,
p,
the
curve does not satisfy the constant position
reparameterized
are another matter. Because they
requirement. The
vectors
are
defined
tangent
by
the first derivative of the parametricfunctions,
are sensitive
to the
they
=
A
function relating
\320\270
and
is required to prev, that is, \316\275
\320\224\320\274).linear
relationship
|b|
la)
*7
%
q,
^>
x{-i|
X(.1>
q'i
Figure
3.B Two
56
Curve
Hermite
\342\226\240
3.9 Reparameterization.
Figure
of
form
tangent vector;so
the
parametric
insist
must
we
again
+ b
= au,
vi
Tela
and the
equations
that v = au + b. This
and
=
v}
between
tionship
au,
+ b,
direction of the
dv =
that
means
the tangent
is simply
4.
(3.25)
^p\302\273
Now we
the two
between
sets of
as
coefficients
geometric
relationship
complete
* =
4/
4 =
P<
P/
vj-v,
(3\302\26726>
\321\207/=-^\321\200/
Vj-V,
must
to
tells us that the tangent vectormagnitudes
change
in the range of the parametricvariable.
We
that
these
see
are simply scaled by the ratio of the ranges of the parametric
magnitudes
the directions
variables.This preserves
of the tangent vectors and the shape
result
This
a change
accommodate
of
the
If
curve.
and
\320\270,-
holds true
composite
the
interval
relatively
simple
for
v-,
and
v,. This
curves, because
= 0 and
u,
u, =
curve
segment
=
1,
pairs of integers, then \321\211 \321\211
is very useful when dealingwith
successive
u, are
and
the same
segments
of
1 may
be
cardinally
identifying
reparameterized
to allow
nth curve
and
Truncating
segment
=
\316\267,
be parameterized
This means that the
from
can
1.
\321\211
to
n-\\
for
\320\222
matrix
These
curves
or
curve. Later
extended
and solid-modeling
techniques
will
the
that
\321\211
parameteriza-
compute
sections
result
is unchanged by this
different
many
us to
allow
formulas
reparameterization
a truncated
\316\257\316\277\317\204
with
\321\211 \316\267,
the segment
\342\226\240
57
Subdividing
that
the
demonstrate
a new \320\222
matrix
discuss
composite
need
for these
and joined
trimmed,
capabilities as modeling elementsare intersected,
to
form
a
more
3.10
curve
illustrates
objects.
together
complex
Figure
at \320\272,
the
truncated
and
That
from
to
and
from
is,
tt0
segments
ur
ut to u, are
\321\211
the remaining
eliminated. We can represent
a
cubic Hermite
segment as
= 0 to \316\275
=
\316\275
from
as follows: We
curve,
1, by proceeding
parameterized
= UMPB,and p','and p'/ using p\"(tt) = UMfB. The
p, and
compute
p, using p(tt)
interval
ratio of parametrie
reduces to u; - \320\270,-,
because
lengths
v;
(\320\270,
v, = 1. If
(t,)/(v,
by Equation
v,\302\267)
given
(3.26)
then
4d
ft
4i=P/
q,\"
(uj
u,)p'j
ii = ii;+
(ii,
U,)V
or
=
\320\270
+ \316\221\316\271\316\271,\316\275
\320\270,
=0
\321\205\320\270,\342\200\224^\342\200\236
\342\200\236,0
\316\271
/'
Figure3.10
of
Reparameterization
truncated
curve.
58
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
=
If \316\275,
\317\210
\316\237
and/or
\320\224\320\274;
\321\211 \321\206.
where
then
\316\275-,\317\210\316\247,
\\
Applying
v,-v,
\\Vj-vJ
=
\320\270
+
\321\211
Au,v,
transformation
the
are
equations
-\320\272
=
\302\273\"
(3.28)
\316\243((^)\302\273*(\316\224^)\"
where
\316\267!
\\k}
the binomial
Equation
(3.28)
so
coefficient.
k\\{n-k)V
from
\316\244
that
U =
For a cubicHermitecurve,
transformation
parametric
and
scheme
UMfB.
\321\200(\320\270)
Applying
the
coefficients
B',
geometric
between
in the
initial
u, and \320\270,
to the unit interval, so that
renormalized
transformed
the
produces
curve
VT
=
have
we
\316\244
corresponding to the
parameterization
matrix
a transformation
extract
We
segment
subsequently
- VTMfB
\321\200(\320\270)
TMf
=
\320\222
MFB'
=
\320\222'
\320\234^\320\242\320\234^\320\222
where
U=[
\316\2673\320\2702 \320\270
1]
V = [v3
\316\2752\316\275
1]
\316\224\316\2673
1 =
3u2AUj
2iijAuj
are
boundaries
ma
trix
n new
given
elements
This
\320\270,
is clearly
\320\270]
0
\316\224\316\267,
a curve
subdivide
generate
0
0
3\316\257\316\257,\316\224\316\257\316\257^
\316\221\316\271\316\256
\316\271\316\256
To
ith
segmen
p,
t are
(\321\211-\321\211.-faU
(3-29)
(H,-\302\253,-i)p;']T
vy-
= 1.
vy_i
Truncating and
curve
If a
occur at
into
is divided
equal
parametric
we must
Pil\"
Pii-\\V\"
of the
Pd'-l).'\"
= UMFB
\342\200\224
(3.30)
PiVn
evaluate each
and
p((i)
boundaries
matrix
variable), then (he \320\222
B,-=
using
is. segment
(that
segments
equal
is
ttli segment
Of course,
\316\267
of the
intervals
59
Subdividing \342\226\240
and
=
pM(it)
\342\200\224p%\342\200\236
UM\302\243'B,
respectively.
is possible
of curve
at
by taking advantage
properties
We
subdivide
in
order
to
set
of
on
the
a
recursively
p(0.5).
generate
points
curve at 2\" equal
each of length 1/2\".Given \317\2010,
intervals,
parametric
\317\201\316\271,\317\201\316\257\316\
A quick
and
for
pf,
subdivision
as follows;
we proceed
= 1
\316\267
=
p(|)
for
+ p(i)]
{fp(\302\260)
= 2
\316\267
P(0) + p(i
Pl})
for
{fp,'(0)-p\"(i)]
P(l)
J_
J_
p\"(0)-p\"
16
16 P\"(^)-P\"(T)
= 3
\316\267
\317\201
\317\201(\317\213)
16 p\"(0)-p1t
J_
p\"Ui-p\\2
\320\242\320\261
l)+p(i
+ J_
pi'Tp(i
p\"(7)-p\"(1)
p|^)+p(i)
.. .and
so
on.
Ph^r
We
|ctm
\"2\"'U
16
= l,nandi
'i-\\
= 1,2\"-1
i+1
(incrementing
16
by
2), and
\"\316\241\"
\316\241\316\212-^\316\223
compute
(3.31)
60
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
If m
must
we
*\302\253,then
tangent vectors
compute
/-1
i+1
at u = i/2m,
+ \342\200\224
i-1
+ p'
4
We
the
renormalize
of length
intervals
i/2w
i, which
thai
so
ill
requires
(3.32)
the
replacement:
to
back
Reparameterization
Ihe
unit
so
that
vectors,
introduces
interval
the
factor
of 1/2
It is this
subdivision
that
new
intervals
after
each
this work.
makes
3.6
THREE-POINT
on
INTERPOLATION
Because
F\\
Expanding
this
\"
Po
equation
=
X;-Xo
~
in terms
F2(u,)(Xi
Zo
F2(u,)(p,
\320\243,\320\243\320\276
F2(u,)(yi
z,
F2(Ui)pi
F2(ui)(zi
+ koFi(u,)%
po) + koF^u^ia +
\320\272^\321\200^%
\320\272^\320\273(\320\270,%
+ k^FA(u,)ftJ
x0) + \320\272^3(\320\270,)\320\270
y0) +
Zo) + k0F3(Uiya+
\320\2720\320\2403(\321\202)\320\223^
k,FA(u,)Tyl
kf F4{4,)h\\
(3.33)
Four-Point
first two
the
Solving
of these equationsin
-
third
the
[z, -
we have
equation,
[Z\\
*1^(\320\270,)]7
produces
appropriately
Zo]
- Xo
\316\212\316\271
-ti
\316\212\316\277
Zo]F3(u,) +
i;t]
[K(l
X\\
as
\320\274,-
only
After
(xi-x0)
CVi-\320\243\320\270)
\316\212\316\270
expressed
in
we
When
equation,
we
can
tedious,
straightforward,
though
-2\320\274?+
compute
This
is a
of
\321\211
by
value
the values
the cubic
of
\316\212\316\277
\316\212\316\271
\316\212
and the
\316\212\316\277
the indicated
solving
and
k\342\200\236
\320\272\320\273
using
determine
readily
(\321\203.^\320\243\320\276)
\316\212\316\277
(3.4)]
Equation
arrays.
the
(z,-Zo)
(-r,-.v0)
=
'\316\271\316\237
/\320\2232(\302\253()
\320\227\320\274?
[from
determinant
determine
of
(zi-zo)
\316\212\316\270
Equations (3.33).Then we
acceptable solution
F2(u,)
we finally obtain
algebra,
F2(ii,-)
Xo
\"
unknown.
working
matrix
where
an
\342\200\224
\320\243\320\276
\320\243
\316\271
\320\243;)>('
'\",\316\277\316\212\316\271
leaving
and
/:(\302\253,)
'\">\342\226\240!.(\320\243.-\320\243\320\276)_
0'\316\271 \320\243\320\276)
'\", 0
[z,-Za\\ = [zl-Za]F1(ui)+[i:f)
t^koF^Uj)
Substituting
\342\226\240
61
-JTo)
\320\233\320\270
\316\212\316\271 (\317\207, \317\207\302\273)(JT,
From
and k\\Fj(u,)
of fo/i(\";)
terms
ktF4(u,)
Interpolation
two
from, say,
equations
Note
and
\317\201\".
\317\201\317\214'
that
an
equation
0<
< I
\320\270,-
k0>0
k,>0
We can
their
FOUR-POINT
if we
/\321\201,
respective
don't
lines
care which
direction the
of action.
INTERPOLATION
that
four given points is a derivative
through
passes
to it in
of the geometricform, and under certain conditions it is comparable
3.
usefulness. Figure Jl illustratesthis situation.
We
by specifying four distinct points in space
[p,
p2
pi pj].
begin
<
<
a
\320\270
that
<
to
successive
we find
each
so
u2
\321\211
u4.Then,
value,
u,
assigning
62
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
a 4 \317\207
4 matrix
coordinates
of
the
Four-point form of a
3.11
Figure
curve.
of constants
four
p3
p2
K[Pl
matrixof
coefficients:
p\342\200\236]T
\320\276\321\202
where
P= [pi
solely on
treat
all four
p2
\320\232
is
\321\200\320\264
p^]Tand
\320\270
values
the
a 4
arbitrary values.)It
Pi
u,
P2
u2
of constants,
x4matTix
four points.
to the
assigned
as having
= KP
follows
then
we
M,B
(3.34)
u3
where
U, =
[u\\
u\\
u,
1] and
u\342\200\236
similarly fot
u{
u2
will
that
\320\240\320\267
Pj
depending
U2,Uj,U^,so that
u]
u,
ul
u2
u\\
\"3
ui
UA
FouT-Point
We
-1 Pi
u,
- \316\234,'
\320\222
extract
then
and
the
\342\226\240
63
directly to obtain
this equation
solve
Interpolation
u2
P2
u,
\320\240\321\215
u4
p4
\320\232
matrix
U,
\320\232
-I
U2
Mf\"'
(3.35)
u3
u4
given
Conversely,
the
the
\320\222
matrix,
four-point
equivalent
form is
= \320\232
\316\241
*\320\222
a standard
Taking
variable,
parametric
\320\232\"1
we
of the
approach and choosingequally distributedvalues
=
=
=
\320\232
that is, for \320\275, 0, u2= 1/3, \321\211 2/3, \302\2534 1, then f\320\276\321\202
and
find
K =
.11
-4
-1
-r
-9
~2
20
UMjrB
compose
and
=
\320\222
a slightly
KP,
11
\"
_4_
J_
27
27
27
\"27
1_
20
_4_
K~l =
can
(3.37)
\"1
We
(3.36)
27
27
27
27
different
by substitution
expression as follows:Given
we obtain
p(ii) = UMf-KP
(3.38)
\317\201(\316\272)
64
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
IfMFK
= N,then
P(\302\273)
= UNfP
27
2
(3.39)
where
~_9
2
_ 1
_9
produces
(3.39)
Equation
Expanding
18
_11
_45
NF
_27
(-4.5\321\2133
\321\200(\320\270)
+ 9h2
5.5\320\270+
+(13.5\320\270\321\215-22.5\320\2702
l)pu
+ 9\320\270)\321\2002
+ 18\316\257\316\2572-4.5(\316\257)\317\2013
+(-\316\2203.5\316\257\316\2573
- 4.5u2
+(4.5u3
Notice that
G,((i)pi
\321\200(\320\270)
because
3.8
functions
basis
These
=
\302\243G,-(it)
new basis
created
have
we
G2(\302\253)p2
the equal
possess
+ u)p4
Gj(ii)p3
\320\2414(\320\270)\321\2004
partition of
characteristic
unity
l-
HERMITE CURVES
CONIC
Constructing a coniccurve
understand
to
how
the
and an intermediatepoint
intermediate
at
\320\233
is
represented
of intersectionof the
construct
a set
1.
Draw
lines
2.
Draw
any
are such
C,
to plot
sufficient
points
tangent
tangent
of points
AC
and
curves
two endpoints A
as: Given
problem
traditional
the
Hermite
use
all
in a
S,
corresponding
tangent
better
state
lines,
set of
lines.
lie
within
the triangle
ABC.
We
SC, extending
intersects
both
lines
AC and
a and
\320\222\320\241;
ConicHermite
\342\226\240
65
Curves
Figure
3.
a line
Draw
3.12
technique
conic curve.
points
through
Construction
A and
for a
b.
with
these
repeat
four
steps as
line through
a different
line Ab.
starting
intersecting
AB at
conicat
curve
can
demonstrate
of a
hyperbola.
we
to AB.
F is
is
a segment
Figure
intersects
at its
AB
of conic
midpoint,
and locate
to
point \320\241
segment
yield
of a
3.13)
\317\201
appropriate
parabola
so
that
it
to the
type
has endpoints at
and
\320\241
to
\320\222
and
end
\317\2010.5,
slopes
corresponding
66
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
Figure
3.13 More
on the construction
technique
intermediate
line passing
illustrates
this.
(Mathematicians
can
\316\267-dimensional
point C. We
derive
curve.
a conic
for
the
only
case where
point
\320\241
lies
on
the
of
line
AB; Figure 3.14
through D and the midpoint\316\225
in
mind
that
all
elements
these
are
Keep
coplanar.
show
that a polynomial
of degree \316\267
is always
in an
contained
In
see
we
a
derived
3.14a,
earlier,
space.)
Figure
relationship
namely,
poj
0.5(p0 +
+ 0.125(\317\201\317\212 \317\201\302\273)
\317\201,)
lines
\320\241
is
EG
and
located
a distance
on DE,
GC are
that
0.125Ipj}l
From
Figure
3.14c, we
0.5p/1D
obtain
AD = lp2
pol
Conic
p5
Figure
<p(p,
3.14
Hermite
Curves
-\321\2000\320\223
o^i
Hermite
approximation
of
conic
curve.
of the construction
\342\226\240
67
68
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
Therefore,
lpSI=4plp2-pol
Similarly.
Ip,
p?l and
lp',1
is in the directionof p, -
p2,
so
that
- po)
and
p'{= 4\321\200(\321\200\320\263
p2)
the Hermite equation for a conicis
Po
Therefore,
= 4p(p2
pO)
accuracy
an important
(3.40)
4p(p,-p2)]r
4p(p2-p0)
Pl
UMF[p0
0.125lp','l = 0.5pSD
=
4plp,
p2l. But po is in Ihe directionof \321\200\320\267
p0,
and
shows
of
p
A Hermite
moreover,
it
conditions
p,
UMF[pu
curve definedby
these
a segment of a
necessary to generate
is exactly
Figure3.1S Moreon
the
construction
2(Pl~p2)]T
2(p2-p0)
is a
conditions
boundary
parabola. Figure3.16
conic, and,
the
illustrates
this type
Hermite
of
of
curve.
Figures
approximation
a conic
curve.
general
of the
Conic Hermite
A Hermite
3.16
Figure
Curves \342\226\240
69
parabola.
of Hermite
examples
a parabolic
and
formulation
Although
plane.
If 0.5
< 1,
\317\201
a segment
match\342\200\224the
Figures
hyperbola
from
symmetrical
isp(0.5)
slopes
strung
In Figure 3.19,a
hyperbola
Equation
of a
to approximate
end-to-end
hyperbola.
then
p0=
around
[-10
the
Hermite
curve
axis.
\321\203
approximates
0] to pj = [10
10.05
The
point
on this
the
This
1 0].Thepoint0.5(p0 + p1)= [0 10
of intersection
of the slopes or
point
10.
36.4
_
36.4
0].We
tangents
=
\317\2010.91.
calculate
\"-10. 10.05
is
segment
- 0.5
curve corresponding to \320\270
= [0
the
findp2bydetermining
of the
segment
10.05 0].
10.05
-36.22
36.22
at
p0
Substituting
and
pj.
these
70
a Hermite Curve
\342\200\224
=
\317\207\316\212
\321\203\320\236
Parabola:
\317\2010.5
\302\261\317\207
\320\243
4
9
16
\316\257
\316\241\320\237\321\200\320\276
Pi
2(p;
u
dy/dx
0
2
4
6
8
- p0)
2(p,
x(u)
>'<u)
True
\321\203
-4.0
16.00
16.00
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
-2.4
5.76
5.76
-0.8
0.64
0.64
as
2.4
4.0
0
O.M
0
O.M
5.76
5.76
16.00
16.00
Pl)]<
Error
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
\"
\320\276
- 16
Figure 3.17
An
example
of
segment
a Hermite
of
curve representing a
a parabola.
ConicHermiteCurves
Parabola, x1
\342\200\224
=
\321\2030
/5
45\302\260,bRIR
There are
on
the
is
two
different
very
few
allows
us to
1
4
2.5
6.25
2(P2 -
R(l
R tan
2(p,
6.25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
a segment
of
2.25
0.25
0.81
2.89
6.25
25
tan
1 +
geometry
of this
of p:
value
\316\270
sin
\316\270
quickly reduce
cos
2.89
that
adequate
\316\270
0.81
representing
shows
3.21
than
\316\270
this to
\316\270
cos
(3.41)
\316\270
approximating
circular arc:
P(H)
4 cos
UMfp\302\253
p,
1+
\320\240\320\263)\320\242
Error
0.49
0.01
0.25
0.01
)' True
2.25
\316\270
sin
Po)
0.49
easily compute
- cos
1 - cos
\316\230)
~
This
:v<\302\273)
the
substitutions
trigonometric
p(0.5) exactly
and we can
simple,
P
-0.7
0.1
0.5
0.9
1.7
in Equation
il puts
approach;
-2
0
2
4
5
-1.5
to this
approaches
-}
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
more
\317\207
10\"6,
expressed
relationship
situation is
2.25
dx
-1
x(u)
3.1B Another
Figure
>'
P,
0,5
-1.5
F[Po
dy
P ==
71
\342\226\240
\316\270
(p2~Po)
4 cos
1 +
cos
\316\270
(Pi\"
\316\270
P2)
72
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
Hyperbola:
x2
/ + I=0
=
\317\2010.91
\302\261x
\320\255.95
.V
An
Error
0,28
1.86
4.54
1.57
1.00
1.21
1.36
1.57
0
0,21
0,28
4.26
4.54
10.05
1005
4.43
0,21
curve approximating a
a Hermite
of
example
j True
10.05
10
0.99
4.12
\316\241\316\271)\316\223
4.26
-1.21
0.8
4P(P,
10.05
-4.43
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.6
Po)
\320\257\302\273)
-10
4p(Pi
x(u)
\320\270
Figure 3.19
P,
FU>o
0.99
1.24
10
==
8.06
10.05
2
4
6
8
6.08
0
0.89
0.97
0.99
segment of a
hyperboJa.
in
shown
Figure
3.22.
Again,
0.125(\321\200\320\271 pi)-
very
0.125pS =
PS
The same
p2-p
R(l~cos6)(
sin
\316\270
= 4^(1-cose)/p2-p0
sin \316\270
\\lp2-po1
reasoning yields
p! -
4R(l-ca&Q)(
siuG
We
then
assemble
all the
po
\317\201
'pi
\317\201
\342\200\224
\321\200\320\263\"
4ft(l-cos8)/
p(w)=UMr
\\Jp2~Po'
sin
\316\270
4^(1
\321\200\320\264-\321\200\320\270
\\
-
Pol
\342\226\240p2
-cose)/
sin \316\270
'
p,-p2
\"
>pi
p2
Conic Hermite
0
Curves
\342\226\240
73
0000)
0 0199)
Hyperbola:
x1
\302\261x
)'
2
4
6
1.24
4.12
6.08
\316\270
'2.0000'
Po'
2.2361
/2.0000\\
\320\270
\316\225
I
VI
\320\257
\316\225
\316\231
in
\320\273
10.0000'
Pi =
3.4560'
10.0499
*.\302\253)
\316\234
3.5384.
True
\321\203
Error
0.2
0.2861
0.6062
0.7861
1.0400
1.0401
1.1692
1.1694
1.2719
1.2719
0.6
0.8
0.9831
1.4022
1.4400
1.7530
1.4023
1.7532
20000
2.2361
2.2361
0.0001
0.0002
0
0.0001
0.0002
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
2.0000
2.2361
2.2361
2.7796
2.9541
2.9540
0.4
0.5
3.20 Another
4.5552
4.6637
4.6637
5.3609
\316\257.4534
4.4534
0
0.0001
0.0002
0
0
7.4385
10.0499
0.0001
0.0001
3.9924
3.\316\2226\316\2522
3.9926
7.3710
7.43\316\2326
10.0000
0.97
0.99
0.99
0.99
.0009
Figure
Pi
U.2J6lJ
0
0.89
0.6180
Pi
10.0499
of
a hyperbola.
dx
= 0.5679
\317\201
Segmenl 2,
Po'
= 0.5601
(\302\267
1.
Segmenl
8.06
10.05
10
- y1 +
74
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
180
-hR/R
L
\316\235
\316\233
\\\\
\316\263
150
*tf
\\\\
\\\\
\321\203
120
SR
-6R/R
\317\20690
\316\275
\316\227
^t
60
4-
30
^^~
=L~~~
10\"1
\320\256\"1
10\"'
10\"3
10\"6
1(TS
10\"1
10-9
10\"a
\316\231\316\237\"10
5\320\231/\320\232
curve approximation
Hermite
Another
3.21
Figure
of a
circulararc.
at
The
maximum
two
places
vectors
that
so
somewhat.This
obtain
3.23. we
The
of the
deviation
of the
magnitude
For any
(1
- cos
\316\270
\316\270
5RIR)cos
(3.42)
sin2
\316\270
specific angle
an
\316\230,
increase
of 5RIR
Figure
at p(0.5)
3.21).
causes a decreasein
= 0 to \320\270
= 0.5 and in the interval \320\270
in the interval \320\270
a
makes
three
of
5RIR
that
the
maximum
0.5 to
is value
the angle
The
smaller
This
value is different for every value of \316\230.
deviations equal.
of the curve from the true circular
an arc subtends, the smallerthe deviation
the
deviation
maximum
= 1.
\320\270
arc.
(3.42)
This
There
to
reduces
3.9
is also
relationship
COMPOSITE
Equation
or
more
We
start
the
two
in Figure
(3.41).
HERMITE CURVES
Joining
curve.
plotted
curve segments
together
of composite
discussion
4 cos \316\270
(Pi
Po =
1 +
cos \316\270
4 cos \316\270
- \"'
p\302\267;
(p,
'\"
p;)
I + cos \316\270
Figure
Deviation of a
3.22
composite
geometric
geometric
coefficients
B2
notation
we
the
modify
Pol
p2|
a true
from
two existing
and B3,
so that
to
the
p,(l)
the
same
p5(0)
subscript
must
we
to
circular arc.
curves, forming
two
find
the
curve
line. We
segments
let B] - [pi(0)
modifying
\321\200\321\215\320\270(1)]',
identify
the
a specific
the
curve
identified.
point is uniquely
=
must coincide; this means that \321\200\320\263(0)
so that each
endpoints
appropriate
and p2(l) - p3(0).Furthermore,although
the
line at each
tangent
pi(l)
the new curve
the tangent
the
must
match
line of the adjoiningcurve,
of
be
In
an
magnitudes
can
different.
infinite
vectors
fact,
tangent
adjoining
First,
\342\226\240
75
- p:)
[p3(0)
further
Given
the use of a
this
| P;
-costfjip,
sin \316\270 |p,
between
curve
B3 =
and
to permit
segment.Later,
or
\316\241\317\212(\302\260)
p\"(l)]r
scheme
4R(I
disjoint curves B,
of a curve joining them
meeting at each of
PiC1)
Sin 0
Hermite curve
of three
consisting
of two
coefficients
4R(l-coSfl)(p2-p0)
or
Po)
Curves
Hermite
Composite
end of
num-
76
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
R(t
- cos\320\262)
- SR
'-
= \342\200\224\317\201
[(I
R Lan \320\261
sin \320\261
A Hermite
3.23
Figure
ber of segments
the
satisfies
B2 matrix,
tangency
\320\264\320\260*^\320\246
The
(SR/R\\]
and
of the adjacentcurves,
in terms
a and
internal
b are
*s
to vary
free
are
blended
with
preceding
cubic
and
Hermite
succeeding
'
=
\320\222
them to
change
of the
shape
and continuously
tangent
is
*\302\267>*->\302\260m
where
unit
\320\246(1)-\320\254*\320\251
B2 =
the
the
However,
be equal.
must
vectors
cos \320\262
' \342\226\240\342\200\224
\342\226\240
\321\201\320\276\320\265
\316\262
4\342\200\224
sin2 \316\270
P,--.(l)
p--l(1)
nP,-+.(0)
\321\202\320\273
\320\273
a.,-^-^
p:'-l(0)
b(^-^
curve
curves:
smoothly
Composite
Hermite
Curves
77
\342\226\240
\316\275,\317\200\316\271
\316\271\316\277\316\257
\317\201;
Figure
3.24
Blending
a curve
between two
existing
curves.
With
small
this
complete, we can
at a joint betweentwo
exercise
of continuity
conditions
Hermite
curves
general
and the
methods
apply
as
well
to surfaces.
78
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermfte
points. If
and ending
ning
continuity,
of gaps.
number
what
it must
then
C\302\260
continuity
We
note
composite
shows
obviously
they
that
that
curve.
The
of
examples
Figure 3.25c is
composite
of two
are joined
a
joined
at a
joint.
the
consists
alleged
is
distinct
curves and
and separate
C\302\260
continuity.
Figure
curves, whereasin
3.25a
Figure
3.25b,
0)
Figure
3.25
Composite
geometric
continuity.
curves and
Hermite
Composite
P,l1l
^\320\222\320\263
[Pj{0)
P2IOl
Curves
79
\342\226\240
\320\240\320\263\320\237|
pJfO) \317\201'|\316\231)\316\231\316\223
T0
P,|0)
\317\201\302\273(\316\237\316\271
\316\222,
\316\222\",\\\\)\316\231\316\244
\316\231\317\201,\316\231\316\277\316\271
\317\201,{II
Conditions
3.26
Figure
required
for
G\302\260.
3.27
Figure
the
their componentsmust
be
is
of
an example
\320\241continuity
the mathematical
vectors at p,(l)
tangent
indicates
= p2(0)donot have
to
be
equal,
but the
and
of
ratios of
equal.
\320\240,\320\237)
\320\240\320\263<0|
\317\201,\316\271\316\220)
Bi -\316\231\316\241\317\212(0)\317\201\317\212{1)\317\201*{0)\316\2743\316\2311)\316\231\316\223
P,(0|
p*(0)
\320\240\320\240,(\320\250
P,I1)
Figure
3.27
pj(1)]r
Conditions
P;
required
= kp5(0)
80
Curve
\342\226\240
Hermite
It is
that we
apparent
their common
point
internal
of
shape
until
each.
they
Whereas
requires
that
this,
the
the
two
curves
conditions
following
two
are tangent
the
curves
\320\241
implies
continuity
junction
of
and
to each
two
curves,
sharing
a common
G2 continuity also
their joint.To ensure
P,{1) = P~.(0)
p?(l)
pr(D
/r,p?+1(0)
*2P?U0)
ensures
that
between the parametricsecondderivatives
yf
more
must
be
met
for
G2
One
condition
y1\\
point.
The
binorof the two curves must coincide,or their
osculating
continuity:
planes
the
mals
must be collinear. However,
usefulness of G2 continuity
is limited.
fillets
or rounded
For example,most
mechanical parts do not requireit,since
edges usually blend directly into plane faces.
The relationship
~
at their
\316\271
common
BEZIER
Some
curve-defining
CURVES
such
techniques,
as those
the
curve
sel of points. This means that
produced
curve
that
a
those
define
Other
techniques
points.
passes exactly through
the
near
or
given points.Interpolationtechniques
approximates
only
passes
the Hermite
like
basis have certain disadvantages when incorporatedinto an
user
an
the
interactive
geometric-modeling
system. They usually do not give
of a curve. For
intuitive sense of how to changeor controlthe shape
one
or
the
of a spline-interpolated curve by moving
shape
example, changing
if
not
more of the interpolating points may
produce
unexpected,
and
and
both
inflections,
locally
globally.Tocontrolcurve
undesirable,penurbalions
is more
a
a
few
in
simple
parameters
way by changing only
predictable
shape
curve
need.
The
satisfies
this
desirable.
Bezier
partially
P. Bezier, who was familiarwith the work of Ferguson and Coons and their
parametriccubiccurve and bicubic surface interpolating techniques, set out
in the early 1960sto find what he hoped would be a mathematical formal
and the design process.The resultof his work
to the designer
moreamenable
was
the UNISURF
system, used by the Renault companyin the 1970s to
of its automobile
bodies. At the heart
the
design
sculptured surfaces of \321\202\320\260\320\273\321\203
and surfaces that bear his name.
were
the curves
of the UNISURFsystem
must
Bezier
started
with the principle that any point on a curve
segment
be given by a parametric function of the followingform:
functions,
interpolate
a given
p(\")
=
2>A\")
1=
^iwl
(4\320\233>
B1
82
Curves
\342\226\240
Bezier
4.1 Cubic
Figure
characteristic polygon
control
points. He then set forth the
must have and lookedfor specific
basis functions
Here
is a review of these properties
requirements.
(see Figure4.1).These
properties the f:{u)
the
vertices
that
to
functions
and
the
1. The
curve
these
meet
\316\267
+ 1
vertices
of a
the
of a
points
ending
of
on p0
start
must
startingand
2. The tangent at
each
are
for them.
reasons
This,
p\342\200\236_i.
Beziercurves.
po
must
course,
be
gives
first
and
last
Bezier
points; that
vertex
up to us
is, the
to eontrol the
curve.
by pi
end.
3. Requirement
2 is generalizedfor higher
derivatives
at
the
curve's
end-
at \317\201\317\205
must
be determined
points. Thus, the secondderivative
by pn, p{,
and
the
i'th
derivative
at
an
In
must
be
determined
general,
p2.
endpoinl
vertices. This allowsus virtually
unlimited
control
by its r neighboring
of the continuity at the joints between curve
of
a
segments
composite
Bezier curve.
BezierBasisFunctions \342\226\240
83
means that
can
we
be symmetricwith
reverse
the sequence
without
curve
direction
4.1
f,(u) must
functions
The
4.
to
respect
\320\270
and
(1
- u).
This
the
the
reverses
BEZIERBASISFUNCTIONS
called Bernstein polynomialsto satisfy
He originally
chose a form of vector representation that
properties.
used the sides of the characteristic polygon. However, we will use the notation
introduced
the polygon
by Forrest (1971), which uses the vectors
defining
vertices. It is a more compactscheme,
with
intuitive
greater
appeal. It turns
out that the functions Bezierselecteddependon the number
of vertices
used
to specify a particular curve.To indicatethis,Equation(4.1)becomes
of functions
a family
chose
Bezier
these
(4.2)
\321\200(\320\270)
\320\270\320\265[0,1]
2\321\200\320\225-\320\224,.\342\200\236(\320\270)
where
the
basis functions
are
(4.3)
BiB(u)=Qu1(l-u)-i
and
denotes
from
where
the
familiar
and
probability
binomial
statistics:
function, or binomialdistribution
coefficient
n\\
\342\200\236if
i\\{n-i)\\
The
following
If there are (n
conventions
+
1)
vertices,
zero,
B,\342\200\236
(u)
then
\302\253'=l,and
0! =
yields
an nth-degree
three,
four, and
polynomial.
produces
the following
=
\316\267
2, and
curves
polynomial
defined
forms:
BQ2 =
{\\-uf
S,,2 =
2\302\253(l-\302\253)
by
five
1.
84
Curves
\342\226\240
Bezier
so that
=
(1
p(\302\253)
For
four
points,
uf
p\342\200\236
2u(l
+ \302\2532p2
(4.4)
\302\253)p,
\316\267
3, and
\320\224\320\274=(1-\320\270)3
S,.3
B2i3
3\302\253(l-\302\253)2
3u2(l-u)
so that
=
p(\302\253)
(1
\302\253)3
po
u)2 p,
3\302\253(1
3\302\2532
(1
\302\253)p2
(4-5)
w3p3
at p(,
a segment
of a parabola with
Using this cubic Bezier curve,
endpoints
and p3 can be modeled exactly,if the end tangents
at
so
that
intersect
pi
p, =
=
=
+
and p2
w)2
(po
2pp)/3
(1
(p3 + 2p,)/3.Theseconditionsproduce
p(\302\253)
+
+
of
the
form
which
is
po 2(\302\253 \302\2532)pi \302\2532p3,
exactly
Equation (4.4).
For
five
p(u) =
Matrix
(1
= 4,
\316\267
points,
\302\253)4
po
+ 4u(l
and
\302\253)3
p,
w)2 p2
6\302\2532(1
+ \302\2534p4
4\302\253\321\217 \320\270)\321\200\321\212
(1
(4.6)
Form
For the
=
cubic Bezier curve,\316\267
3,
we write
follows:
Equation
=
p(\302\253)
[(l-3\302\253 +
3\302\2532-\302\2533) (3\302\253-6\302\2532+
u3]
(3u2-3u3)
3\302\2533)
Pi
P2
\316\241'
or
as
p(\302\253)=
[w3
w2
3 -3
-1
3
1]
-6
-3
3
1 0
3
0
0
P.
P2
Letting
U=[\"3
P=[po
\320\2702\320\270
1]
p,
p2
po
\321\200\320\267]7\"
\320\240\320\267
Bezier
=
M\342\200\236
can
-3300
subscript
distinguishes
it
from
p(ii)=
The
\342\226\240
85
3-630
10
we
Functions
3-3
-1
Basis
UMBP
(4.7)
of
is
\342\226\240>
Mi'
\320\267\"\320\267\"
.1
\320\270\320\263
\320\270
=
\320\234\321\217
-4
-4
-12
4
with
the
number
of
1]
1
0
0 0
0 0
-12
-12
-4
varies
po
Pi
=
P2
\320\240\320\267
LP4J
Bezier-Hermite
Conversion
and at this
curves,
Equation
(4.7) is similar to Equation (3.20)for Hermite
point it may occur to you that we can also represent a cubic Hermitecurve
a sequence
These
with
of four control points. Figure4.2presents
the
details.
are
and
enddenoted
as
where
and
are
the
curve
pi,
p2,
points
p0,
p3,
p0
p3
86
Curves
\342\226\240
Bezier
P0u=3(Pl-^,)
Figure 4.2
Bezier
curve.
the
two
The
points.
following
points contribute to
interior
where
and
Pi=Mp3-p2)
and
scale factors introduced to controlthe scaleof
ki are arbitrary
are
the
not
and,
thus,
magnitude of the tangent vectors,
scale in the figure.The matrixof
is
coefficients
\320\272\320\276
which
polygon
to
drawn
geometric
p3
B=[p0
For
in
vectors
way:
Po=*o(pi-po)
the
kO =
pi, p2i
k, =
and
3, the
see
We
\321\200\320\267\302\267
for
polynomial expression
\320\263
^\321\200(\321\200\320\267-\321\200\320\263)]
Mpi-P\")
this is
the tangent
cubic
B6zier
curve
defined
by p0,
curve
is
p\"
(u)
(-3\302\2532
+ 6u
3)p0 + (9u2
12u
3)p,
(-9\321\2132
+
+ \320\262\320\270)^
3\302\2532p3
- p2).Thus,
=
if a cubic
at \320\270
1, p\"(l) = 3(pj
Bezier curve is given by the four control points [p0
pj
p3], then the
p,
has
coefficients
geometric
equivalent Hermite basis curve
[p0 p3 3(p|
curve is given by the geometric
po)
3(p3
p2)]. Similarly, if a cubic Hermite
coefficients[p0 p, pg p'/], then the equivalent Bezier curve control
At
=
\320\270
0,
points
are
p\"(\302\253)
3(p,
pu), and
Po
can
We
rather
matrix
Pi
ypo
P\"
\342\226\240
87
Pi
this conversion
express
simple
iPo
Functions
Basis
Bezjer
algebra:
B = M?'M\342\200\236P
(4.8)
or
P
= M^MfB
(4.9)
where
1
\317\213
\317\213 \317\213
\320\234,\320\263'\320\234\320\273
-3
Affine
under
Invariance
A Bezier
rotation,
or
produce
the
same
1. Compute
\317\213
and
\320\234\320\2711\320\234/\320\263
\317\213
0-33
\317\213
1
\320\236
\320\236
1
\317\213 \320\236
Transformations
curve is invariant
scaling,
shear).
an affine
under
transformation
This means
(translation,
must
methods
point:
the point
=
\316\241(\";)
and
2.
Apply
and
\316\247\317\201151.4\",)
, ^(1
then
that
p'(t*,)
p'= Ap(,
these transformedcontrol
points
at\302\253,, where
p'(\302\253i)
v'.BU\".)
\316\243
Therefore
It
=
\320\230\321\200(\320\275;)
\302\243\320\270\321\200\320\224.\342\200\236(\320\275;)
1=0
\316\221\317\201(\316\257\316\257;).
88
Curves
\342\226\240
Bezier
arbitrary
then
[a,b],
Construction
by Geometric
Curve
while
as
algebraically
Bezier
curve
the corresponding
parameter
the
and
is also
curve
transformation.
Bezier
a Bezier
property
create
can
We
recursive
curve
and
any three
\320\222\320\241
For successive
construct
the curve(in
the
in
The
vector
this
sides
of the
values of
open polygon
AB
case,
\316\225
so
that
ADIAB
way we subdivide
description
=
p(\302\253)
Rearranging
the
\320\270
closed
in the
interval
= BEIBC - u.
on
Finally,
F so that DFIDE = u. F is a point
on the curve. Repeating
of \320\270
a sequence
other values
of points that defines
generates
4.3a).
Figure
(see
[0,1] we
D\302\243we
4.3).
Figure
(see
Given
pc +
terms yields
+ \302\2532p2
po + 2h(1- \320\275)\321\200]
to see evidence of the Bernstein polynomials.
Here
we begin
to Bezier curves of any degree,
and the
A similar
construction
applies
the
as
control points
are not constrained
to a plane. Figure4.4illustrates
process
to
the
of
a
it applies
construction
cubicBeziercurve. Here wc are given any
four points A,B,C,D and draw the three sidesof the
open
polygon
values
of the
For
successive
we
AB,BC,CD
Figure
4.4a).
parameter,
(see
- uf
(1
\321\200(\320\275)
construct
points
E,F,G
construct
points
\320\224/so
so ih&i
that
EH/EF=
= BF/BC
\320\222
El \320\220
FUFG-u.
CD - u. Next, we
Finally, we construct point /so
= CGI
\342\226\240
89
Points
Control
<a)
4.3 Geometric
Figure
construction of a Bezier
curve:
= 2.
\316\267
HJIHI=
that
sequence
we find
thus,
emerge;
p(u)
po +
po
+\"(p2-pi)-po-\"(Pi~Po)]
+
\302\253(pi-po)+\"[pi
4.4b shows
Figure
produces
process
how
the Bernstein
+
\302\253{pi \320\270(\321\200\320\263
Pi) +
which
from
vectors,
this
po)
\302\253(\317\201,
\"[P2
pi)
\320\247\321\200\320\267
\302\253[\317\201,
u(p2
pi)
Pi
-
po
- \"(pi\"(pi
Po)]
Po)]l
which reducesto
=
p(\302\253)
4.2
CONTROL
w)3 po +
3\302\253(1
w)2 pi
3\302\2532
(1
u)p2 +
w3
p3
POINTS
The control
functions
(1
Bernstein
these
polynomial
points
in the
basis
order of
90
Curves
\342\226\240
Bezier
Figure
their
points
4.4 Geometric
with
numbering
straight
on a Bezier
curve lie
The partition
of unity
property
construction of a Beziercurve:
= 3.
\320\273
gives
convex
rise
terms,
straight line
set.
It
polygon formed by the control points servestwo functions:
establishes the
a framework
initial
the
curve
and
then
of
furnishes
for
shape
curve.
4.5 shows two examples of cubic Beziercurves.
altering the
Figure
The
In
Figure
4.5a, the disposition of points generatesa smooth,uninflected
curve,
while
in Figure 4.5b, the disposition of pointsgenerates
an
inflected
curve.
In
both cases, the curves are tangent
lines defined
to the
and
\317\201\317\203
by p,
\321\200\321\215
\321\200\320\263.
Control
Figure
4.5
Cubic Bezier
curves.
Points
\342\226\240
91
92
\342\226\240
Bezier
Curves
Figure 4.6
(a)
(0
(b)
id)
Bezierbasis functions;(a)
=
\316\267
2;
= 3;
\320\277
Five
(\321\201)
Three
points,
points,
n=
4;
= 5.
(d) Six points, \317\200
As is
Hermite curves,the
basis
functions
are
the key
to the
=
basis-function
curves
behavior of Beziercurves.Figure4.6shows
Bln for \316\267
and 5. For the examples in Figure4.5,the first
control
2,3,4,
point p0, whose
contribution to the curve'sshape is propagatedby B05 (\302\253),is the most
=
= 0. The
influential
when
\320\270
other control points do not contributeto p(\302\253)for \320\270
to zero.
A
iheir associated basis functions are eachequal
0, since
and
are
symmetrical
most
occurs
for p., when\302\273 = 1. Control
situation
p2
points pi
influential
when
= 1/3
\320\270
and
2/3, respectively.
Control
1. This
influence
Points
the
\342\226\240
93
greatest
i/n.
4.7- In
ability to modify a Bezier curve is demonstratedin Figure
the
curve
toward that vertex. The
Figure 4.7a, moving point p, to p5 pulls
effect canbe weaker
on the distance (or direction)
or stronger
depending
the point is moved.In Figure
of an interesting
we
see
evidence
4.7b,
The
degree of freedom.
vertex, we pull the
By
specifying
curve
in
-and
closer
control
coincident
multiply
closer
vertex. To do this, a
specify a positive
number of coincident
existing vertex points,
to that
us to
curve-generating
might
require
simply
The
the
indicates
integer
integer for each
coincident
with
points at a vertex. adding
points
we increasethe degreeof
polynomial
representing
program
vertex.
By
the
the
polygon.
If
first
last
and
the
of
number
points
a closed
produces
arrangement
in
curve
join
points \317\201,,p0,
4.8c. However, the
by making
is produced
exists
condition
sjdes
Figure
and shape
ps
together
and p4
curve,
in this
of the characteristic
points at a
at p0 and
coincide,
4.8a
has
the
C1
p5.This
collinear. A similar
curve in Figure4.8bexhibits
only
C\302\260
continuity.
The
or
shape
the
traverse
control
_ i,...,
p,\342\200\236
p\342\200\236
parameterization
in which we
Bezier curve is unaffectedby the direction
free
We
are
to
them
in
two
order
ways:
p0, p,,...,
points.
the
The
curve
looks the same either way; only
direction
\317\201\316\261.
as
is reversed. We express
this property
of a
J]=
1
(u)
p,-S;,\342\200\236
1=
p\342\200\236
of
u)
\321\200\342\200\236_|\320\224;.\342\200\236(1
=
from the basis function
(\302\253) #\342\200\236-,.\342\200\236
(1 -\302\253).
identity^,,
describe
method
that
Fowler
Barlels
a curve-shaping
(1993)
permits
of points
direct
of certain geometric properties at any selection
manipulation
affects the shape of a
on a curve of arbitrary degree and
The
method
basis.
curve at one or more points by establishing
and solving an underdetermined
The
of constraint
constraints correspond to position,tansystem
equations.
at the points.
or curvature
conditions
gency,
The convexhull property
determination
of the intersection of
expedites
two Beziercurves.It is a simple
matter
to find the min-max box enclosing
eachcontrolpolygon
and
then
to check for an intersection betweenthe two
boxes.
This
If the boxes do not intersect,then neitherdothe curves.
of
test
increases
the
and
preliminary
significantly
speed
efficiency computing
The
proof
of this follows
and
intersections.
94
\342\226\240
Bezier
Curves
Figure
4.7 Cubic
Bezier curvesand
their modification.
Points
Control
0,0
\342\226\240
95
\342\226\240
\342\200\224
e,q-
<a)
<c)
4.B
Figure
Degree
Closed Bezier
curves.
Elevation
degree
by
We
one.
are
motivated
of
definition
to do
this
if
wc
a Bezier
are
not
curve raises
satisfied
with
its
the
and need
curve
original
that
+ 1(\320\270)
\320\245'\321\200^\321\217
\320\245\321\200,\320\224/.\321\217(\320\270)
or
\"
+1
\316\271
^-\"r'-^Ip^V'a-\\"
Multiplying
equation
by
\320\270
+
(1-\320\271) produces
96
Curves
\342\226\240
Bezier
Figure
4.9 Degree
elevation:
= 3
\317\200
to
= 4.
\316\267
=
\316\247^\316\267)1)\302\2534\316\220-\302\253)\"+,\",
-\302\253)-']
\316\243\317\201.(\[\302\253,(1-\")\"'\316\271\",+\302\253,\"+\316\271(\316\220")
summation
on the right side of this equation produces2(n +
on the left \316\267
+ 2 terms.
We rearrange and group terms on the
can
so that we
ofu'
compare and equate the coefficients
The
1)
and
right
sides.
this, we
Doing
(1-u)\"f,~'
find
and
Expanding the binomialcoefficients
the
simplifying
,=o
><=\320\250\321\200-|+(1^)\321\200'
This tells
results
n+i
on
terms
side
both
yields
(4jo)
that
we
can
control
controlpoints
for
discussion:
degree
elevations
follows
directly
and
Truncating
\342\226\240
97
Subdividing
n + r
(1991)
that
presents
form of
and
is
a generalized
applied
to tensor
well
However,
under
and
Watkjns
circumstances.
with
subdivision
reduction.
degree
intersectioncomputations
and
4.3
AND
TRUNCATING
have developed a
(1988)
Worsey
in
An
use
important
graphics
computer
approximations
special
method that
combines
a procedure
for use in rendering.
of such
isin
SUBDIVIDING
the
curve is necessary when
itself
modeling
process
no
to
the
active
model.
of
a
curve
that
parts
longer
belong
are used to expedite
the computation of points on a curve
Subdividing
techniques
the number of control points by creating
curve segments
or to increase
small
without initially changing the shape.We will look at a recursive subdivision
method and a subdivision by geometric
construction.
Truncating
a Bezier
eliminates
Truncating
a 5econd-Degree
Curve
segmentof
interval
is
this
normalized
matrix
form
curve
in
interval
the parametric
to a new
we write
parameter
\316\275
so
that
\316\275
e [0,1]
p(H)=UM*P
where
U=
\320\2701]
[w2
MB= -2
-2
2 0
0
where
\320\270
\320\265
[u\342\200\236u,].
(see
Figure
the
4.1\317\213).
In
98
\342\226\240
Bezier
Curves
Figure
4.10 Truncating
curve.
Bezier
second-degree
P =
Pi
P2
so that
= VTMflP
p(v)
= VM\342\200\236P'
This
means
that
and
TMSP=MBP'
\320\240'-\320\234\321\200'\320\242\320\234\320\262
where
\316\224\316\267,20
T =
\320\236
2\316\274;\316\224\316\274
\316\224\316\274;
\320\275?
(see
the development
Li
so that
(3.28],et seq.)and
of Equation
M^
\320\270,
\316\271lJ
where
Truncating and
-
uf
99
Subdividing \342\226\240
2iij + 1
\320\234\321\217'\320\242\320\234\320\264
\320\274,2-2\302\253(-+1 +\320\224\321\213((\320\274;-1)
. \320\270)
1 + \316\224\302\2532
+ 2\320\224\302\253,(\320\274(1)
2u, +
+ 2\320\274,\342\200\2242wf
-2uf
-2\302\253,?+
The
control
uf +
+ \316\224\302\253;(-2\316\274,
+ 1)
2\316\271\317\212;
\320\270,-\320\224\320\274,
-\320\275
+ 2\321\213(-\320\224\321\213(+ \320\233\320\2702
_
2\320\274, 2\316\224\316\274,2
4\320\270;\320\233\320\270,
2\316\224\302\253,
\320\270?
for the
points
(4.12)
\321\200\321\203\320\263
where
p'o =
pi
(1
- u,)2Po
(1
- w,)(l -
p2 = (1
For
segments
+ 2u,
Uy)po
po
\302\253,)2
\320\270
w,)p, + \302\253,2p2
+
(-2u,-h;
2\302\253/l
case of dividing
special
we
have for iy, = 0,
0.5,
the
at
(L
u;)p,
\302\273,-u,)Pi
\302\2532p2
this second-degreecurve
1
\320\236
Po-s
0.5
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.25
0.5
0.5
transformations
0.5 0.5
0.25
0.25
(4.13)
the control-point
=
0.5
two
\320\236
Thus,
into
=
\321\211 0.5
0.5
0.5
\320\274-\320\231]\321\202\320\274\320\260
+ \"i\"/p2
(4.14)
are
Po
0.0 -s 0.5
\316\241
Pa
Pi
+ \317\201,)
0.5(\317\201\317\205
0.5
0.25
p2
0.25(\317\201\317\2052\317\201,+\317\2012)
0.5
0.25
Po
0.25(pll
Pl.O -! 0.5
P2.0-SO5
and
0.25
P^0.5->1
As
expected,
0.5
0.5
Pi
P2
\342\200\224
we see
that
pji0 _, a,
\321\2001,\320\2645
_,,
+ 2p,+p2)
Po.0.5->1
0-5(p0 + p,)
and
that
Pl,0.5->1
. p2,f!5->1_
P2
and
_, \320\276.\320\267
_,,
\317\201\317\214,0
\317\201\317\214
p'2 \316\2615
p'2.
100
Curves
\342\226\240
Bezier
a Cubic
Truncating
Curve
points
defining
of
this
segment
normalized
the
curve,
we find
curve
Bezier
curve.
four new
have
the
u1
\320\270
general
UMsP,but now
1]
-3
-6
3
0
3
\317\213
\317\213
Po
Pi
P2
Lp3J
If
we
let U
in the same
the four control
proceeds
Given
= VT,
where
V = [v3
\316\2752\316\275
1]
then,again,
p(if)
= VTMsP
Figure4.11
Truncating
curve.
= VMflP'
a cubic
Bezier
the
interval
Figure
expression
is
4.11).
p(w) =
Truncating and
that
means
This
101
Subdividing \342\226\240
TM
= \316\234
\342\200\236P
SF
and
\316\234
~i
TM
\342\200\236P
where
Auf
3u,Auf
T=
Au]
3uf\\Uj
of
(see the development
2utAu;
u?
II;
and where
et seq.)
[3.28]
\"\317\2130
0
All;
u)
Equation
\316\223
\317\204- \316\231
Mfl'
\"Hi 3
so that
(1-\320\271,-)3
(l-u,f-(l-u,fAUl
\316\234\316\262'\316\244\316\234\316\262-
(1
(1
2(1-\316\234/)2\316\224\302\253(-+(1-11;^
\316\227,-\320\243
u;f -3(1-
if,)2
+ 3(1
\316\224\316\267,-
Au]
\302\253,)\316\224\302\2532
3u,(l-u,f
3i(,(l
-
3u,(\\
3u,(l -
u,f
+ 3(1\"
u,)2
\320\227\320\270)
(I -\320\270,)
(1
3u? (1
The
+ 2f(,
\320\270,)
\302\253,)
control
3u,
(2
points
(1
3u,)(l
+ 2(1 - 3U/)(I-
(2
3u.)0
\321\211)\320\220\320\270,
(2
- 3u)
-
\302\253,)\316\224\302\253,
3(2
\302\253\316\266)4\";
3\316\271/,-)\316\224
3u?(l
3u?
if,)2
\320\270]
\320\270,)
+ \320\270,
(2-
\302\2532(\302\253,
\316\224\302\253,)
3\302\253,)\316\224\302\253,
+ (1
\320\227\320\270;)\320\220\320\270,
Au,)1
3\302\253,)\320\224\320\2752 \302\273,(\302\253,
3u,)Au2
3\316\224\302\253\316\257
(u, + \316\224\316\271\316\271,)3
(4.15)
P'=[PO Pi Pi
P'AT
102
Curves
\342\226\240
Bezier
where
pS =
=
pi
0 - u,f
Recursive
ul(2ul
h,-)(2u, + u,
(1
\320\270\321\203)\321\200\320\277
+
u;)!po
(I
\302\253fr3
\320\227\320\270^^\321\200!
u^u;p_i
+ 3\316\271\316\256(1
u,)p2
u,)2 pL
\302\253,-3u,-ti/-)p2
(I u,)(l
pi=
p;
u,f (I
(1
+ 3u,(l
po
\"y)(2u/+
\302\253,-3u,u,)pi
\302\253\321\203(2\320\270,
\320\227\321\213^^\321\200\320\263
\320\270(-\302\2537\321\200\320\267
u;
(1
p,j +
u,-)3
3uy (1
\320\270
If
p, +
3u7(l
u,)p2+
ujpi
Subdivision
the curve
For
subdividing
Recursively
Is
at
intervals.
The
pixel.
We
smaller
finding
curves. Figure
curve. This
gives us only
of these
each
for
by
begin
transformations,
p(0.5)
continues
subdivision
applications
computer-graphics
are
line
or to
segments
on the initial
end
points. To
control
the
segments
display as a
curve, dividing
until
it
subdivision
single
into
two
of a
cubic
the
as
ts
parameter
is an
necessary
Here
necessary.
StepI.
Step
e [0,0.5]
First,
2. Then
to
Pi = Ms]T\342\200\236MBP
where,
from
Equation
(4.15),
10
M\302\253'TeMH
\320\276
L8
p3/8.
for
segment
\320\270
and
Truncating
Figure
so
subdivision of a
Recursive
4.12
\342\226\240
103
Subdividing
cubic Beziercurve.
that
\"l
~2
~2
Po
Po
\317\205\317\205
Pi
\317\205\316\2412
Step
time
3. Finally,
for segment
we use
\320\270
e
[0.5,1],
(Po +
Pi)
(p,, + 2p, +
\320\240\320\267
its Pi,. We
have
\321\200; \320\274\320\271%\320\274\321\217\321\200
and
111!
8 8
1
\320\276
=
\320\234^\320\242\320\254\320\234\320\222
4
ooii
.0
Therefore,
p2)
0 0
1.
again,
this
104
Curves
\342\226\240
Bezier
-(p0 +
Po
2 4
\320\276
P> =
\302\273 \316\277
\316\227
2
2
All that
really interests
intermediate
control
segment.
Now
repeating
Subdivision
by
points,
we
+ p3)
^(Pi+2p2
P2
(4.16)
^(P2
\320\240\320\267)
pi
LPa.
us computationallyin
because
can find
Pi
we already
the
know the endpoints of each
Steps
2 and
3 are
curve
segments
by
this process.
Geometric
Construction
by
geometric
construction.
Composite
\342\226\240
105
Construction
4.14
Figure
Bezier Curves
of the
point
\320\270
-0.5.
the construction
shows
is described
by
first
Figure
4.4
cycle
some
of recursion
of
= 0.5
\320\270
for
4.15.
COMPOSITE
BEZIER
Bezier curves
may
CURVES
be
end-to-end
joined
to form
a composite curve.This
us to create
a more complex curvewithout
having
of an equivalent single curve.The geometric
relationship
the
continuity
points adjacent to the jointsdetermines
allows
K-P, + u*>l+1-Pj
Figure
0,
- 1
\316\267
4.1S
A recursion
algorithm.
the degree
control
conditions
at those
to
raise
of
the
106
\342\226\240
Bezier
Curves
joints.
this
function
P8 =
3(p1-po)
evaluate
Next,we
These
at
= 0and
\302\253
=
\320\270
I,producing
p? = 3(p3-p2)
and
= 0 is determined
at \320\270
by the
the
and
line
between
p2
p3.Theyalso
by
that
Bezier
reveal
certain
conditions
between adjacent
segments
continuity
of a compositecurve are relatively
if we
define
one
to
Thus,
simple
Specify.
control
..
and
the
segment by
,pm-i,pm
points po, pi,.
adjacent segment by
control
at
= 1
\320\270
,qn-i,qn,
q0, and
p,\342\200\236_
upm,
G1 continuity
then
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
qo.qi,
points
by making
pb and
the tangent
that
demonstrate
expressions
and
line between \317\201,)
as
we
also
move
\320\241
and
P2
\302\243
in
P3
a way
with
joined
We
that
are
preserves
p\342\200\236
q,
Ibl
4.16
Composite
(we
move point D so
the collinearity of C,
4,
Gl continuity
free to
p0
Figure
at
q, collinear.
is established
Bezier curves.
Composite BezierCurves
Two cubic
4.17
Figure
\342\226\240
107
G1
continuity.
lengths of C,D,and E.
the event that other
propagate beyond points
curve segmentsare present
or are added
to this string.
for G1 continuity
the
five
A condition
at a joint between curvesis that
D, and E.
The effects
this
Within
_ 2,
-1, p4,
p\342\200\236,
p,\342\200\236
vertices
change the
G in
\316\233
and
qoi
a\302\260d
must
\320\247\321\214
\320\246\320\263
require increasingthe
The equations the curvature
number
for
of
control
and
\320\2720
be
coplanar.
points
at
\320\272,
each
derivation.
without
follow
we may
constraint,
do not
_ Zlfo-ptQxQpa-pi)!
Kn =
3ipi-
po
_
3(\317\201\316\257-\317\2011)\317\207(\317\2013-|>\316\257)|
\342\200\236.
3lp3-
\321\200\320\267\320\240
can
easily
The
consider
geometric
how
polynomial functions
and relationships. If we have
higher-degree
properties
affect
the
quintic
computation
curves
of
and the
108
\342\226\240
Bezier
Curves
related
biquintic
4.S
more
are
these
for
surfaces, for example, the intersectioncomputations
and
for
cubic
curves
bicubic
surfaces.
than
complex
BEZIER CURVES
RATIONAL
Equation (4.2)definesa
now
We
polynomial.
discuss
curve
Bezier
using
or nonrational
an integral
curve defined
a Bezier
by
a rational
We
polynomial.
of it as a projection of a fourthinking
study this curve
onto
three-dimensional
dimensionalnonrational
space.To understand
of
this formulation, we
the underlying geometry
power
representational
of
coordinates
and
must reviewsome
homogeneous
properties
projective geometry. Riesenfeld(1981)discusses use of homogeneous
was
coordinates
and projective pJanes in computergraphics.
(1965)
can best
by
curve
and
elementary
the
Roberts
of the first
one
to observe that
are a
coordinates
homogeneous
represent geometrictransformations
and
useful way to
projections.
originisthe centerofprojection
4.18b
space. Figures 4.18a
the hyperplane
h~l, where the
is
ordinary three-dimensional
hyperplane
onto
and
the
and
dimensions.
a Bezier
curve in the homogeneous coordinate space of four
We
define
onto the h ~ 1 hyperplane,
that
dimensions
find its projection
and
is, onto
The
of
this
curve
is
three-dimensional
equation
ordinary
space.
illustrate
coordinate
homogeneous
geometry
in one
and two
(4.17)
\316\241(\302\253)=\316\243\316\241^\302\273
1= 0
where
are
the
coordinates.
p(u)
is the
control
We
know
four-component vectorof a
points,
also
given
point
in four-dimensional
that
x(u)
h(u)x(u)
\320\243(\320\270)
h(u)y(u)
\320\260\320\264
h(u)z(u)
Jr(u)]
. h(u) J
on
the curve,
and the
homogeneous
p;
Bezier
Rational
Curves
\342\226\240
109
h-1--
hxa,hya,h
Figure
4.1B
Homogeneous
one
so that now we
the
and
two
coordinate
= 1 plane
geometry
in
dimensions.
on
point
curve,
x{u)~ V
\320\263\320\224,\342\200\236(\302\253)
2(\=\316\2432\316\221\302\253(\302\253)
%)^\320\233\320\224\320\233(\")
(4.19)
110
Curves
\342\226\240
Bezier
For the
projection
write
we
space
= x(u)
CO
h(u)
(4-20)
\320\201\320\234~\320\231
But
so that
\320\226, \316\233\316\274:\342\200\236
\316\243
hiX;Bitn{U)
(421)
W'ThAM
and
we
z(u),
the
represent
\320\245/\320\263,\321\200\320\224,\342\200\236(\320\270)
h, are
where
to
If all
from:
follows
ft;= l.then
as the
curve
because
(\302\253)= 1,
\316\243
h,Blin
\320\243
land
\302\243,,\342\200\236(\302\253)=
\316\243^,\317\201,\316\222,.,,
(423)
YJ^--lP,B,Au)
We immediately
changes
shape
Bezier curve
Let us see
plane
in
plotted
identicalto
of the
how this
points
on
between
whose
slides
along
h coordinate
shown
in the
point
and weights
cubic.
hlth2,h3. In Figure4.19,we
the rationalBezier
curve
curve
cubic
a rational
nonrational
the
all
for
h,=
see
1. It is
nonrational
earlier
control
po>pi,pz
points
endpoints
one or more of the weights
interpolating
Changing
a second-degree
for
works
control
set of
the same
the h = 1 plane
the
shapes,
tangents-.
same
the
control
with
different
Bezier
have
the
with
the
same
control
same
its projection
matches the
along
line
OB
to the
hi,
position
Bezier
Rational
h0,
h, > 1, h2
= 1 curve 1n
111
\342\226\240
Curves
space
homogeneous
\320\222
\316\212-|\316\247\316\220\302\267\316\267\316\220\316\245\316\220.\316\212\316\220
,C
\342\200\224_
= l,
h\342\200\236
hy>l, h2 0
curve projected onto
h = 1
\\
0IC^__^
'
4.19
Figure
We can
htX\\,h}yuh.
two
the
with
the h = 1 planethat
this
= 1 curve
Bezier curve
control
end control
unchanged
the homogeneous
of
think
plane
1\\
Rational
point
turn
produces
in
the
in its
plane.
h = 1 plane
a new
projection
curve
Bezier
of this
curve
in
onto
interest.
It has, of course, the same controlpointsas the h-,~ 1 curve
same end slopes.Only one weight
has been changed, and the effect
we
of this is to pull the curve toward the control point p\342\200\236
whose
weight
rational
Bezier
All of this applies equally to three-dimensional
changed.
of
curve
and the
of any
curves
A rational
degree.
under
a perspective
transformation.
If
all other
its control points are subjectedtothistransformation,
then
points
are produced as usual from the transformedcontrol
The
resulting
points.
curve is the accurate perspectivetransformation
of the original. This is not
true for the perspectivetransformation
ofa nonrational
where
curve,
every
on
the
curve
order
to
must
be subjected
to the transformation
in
point
produce
an
accurate
perspective
image.
we
can
Using the rational Bezier formulation,
accurately
curves. The Hermite basis and nonrationalBezierforms
conic
represent
cannot
do
this.
112
\342\226\240
Bezier
Curves
,
1
three
them.
control
Thus,
points
from
+ h2p2B22(u)
\317\207\320\2540\321\200\320\276\320\222\320\274(\320\270)
/11\321\200|\320\224,\320\264(\321\206)
'
and their
l ' '
the
can
generate
rational B-Splines(seeSection5.7).
Let
us review
the properties
of a Bezier curve that
make
it an unusually
effective modeling tool. First,the curve
with the
has
in common
endpoints
other
are
the
vertices
not
on
the
Second,
usually
curve).
polygon (the
slope
of the tangent vectors at the endpoints equals the slope of the first and last
of the polygon.Third,the curve
within
the convex hull
lies
segments
entirely
defined by the extremepointsof Che polygon
and generally
mimics the gross
features of the polygon.Fourth,Beziercurves
are
variation-diminishing.This
means
that they never oscillate wildly
from
their
control
defining
away
are
smoother
than
the
data
on
which
are
points (they
they
based). Fifth,
to conventional
or splines, Bezier curves do not
compared
polynomials
us to input slopes, just daita points. Finally,
the
require
parametric
formulationallows
a curve
to represent multiple-valued shapes. In fact, as we have
= p\342\200\236),
if the first and last points coincide(that
then
the curve
is
seen,
is, if p0
closed. Bezier curves are specialcasesofthe more
curves
general
B-Spline
that we consider next.
CURVES
B-SPLINE
of
differs
curve
B-Spline
consists
more
than
5.1
a few
B-SPLINE
NONUNIFORM
We
by
begin
nonuniform
with
the
BASIS FUNCTIONS
basis
seg-
113
114
Curves
\342\226\240
B-Spline
effects
the
combines
one
to interpolate
situation. We do this
in the following).
(explained
control
\316\267
+ 1
values
us
p(u)
in that
curve
(5-1)
Xp,AU\302\253)
following expressions:
Nil(u)=\\
if
= 0
(,<\302\253<(, + ,
(5.2)
otherwise
and
= (u-t,)N,.t-,(u)
~~
i; + * -1
for
values
integer
controls
the
degree
the
of
continuity
where
points
interpolates the
=
\320\272:
\320\272
2,.
the
.
tt
tj
values
once
that
all
=
\320\272
1,.
of/: j
the
+l
i(
+ 2
n-K
function
N,,k
functions
for each
k.
The parameters
degreeof polynomial
from
the
are
related
n
the
set of knot
\320\270
to
values
the
p,
curve that
nonuniform
using K:
if
if
K<j<n
i> \316\267
(5.4)
they are
knot values
/ on
determining
the
and a
j<K
for K,
calculated
ranges
B-Spline,
also
if
in
= Q,...,n + K.
are
index
. , \316\232.
The
open
once
= 0
integer
an
calculated
are
of the
\320\272
and
order
values,
53
+ i
. , \320\277.
For
tj=j-K
Note
the
\320\232.
knot
called
are
t)
=
\316\257
0,.
tj
for
where
, \316\232
. .
vector. They
endpoints.
tl + k~ti
t,
1) of the resultingpolynomial
(K
curve. The
a knot
comprises
control
of
+ U-i(K)
ft- + t-w)JVl
t,
ranges
Oto
from
0 to n. There
number
(n
are
of control
always
\316\267
+ 1
blending
points, knots,
and the
by
K+l
= T
(5.5)
115
Nonuniform B-SplineBasis Functions\342\226\240
where
7\"
is
number
the
vector
knot
the
\316\244
is
of knots.
characterized
by
-..
\342\226\240
\316\262)
\316\244=[\316\261,\316\261, ,\316\261,\316\257*,..,\316\257\317\204\302\267-*-\316\271,\316\262,\316\262.
end
where
knots
\316\261
and
with
\316\262
repeat
K.
multiplicity
0<\320\270<\320\273-\320\232+2
the
Because
0/0
in Equation
denominators
- 0.
(5.6)
define
must
or multiply
coincident
control
values,
Multipleor repeated
For cubic curve, a double knot defines a join
points, induce discontinuities.
curvature
A triple knot produces a corner point in
discontinuity.
point
the curve.
=
=
to
The basis
and
\\,K
N^(u)
NlA(u),Nii2{u),
corresponding
=
as follows. For the
2, and K-3, given six controlpoints
5), we compute
knot-vector
with
\320\232
functions
(n
basis
functions
\316\235\316\257\316\233(\316\272)
vector
with
= 5
\302\253
and/C=
find that
l,we
0<\302\253<6
and
the
knot
is [0,1,2,3,4,5,6], or
= 0
u--4
\316\212 1
h=
= 2
h-=
fo
f2
(5.7)
i3-3
\320\273\342\204\226)1
if
-0
= \316\271
\316\234.\316\271(<\302\2670
if
0<\302\253<1
< 2
1 < \320\270
otherwise
if
=0
otherwise
-0
^(10=1
(5,2),
2 <n
<3
otherwise
116
\342\226\240
\316\222\302\267
Spline
Curves
= 1
Nu(u)
if
=0
=
W4.i(\")
< 4
3 < \320\270
otherwise
if
= 0
< 5
4 < \320\270
otherwise
if
= 0
5 <
< 6
\320\270
otherwise
These
six basis
identicalin
p(u)
=p0
for
0 <u
<1
.\316\275,
,\316\271.\316\271
\\
i\
\342\226\240
vs>>
Figure
S.I B-Spline
=
\316\267
5,
= 1.
/\320\241
B-Spline Basis
Nonuniform
= Pi
for
1 <u<2
for
2<u<3
for
3<u<4
\321\200(\320\270)
\317\201-,
for
4<u<5
\321\200(\320\274)=p5
for
5<\321\213<6
p('0
p(\") = p2
\321\200(\320\270)
p3
The
but
the initial
merely
at
a control
is clearly
curve
resulting
of
segments
zero
and
i4 =
= 0
l3 =
t7 =
knot
<\320\270
=
=
N^u)
f
\316\271
NXi(u
depend
u =
otherwise
= 1
0<\321\213<1
=0
otherwise
\316\233\316\212.\316\271(\302\253
=1
=0
=
1
\316\2353\316\233(\317\205
1 <
< 2
\320\270
otherwise
2 <
< 3
= 0
otherwise
= 1
3<\321\213<4
=0
otherwise
=1
4 <w
\320\233\320\2234\320\273(\320\270
\316\2355\316\233(\317\205
=0
this set
that
(5.8)
must
\316\233\316\214,(\302\273
Substituting
= 5
f6
that
the
to
= 4
\\
find
i5
h =
\320\232~2,we
knot spacing.
a nonuniform
corresponding
word,
this to
interpret
point.)
4=0
is
\342\226\240
117
each segment
length,
This
also
could
Next,for
< 5
Functions
< 5
otherwise
as appropriateinto Equation(5.3)produces
118
Curves
\342\226\240
B-Spline
A\\,z(\302\253)
=
=
NX2{u)
^(\320\270)
+
(\320\270 2)\320\233\320\2233.!
(\321\213)
+ (5
(\302\253 3)\320\233\320\2234\320\233
(\320\270)
+ (3
(\320\270)
\320\233^\302\273
Nu(u)
- 1)N2!
(u
- u)Nv{u)
+ (2
uNu(u)
(4
\320\270)\320\233\320\223\320\267\320\224(\320\270)
\321\213)\320\233\320\2234.,(\320\274)
\302\253)\320\234,(\302\253)
(\320\270-4)\320\233\320\2235,1(\320\270)
of 1 or 0.
switches, taking on a value
define
the
over
which
the
basis
They
region
complete
or
the
function is nonzero,
interval ofsupport
for
a curve's
These
expression.
basis functions are plottedin Figure
5.2; they are identical in size and shape,
The
on
depending
act like
functions
N;j(u)
the value
of u.
< 5.
end
< 1 and 4 < \302\253
at
the
0 < \320\270
these
segments
spanning
Applying
of Equation
basis functions to any set ofsixcontrolpointsby means
(5.2), we
find that p(u) is given by a different
for each unit interval in u,
equation
except
(1
p(\302\253)
so that
switches,
N,A{u)
+ \302\253Pi
for
0 <
+ (\321\213-l)p2
for
l<u<2
for
< 3
2 < \320\270
3)p4
for
< 4
3 < \302\253
4)p5
for
< 5
4 < \320\270
\302\253)po
\321\200(\302\253)
(2-\320\270)\321\200]
\321\200(\320\274)
(3
(4
p(\302\253)
= (5
p(u)
Finally, for
< 4
\320\270
and
the
\302\253)p2+
(u
2)p3
+ (u
\302\253)\321\200\320\267
u)p4
(u
the resulting
the control points.
Here
<
Ni3
the knot
functions
basis
(\320\270)
/\302\253-\320\236
/5 =
= 0
f \316\271
fft
i4
is =
the
Again,
we must
curve
because of
first compute
segments.
/i =
3,we
connecting
find
that
= 4
4
\316\2577
(5.9)
joints between
and
segments
f\320\267 1
is a
~ 5
\316\267
with
or
vector is [0,0,0,1,2,3,4,4,4),
\316\25720
This
line
< 1
\320\270
the
knot
values
correspond
to the
Nonuniform
Basis
B-Spline
Functions
*\302\253,\320\260<\">
Figure
S.2
B-Spline
for
basis functions
= S.
\316\267
K=2.
before
computing
Nu(u)=l
= 0
obtain
= 0
\320\270
otherwise
for
= 0
=1
\320\233^\320\270)
we
= 0
\320\270
otherwise
for
0 <
< 1
\320\270
otherwise
\342\226\240
119
120
Curves
\342\226\240
B-Spline
for
Nu(u)=l
1<\321\213<2
= 0
otherwise
2<u<3
for
N^{u)~l
= \317\213
otherwise
3 <
for
\320\233\320\223\320\267\320\273(\320\270)=1
= 0
< 4
\320\270
otherwise
into
produces
(5.3)
Equation
AW(\=0
Nu{u) = {l-u)Nv{u)
N32(u)
(\320\270
- 2)Nu(u)
= (u
M,(ti)
1 )N3A(u)
+ (3
+
the
appropriate
the
(4
\302\253)*\302\267.\302\273
w)ATs,,(w)
we
Now
\316\235\316\2572{\316\271\316\271).
substitute
as
\320\233^\320\224\321\213):
\320\233\320\223\320\260\320\264(\320\270)
(1-\320\270)2\320\233\320\2232.|(\320\270)
NU\")
J\"(4
\320\227^\320\233\320\252\320\224\320\270)
\320\274^\320\224\321\213)
+|<2
\320\233\320\254\320\224\320\270)
^(~2u2
^^\320\224\")
\320\220^\320\224\302\273)
\\{\320\272
NA3{u)
3)\320\234\320\273(\321\213)
10\320\270
\321\213^\320\224\321\213)
11)\316\233^4,\316\271(\302\253)
|(4
|(-2\321\2132
+1(3
1)2\316\2353\316\233(\317\205)
-2fNiA(u)
]-{u
+6u~
U-\320\252\320\2701
+ 20\321\213-
u)2N5il(u)
32)\320\234\320\224\321\213)
\320\233\320\2233\320\224\320\230)
(\320\270-3)3\320\233\320\2235\320\224\320\270)
on
and
off the
NlA{u) functions act like switches,turning
are
in
control. These basis functions
Figure 5.3.
plotted
of these
Notice the symmetries and congruences of the shapes
functions; we
these
will
this
in more detail a little later. Applying
phenomenon
explore
to a set of six control pointsusing
we find that
basis
functions
(5-1),
Equation
Here,
again,
the
p(\302\253)
action
is
given
of the
by a
NiA(u)
different
switches,
equation
so
that
for
each
unit
interval
in
\320\270
through
the
Nonuniform
pi(\")
- \2po")+ x\"(4 -
(1
\321\200\320\263(\320\274)
\320\240\321\215(\320\270)
\320\270)^
|(3
The
the curve
tangent
to
- uf&
pj
1 Ou
+ 20w
continuity;
- 11
)p3 +
-
|(\321\213
32)p4 + l(u
p4 at
first
and
these same
last
for
2)^4
for
2<u<3
for
3<u
curve
also
<u<2
< 4
segments
Figure 5.4.We
points,
points. We
0<\321\213<1
1 )2p,
- 3)^
is shown in
example
+ -(\320\270
3)\321\200\320\263
\320\241
passes
p0 and
^(-\320\227\321\213\320\263
curve is a
resulting
with
6w
^(-2\"2
\321\203(-2\321\2132
P4(\") = |(4
connected
\302\253)2
pi
^\"(2
for
+ ~u2p2
3w)p!
\342\226\240
121
notice
that
that
notice
it
is
this curve
=
is langent to each successive
sideof the eharacterislie
(only for K
polygon
3 curves).This tangencyoccursat the joinls between curve segments (that is,
at integralvalues
of u). These
joints are indicated by tick marks.In the figure,
to p',, and the effect on the curve is plotted. This local
p] is moved
point
\320\233\320\270\"\"
Figure
S.3
Nonuniform
B-Spline basis
functions for
122
Curves
\342\226\240
B-Spline
Figure
affects only
change
set
preceding
S.4 Nonuniform
curves: n= S,
of equations,
because
/C =
B-Spline
3.
it is
curve;
occurs
\317\201,
in only
equations.
influence
each
these
same
curve
we
must
happens
review
control
points,
each
and, conversely,
points,
A nonuniform
cubic B-Spline
\320\232
control
segments.
>
\316\267
3,
and
at least
eight nondecreasing
increase
Nonuniform
ever
we
can
functions
that
are
indicate
an influence
attribute
lo the
For example,
of n.
independent
= 7
\316\267
if
~
\320\232
and
3, we
would
find
Ni3{u).
Ni3{u)
\320\233\320\223\342\200\236(\320\270)
\320\233\320\223\321\215\320\267(\320\270)
of \316\267
and
al the
Let us pursue this idea of basis-function
independence
a
more
convenient
m
atrix
notation.
We
same time Iry to develop
will do
reason
this for K= 3. First,we compute
Nl+ L3(\302\253).and iV( + 2 3(w).The
Na(u),
for selecting
these three will become clear asour investigation
progresses.
< i < n. This
We choose
an interval in i so that \320\232
anticipates the uniform
the calculation
of the t, knot values
so that
B-Splineand,for now, simplifies
the
recursive
of
1
formulas
Using
Equations
(5.2) and
tl~j~K+
=/-2.
Nju)
- 2 < u <
otherwise
for
('
for
\316\271
-o
w,tl,M=i
1<
=0
- 1
< i
\320\270
otherwise
for
JV,.,.i(\302\253)-l
('<\302\253<('+
^0
otherwise
for
\316\273\316\263(+3.\316\27100=-\316\271
= 0
1 <
u<
+ 2
< i
\320\270
+ 3
otherwise
\316\271
+ 2
for
W, + 4.i(\-l
= 0
<
otherwise
Next we compute
N,,i(u)
A^iX\302\273)
Nl + 22(\")
- i +
(\320\270
(\"
= (\" =
finally,
(i
+
1)\316\233\316\223,+!,,
(\320\270)
'\320\226.2.1
- ('-
\320\233\320\223(
+ 3\320\224\320\270)
(\320\270
And,
+
(\320\270)
2)NU
lW
(U)
+
+ (/
\320\270)*;+
(/ +
+2
+ (('
3.i (\320\270)
i.i(\
- u)Nl+ 2.i{tt)
+ 3,,(\320\230)
\320\230)\320\233\320\223;
+ 3
u)N, + ij{u)
we compute
+ 2)1N,.]{u)
+ {u-i
+ 2){i-u)Ni,u{u)
+ 1)\320\233\320\223,+,.,(\302\253)
+ (,\342\226\240
+ 1 - U)(U - ,\342\226\240
+ ((+!+ \316\271.,(\316\274)]
\316\274)\316\266\316\233\316\223,
Nii(u)-^[(u-i
124
Curves
B-Spline
^*|\302\273^[(\"-|
-
+ (\317\212
+ 2
NtM\302\273)
1)!^+\320\270(\320\270)
- i)Nl+ 2,(u)
u){u
+ 2.i00
*/
\320\2362
(\"-'\320\2471)(/\320\247\320\254#,\320\273(\320\274)
+ (r +2
+ 2
(\320\270 <){<
|[(\302\253
+ {i +
of the
curve, say,
switches.
\321\200(\320\270)
-(('
1)\320\233^3,,(\320\270)
expression for
i <
interval
the
for
the functions
Only
- i
u){u
to find an
are ready
we
Now
3~
\320\270
<
1
\316\233^
+ 2>\316\271(\302\253)
+ 1-
+ 3
over
+ 4.,(\316\274)]
\316\274)2\316\233\316\223,
an
Ni
2i{u)
segment
arbitrary
1. We again
ihis interval.
in
that
above
u)N,M\
\321\200(\321\213)
i +
+ (/
+ \321\212\320\273{\302\253)}
\320\270)\320\251
use the
as
NlA(u)
those
Collecting
switches
on, we
obtain
ufp,
+ (i
^[(u-i+l)(i+l-u)
+ 2-u)(u-i)]pl
+ l
(5.\320\250)
+2
2-(\"-')\316\212\316\241'
are
There
0 <
that
< 1
\320\270
subscripting
(5.10),
we
so
advantages to reparameterizing the interval
the interval in some useful way; for example,
by
the
as p,(\302\253) for
r'th interval. To reparameterize Equation
\321\200(\321\213)
computational
and identifying
replace
\320\270
by
that
\320\270
+ l,so
(-2\321\2132
+ 2\321\213
+ 1)\321\200,\321\2021
+ \321\2132\321\200(
+ 2)
(5.11)
\321\200;(\302\253)=^[(1-\302\253)2\321\200,
< 1.
0 < \302\253
where
will
not
confuse
now
rewrite
Matrix Form
We
denotes
now
(5.11) using
Equation
the curve
segment number).So,
a B-Spline
for
with
by
\342\200\224
=
\320\232
1 (i
3, we
obtain
1
=
\320\270 1)
\320\240,{\320\270)
\\[\320\270\320\263
-2
cubic
-2
\320\223
B-Splines.
pi-i
for
\316\241;
p,
\316\271.
K=
4, is
ie[l
:n-l]
(5.12)
125
Nonuniform B-SplineBasis Functions\342\226\240
p,H
\320\2702\320\270
JK
3-3
-1
pi-i
3-630
1]
P'
-3030
1
Pi
for
(5.13)
re[l:n-2]
+ 1
\316\271
oJLPi+2J
curve,
Simplifying these equationsfor a second-degree
=
\320\232
where
3, U
-2
1
M< =
-2
2 0
1 0
have
we
Pi
= \320\270\320\274.
P:
\320\240.\320\230
for open
ie[l:\302\253-l]
curves
(5.14)
curves
(5.15)
P/-M
For
the
where
cubiccurve,
K=-4,XJ
\320\2702\320\270
[\321\213\321\212
1],
-3
3
-3 0 3
1 4 1
-1 3
3 6
*-i
we
and
0
0
0
have
\316\241-\316\271
UM,
\321\200,(\320\270)
P<\"
for open
ie[\\:n-2]
p; + i
_p; + 2_
open
Ms
depend
Equations(5.14)
and
formulation
in Equations
\320\263
is determined
We investigate
on the degree
closed B-Spline
of the curve.
are
for specific
= UM5Px
ie[l:n
(5.15)
\320\232
values.
However,
the general
is
p,(w)
+ 2-K)
(5.16)
where
U =[\302\253*\"*
uK~2
\320\270
(5.17)
1)
and
PK =
[p ]
je[i-l:i
K-2)
for open
curves
(5.18)
126
Curves
\342\226\240
B-Spline
We have
Bezier,
Hermite,
5.2
UNIFORM
now defined
and
the
through
do
situations
geometric-modeling
Many
endpoints.
In those
cases, we
Equation
control
points. For example, given
a uniform knot vector, we find
for
the
=
\316\267
[1:4]
5andX=3,('e
po
pi(\302\2530
UM5
Pi
UM5
p2
Pi
Pz(\302\253)
\320\240\320\267
(5.19)
\"p2
:=
UMS
\320\240\320\267(\302\253)
\320\240\320\267
pj
\320\240\320\267
Pj(\302\253)
: = UMs
p4
Ps
and
for
= 5
\316\267
and
=
\320\232
4, ie
[1 : 3)
Pl(u) = UM,
p2(u)
UM,
(5.20)
P2
p3(u) = UM,
P^
Pj
P^
Uniform
\302\253127
B-Spline
curves
Notice
in Figure
that neither
FigureS.S Uniform
curves:
= S,
\316\267
= 3
\320\232
and
B-Spline
= S, \320\232
= 4.
\316\267
128
Curves
\342\226\240
B-Spline
See Farin
curves).
the
of
shape
(1993a)
to interpolate
curve
for
Equations
basis
the
control
which
for
S.3
on
Figures
the
parametric
5.2 and 5.3,
span
line, respectively.
basis
the uniform
compare
we now
functions,
and
2,
\320\222-Spline
control
=
\320\232
3, and
three\302\267, and
point.
- 4
\320\232
are invariant
from
span
to span.
FUNCTIONS
a*\342\200\224J\\r
|-e-.Iw =!-*\342\226\240]
cl\342\200\224-\317\210
1i\342\200\224
\320\233\320\223=4
Figure
V
S.6
uniform
four-unit
ir-
o1
points.
a particular
influence
single control
~
\320\232
two-,
last
BASIS
QUADRATIC AND CUBICB-SPLINE
To
nonuniform
points
of a
influence
functions
insertion on
of knot
effects
of the
descriptions
a B-Spline
Uniform
B-Spline
and
basis functions:
Wi4(u).
Nu(u). Nii3(u).
in
more
detail.
N3= U3M3and N4
We define
and Cubic
Quadratic
=[*!>)
where
= UjMj,
=
\320\232
N, and N4 are
the
Performing
the
4, respectively.
\320\233^(\320\270) \320\233^\320\230]
where
\320\234\320\224\320\270)=|(\320\2702-2\320\270+1)
+ 2^+1)
(5.21)
\320\233\320\223\320\260.\320\267(\321\213)
=-^(-2^
and for
=
\320\232
4,
\320\233\320\2234.4(\320\270)]
\316\2354=[\316\233\316\2634(\302\253)
\320\233\320\223\320\274(\320\270)
\320\233'\320\267\320\224\321\213)
where
+ \320\227\321\2132-\320\227\320\274+1)
\320\233\320\223]4(\320\270)
^(-\320\270\321\215
\320\276
^2.4(\320\274)
4)
-^<\320\227\320\2743-6\320\274\320\263
(5.22)
=
N\\*(u)
In
both
cases,
see
we
that
and for
=
\320\232
and(5.15)
\316\267
1]
1)
1. Figure
+ Ww(w)pi
p,(w)= \316\233\316\212.3(\\317\201(-\316\271")
i e[l
3w +
3i/2 +
\320\245\320\220^\320\224\320\272)
(5.14)
Equations
Rewriting
\320\245(~3\"3
5.7 plots
+ N^{u)p,
for open
+ 1
(5.23)
curves
4 yields
=
p,-(\302\253)
Nl_A(u)pi.l
i e
+ N1A{u)p,+
[1 : r
- 2]
for
NJA(u)p,
open
+ l
curves
+ NiA(u)pl
+1
(5.24)
130
Curves
\342\226\240
B-Spline
l\302\267\342\200\224I\342\200\224
-\316\233
^^\342\200\224\342\200\224
-4
\320\272
;,'
'
^I..
'
\317\206
\316\263^
<.
,\342\200\224
3andK
4.4- ._***
>
B-Spljne basis
interval
for
= 4.
S.4 CLOSEDB-SPLINE
CURVES
The
uniform
curves.
B-Spline
of
For uniform
and
(5.14)
Equations
modifications
curves
the
number
segment
closed curves, we
P(i- l)mo(i(n +
U3M\321\200,(\320\270)
(n
+ 1)
l)mod(.i
p/mod
.P(i
control
for
points.
3:
=
\320\232
l)
i e
l)_
+ 1]
[1 : \316\267
for closed
curves
(5.25)
The
on the
subscripts
p/mod
= 4.
withn = S. \320\232
P(i
l)mod(n
+ l)
.p{i
2)mod(n
+ l)_
work
through.
Here,
for closed
i e[l:\302\253+l]
\320\2704\320\234^
\321\200,(\320\270)
example
For
=
\320\232
4,
+ l)
P{i-l)mod(.i
=
B-Spline curve
S.B Closed
Figure
operator
(that
= 5
\316\267
and
=
\320\232
(5.26), we obtain
4; using
is, for
curves
(5-26)
example, 5mod4
values in Equation
P(i\"-I)mwl6
Pjmud
P(i + l)mod6
.p(;
Expanding
this
equation
produces
2)mod6_
re[l:6]
(5.27)
132
\342\226\240
B-Spline
Curves
UjMj[P(J
\321\200,(\320\274)
=
UjMjfp,
\321\2002(\320\274)
=
ps(\302\253)
pft(w)
We evaluate
P2
P2
\320\240\320\267
\320\240\302\253\320\223
\320\240\320\267]'
UjMj[p2
\320\240\320\267
Pj
UJM4[p3
Pj
Pi
PoF
UiM^pj
Ps
Po
Pi]''
= UjMj[ps
po
Pi
ft]7
for
some
p3(\302\253)
pJ(\302\253)
Pi
=
=
each of thesecurve
segments
psf
of
sequence
\320\270
values
of the
of course, specific control-point coordinates to produce
and,
plol
5.9
is
resulting
B-Spline curve. Notice the subscript sequences.
another
of
curve
where
a
same
conditions
hold.
It
closed
is
example
clearly possible to generate a self-intersecting
In Figure
closed
5.10, moving p; to p'2 producesa moreelongated
of affects
four control points define this curve, the perturbation
Since
only
the entire
while
the
curve, although ihe most drasticchangeoccurs
p';,
the
Figure
the
curve.
curve.
p2
near
disturbed
original curve is only slightly
Defining
B-Spline curves with one
an effect similar to that
produces
points
and
three
control
and
points
p6, where
for
group
in
of
Figure
coincident
curves
have
coordinate
Closed,self-intersecting
curve
with
\320\273
5,
control
without increasing
control
multiple
points pulls
5.11 shows the effect of one,
Bezier
Figure S.9
B-5plfne
nearp0.
or more multiply
= 4.
\320\232
p4 alone,
pj
values).
Closed
Figure
S.10
Closed B-Spline
curve with
with
= 3.
\316\267
= \316\221.
\316\232
\321\200\321\201
\317\201,
Figure
B-Spline Curves
S.11
multiply
Closed
B-Spline curves
coincident
points.
= 4.
\320\232
control
\342\226\240
133
134
Curves
\342\226\240
B-Spline
This
makes
advantage
S.S
sharp
corners,
an
CONTINUITY
of a B-Splinecurve, we will
use the example in Figure 5.12.Because
the curve is a cubic B-Spline,
and
we can
second-order
expect
parametric continuity throughout the curve.
To examinethe first- and second-derivative
continuity of this
parametric
=
= 1 of
to
\320\272
0 of segment
curveat point \320\270
(7 +
segment i corresponding
point
NJ and N\"4U:
1), first we compute
To
demonstrate
the continuity
between segments
= 4,
\320\232
\316\235\316\252
[AT?\302\273
N$A(u)
NUu)
N'Uu)}
(5-29)
where
b
(5.30)
6
FigureS.12
Four
of
segments
curve,
/C
= 4.
a cubic
B-Spline
Continuity
\342\226\240
135
and
=
\342\204\2264\320\270
[\320\233\320\223\320\230(\320\270)
N%(u)
(5.31)
Nfi(u)]
N%(u)
where
Nft(u) = -u+l
V
= ~3u
Njft(u)
(5.32)
+ 1
Nft(u) = u
we
Now
can
write
+
PK\302\273)-Mu.4(\302\273)p(-i
^,J(w)p,
+ A'l4(w)p,,i+A\"1i,4(w)p;,2
(5.33)
and
=
\320\233\320\251
\317\201\316\223{\316\272)
\316\233^\316\227\317\201,-\316\271
(\\321\200.")+
we evaluate
Next,
+, + \320\233\320\223\320\231(\320\270)\321\200,+2
\320\233\320\223\302\243(\320\270)\321\200(
(5.34)
Equation
p,(l)
-|(p,
to
obtain
+ 4p, + )+Pl+3)
(5.35)
and
pi
-^(p,
+ 4p, +, +
first-derivative
pf+)(0).This
i(0)
shows
(5.36)
Equation
p, +2)
as we
(5.36)
would expect.
We
examine
yields
(5-37)
\316\241\317\212(1)
\320\240-\320\263)
\342\226\240\302\243<-*+
and
p?+,(0)
We
see
lhat p\"(0)
joint. Finally, we
Equation
(5.34)
for
-|-(-p,
+ pf+2)
(5.38)
= p','+)(l), demonstratingfirst-derivative
examine second-derivativecontinuity
py\"(l)
and
p\302\243,(0).
This
yields
continuity
by
evaluating
at
the
136
Curves
\342\226\240
B-Spline
pT(l)
= p(-2p,
+ i
pr?i(0)
= pi-2pi
, +
(5.39)
pit2
and
=
We see that p'\"'(l)
demonstrating
\317\201\316\220'\"\316\271(0),
the joint. Of course,we can easily extend
(5.40)
p,-i:
second-derivative
for higher-degree B-
this analysis
Spline
at
continuity
curves.
The
on
is a summary of the
Control
point
Control
Control
coincident control
at segment joints are worth
of multiply
effects
the continuity
point
values
Here
discussion.
further
conditions:
continuity
multiplicity =
C^andG2
multiplicity^
C1 and
reduced
convex
point mulliplicily = 3
hull.
C2 and
triple
at each side of
the
are
joint
straight
lines.
= 4
G2 and
of
sides
interpolate
control
the
both
on
points
sides.
Knot
multiplicity
= 1
C2andG2
Knot multiplicity^ 2
knots
reduced convex
Knot multiplicity=3
C\302\260
and
control point.
the
multiplicity
=4
The
the
interpolates
Curve segmentshapesat
and not constrained to
are free
joint
lines.
straight
Knot
hull.
curve
The
G\302\260.
to
restricted
is discontinuous,
curve
one controlpoint
next. The
and
ending on
at
resuming
the
adjacentto
the
discontinuity
are
unconstrained.
(1992)
surveys
and
discusses
and
surfaces,
parametric
subject
5.6
of
(1989) discuss
also reference
Functions
Basis
Between
Conversion
the
literature
basis
functions
of
continuity
on the
geometric
other
\342\226\240
137
continuity.
CONVERSION
BETWEEN BASIS
FUNCTIONS
The conversionbetweenBezier
B-Spline
forms.
For
matrix
equating appropriate
and
uniform
we have UMaPs = UM^Pj, or MBPfl
cubic
B-Spline,
convert from B-Spline to Beziercontrolpoints,we have
ps =
by
proceeds
and the
so that to
MSPS,
curve
Bezier
cubic
the
m-jm5ps
(5.41)
which expands to
\317\213 \317\213
\317\213
-1
-6
-3
3 0
1 0
1
0
1
\302\261
=
P\302\273
\317\213
-3
or
\316\262-
\316\2314
\320\236
2 4 0
0 14
\320\242\320\276
convert
to B-Spline
Bezier
from
p^
which
expands
(5.42)
control points, we
\320\2741\320\274\320\264\321\200\321\217
to
\316\277
-\316\271
\316\271
-1
3-3
\317\204
\342\200\224
--
3-630
-3300
11
2 1
10
use
(5.43)
138
Curves
\342\226\240
B-Spline
or
6
s~
A nonuniform
\320\232
=4
Of
and
-7
\317\213
-1
2
\317\213
2 -7
\317\213
-1
\317\213
(5.44)
\317\213
of a cubicBeziercurve
B-Spline equivalent
is
course,
curves.For
the
= \316\234
\320\222
>' M5P5
which
by
produced
vector [0,0,0,0,1,1,1,1].
we can also convert between the Hermite and B-Splinebasis
and uniform
cubic
Hermite
cubic B-Spline curves,we have
the knot
expands
(5-45)
to
0 0
b,1
1 1
0
3 2
6 0
0
1
3-630
3-3
-1
-3030
14
Ps
10
or
10
14
14
-3030
It
1
(5.46)
p,
0-303
Similarly,
to go
we have
P5 = M5MFB
which
expands
to
.! =
-!
\302\260101
2
2-211
-3
11
-1
-2
\320\222
10
or
(5.47)
10
0
Nonuniform
Rational B-SplineCurves
2
3
1
3
2
3
22
3
17
3
3
1
5.7
\320\222
(5.48)
CURVES
B-SPLINE
RATIONAL
NONUNIFORM
\342\226\240
139
(\320\270)
\316\243\316\233,\317\201,\316\233',\316\272
(5.49)
\321\200(\320\270)
wm
\316\243
= 0
\316\271
where
to
the h, are
the weights.
Ifweights/z,=1 forall
the
and
each
nonrational
B-Spline
i,
then
the
form
basis
function
N,k. However,
if the
knot vector
of Equation
(5.49) reduces
if the weightsh,
0,1,1
of
this
1 for
1),
where
curve
shape.
reduces to
equation
- \\ for the Bezier
\320\232
all
0 and
to
140
Curves
\342\226\240
B-Spline
ways to modify
are three
There
knot vector,
control
move
to
difficult
relatively
the
points,
and
how a
determine
the weights.
change
curve
curve; Change
of a NURBS
shape
will
to
respond
Because it
in the
changes
the
is
knot
vector, this is not the best way to change curve shape.On the other hand, the
effect of changing a controlpoint is predictable
and
intuitive.
If a weight h, is
increased or decreasedin value, then the curve is pulled toward or pushed
from,
away
the control
respectively,
point on the
curve along a
modification,
line
straight
will
changes
move
any
control
its corresponding
through
Tiller
rational
constructionsusing
(1987)
B-Splines,
Laurent-Gengoux
more
optimizationofa NURBSrepresentation.
Choi,
Yoo,
matrixof
of NURBS
a
the
5.8
Lee
and
as
surface
(1990)
present
of arbitrary
eurve
NURBS
Bezier
NURBS
ofrational
reduced knot NURBSrepresentations
curves
with G1 continuity Piegl (1991) and Farin (1992)survey
that led to the wide acceptanceof this form.
characteristics
WITH NURBS
CONIC5
REPRESENTING
The NURBS
is
curve
the first
often
(1992).
represent
A conic is
or
second-degree,
quadratic,
curve, so
can
and
use
Wang
we begin with
the
curve:
NURBS
second-degree
CURVES
a conic curve
it to
a method
(1994) discuss
Cheng
composite
X *,P,AU\
(5.50)
V(\=4\342\200\224")
\316\243*\316\233*(\
where
rational
K =
Bezier
3 and the
curve.
p(o)-
We
assert
without
produces
When
^(1
'
+ 2\321\213(1-\320\270;\302\2731\321\200|-\320\263\302\273
\316\234\316\271\316\241\316\277
\320\246);
\"\"\320\223\320\276-\320\263^\320\2771
u2h2p2
,\316\267\316\275\316\271
u^iipi
proof
of
a conic
curve.
s-mT
(5'52)
Conies
Representing
is a
constant,
ratios
depending
determine
a Speeific
for
ealled
\317\201 sometimes
is
arc
the
an
for a
= l
for
p>1
Fora circular
the conic
(5.53)
hyperbola
shape factor.
must prevail:
an isosceles
triangle, where
Z.p0=
^pz
h0
= h2
= l
'p^p\302\260'
xh^
2lp,
pol
each
Of
following
parabola
conditions
following
\342\226\240
141
ellipse
1. The controlpoints\321\200\320\276,\321\200\321\214\321\2002
must
define
2.
NURBS Curves
The
on the specie of conicrepresented.
of
conic:
type
p<l
where
with
can join
isosceles
course,
one
transformation
way to
Figure
S.I3
square-based
A seven-point
NURBS circle.
an
appropriate
where
a seven-
affine
142
5-9
Curves
\342\226\240
B-Spline
BETA SPLINES
CUBIC
An
over
which
p2,
These
shape.
on
variation
interesting
defined
knot
uniform
provide
two
is the Beta-Spline,
parameters,$}
and
of eurve
for global control over certain characteristics
the
extra degrees o-f freedom are createdwhen
we
relax
have
geometric
for the
continuity.
cubic beta-
P.-1
=
p,0)
UME
P<
Pi + l
ie[l
(5.54)
:n-2]
Lpi+J
where
-2$
6\316\262?
= \302\267
M\342\200\236
+ 2\316\262?
+ 2$)
-3(\316\2622
-6\316\262\316\257
and
affect
2\316\262?
=
+ 2\316\262\316\257
+ 4\316\262?
+
\316\264
\316\2622
and
\316\262,
the
are
\316\2622
flatness
the
+
3(\316\2622 2\316\262?)
1)
2(\316\2622+\316\262?+\316\262\316\220+\316\2621)
-2(\316\262\317\212+\316\262\317\212+\316\262\316\271
6(\316\262?-\316\262\317\201)
+ 4(\316\262?+\316\262,)
\316\2622
4fr
(5.55)
+ 2.
Both
tension parameters, respectively.
curve. Manipulation of \316\262,
affects
the tangent
vector
so-called
of the
6\316\262\316\271
bias and
and increasing
\316\2622
parameter-increasing side of each control
point,
to
the
of
the
As
we
curve
closer
sides
control
increase
$}
pulls
polygon.
the curve asymmetrically shifts
to one
we
side of the control polygon. When
the
and more elosely approachesand
curve
flattens
increase
\316\2622
uniformly
A
the
control
thorough diseussion of this interesting
approximates
polygon.
curve
found
in
is
(and surfaee)
Barsky (1988).
on the
the
SURFACES
surface is a continuous sel of points approximating
of each of the points.Mathematically
more
plane
of points.
Yet
we also
succinct,
may think of a surface as a two-parameter
family
of a surface as
is that
another conception, analogous to our notion ofa curve,
In addition, we can
the locus of a point moving with two degrees
of freedom.
notion
of a
the neighborhood
intuitive
Our
in
describe
surfaces
of a
with
special
properties;
for example,
moving
We construct,
other
it,
curve.
These
notions
them
arc a
surfaces.
parametric
display
or
we
modelingwhen
to
reveal
geometric
a surface
to
relationship
for
to
subsequent
143
144
\342\226\240
Surfaces
modeling
on
points
6.1
AND IMPLICIT
EXPLICIT
An
processes
a surface,
equation
also discusses
evaluating
on
surfaces.
EQUATIONS OF SURFACES
form
of the
(6.1)
Aw)-o
f(x,y,z)
is a
polynomial
in*, y,and
that
such
\316\266
i.j.k
From
equation
simply
algebra, we
sum of the
elementary
is
the
itselfis
the
maximum
in all
absent
variable.
When we solvethe
of
the
other
equation
implieit
two, say,
for
as
\320\263
a function
for one
of
\317\207
and
of the
variables as a function
y, we
obtain
(6-2)
z=/(xoO
This representsthe
same
explicit
the
equation
of
surface
as Equation
(6.1). However,
surface.
and
compulations, point classification,
Here is a relatively simplesurface-fitting
equation (see Figure6.1)
the
inverse
procedure,
point
computation.
on an explicit
based
Surfaces
Quadric
where we determinethe
must
specify
\316\267
are
large,
surfaces
with
16
An explicit
6.1
Figure
surface.
a specified
from
a,7coefficients
then
it becomes
\342\226\240
145
(that
increasingly
oscillations.
undesirable
and
surface, as well as the nonralionalHermite.Bezier,
B-Spline,
a
as tensor product(a
similar surfaces,
are mathematically
expressed
of the
scalar
A
tensor is a multiply
for
generalization
vectors).
product
subscripted
that
in
a
a
of practical reasons, the
transforms
For
certain
array
way.
variety
This
follow
the
strictly
more
in
rigorous
of the
most
modeling
of mathematical physics.
conventions
SURFACES
QUADRIC
A quadric
surface is one
whoseimplicit
For
example,
By1 +
Cz1+
2Dxy
if \320\233
=\320\224=\320\241=-\320\245=1
equation producesa
unit
sphere
The
+ 2Fxz
+ 2Eyz
at
is given
representation
algebraic
+ 2Gx +
and
D =
the
origin.
\302\243=F=
form
+ 2Jz
2Hy
G-
by f(x,y,z)
of a quadric
+ K
\320\257- J
=0
= 0,
(6.4)
then the
146
\342\226\240
Surfaces
form, we
matrix
In
PQPr=0
where
\321\203\316\266I]
P-[x
(6.5)
and
D
Q-
convert
of
problems
computation,
may
slowly
may
eause
represent
and
sealar
some
represent
on
point
arbitrary
\320\232
to repeated
subjected
the defining
kind
of type
right
circular
its axis,
gives the
scalar
A
degrade
a radical
can
We
transformations. This
small changes in the coefficients
change in computed surface lype.
surface by a data set consistingof vectors,
every quadric
characteristics
surface
intrinsic
scalars,
\316\227
computational
these
and
C>
(6.6)
a geometric
to the algebraic
Therefore,
However,
\316\225 \320\241
coefficients
ten
The
da|a.These
cylinder,
another vecior
where
one vector
vectors
and
defines an
axis,
and
radius (seeFigure6.2).
rigid-body
motion
a 4 \317\207
4 Iransformation
is produced
matrix
simply by pre-andpostmuiiipiying
Q by
T:
Q[T
Q'=T
'-\320\246\320\242
(6.7)
Using
quadrie
arithmetic.
the
following
surface:
definitions
A
=
Q\302\253
\316\225 \320\241
type
of
Quadric
Figure
6.2
A right
Surfaces
\342\226\240
147
circular
cylinder.
rx
- rank
r2 s =
rank
Q,(
of Q\342\200\236,
the
where
signalure
as Ihe difference
beiween
z1 =
bl
&2
s of
a quadratic form is
defined
negative
rools.
characteristic
+
\317\204^\316\221
signalure
B+C
AB + AC+BC~D2-E2-F2
z2 +
= ABC
z1K-G2-H2-J2
+ ACK
+ ABK+BCK+
- D\\C+ K) -J\\A
E2(A
2(DEF+ FCJ +
F2(B
K)-
+ K)-
DGH
G\\B + C) -
+ EHJ)
+
H\\A
C)
+ B)
a:Ti>0;IQ\342\200\236ki<0
or
\317\2042<0
\316\262:\317\204\317\212>0;\316\231\316\237.\316\231\317\2041>0
A
surface
is produced by
of revolution
quadric
aboul its axis. This surfaceis in its canonical
position
Totaling
if
and
a conic
only
if its
curve
center
\316\223\316\271
Invalid
Coincident planes
Single plane
>0
\316\264,
Invalid
u<0
Two
parallel
\317\213
\317\204:<0
Two
intersecting
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
\317\204,>0
Line
Other
Condi lions
Surface
Parabolic
planes
planes
\317\2043<:0
Hyperbolic cylinder
> 0; \320\263\320\224
< 0
\317\2042
Elliptic
2
3
3
\317\204,>0;\317\204,62>0
Invalid
\316\261
Cone
\316\262
Point
IQ\342\200\236I \320\2561
Other
Conditions
\302\261
0
2
1
\316\262
Invalid
\302\261
\316\262
Ellipsoid
cylinder
paraboloid
Hyperbolic
t;>U
Elliptic
\316\261
Hyperboloid
\316\261
Hyperboloid of two
paraboloid
Type
\316\244;<0
axes.
Ax2
cylinder
Surface
or vertex
coordinate
Type
+ 2C>x
+ 2Hy
+ 2Jz +
of one
with
sheet
sheets
the
D
equation.Thus,
K=0
(6.8)
(z
0) and
a quadric surface of
circle whosecenteris at
the
Ax2 +
Foracircle,./!
general
of
quadratic
a quadric
origin;
equation
surfaee
and
dividing
of revolution:
position
is a
thus.
Bf + 2Gx+
= Bx0andG-//=0.
in canonical
revolution
2Hy
Applying
+ K=0
these
(6.9)
conditions
to the
by A, we obtainthe canonical
equation
LM
where
6.3
= 0.
+ N=Q
familiesin this
are eight
There
+ Mz
+Lz2
x1 + y2
(6.10)
class
general
Table 6.2).
(see
PARAMETRICEQUATIONSOF SURFACES
The
is a
It is a
patch.
into manageable
In
units.
spline curve. A
coordinates
are
given
most common
and
simplest
surface
convenient way
this
x
where
e [0,1].
the
formulations
variables
parametric
course,
This,
of
that
produce
terms
other
(6-11)
to the intervals u,w
consirained
There
are other
patch.
w are
or other
one of the
the
z =
y(u,w)
a rec|angu|ar
generates
of
\320\270
and
triangular
the patch in
x(u,w)
\316\267
on
z(u,w)
patches.
in a
results
rectangular
variables
parametric
variable, which
remains free. By
curve on
continuing
process
first for
which
the
parameter
increases.
definingits edges.Othersof
vectors,
and
later. For
twist
vectors
importance
the
arc
conditions
points
tangent
are
always
we
CanonicalEquation
Sphere
- N
x2 + v1 + \320\223
Cylinder
x \342\226\240
+ f - ,V
Cone
x2 +
Paraboloid
x2 +
Prolaieellipsoid
xl +
Oblaie
j-!+
ellipsoid
=0
= 0
f-Lz1 = to
y2 + Mz = f)
f + Li2-N = Q,L<\\
/ + /,;2-(V-0,7,>
-N = 0
x1+y--Lz1
x2+y2-Lz7 + N = 0
will
discuss
and only
four
Figure
four curves
vectors, norma!
an ordinary rectangularpatch,there
(see
and the
four
150
\342\226\240
Surfaces
\\
Figure
of |he
two
limits
|he
surface patch.
A parametric
This
eurves.
edge
of
6.3
follows
two parametrie
from the
variables.
We
possible combinations
find
the
corner
poinls
to obtain
1 into
p(u,w)
by subs|i|uting these four combinationsof 0 and
the
the
or
On
other
and
hand,
edge
boundary
p(l,l)p(0,0),p(0,l),p(l,0),
We obtain Ihese
variables.
eurves are functions of one of the two parametrie
to
free
while
fixing the other to its
by allowing one of the variables remain
in four and only four possible
results
This
limiiingvalues.
procedure
curves
of
the
four parametric boundary
combinations
the
functions
yielding
and
p(u,0),P(u,l),p(0,w),
p(i,H>).
surface
some examplesof generalparametric
patches
a
The
oneis
The
following
plane.
simplest
defining equations.
equations represent a rectangular segmentof the x,y plane.
+b
z^O
y = (d-b)w
x={c-a)u+a
Here are
e [0,1].
where
u,w
parametric
coordinates
of
constant
w are
functions of u. An
Figure
and
their
parametric
(6.12)
both
the
6.4 illustrates this patch, showing
coordinates of each comer point.Thecurves
the x,y
The
are
axis.
curves
running parallelto the \320\264\"
which
of
exists for the lines
situation
constantu,
straight lines
analogous
and
Parametric
Surfaces
of
Equations
\342\226\240
151
\321\203
Ml
Ml
u,,
\320\256.1)
(1,11
a-0
\316\2671
10
= IW-
vi =
la.W
(e,6)
(1,0|
(0,01
Figure 6.4
of
plane.
= a,
are straight lines parallelto the \321\203
axis.
The boundaries
of Ihis plane are \317\207
=
=
d.
b,and \321\203
c,y
The next simplest surface is the sphere(seeFigure
the locus of poinls
6.5),
at a eonstant
distance
from a given point. The parametrie equations \316\277\316\271
a
of
radius
centered
at
are
r,
sphere
point (\317\2070>)>\316\277.\316\226\316\277\316\247
x =
Parallel ol latitude
= curve o( consiani
\320\270
-Meridian
Figure
6.S
parametric
curve ofconsiani
sphere.
152
\342\226\240
Surfaces
=
\316\233\"
+ f COS
\320\224\"\320\276
U COS
+ r sin
Z-Za
where
radians.
\321\213
is
meridians
An
ellipsoid
of longitude,
at
centered
.v
+ a
-xtl
\321\203y0 + b
- Zo +
\316\266
Equations
(6.14)
Figure6.7
the surface is
x(u),z(u)
that is
\320\270
cos
cos
\320\270
sin
space
two
both angles in
of latitude, so lhal a circle
is
w varies. Curves of constant
semicircles as \320\270
varies.
the
equations:
parametric
following
w 6
[0,2\317\200]
(6.14)
Figure 6.6.
equations
of
are
cos w
-x(u)
\321\203
parameter
as
plane
axis.
revolved around |he \316\266
(6.13)
with
2'2
Notice
z=
[0,2\317\200]
\320\270
\317\207
The
parallels
has
a parametric
.shown.
longitude,
generating
are illuslraledin
shows
x,y
to
(\317\207\316\277\316\233'\316\277,\316\226\316\267)
cos
\321\201
sin
\320\270
are
in a
are
and
of constant
curves
w
2'2~
\320\270
lo latitude
analogous
Obviously,
generated
sin
+ \320\263
cosu
\320\243\320\243\320\276
x(u)
(6.15)
ue[0.1J, we[0,2Tc]
sin w
z(u)
of a patch
differs from
variables.
parametric
three-dimensionalparamelerspaces
defined
that
Thus,
by
of
because
a eurve,
we have a
(u,w,y),
(u,wr*c),
com sinui
\320\260
\320\24105\320\246
COSIil
Figure
6.6
A parametric
ellipsoid.
we
set of hybrid
and (u,w,z)
6.7
Figure
eoordinales.As
A parametric
eubicHermite
with
surface of
revolution.
curves,
decomposing
in|o
behavior
in
spaee.
The surfaee
graphs
a bieubiepateh
elaboraleits
on
in
and
the left
6.8
Figure
pn
He
show
has
the following
properties:
poo
and
p01 lie
in |he
in
syslem is a componenl
given by
lop
patch
=
the equation \317\207
the
and
similar
u,w,z patches are given
u,w,y
x(u,w);
by
|o the
Again, nolice jhat the parametric variablesareconstrained
equalions.
unit square u,w e[0,l]. Holdingone of the parametric
variables
constanl
the curve
defines a specific paramelric curve on Ihe patch.Thefigure
shows
on
curve
has
\320\270
this
the
and
in
same value,
p(ii\342\200\236iv).Every
poinl
parameter
These
space we see Ihis curve decomposedin|oits componenls.
parametric
=
are revealed
curves
the component
u,- Ihrough
by passing the plane \320\270
patches.
left
in
the
u,wrx
coordinate
154
>
Surfaces
Figure
with
As
careful
Ihree
6.B The
we can
curves,
parameter
observe
the parameter-space
cases. We call Figures
of
inspeclion
special
a point
6.9a,
space of a surface.
In
specifying
of a
subsets
define certain
composed
of
parameterization
to
is the
particular
sections of a
several
choose
patches.
[0.1]
domain
surface.
We will
x [0,1]
\317\207
[H'min,wmflX],
[umo,umux]
This
frequently
is useful
use
this
we
can
a surface
freedom of
whenever
readily
is
Parametric
of
Equations
6.9
Figure
The parametric
Nine
faces
plane
Two
region
observations
surface
are
are shown
of a larger
can be
necessary.
interchangeably.
surface, in
\342\226\240
155
Surfaces
Although,
in
three
groups
as
normalized
First, we will
strictly
of three.
to this
necessary
unit
speaking, a
patch is a
or
limited
patches
the
us distinguish
these limited
patch has more significanceand
helps
have
classes
of parametric
surfaces
been developed.
regions. Second, many
term
156
\342\226\240
Surfaces
\316\234
Figure
Three
6.10
special
surfaces.
6.4
HERMITE, BEZIER,ANO
B-SPLINE
specialcasesof
the
rational
AN
the
Hermite.
consider
curves,
The
Bezier
in
parametric
SURFACES:
rational
forms.
primarily
and
of course,
hierarchical
the way
surface.
each
OVERVIEW
Bezier, and B-Spline
nonuniform
rational B-
the nonrational
relationship
forms are
between the
Hermite, Bezier,and
An Overview
Surfaces:
B-Spline
\320\266
157
the
rational
surface
B-Spline
applies
equally to these surfaces, with
We
the
will
consider
the
or
most
tensor
being
general.
only
product,
of these
surfaces. There are, however, well-knowntriangular
forms
rectangular,
of each of them. See for example,
or othermultjsided
varieties
Farin
(1993a),
Kato
and
GreinerandSeidel
Warren
(1991),
(1994),
(1992).
The
bicubic
Hermite
patch is defined by its four corner
points, tangent
at the
vectors of the four boundary curves,and the so-calledtwist vectors
corner points.
of these patches may be assembledto represent
Composite
arrays
scheme exhibits advantages
surfaces.
This
surface
complex
representation
curves
dimensionsdetermine
the
for
the
curves.
array of control
Hermite
a rectangular
of
degrees
points, whose
the
comprising
the curves
net.
curve
isoparametric
and are
the
throughout
The
points.This
and
beyond
independently
of curve
of the
array
rectangular
of control
Georgiades
scope
and
(1992)
these
(1993)
control
following
weights
the
local
permits
defined
the
in
points
of
fofm
are
functions
focus
patch.
B-Spline
shape
Bartels
work on curves.
for similar
and
of these
forms, including
disadvantages
Comparative
For
see
and
well-known.
Farin
others,
(1989b, 1993a).
implicit
example,
and
Shook
Piegl (1989b), Letcher
(1995a, 1995b). Letcher and Shook
of the NURBS
summarize deficiencies
surface form as applied to
advantages
are
and
the
volume
for
gridding
are also
relevant
concern
are
the
1. Division by
2.
Nonuniform
computational
to the
entire
following:
parameterization
arcs
(particularly
important
in CAD/
CAM)
cannot
3. Surfaces
surfaces
helicoidal
which
are
manufacturing
surfaces
having
be accurately
mentioned
no exact
represented
as common
NURBS
efficiently (for
and
engineering
representation)
example,
158
\342\226\240
Surfaces
4.
nonuniform
surface meshes
isoparametric
Irregular
(for
weights
the rational
forms)
and
projection,
example,
intersection)
and
deficiencies have been pointed out by Requicha
offset
Fixed
NURBS
cannot
describe
surfaces
Rossignac
(1992):
degree
and NURBS
forms
for quadrics or othercanonical
representation
exactly,
of these surfaces. For example,
hide
the nature
it may be useful to know that
the surface of a hole is a circular cylinder; the test to determineif a NURBS
Of
surface
is indeed a cylinder is a numerically
unstable
computation.
but
course, sophisticated modeling systems work around these problems,
is a stimulus to search for alternative
their
existence
forms.
Other
6.5
POINTS
descriptive
ON A SURFACE
discussed
We
different
on
to direct-
approaches
2.6. Point
curves
in Section
of
evaluation on a surface
is an extension
those techniques,plus some additionalstep?.Toevaluate
a
more
or
directly
to a similarly
less regular distribution of points on a surface
corresponding
of
we
a sequence of curves
first isolate
regular distribution parametervalues,
on the
of constantparametervalue
and then evaluate points along
surface
eachof these
curves.
the
Changing
point
constructed in it
face)
in
these
(for
curvature
where
more
will
spaces
have
N components.
requires
(N
\342\200\224
1)
by reparameterization
example, increasing the
The inverseis greater).
subtle.
the inverse-point
Because
net
parametric
evaluation
To define
parametric
most
important
strategy
space,
for
analytic
surfaces
then vectors
variables.
Curve
Nets
\342\226\240
159
consider
to the
the
=
\320\263
vector
If
p'-p.
surface.A
good
guess
of the
center
parametric
is
Irl
then
small,
a vector
\320\263
approximates
tangent
start the
is to
iterationatp(l/2,l/2,1/2,...
,1/2),
f =
hypersurface. Now, we definea unit vector
that
r/lrlso
\320\255\321\200/\320\255\320\271,
_\316\233^
or in
(6.16)
dujds
fti
matrix form
[*] =
\320\223
dlt;
\320\255\321\200]
\320\263
ds
(6.17)
Irl
or
duf\"
-1
\320\263
\320\223\320\255\321\200\"
\342\226\240
ds
If As=
then
Irl,
the
incremental
(6.18)
:r:
dll,
in the
\316\224\316\257\316\257,
changes
parametric
variables
are
-1
[Ali,}
Again,
we compute
... ,1/2),
procedure
CURVE
until
of
\320\255\321\200
(6.19)
\316\234
\320\255\320\270,-
at
the
initial
[\320\255\321\200/\320\255\320\270;]
guess p(l/2,1/2,1/2,
Next, we appropriatelyincrementeach
to determine
variables by \316\224\316\257\316\257,
a new p, and continue the
we satisfy
some convergence criterion Irl <\316\265.
and
parametric
the elements
\320\263
from
r =
p'-p.
of
the
NETS
of curves
related subjects are of interest here: Ihe general
formulation
embedded
curve
in a surface, and netw orks of curveson surfaces.
The
nets
of interest
of which
are the parametric, orthogonal,and conjugate
all
nets,
have special properties. Olher types
of curves
on surfaces
include lines of
Two
constant or equalcurvature
and
geodesies.
Our
goal is
to become aware of
certain
of
systems
modeling
curves
on surfaces
we can
use when
applying
problems.
most
curve
obvious
net on
to
surfaces
a patch consistsof
of
varies
of |he
We
leave
isoparametric
defining
the
itself.
surface
assert
the
that is,
curves;
while the other
without
parametric
iransformations of parameterslhat
r = r(u)
r =
s = s(u)
(6.20)
s(w)
and
r(w)
(6.21)
|o
u,w
be orthogonal
is
(6.22)
p*pH=0
An orlhogonalnet is useful
in many
analytical
for
geometric modeling; example,in structural
engineering
analysis,
fluid
applications of
flow, and ther-
Embedded Curves
\342\226\240
161
modynamics.
|he orihogonality
analysis.
be
ne|
conjugaie
is
p\"\".ft =
6.7
(6.23)
EMBEOOEO
CURVES
surface
vector
a two-dimensional
space suitable for supportingthe
of
curves.
The
two parametric variablesdefining
representtion
serve
to supply |he coordinale grid on which
define
we
may
provides
analytic
surface
the
embedded
curves. This inherent characleristicof |he paramclric
lion is an invaluable
assel to many aspecls of geometric
modeling,
surfaces
primitive
wilh
shapes.
The
curve
space of |he
distinguish
u,w
irregular
the
curve
patch. Here
we
wc denolc
the
parameiric
plane, |hc
c(l)
= u(l)
Figure6.11
+ w(l)
Conjugate
u,w
of
parameter
|o
the curve as c(/).Notethai
a new
introduce
formula|ion,and
including
boundaries
variable
parameiric
poin|s
on the
represenia-
Also
in
|he
|ha|
no|c
direc|ions.Thus,
(6.24)
net.
162
\342\226\240
Surfaces
we can define
this curve in many ways in the u,w plane:
explicitly,
with Bezier or B-Splineforms,with the parametriccubicform,
and
define c(/) in
implicitly,
so on. We
Hermite form as
(6.25)
c(/)=TM,Bc
where
T=[P
curves
are
l2
1]
Hermite basistransformationmatrix.Theparametric
sketched
in their respective u,t and w,t parameter
Figure
6.12
Curves on
surfaces.
spaces.
Embedded
>
Curves
163
\317\201[\302\253(/),\320\270>(/)]
points
a model-space
find
We
tangent
curve, embedded in
vector p/ to
the patch
point
(6.26)
/ on it
We
'Pun1
It
is the
of p;
direction
that
interests
'Piiii'1
us;
the
magnitude
has no
particular
meaning.
A
different
the control
only
requires
approach
poinls
of
Bezier
or B-
Wc compute
the corresponding
be embedded a surface.
of
and
then
construct
the curve
coordinates
control
points
model-space
the
as
lie
in
surface.
itself usual.However,
|he
will
only approximately
do not require transThe advantageof
is thai poini evaluations
approach
formalionfrom parameterspacetomodelspace the surface equation.
Splinc curve to
in
the
curve
this
via
We can
of smaller
surface regions(seeFigure
6.13).
object
physical
of these
Each
a collection
into
regions is
reaching
praclical limits at abrupt or
We
establish
the boundaries of a region at
changes
shape.
thesediscontinuities.
In general,
the curves where regions join do not
the isoparametric
the
curves of the individual patchescomprising
coincide with
the total surface ofa modelin this way so that each
surface.
We may segment
is
then
where
often the total surface is
itself
tractable,
region
mathematically
not. We map each region and its boundary curves onto a unit square or m x
characterized
by
conlours.
well-behaved
in
discontinuous
in
\316\267
rectangle
space.
parameter
form
defined a surfacein parametric
the
and
between
coordinates
relationships
model-Space
Earlier wc
w : p(u,w)
variables
triplet
as
We can
\342\200\224
[x(u,w)
surface
y(u,w)
coordinates.
of Cartesian
coordinates u,w.Wc
z(u,w)].
Every
interpreted
of
two
these
parameters,
but
this
also
as a
a unique
\320\272
and
parametric
coordinates x,y,z,
have
think
analytical
by specifying
pair
the
familiar
of parametric
164
\342\226\240
Surfaces
T/ansii ion
geomeuy
Cylinder
>
J^)
\320\241
6.13
Figure
uni| square
the
in
equaiionsof
mentioned
As
For
irregular.
the
objects,
established
of |he
they may not correspond to the limits
of
the
domain
variables.
|he
by
parametric
the underlying
intcni.
by
Usually
real
parametric
surface region
|he objeci's
curves may be necessaryto delimit
cxteni
points
in
this
subset
complex shape.
certain
from
above,
surface
parametric
geomerry
Disk
coordinate
u,w
surface
the
of a
Decomposition
Tiansiiion
are in a
real object's
we
that
one-to-one
subset
modeling.
of poinis
Thus,
on |he
in
boundary
patch. The
surface.
In
6.14,
Figure
intersections
established
by
themselves
contain
b2. and
and
we
express
map
surface
R are
model
ihem
we sec that
with
surfaces
and
5\316\212
b, =
S2, which
We denole
surface
k(0
(6.28)
/e[0,l]
w,(0]
boundaries
is called
a trimmed
elements.
For
an elegant
themselves
are
Embedded
\342\226\240
165
Curves
ject
way to do
this
region. Then,
the region
in
We then
to
specify
as follows. We
construct
the
straight
line
irregular
\317\201
-q
line
bounded
|his
or not
it
with
makes
plane.
each of
boundary
boundary.
an
lies
in the u,w
odd
number
is
\317\201
of
166
\342\226\240
Surfaces
then
times,
on.
the regi
ouiside
lies
\317\201
All
even
intersections
bring
Ihe
back
\317\201
of |his.
Figure 6.14 shows severalexamples
a
R
as
a function of Ihe
One
to
is
region
way
symbolically
represeni
parametric
surface
S onlo
curves
which il is mapped, the boundary
b,. and
known interior point q.
the region;
inlo
R = \320\244(5,\320\254\342\200\236\320\247)
S is
Here,
unit
an m
in
square
mapped
that
is,
active
\317\207
\316\267
rectangular
the
paramelric
pJane u,w. b; is
region.
region is to specify
intersection
the
half-spaces.
the implicit
the
defining
sophisticatedpoint-classification
Using
this
approach,
of
set
methods
previously.
slated
inlo
earlier
that
a collection
Figure
to
way
appropriate
test each
we merely
functions
object
on a
curves
paramelric
as functions
of a parameier t;
on|o the same planeand expressed
=
\320\270
the
and w
inside
w(i). q is a point on the parametricplane
u(t)
An allernative,
We
(6.29)
patches normalized
of parametric
array
the
active
(see
half-spaces
are
indicate
set of two-dimensional
found
in the
references
listed
6.1S jrreguJar
intersection
surface defined by
of
half-spaces.
the
an
Curves
Embedded
extrusion
easily
parametric
that
decompose
has
been
it into
slotted
and
truncated
of smaller
a collection
by
in a variety of
> 167
ways, yet
we
trimmed
surface.
There
are six parametric surfaces. Sj wraps
around
and defines the extrusion'slongitudinal
surface
the
(before
entire
cuts
cross section
and slots are
168
\342\226\240
Surfaces
that
one end
defines
S2 is a plane surface normal to 5\316\212
completely
surface
of
the
a
extrusion.
is
closed
53
cylindrical
intersecting S, to form
plane
surface
that
takes a nick out of
a slot in the extrusion.
an
54 is
open cylindrical
the bottom flange.5, is a plane normal to 5, that establishes one facet of the
near-endplane.S6 is also a plane, but it takes an angular cut through S^.
\316\267
of parametric
surface patches. We
Each surfaceis a unique
in \317\207
array
the
surface
each
R
a
surface
with
establish
by intersecting
adjacent
region on
\342\226\240
we
surfaces.
We define
the interiors by six points qi- q6. (Alternatively,
could use an expression defining the intersectingtwo-dimensional
halfof traversal
or we could use the right-left re/ationshipto Ihedirection
spaces,
of the
shows
these
and
bounding
points
region
curve.) Figure 6.16
in
on
surfaces
the
unit
boundaries
onto
their
square
respective
parametric
mapped
made).
the
u,w plane.
q,,
which
we
us to
allows
to be
know
test (or
of
inside the
the
straight
p,.
enclosed volumeof
other
We
can
do this
easy to
determine
testing the
distance
determine
by connecting
occur
the test
object.This
the condition of
between
point
being
a
and
with
p\342\200\236
q\342\200\236
this
results. If there
line and
each
are no
bring the
intersections
pv. for
poim
we define a point
the
is obviously
an odd
surface
bounding
even
then
volume.
total surface,
object's
of the surfaceregions,
we
intersections,
any
classify)
outside,on, or inside
line. By
Ihe
if
point
of pv from
each region.
It
is
HERMITE
BICUBIC
THE
SURFACE
of cubic
families
Two
Hermite
net are
the
basis
7.1
the
ALGEBRAIC
AND
The algebraic
GEOMETRIC
FORMS
by
the
tensor
product
(7\320\233)
where
\302\273,\302\273\316\265[0.1]
The
term
a(J vectors
bicubic
(7.2)
the
if
169
170
\342\226\240
The
Surface
Hermite
Bicubic
w
and
that as with Hermite curves, Ihe parametricvariables\320\270
0 to I inclusive.This
makes
the
restricted lo values in the interval
and the use of
this restriction
patch bounded in a regular way. We wi II discuss
us
method
to describe
allows
irregular boundarieslater.Thetensorproduct
0. Notice
a53 \316\246
are usually
p(u,w)
the curve-defining
of
the
arranging
(3.2)
a^w2
+ a]3i(w3 +
+
+ a^icV
+ a^ii2iv2
a^irw3
in descending
order
curves:
for
+
\320\260\320\267\320\267^\320\275\"3
+
a,y
polynomials.
terms
+ \320\2603\320\276\320\2702
+ a^u2
a2\\U2w
anuw2 + atiuw
(7.3)
+ a]0i(
+ a02w*
+ \320\260\342\204\226
\320\257\321\211\321\213
\320\260\320\276\320\267\320\270^
on the
and
w defines
the set of all points lying
in \320\270
the
form
of
the
bicubic
Hermite
patch.
patch,
expanded algebraic
has
3 independent
Because
each
of the 16 vector coefficients \320\260,\321\203
components,
or 48 degreesof freedom.
there is a total of 48 algebraiccoefficients,
Thus,
16-term
This
polynomial
and it is
vector
each
is
component
x(u,w) = <733lu3w3
similar
with
for_y(u,>v) and
expressions
In matrix
notation
the
+ a3Uu3w
+ uvxifw2
form
algebraic
p(u,w)
\321\217\320\250\320\264.
(7.4)
z(u,w).
is
= UAWT
(7.5)
where
\320\2702\320\2701]
U=[i?
w2
W=[h\"3
a33
a32
a23
a22
a13
a12 all
a2i
1]
a2J
a10
\320\260\320\264\320\260
\320\260<\320\270
\320\260\320\271
\320\260\320\256_
of the
elements in U and W, the subscripts
to
those
in
They
correspond
(7.3).
Equation
for
not, in this instance, correspond to the normalindexingconvention
the a elements
is
matrices. Since
are three-component vectors, Ihe A matrix
of
Because
vector
elements
actually
a4x4x
As we
Hermite
patch
Ihe
order of the
A matrix
in the
do
3 array
found with
determine
the
Hermite
its shape
Algebraic
and
Geometric
Forms
\342\226\240
171
and
shape
is
by Equation (7.2), the range of the variablesx, y, and \316\266
because the range of the algebraic coefficientsis not restricted.
A patch
consists of an infinite number of points given
by their
x,y,z
occurs
An
infinite
number
of
of
also
in
the
coordinates.
u,w values
pairs
restricted
not
restricted,
corresponding
each
its
parameter
space.
A unique
7.1 shows
Parametric
Figure
7.1
spaces
A bicubic
componenls
in
parameter
space.
model
space
from
its
172
\342\226\240
The
Surface
Hermite
Bicubic
A bicubic
patch is bounded by
cubicHermile
These
curve.
because
arise
Ihey
\321\200(1.\320\2700.
four
curves,
curves
are
denoied
a| |he
limit
values
and
is by appropriately
curves
Another way of denoting the boundary
use
should
we
vector
their
Thus,
may
\321\200\320\262\320\270.,
pi \342\200\236,\317\201,,\316\277,\317\201,,\316\271;
interpretation
p.
be obvious. There are also four
corner
unique
p(0,0), p(l,0), p(O.I),
points
Ihe
subscripting
andp(l,l).orpoo,pio.poi,pii-
Reversing sequence
shape of a surface.
example, direction
of
the
the
freedom
to
course,
p(0,w)
It is
Hermile
so all
must be
normals),
Let
complete
Of
curves.
be
must
opposite p(l,w) on the patch,and p(u,0)
a useful convention for the elementsof a
patch.
curve.
we have almost
scheme defining Ihe boundary
surface
7.2 shows
\321\200(\302\253,
1). Figure
Hermile
bicubic
from
the parameterization
assign
opposite
of
the
aside
And,
us investigate
terms containing
a boundary
that
the curve
vanish,
and
p(ii,0) = a,0\302\2533+
curve is
indeed a cubic
Equation
0,
(7.3) becomes
+
+ ai0u
\321\217\320\266\320\2702
a\342\204\226
(7.6)
As
of course,
we saw
Figure
7.2
Elements
of a
bicubic Hermite
patch.
Forms
Algebraicand Geometric
form.
metric
lain
We derive
conditions
boundary
used
approach
corner
\342\226\240
173
tangenl vectors\321\200\320\271\320\276,\321\200\320\271\320\276,\321\200\302\245\320\276,\321\20
the boundary curves
define
of course,
They,
\317\201\316\212\316\212,
\317\201\317\200.
the e'ghl
and
pointspoo,pio,poi,pn
(7.7)
\321\200\320\223\320\276\320\223
\321\200(\320\270,0)\320\240[\321\200\320\276\320\276
\317\20110 \317\201\317\213\316\277\316\277
p(\302\253,l)
p(0,w)
Pm
F[poi
pn
F[pfl0
p&
\321\200\320\270
\317\201\317\212\316\271\316\223
(7-8)
\316\241\316\260.\316\223
(7-9)
pTb
\321\200(1,\320\270\320\236
\320\240[\321\20010
p\342\200\236
curves
These
geometric
use
coefficients.
12 of
provide
Four
additional
vectors
twist vectors, one at each of the
the twist vectors-as follows:
express
so-called
the
we
Mathematically,
,\342\200\236,
\320\2552\321\200(\321\206,
w)
at
u =
%
01
\320\240\320\232\320\237
at
a=0,w = l
-i^uiaa aw
Pl1~
aI
-=^ul
-=
-, -,
?pb^
an aw
of
-u
the
l,w
=0
1>w =
function
1
p(u,w)
\320\2552\321\200(\302\273,
W)
48
points.
\342\200\236-\320\277\321\213-\320\277
\320\270
-U,w
^ ^
an aw
\320\2401'*\320\243
\316\261\316\271\316\271
aw
result
comer
four
the
at
poo
the
evaluating
(7.10)
\316\241\316\271',\316\223
and
obtain
Sit aw
+ 4\320\26022\320\274\320\270>
+ 2a2iii
+6\320\2602\320\267\302\253\320\275'2
+3a13w2
When
we
evaluate
this
equation
at the
+ 2a12w +
an
comer points,we
obtain
pBo=\"u
=3\320\26031+2\320\26021
\316\241\317\212\316\277
+ \320\260\320\270
+ 2\321\21712
+ \320\257\321\206
\320\227\321\2171\321\217
\317\201\316\232\317\212'
= 9\320\260
+ 2\320\260\320\263,
+ \320\227\320\260,3
+ 2\320\260,\320\263
+ \320\260,,
+ 6\320\26032
+ \320\227\320\260-,
+ 6\320\26073
+ 4\320\26022
\320\270
\317\201\316\220\317\212\"
174
>
The Bicubic
Her mite
Surface
Ear
poo
= aoo
plO
= a30 + a2()
p01 =
+ a01 +
the
aM
+ \320\26032
+ \320\260,1
+ aM
=\320\260\320\2643
pi \316\271
+ aLi +
+ a00
+ aI0
+ a02
\320\260\320\250
|he
wi|h
when we
12 veciors.Thus,
oiher
an + a,,
+ an
+ a12+ a21
+ am
a,,,
+ aw
+ aM
\316\206\316\262
aWl
= a io
poo
poo =
+ 2\320\2602\342\200\236+\320\26010
\320\227\320\260\320\266
\321\200\"\320\276
pU)
= aS]
poi
=ai3+
poi
=3803
+ a21 +
+ \320\257(|]
\320\260\320\230
+ \320\260\320\270
+ \320\260]\320\241
\320\260,2
+ 28(2
+ aoi
+ 2a21
+ 3\320\260\320\271+
+ \320\260\321\215\320\270
=3\320\260\320\267\321\215
\320\227\320\26031
+2a2J
+2a22
\321\200\320\275
=
3aH
\321\200\320\271
use
+ 2a3:
+ as1+ 3a\342\200\236
+ 2a22
A geometric
of
iriterpre|a|ion
|he faci jhaj a bicubic paich
+ a21 +
|he
3a13+ 2aJ2
consisisof |wo
+ a]2
+au
+ \320\260\320\270
+ 3ao3
is shown
veciors
Iwisl
2a2(l
+\320\260\321\210
\320\260,,
+ %
2\320\260\320\264\320\260
in Figure
sets
orthogonal
mutually
7.3. Wc
of
in
intermediate
these
We
curves,
as follows.
proceed
and
computing
\317\201(\316\237,\316\271\316\275,)
p(l,w,-)
must
find the
at
such as \321\200(\302\253,\320\275\",)?
First, we find the endpointsof p(i(,w,)
w = w, from Equations (7.9) and
(7.10).
as w
the
this
from
changes
tangent
change
vectors
in
the
and
To
\321\200\"(1,\320\270>,-).
do
this,
by
Next,
we
we observe
are
not
\321\200\320\271]
and
w =
\342\226\240=.
0
lo
equal.Thus,
w = 1. The
\320\255\321\200\321\206(0>)
\320\2552\321\200(0,\342\204\226)
3iv
\320\264\320\270
dw
\317\201\317\213\316\231\"(0,<*0
(71\316\240
and
Algebraic
Geometric
Figure
and
7.3
Geometric
interpretation
Forms
\302\253',
\342\226\240
175
\302\273J
1
of Iwist vectors.
similarly
\320\255\321\200\320\274(1,\342\204\226)
\320\2552\321\200(1,\342\204\226)
dw
\320\264\320\270
dw
12\\
/\316\267
of the
the
twist
vectors
corners, these terms are p^, \317\201'^\",
\317\201',',1;,
\317\201'\316\257\"',
set of boundary conditionswe saw earlier.
There
is an analogy between the way
we
a curve and the way we
handle
to find the intermediate
usethe twist vectors
tangent vectors.Just as we
on
a
cubic Hermite curve by twoendpoints and tangentvectors,
we
specifypoints
can
intermediate
specify
tangent vectors along a boundary curve by the two
end tangent
We find points
vector values and correspondingtwist
vectors.
a
curve
for
along
by using
(7.9)
boundary
p(0,w), example,
Equation
At
the patch
p(0,vv) = WMi-[p,)U
p,,
p&
\321\200\320\271\320\223
We use an identical form to determine an intermediate
tangent
point on and orthogonally crossinga curve
boundary:
p\"(0,w)
WMji[p\"w
Equation(7.14)describescurve
a
by
the
arrowhead
endpoints
of the
p'd,
pSl'
pKT
(7.13)
vector
at
(7.14)
that
we might visualize as being formed
intermediate tangent vectorsas w varies
176
\342\226\240
The
Surface
Hermite
Bicubic
unit
interval.
the x,
or
y,
who
Meriwelher,
that there
Note
curve.
an
veclors.
these
of
\316\266
components
mixedpartial
not
is
derivalive
means
This properly
important.
is lhal
vectors
dislinguishthe
u,w
\320\270
and
that
are completely
interchangeable
of a bicubic patch can
lion
at any
we take the
in which
manifesta-
order.
Because
of
define
the
boundary
patch
necessary
in
curves
geometric
conditions.
these patch-definingcurvesby
matrix.We begin by filling the first two rows with
of curves p(0,w) and p(l,w)
We summarize
Next,
we
fill the
Row
1:
p(0,w)
Row
2:
p(l
-> poo
some
that
them
assembling
poi
the
in turn,
in a
4x
coefficients
geometric
\321\200\320\274
\321\200\321\202\320\276
,tv)-\302\273 \317\2011\316\271\316\274
\321\200\320\270
\321\200?0 \321\200\320\270
form. They,
their
the
Column I:
J-
Column
4,
geometric
coefficients
of these
coefficients
of curves
p(w,0)
\316\241\316\277\317\205
poi
poo
2: p(i(,l)
poi
pin
\321\200\320\270
\321\200\320\242\320\276
\321\200\320\270
poo
poi
\316\241\317\212\316\271
\316\241\316\257\316\277
We
have
12 of
auxiliary curvesto
finish
filling
the
matrix.
matrix.
Now,
we must
use the
and Geometric
Algebraic
->
p(0,w)
P_(_l_.w).
p\"(0>)
p(u,0)
p(u,l)
4^
4-
\316\271
JI
J^
p\342\204\226
poi
poi
\342\200\224>
__Pi\302\253l
Pii_
->
pfi,
pSo
p'\"(\302\273-l)
\321\200>,0)
pft,
Pw______P_n____
\321\200\320\271\320\223
jpSS'
->
p',7
\317\201\317\212\316\271
\320\240\"(1\320\273\302\2730 \317\201\317\212\316\277
jpft
Conversely,
coefficients
the
contains
with
those
contains
pattern
of
Using
respeel
the
these
twist
Forms \342\226\240
177
four
geometric
auxiliary
curves.
observe
thai
we
the four
vector
repeals
subscripts
in
a regular
of geometric coefficients,we
this matrix
patch at a specificpair of
situation.
the geometryof
this
u,w
values,
Here
say,
we see
way.
can
a point
evaluate
on the
w, and
w,. Figure 7.4 illustrates
that the point of interest liesat
is easily
of the curves
This
p(w,,ii') and \317\201(\316\271\316\271,\\\316\275}).
problem
to finding a point on a curve
at a given
value of a parametric
with
choose
to begin
can work
with either curve, so we arbitrarily
variable. We
of this curve, \321\200(\320\270,,0),
coefficients
p(u,,w). First, we determine the geometric
the.se
can then determine
and
we
coefficients,
p'Vj.lJ.With
p(Ui,l),p\"'(\"\342\200\2360),
the
intersection
reduced
the
coordinates
of
the point
Figure
7.4
point
p(u\342\200\236wj).
Determining
on a bicubic
the coordinates of
Hermite patch.
178
\342\226\240
The
Surface
Hermite
Bicubic
We compute
We
using p(w,l):
p(\",,l)
compute
p(w\342\200\236l)
We
+ F3(w,-)pSi
F2(ut)pu
an
using
p\"(uh0)
compute
Fi(\302\253,)pM
auxiliary
\317\201'\316\247\316\257\316\257,\316\237),
F2(\302\253,-)pii>
\317\201\"\302\267(\"\342\200\2360)
^(\320\270;)\321\200\"\302\253
we
Finally,
compute
that
Now
at W/,
it
evaluate
working
curve.
+ /s(^)p,o
Fiiw^F^ypa,
the
Equation
ftW^uJpui
+ b(u,)V%
/^^(\"^pKi
(7.19)
cannot
+ ^(\"iJpBo+
curve
p(u,>Vj)
as the
(7.19)
initial
be reduced to matrixform.We
variables
parametric
the function
drop
/\320\247\320\270,)\321\200\320\255\320\224
+ ^(wOP'aJ
can certainly
yet
+ F4(\302\253,)pnJ
/\320\234\"0\320\240\320\270
^(w/Jpff
using
we
\321\200(\302\253;,\320\270>),
follows:
+ Ft(u,)p40]
+ F3(u,)p\302\25301
the
the same time generalize
We
+ /^(\"Opoo
+ /M'OpH
the subscripts.
abbreviate
curve:
auxiliary
and at
this
do
+ ^(\"\316\237\316\241'\316\257\316\277
(7\302\2671?)
/\320\234'\320\236\320\240\320\231'
(7.18)
/\316\257\316\234\316\241\316\277\316\212+
^(\"\316\237\317\201\317\212\316\212
^(\"\316\237\317\201\317\212\317\212'
+ /^HfiOOPoi
We could
ft(\"i)pi\302\273
we have
p(u/,Wj)
(7.16)
curve:
p\"'(u,l),another
p\"(w\342\200\236l)using
pu'(ii\342\200\236l)
+ Fa(ut)pb
will
by dropping
to read
equation
\321\200(\302\253,*\320\253\320\257(\302\253)
F2(u)
Fa(u)]
Fi(u)
poo
poi
pio
\320\240\320\270
\316\241\316\252\316\212.
\316\241\316\252\316\271
P&
\316\277\316\271
\316\241
P&i
\321\200\320\271\321\201\320\242
\316\241\316\277\316\220
\321\200\320\223\302\273
(7.20)
Pfo
\321\205^\320\230
F2(w)
F3(w)
\316\272 Pffi'
\316\241
\317\201\316\220\316\257
F4(w)]T
the
the 4x4 matrix of geometriccoefficients
as
B, and
simplifying
that
and
are
and
to
and
row
[notice
F,(w) arrays
F(w)
F(w)
F(w)
Fi{u)
F(u)
Denoting
vectors]
produces
p(u,w)
Now
and
w are
F(u)BF(\302\273>)T
(7-21)
basis-function
the function notation and use the Hermite
= UMF,
and because
Because it is also true that \320\251\320\270)
and
interchangeable parametric variables,it is also
symmetrical
we eliminate
transformation
matrix.
Functions
Basis
Patch
Hermite
that
the
conventional
= UMfBM/.'W'''
(7.22)
we
By comparing Equation (7.22)to Equation (3.12),
between the algebraic and geometricformsand see that
With
MfW.
F(w)
p(H,\302\273v)
\342\226\240
179
the
we can
relationship
convert from
formulas:
following
A =
see
M,-BM\302\243
(7.23)
and
=
\320\222
7.2
AM/
M^
(7.24)
The basis
serve
same
for
functions
the
Because
the
basis
preceding
development
We apply
as the
purpose
has
patch
twice.
functions
Hermite
patch have the
basis functions for the cubic
bicubic
the
two
see
We
independent
parametric
this in Equation (7.21)
Hermitecurve.
and, of course,in
the
it.
two
tangent
principal
p\"(u,w)=
=
pw(u,w)
functions
vectors
of
to
(3.7)
Equation
vector:
F,'(u)BF(w)T
F(u)BFw(w)T
puw(u,w) =
Fu(u)BF\302\273'(w)T
or
= VMfBMf\\VT
p\"(u,w)
p\302\273(u,w)
VMPBM\302\243TXVT
p\"\"(u,w) =
Remember
the tangent
We can
UM\302\243BM\302\243rWr
that
Mj? (and MJ?')is the Hermitebasistransformation
vector at a point on a cubic
Hermite
curve.
the
form
use a tensor product to express
geometric
in
\320\240(\320\270^)
=\316\243
/=0
(7.25)
matrix
for
as
n
\320\245\320\254.\320\233\342\204\242(\/>(\")")
/ =0
(7\302\26726)
180
\342\226\240
The
Surface
Hermite
Bicubic
in
This is analogous to the algebraicform expressed
Equation
Again,
(7.1).
on
and
we must take care in how wc interpret the
Ftn,(u),
subscripts
\320\252\321\206,
of
The
m
\316\267
are
because
have
their
limits.
\317\210we
shifted
consequences
F/t\342\200\236(w),
not
7.3
here.
explained
Computing
of
processes
functions
are
cubic
the
in
in two
expressed
This means
curves.
The
is the
vector
\320\255\321\200(\302\273,\320\270\321\200
and
approachhere
defined a curve
we
that
net.
by
investigate
recompose
and
scalar
the
effect
the
\320\222
matrix
i, because
the
appropriate
= dp(M,w)
(7.27)
(7.28)
dudw
curves.
of a
shape
patch,
We can think
p](i
&ii]ifii
&1\320\256\320\234\320\256
Pll]
Ajtfi
^loi'ii)
Pn
'oot'ii
^01*0]
'JO1]!)
/\342\226\240\320\233
m.olff
\321\202\321\202\321\207\321\216
\"\316\220\316\261,\317\212\316\277\316\244
>\"jji',T
of
to the
unit
two
distinct
tangent
patch.
We change
set
we must
that
on
magnitudes:
\320\222
directions
wc
Earlier,
piw
Notice
We can
for
partial derivative
mixed
vector
Let us briefly
one
p\"(H,w)=
The twist
derivatives.
partial
twist vectors
and
tangent
for curves.
are
vectors
tangent
the
for
used
we
system
independent
that we
expressions
developed
notation
understanding
Hermite
bicubic
the
scalars.
multipliersof the
twist
vectors
does
not
curves
that
by
a change
change
changing
to any
the
of the
scalar
boundary
and
Tangent
curves.
This
We can
is interesting.
twist
change
on the
the
fix
interior
shape
vector
in
magnitudes
(see Figure
the twist vector at \321\200\321\206,
where
boundary
curves
this
comer
four
the
Twist Vectors
points
\342\226\240
181
and boundary
operations on
indicatesthe
result of
7.5).The figure
of a
patch through
The
\317\201','5''-\302\273
(\317\201\317\2127)'.
change
on
dashed
the interior.
curve
Wc note
net
that
are unaffected.
Figure7.S The
effect
Hermitepatch.
changes
The
when
of twist
vectors
dashed
curves
boundary
on the
on the
conditions
interior of a bicubic
how it
patch show
change.
182
7.4
\342\226\240
The
Hermlte
Bicubic
Surface
PO!
PTi
poci
pui
\321\200\321\202\320\276
pio
Pu
p'io
pSo
pSi
Pto
\317\213
\316\241\317\212\316\271
(7.29)
NORMALS
is almost
normal
unit
indispensable
a consistent
(730)
\342\200\242(\"\342\226\240\"^fcti
=
\317\207
\317\207
often convenient to express this as k\342\200\236n(u,w) = \317\201\"
where
k\342\200\236
\317\201\"',
\316\231\317\201\"
order in which the vector productis taken determines
direction
the
pH1. The
out
a
It
turns
that
we
can
itselfas
\316\277\316\257\316\256(\316\257\316\257,\316\227').
interpretn((i,w)
patch,the
normals
and
this
to
be
a
we
see
later
that
useful
will
patch,
proves
very
it is
interpretation.
for
convention
curves
boundary
assigning identifying
subject of Figure
is the
corner-point
positive
or
outward
surface
patches.
A more
advantage
of
(7.30).
This
convenient
existing
\317\207
thumb
as defined by Equation
sign when summing
algebraic
k\342\200\236n
[x\"
The
see
that
if the fingers
direction of ascending curve or
points in the direction of the
in the
normal
surface
a consistent
convention gives
patch
the
then
numbering,
7.6. Here we
component
\321\203
[(y\"zw
offi
is
\320\243\" zw]
Z\"]x[*\"'
y\"z\")
{z\"xw
x\"z\")
(x\"yv
y\"x\]
takes
\342\226\240
183
Normals
Ip\"
To rewriteeachof the
use of
p\"(u,w)
(7.26),
and
find
terms
patch.
and
UM?BM?Wr
to a
vector
Normal
7.6
Figure
x \317\201\"\";
z\" in
and
that
fis
\342\200\224[(UM\302\243B..Mf
B.M'fW')
Wr)(UMf
(7.31)
-
and similarly
fori),,
expensive
relatively
and
to
without
normal
is a
\302\253,.This
at any
polynomial
biquintic
if the
However,
compute.
self-intersecting,
approximate the
(UM/B>.M^Wr)(UM^B,MiWr)]
and
undulations,
so
in
and
is
\320\270>
and
expression,
so that
n(u,w) becomes
=
A(Mlw)
UMfBnMjW7'
(7.32)
where
\320\237
: \320\237
\320\262\342\200\236
\320\270;
B\342\200\236 \320\273\342\200\236
B\342\200\236
Nil
\316\256'\316\257\\\316\256
\320\257;
ft?\"
three remaining
matrix algebra is
B\342\200\236,
by
appropriate
but
rather lengthy expressions. Nothing is
tedious,
straightforward
producing
here. Nonetheless,
them
gained by presenting
evaluating each of the
e
:
at
that
at
is,
resulting expressions
u,w
[0 1],
(0,0), (1,0), (0,1), (1,1), determines
We
have
components
of
already
derived
f\\x,
ny,
and
ht. We
differentiation
find the
of nx. The
184
\342\226\240
The
the 16
elements of B\342\200\236x.
Similar
elements of
remaining
7.S
Surface
Hermite
Bicubic
for
matrices
and
B\342\200\236,
will
determine
B\342\200\236\342\200\236
the
B\342\200\236.
FORM
SIXTEEN-POINT
or
practical,
even
to define
values
vector
aHii3w3
\321\200(\320\270,\320\270>)
This
for
is, of
each
+ aM
+ \342\226\240\320\260\320\267\320\263\320\2703\320\270>2
of
p(~A
Figure
*J\\](PY
7.7
+ \"J
Sixteen-point
+
\\)\\\316\270\316\263
form of
Hermitepatch.
- +
aOT
a bicubic
Form
Sixteen-Point
185
(7.33)
\321\200|\320\235)=\320\247\320\267)\320\250+'\320\271(1)(\321\202|+-+\"\321\216
\321\200(1,1)
In
matrix
form,
this set
\320\26033(1)3(1)5
+ \320\260\320\267:(1)3(1)2+-
+ \320\260
(\302\253\316\271
of equations becomes
p(lt;,Wy)=E>
or
(7.34)
\320\225_1\321\200(\320\270(-,\320\270',)=\321\217
The
y,
and
z.
Next,
rewritingp(u,w)
we investigate
= UMFBMiWr
the
geometric
(7.35)
p((i,w)=UNFPNiWr
We replace the
by a
\320\222
matrix
P=
matrix
P, where
\317\201(\317\213,\316\237)
\321\200(\321\207)
P(o,f)
>(H
p(if)
\321\200\320\271)
\320\240(0,1)
W
(7.36)
4\302\273)
\317\201(\316\2314)
p(ll)
HI\302\2671)
\317\201\316\237,\316\277)
>\320\232)
Performing
form,
as
the indicated
\320\240\320\236\320\224)
>(\302\267!)
algebra, we find Nf to
be
186
\342\226\240
The
Hermite
Bicubic
Surface
27
2
45
2
9
2
9
N,- =
11
2
1
The
uniformly
speaking,
\320\222
and
\316\241
matrices
are
related
18
earlier
encountered
the
(7.37)
This
9
2
9
2
27
while
investigating
16-point
data
\316\241
are,
patch.
= LPL7
\320\222
(7.38)
where
1
0
L =
M^NF =
11
2
-I
which we
This
fitting
\317\213
9
2
-9
(7.39)
also encounteredearlier.
approach,
requiring
problem,
but certain
only point data for input, is better for the surfacecharacteristics remain that make its use somewhat
in representing
tedious. For example, wben using this approach
analytically
and
known surfaces (spherical,parabolicsheets, so on),a significant
deviation
on a
arises because of nonuniformspacingof the input
Also,
deciding
points.
considerable
care.
patch distribution over a compositesurface
requires
si
fit
across
nee
each
is
the
boundaries
continuity
Finally,
patch
independently,
is neither guaranteednor likely
For
these ilaws
many
modeling
applications,
us to make further improvements.
are unimportant;still,they motivate
7.6
REPARAMETERIZATION
The reparameterization
OF
PATCH
of a patch proceedsin
of
repaTameterization
much
is a
the
same
way as
reversal of the
for a
direction
Reparameterizationofa
Patch
\342\226\240
187
or both
can do this
where
PlX)
pin
\321\200\320\270\320\263,
Pill
pin
\342\200\224
\320\222
Pll
Ph.
PTi
(740)
\316\271
Pci
pSo
\317\201\317\213\316\277
\320\240\320\2311
Pi'c
\316\241\316\257\316\277\"
\316\241\317\212\316\271
Pn
all
of constant
curves
To do this,
first
we
interchange
rows
Figure
w
4 and
7.B The
their
change
in Figure
direction
of
7.8b. This
as
means
parameterization.
matrix. Next, we
these
each
coefficient
in
rows
by -1.
multiply
interchange
simply
3 and
will
u,
rows
and
2 of
the B|
188
\342\226\240
The
Surface
Hermfte
Bicubic
=Pn
qoi
qn =Poi
qiu-pix)
\342\200\224
\320\222
'2
=
\320\247\320\262\320\276\320\276
-\321\200?\320\271
q5i
Lq'm\342\200\224Pi',
two
notice
We
and
interchanged
things:
4oi
-p?i
4\316\2231
PSi
II\302\267\342\200\236
W
\320\273
qi'i
qi(i -\317\201\342\204\242
483- =
qKT
\342\200\224
\316\24111
=\321\200\320\271
(741)
-\317\201\317\212\317\212
4\302\267\316\2574=-\317\201\317\212\316\223
qu' = -pil!'J
-p3Sr
First, the
by
multiplied
are reversed.
Next, starting
7.8c. This
of constant
interchange
with
we
Bj,
the parametric
reverse
directionof
w.
time,
3 and
columns
thus, we obtain
we interchange
4, multiplying
variable
w,
as
parameterization
in
Figure
of
curves
also
by
-1;
B3:
- Poo
=
\320\263<\321\216
Jm
\316\241\316\277\316\271
~pw
'i\302\273 _\320\240\320\276)
\317\204\316\277\316\271
=
\342\200\242\316\212))
r \316\267
\302\267\316\212\316\271=\316\241\316\271\316\277
\320\263\320\223\320\270^-\321\200\320\277
=\342\200\224pi'o
\317\201\316\271\316\271
-II =
_ nll
_ \342\200\236u\342\200\236u
\320\263'\"1'\342\200\224
\342\226\240\302\273\"\"'
rllw \342\200\224
n\"u
\342\200\224
\320\263
riw
\316\223\316\277\316\271
\320\263\320\264\320\260
\320\270 prx)
poo
ptu
\321\200\320\276\320\267
B,
rio =
pn
fn-pio
(7.42)
\320\263\321\216\342\200\224pn
'n\342\200\224pio
we notice
Soi =
sm-pn
B<
Su
Pm
\342\200\224
\316\257\316\277
\321\214\320\2761\342\200\224
\320\276\320\264\320\260--\321\200]|
\316\241
sic>J=r poi
pi\302\273 \320\254\321\216\342\200\224poi\320\254\320\270\321\200\320\276\320\276
\342\200\224
II
U
(7.43)
\321\201
\321\214
11
01 \342\200\224
10
\320\254\320\276\320\276\342\200\224
=-\321\200?\321\217 \320\254\320\276\320\276\342\200\224
\321\200
\321\200
\342\200\224pnsSi
\342\200\22411
_
c\302\253
\342\200\224
S 11
\302\273\316\271\316\277\342\200\224
sHi=-p\"\302\253.
p 01
\321\20000
_\320\254\321\216
pOl
_
B,
P,A
P.i
p;\302\253 \320\240\320\271
P;*
Pi'
Pj*
P\"i
Pf*
v;>
pi*
rT
Pi*
vT
\316\241\316\252
\321\200\320\263*
(7.44)
of a
Reparameterization
Patch
\342\226\240
189
\302\273.i
ty
7.9 General
Figure
of a
reparameterization
q*
4i*
\342\200\224
\320\222
,2
for
corner
curves,
and
points
are
the same
related
qc
4.
q;;
q*
qi*
q>
qi*
q!v
u*
q;;
patch.
(7.45)
q?
q;j
<\317\212\316\257
of Bj
elements
and B2 are
curves,
the
directly.
\320\247\321\203*
py*
q/;
(7.46)
p/i
q,i=py
The
tangent
vectors area
bicubic
form
of
t and
\320\270
and
equations, we assumea linear relationshipbetween
and
v. When
we do this, we obtain results similar to those
expressedby the tangent vectors in Equations (3.29). In particular,we find
the patch
between
190
\342\226\240
The
Bicubic
Surface
Hermite
that
\316\257\316\257,-\316\257\316\257,
and
4'
(747)
^VP'
wk)
{u,-u,)(w,-
\342\200\236\342\200\236
(748)
ft-\316\237\316\270\316\212-\316\275*)
is ail example. IE
Here
we
\320\265[0,/\320\267],
we
B'
If
i;,
W]
Wj
and
with
in
the
array
successive
are
\316\267,
Wk, and v,
dealing
a patch
reparameterize
from u,w e
[0,1] to u\\w'
obtain
arrays
vh.
As
of
are readily
poo
Poi
pio
3\317\201\316\220\316\231,
3\317\201\316\257\316\220
\321\200\320\270
3\317\201\316\257\302\273
\320\227\321\200\321\216
3p\302\243o
3pSi
3plV
yp'iT
3\317\201\317\212\316\271
\320\243\321\200\320\232\320\227\"
9\321\200\320\271\320\223
9\317\2018\316\277
pairs of integers,
noted
for curves,
then
\320\270,-\320\270,-\320\223,
similarly
for
f(-
is useful when
contiguous
patches. In Figure 7.10,individual patches
identified by the array indexingschemeof successive
we
this relationship
integers.
Figure
7.10
rectangular
Parameterization
array
of
patches.
of a
and Subdividing a
Truncating
7.7
can
We
SUBDIVIDING
AND
TRUNCATING
now
the
stating
geometric
of the
Figure
are
coefficients
techniques
the matrix
Bbfind
the corner
curves
by
we find
as follows:
Given
\321\200\320\263\320\276\320\254\320\227\321\201\321\202
\342\226\240
191
A PATCH
reparameterizing
apply
an existingone,
patch
points of the
Qoo =
=
qio
new
w\342\200\236
wb
\320\270;-,
is
and
a subpatch
\320\270>;.\320\240\320\263\320\2
patch
\321\200(\320\270/,\320\270>/)
p(\",.w*)
(7.49)
where the
Using
=p(\"\342\200\236Wi)
qn
=p(uj,w,)
q vectors; are
the tangent
(747),
and
vectors
\317\201
Equations
qoo
qoi
quo
(\302\253, W/)p\"(M;.\302\273'*)
qfo=(\302\253j-\"i)p\"(li;.M'*)
qoi
qIi
Remember
that
=
=
qw
=
=
(w/
wk)pw{uhwk)
(wi-wk)p\"(uk,wk)
qoi =(w,-wk)p\"'(Uj,w,)
(^-\302\253i)p\"(\302\253i.H'i)
(H/-\302\253,)p\"(\"/.\302\273'/)
t\\-to
= l
and v,
\342\200\224
=
v0
1.
New
Figure
7.11
Subdividing
a patch.
parch
(7.50)
192
\342\226\240
The
Bicubic
Surface
Hermite
We obtain
p\"w(u\342\200\236wk),p\"K(uhwi),
and
qio =
COMPOSITE
HERMITE
\302\253i)(wi
(\"/
qSi
= (jj; -
qi'i
(Mj
Wk)9m(uhwk)
(7.51)
h,)(>v/
w^p'M(uhw/)
u,)(wi-
Wi)p>\342\200\236i*i)
SURFACES
questionsto consider.
First,
continuity
the
p'm(u\342\200\236Wk),
(748):
wk)p\"\"(u;,wk)
evaluating
(\302\253y \320\270,)(\320\251
A composite
the
by
Equalion
using
\317\201'\342\204\242'(\316\257\316\257(,\316\271\316\275,)
quo
7.B
vectors
and
factors
whal
composite
surface?
patches
joined
to form
that
follows.
patch is the basisfor the investigation
of
We are interested in the continuity
two
and q(\302\253,iv)
p(u,w)
patches
the
curves
common
thai
and
are identical
3
such
having
boundary
q(0,w)
p(l,w)
the
on
in
effeclof
twist
vectors
the
the
(see Figure 7-13),and
continuity along
this shared patch boundary.ToensureG1continuity
the
across
this boundary,
of
be
scalar
coefficients of the respective auxiliary curves must
multiples
surfaces?
The bicubic
Figure 7.12
composite
surface.
Surfaces
Hermite
Composite
\302\253193
Curve \317\201
=
%\316\223 \"\316\241,
\320\240|\302\253.\320\270>)
Curve \317\201
Curve q
Figure
each
7.13 The
olher. Given
point
of
Ihe
of patch
G1 continuity across a
produce
are shown in Figure 7.14.This for-
to
required
two
between
patches
1,1
0,1
I,1
\320\232
.1.
-+\"\321\207
1
\316\274\316\271\316\277
\342\226\240
4
\"\316\241\".
\"p;;
1
--1
-11IU
1,0
0.0
Figure
the
7.14 The
requirement
boundary
p(u,w)
corresponding
=
=
=
as follows: q'oo = <?\317\201\317\212\\>,
q'6o'
\320\264\321\200\"\320\276.
qi'u
\302\253\317\201\317\212\316\271.
4$'
al any
prevail, we find lhal q\"(0,w)= iip\"(l,tv)
coefficients
common boundary
then
and
continuity.
curve
auxiliary
\317\201\317\212\316\271,
\317\201\316\220\,")
\317\201\316\212\342\204\242,
The geometric
on
vector
0,0
geometric coefficientsaffectedby
for G' continuity across a common
betweentwo
patches.
194
\342\226\240
The
Surface
Hermite
Bicubic
introduced by
have Gl continuity
only
mal was
of
rows
disjoint
of
multiples
a total of
a total of 96.
have
\320\241
continuity
have
patches
At a corner of any
of
operation
invariant,
contribute
-vectors
four
patch,
basis functions
the
all the
conclude
position-determining
and if common auxiliary curve-determining
are
columns)
(or
exhibit
We
(1974).
identical
are
\320\222
matrices
their
Pelers
if common
shape-determining powerlies
shapingparameters.
Figure
composite
point
7.15
surface
contains
four
where
centers
vectors applied to
the
patch
in
Patch
Patch
1/
\302\273\316\256
\302\267*?
kK
*v
\"K\"
Patch
\342\200\242V
\"3
\"3
!\320\260\320\270.\320\232
\320\223\320\247
Parch IV
111
Figure
\"\320\246
V/C
*.*:\342\226\240
it will
situations,
or foci
help
of the
patches
of the
a list
vectors,
p(u,w),
share
an interior
at an
conditions
shows
and
are
functions
basis
as the
points
two
shape throughthe
four
these
in
to
joined
7.15 Continuity
characteristics of a
composite surface.
that quadrant.
next
the
vectors
in
boundary
only be in the
Gl continuity
Composite
curve through the point.And
along the
slope along
scalar
this
boundary,
generate
that
at an
control
the
the
for
the other
between
vectors,
analysis
relationships
affect
cross-derivatives
the
only
195
the
by
scalars)
Notice
do
preserving
\"i/.i
\302\253\316\223,.\316\271
*,
k:
K,,
\320\276
'm
',-=
*f
Vm
*,
*(
';\302\273
\316\275.
*r
\316\234\316\271
\"if
*,
\302\253.
p;
1
r
\317\201,',..
'\320\223\",,
\316\241\317\213\342\200\236,
*l
since
seen, they,
multiple.
By continuing this
They
we have
as
>
Surfaces
Hermite
\316\275
\317\201?
Pf
\316\212
',
Figure
*...
*,.,
\320\263
'/\342\226\240\342\226\240
V/
\317\201\"
Pi.r.;,
\320\263
\320\240\320\223\320\274.,
\317\201?..,-.,
'/-
'/\302\267.
1
*\342\200\236\316\233\316\271
*!..
'/..
*..
*,.,
<*,.,
*7j
';
'/
*i.j
'
*,-,
1
\317\201,\302\267,.,
\321\200\320\223,.,\302\267
*\342\200\236,',
7.16 Continuity-driven
*,.j
\320\263
*,-!
'/
*\302\273'',
\302\253\\.l., \320\252.,
\317\201\316\223,\316\244,
\342\226\240*,\342\200\236
\316\271
propagation of scalefactors.
'/
'/
196
\342\226\240
The
Surface
Hermite
Bicubic
and
w take
curves along a curve of constant u-, or wt. Also notice that when \320\270
on integer values at intervals correspondingto the i,j indexing
scheme,
reparameterization is not necessary,because,for example,ui+i- \321\211~1. In the
the \320\272
and
are shown in three of the four quadrantsat
/scale
factors
figure, only
each
node.
of the
node.
(,/'
vectors
the corresponding
multiply
They
for
a 4
\317\207
5
array
the
in
of patches
first
quadrant
seven
with
distinct
scale
factors
in Figure 7.17-Although the arrows at eachend of
of constant
the
band
scale factor are bidirectional, we must select a single
to which the scalar relationshipapplies.
consistentdirection
for
band
each
Once
a convention
for associating the data at the points
we
select
with the
a
\320\222
scheme to fill in the
matrix
easily
adjacent patches, we can then
develop
a
lowest
indices
of
for any specific patch. If we identify
the
of
by
patch
pair
of
matrix
the four sets defining the patch corners, then we readily fill the \320\222
is shown
(,/'as follows:
patch
pi
p.)
p<,/+f
Pi + 1,/'
Pi + l.Z +
\320\240<;
\316\241\316\271,/+\316\271
//+\316\257\316\241\317\212.;+\316\257
\317\201\316\223\316\271-1./ '/
+ 1
+ 1\321\200\"+1,;
[B]\342\200\236
\"\316\271
+ lpi+f./
Here
outside the
indices
the
+ l./ +1
\"\316\271
+ lpr
+ lPi+l./
\"i
'/+ip,.,
\320\240>;
fti
brackets on \320\222
identify
+ i'; +
the
us consider
cubic
forms
Now
parametric
and
tangent
points.
vectors
created
not
creating
patches,
the
but
corner
points.
to specify
having
vectors
This approach was
most surfaces
tangent
are
sufficiently
to require
this way
complex
itself and
how to
Soon, there
for
+ !
to modeling
twist
tangent vectors.
with extra point
useful
lPi+(.;
patch
(7.52)
+i
applications.
Parametric
network
spline
of
patches
of
differentiation
required
elegant
for
approach,
the
generate a rectangular
network of points, usingnumerical
to calculate the derivatives
interpolation
of patch coefficients. Cardinal splines,a more
came
interpolation
from a corresponding
the
complete
were
spline
set
introduced
of Timmeris
Here is a summary
to defininga rectangularnetwork,
two families of intersectingcurves
into vogue to
by Gordon (1969).
of Gordon's approach
(1976)
application
of bicubic
Hermite
patches. We consider
\316\271
and
with
efl:
q,
r,
m] and /' e[l : \320\270],
Surfaces
Hermite
Composite
1,5
\342\226\240
197
6.5
\316\271
iyii'ii'
*\302\267[,,\302\267,,,,\302\267,,t\\>t\\.\\\\\\,\\
N\342\226\240\342\226\2401
\342\226\240\342\226\240-\321\207\321\211\321\200\32
\342\226\240I
\316\223\316\271,\316\271|\316\220\316\220\316\271\316\271\316\271\316\231'\316\234
\342\226\240!\320\242/\320\226
jfe^
\316\246
6.1
1,1
7.17 Distribution
Figure
to
combine
which
are mxn
there
thai
We
the
express
of
17 family
\316\267
curves
p(5) = 4f(5)
where \317\201
is the
The
range
17; therefore,
vector
position
of the parameter
we define
and
Je[0,5,]
to a
double
subscript on
indicated.The
parameters
(7.53)
1 f-
te[0,T,]
p(t)=r,(t)
S,
u,w
\"
s and t
\320\270
and
denotes
w are
such
1 V ',
and
m
The
of scale factors.
their
value
normalized
or
that
(7.54)
= I '11
\316\271
198
\342\226\240
The
Bicubic
Surface
Hermite
Figure 7.1B
curves.
the
into
unit
procedure has
functions s =
the
effect
spline-interpolating
of
curves
of
ie[l:
functions.
S,(u),
families
in u,w parameter
square
to map
curve
corresponds
\316\267
functions
defining
m]. In practice,
As a result,
them into
the
unit
so
that
\320\240\320\230=\320\223,[7\302\273]
\321\200(\320\270)
\320\247\320\224-(\320\270)]
and
ie[l:m]
to
square,
corresponds
to a
I =
(7.55)
/e[l:n]
we
\320\275\320\265
[0,1]
[0,1]
can
this
We
treat
consider the actualinterpolationproblem.
of
as
a
combination
two
interpolation
problems, interpolatingthe
For example, consider the m curvesof q,(i/).Eachof these
tj separately.
is
to a distinct value of the parameter w; therefore,it
corresponds
Next we
network
and
curves
to
natural
interpolate
these
curves
separately.
F,(w)
p(u,w) = \302\243
=
i
The
Fj(w) are
(7-56)
q,(ii)
basis or interpolatingfunctions.
These
have
the obvious
properties:
f,<w,)
= s0
-0
if
i*j
if
'=/
(7.57)
q,
Composite Hermite
are free
We
lo choose
basis
any
often
referred
functions.
Notice
defining
lhal
functions
indicated
Let us
the
the
for
functions
Equation
satisfy
Surfaces
\342\226\240
199
(7.57) lo act
as
interpolation.
functions
spline-interpolating
tor the
F-\342\200\236
of wt.
(7.56) using the F, in only the immediate
neighborhood
for the dependent
values
variable at each of the interpolating
Specifying
mesh points results in two unspecified
these conditions
conditions.
Usually
are first- or second-derivative
end
of the mesh.
at
constraints
each
applied
For the splines defining the q,(s), the constraints reflect the obvious
slope
and
for a space curve. Selectingendpoinl
curvature
considerations
the other
constraints
for
of any
two spline fits is not so obvious.In the absence
other constraints, we assume lhala constant secondderivative
of the
in each
two end segments will be imposed
on both S,(u) and Fj(w).Clearly,we could
Equation
have
the
performed
interpolation
p(u,w)
functions
The
our
example,
interpolation
we specify
are
the
F{u) r,(w)
J
/-
p\342\200\236
(7-58)
XW',(\302\273>)
role as
same
both q,((i)
by using
p(\302\253,w)
where
the
F;-(\302\253)assume
where
+ \302\243/\302\267\302\273
F{w)
\321\206,(\320\270)
\302\243
\302\243
1=1
values
of
Figure 7.19
at
\317\201
Cardinal
the
i,j mesh
i=1j=l
points.
spline-inierpolati\316\267gfunction.
F;(u)
p\342\200\236
(7.59)
200
Bicubic Hermite
> The
II
to
way
we
However,
a network
for
lhal
oul
turns
inefficient
if q,
Finally,
Equation
interpolate
can use the
of bicubic
we can
points,
Surface
guarantees
same
this
p'('ni,, p\"u.,and
rectangular
provided
if we
reparamelerized.For
reparamelerize
createa
we
discontinuous
square,
relationship
the
between
new
the
(7.59).
data
initial
tf(w)
original
of
continuity
the
be
in
Equation
surface-generating
it is
at
will
G2
be
the
lhal
semi-
way over
regular
curvature
First,
defined
completely
lose the
and we
parameters,
to the unit
each patch
example,
parametersand
p\342\204\242.
throughout
continuity
of
G2 continuity,
and
G\302\260,
G\\
data.
If this
remain
is the case,
- \316\241
\320\243
Substituting
these
Wv\302\253
\316\243
i
into Equation
equations
\316\234\")
\317\207
\316\267
(7-6\302\260)
= 1
expression:
\"I
fIf
we
include
complex.
slope
or curvature
Equation (7.59) or
mapped into the unit
/I
l/ =
\316\271
constraints, this
becomes
expression
(7.61)can be interpolated
over
the
entire
surface
more
and
u,w parameter
square
space, similar to the process
we usedfor the bicubic
Hermite
obvious
difference is lhal, for the
patch.The
a
immediateexample,
does not cover the entire unit
single
equation
square.
each patch element formed by the two
of curves
is the
families
However,
of
a
bicubic
in
the
sense
within
lhal,
equivalent
patch
any quadrilateral patch
in
element,the interpolation
may
be
expressed
as the
familiar
201
Composite Hermite Surfaces \342\226\240
(7.62)
Any
of altering
parameterized lo the
can be
subelemenl
the compositesurface.
This
means
unit
that
without
square
danger
by Equation
of {m- 1)
interpolation
a network
be replaced
lo,and
may
by,
(7.59) or (7.61)is equivalent
the
Hermite
without
bicubic
guaranteed
affecting
1)
patches
(n
it can
A disadvantage
of this approach is that
lead to a large number of
continuity
allow us lo model the samesurface
alternative
would
patches.A practical
and
fewer
without
changing the original input point data.
using
patches
to selectively reduce the number of patches
illustrates
a scheme
Figure 7.20
of
15 array
in a composite
used
surface model. What was potentially an 11 \317\207
patches is replaced by a 3 x 3 array.
of patches, however, could causea lossof G2
the number
Reducing
becomes
when we consider a singlecurve;for
This
loss
apparent
continuity
we
use
a
the
curve in the figure. In the secondsegment,
boundary
example,
upper
curves.The
segment
single
single cubic Hermite curve lo approximateseven
the
curvature
will match the original endpoinlsand
however,
may
tangents;
at
lo
the
the
the
leads
curvature
deviate somewhat. Freeing
endpoinls
the original
curve had continuous curvature,
Because
discontinuity
composite
\317\207
\316\223
I
_+_._
\342\226\240\320\247--1
-1\342\200\224r-
L_J
__L
\342\200\224
--v\342\200\224t\342\200\224! I\342\200\224
\316\267\342\200\224\320\263
\"T
\316\271
\316\271
4-4--I--.
-J\342\200\224r-
.\316\247.
I
i\342\200\224
I
\342\200\224
__L\302\267-
\316\271
1-
+--|-\321\207
\316\271 I
\342\226\240
-r
J__
-r
\342\226\240T-t
\342\200\224
-+\342\200\224!
\316\223\"
\\\342\200\224
1\342\200\224I\342\200\224
|_4
\320\223--\320\223--\320\223-
4--f
-i
--1--+-r\342\200\224\316\271
-15 Parches
Figure 7.20
r\342\200\224\317\204
reduced
io 3-
-I
202
\342\226\240
The
Bicubic
the new
discontinuities
Surface
Hermite
single-curve approximationshould
Note
discernible.
barely
final
network
be
close
and
the resulting
this reduction in
crosssectionto
define
simple
the simple
Figure
one
(see
Figure 7.21).
7.21 Transition
for
the
crosssection.
Patches
Hermite
Special
\342\226\240
203
(7-63)
\316\235=\316\243\316\267'
section
curve,
a conventional
using
Next, compute
rectangularmesh.
a set
wc
as
Insofar
surface
(pardon
of
n0
points
surfaces
composite
the pun).
mathematics
representational
this reduced
Using
N<mntl.
Obviously,
and
construction
situations.
7.9
SPECIAL
There
three
HERMITE
barely scratchedthe
for most
techniques
modeling
PATCHES
we
are several ways to construct a plane patch, and
will
of them here. Figure7-22shows the simplest
construction,
interpret
of
variety
great
investigate
we
which
as
=
\321\200(\321\213,\320\270>)
\321\20000
ur
+ ws
u,w e[0,l]
the point
Hermite
(7-64)
and
pTO
patch.
1.1
Figure
7.22
Vettor
equation
of a
plane.
parallel
We set
to the
all the
204
\342\226\240
The
Surface
Hermite
Bicubic
algebraic coefficients
in
to zero
equal
(73)
Equation
and
\320\260\320\260\320\264,
a^,
except
resulting
+ \320\275\320\260\321\210+
wa0
\320\260\320\276\320\270
\321\200(\320\275,\320\275>)
can
determine
Poo -
poi
pixi
+ s
\317\201*
+ r+S
+ \320\263
\321\200\321\216=\321\200(\320\256
pn-poo
\320\263
\316\241'\317\214\316\277=
= \320\263
\316\241\316\277\316\271
= \320\263
\316\241\317\212\316\262
- \320\263
\317\201\317\212\316\271
Pot=s
=S
\316\241\316\277\316\271
= s
twist
the
vectors
>
(7.66)
pn=s
\316\241\316\252\316\277
where
(7.65)
- r, and av, =
identical to (7.64), and we find am - \321\200\321\210,
a]0
the geometric
coefficients for this constructionas well:
(7.65) is
Equation
s. We
a0i,
in
are
are
= \317\213
= 0
\321\200\320\271\320\276 \316\241\316\277?
(7.67)
= \317\213
\317\201\316\257\316\277 \316\241',\316\244'=\316\277
We assemble
the
\316\222
matrix
from
directly
these equations:
s
+ s
\321\200\320\274 \321\200\320\276\321\202
poo + r
+r
B = poo
Figure
three
points
+s s s
0 0
0 0
a second
illustrates
poi
poo
B =
+ Poi
\316\241\316\257\316\277
pin
poi
\"poo
\316\241\316\272\316\271-\316\241\316\277\316\277
-poo
\321\200\321\210
_pio~Poo
The
first
As we
straight
(7.68)
the
final
plane
pio-poo
patch construction
pm
the
~~
lies
patch
the
assemble
poo
poi
poo
poi
in this plane.
\320\222
matrix:
~~
poo
poo
\317\213
\317\213
is considerablymoregeneralized
(7.69)
than
205
Special HermitePatches\342\226\240
Figure
Special bicubic
7.23
plane.
=
\"\316\277\316\212
l'oi Pm
'
\316\232
'\",\316\271^+\316\233\316\271\316\237\316\261.
/oiP\302\253!
\316\232
-'\342\200\236\316\241^+\316\257|,\317\201\302\243
+ *,, PS
, =Pqd+ \302\260..pSo
+
\316\241|\316\270
\316\241\316\277\316\277-,\"',\316\277\316\241\342\204\226
\316\257\316\212\316\257\316\241\316\252\316\271
PTo^mPSn+^olu
Figure
7.24
General
bicubic Hermite
a plane.
patch form of
206
\342\226\240
The
Surface
Hermite
Bicubic
use
and define
these
vectors as a basisin the planeof the patch
tangent
the other geometric coefficients as linear combinations
of them. We can
define
the cross-derivatives or twist vectorsto bezero,or we can define
them
We
poo
B=
pm
poo +
\320\254\320\276
[PS)
onp&i+bnp;;)
from
the
f'loprSj
cnpoo
Once
again.
pr\302\253
figure:
eoipoo +
/[iip\302\253)
eiipoo+/np!xi
\320\265\321\216\321\200(\321\216+/\321\216\321\200!\321\216
+ ^\316\262\316\257\317\201\316\264\317\214
0
\320\24101\320\240\320\2310
pHoo
cmp!io
+ <Woo
poo
+ Npoo
+ flfopoo
\321\201,(,)\321\200\320\276\321\201
{d-\321\206 <^)\321\200\321\210-
+ ^npiio
(7.70)
Surface
Cylindrical
A cylinder is a
itself along
patch.
Po\"
In
Pi\"]''>
coefficients
of
(p2 -
po)]7-
Figure
an^
the
surfacegenerated
by
curve.
Here,
straight
will construct
we
7.25, we
a straight
straight
these
Using
elements,
we readily
find the
Cylindrical
surface.
Line
Figure
7.25
\320\222
matrix
for
pj
fpo
(p2
pa)
a patch
Special Hermite
po
B =
Pi
P:
pi + P2
\320\240\320\231
LP\"
more
general
expression
po
P: p2
p(u) is any
form.
polynomial
Ruled
A cylindrical
po
p2
PS
Pi'
\342\226\240
207
po
po
(7.71)
_
is
p2
oo
p(ti,w) = p(u) +
where
po
Patches
do
not
surface
wr
direction
restrict
is a
(7.72)
vector
the function
of the
straight-line
5urface
one degree
of freedom is
the locusof a movingpoint
with
of
a
one degree
know
that the locus
with
also
straight linemoving
of freedom is a surface. This is a specialtype
of surface,
called a ruled surface,
at
each
of
least
one straight line
defined such that through
it
point
passes
of
all
ruled
surfaces
are the plane,
the
surface.
The
in
lying entirely
simplest
the cone,and the cylinder, all special cases because each js governedby a set
The hyperbolic
and the hyperof constraints
that make \320\232
paraboloid
unique.
boloidof onesheet are also special ruled surfaces. Each of these surfaceshas
two
families of straight lines,calledrulings.
distinct
mathematically
We
now
know that
a curve. We
Figure
7.26
An other
cylindrical surface.
208
\342\226\240
The
Hermite
Bicubic
Surface
Every developable
surface
ruled
every
is not
is one
B=
curve
parametric
a
linear
interpolation
po
Qi-pi
9i)
PS
q&
41
\320\270
is
between
Po
\342\200\224
Qi
constant
of
pi
LP?
Each
surfaceis
Qd
Qo
po
pi
Qi
(7.73)
.
line. Thus,
two curves.
a straight
a general ruled
of
The hyperbolic paraboloidis a specialcase,because
both
families
corner
curves
and p(ujtw) are straight lines. Given the four
parametric
p(t(,wf)
we
as
the
four
twist
define
the
vectors
lines
and
points,
eight tangent
straight
the
\320\222
vectors as equal to zero (seeFigure
follows
From
matrix
this,
7.28).
directly:
Figure 7.27
Ruled surface.
SpecialHermite
Patches
7.2B
Figure
Pi
B=
Hyperbolic
P2P1
.p2-pi
equation.
ways
of representing
use
(7.74)
0
0
0
\321\2004-\321\200\320\267
p4-p2
p4-p2
p4p!
Can we
paraboloid.
\320\240\320\267
\320\240\320\267
-\321\200\321\200
\321\200\320\267-\321\200\321\200
p4
P2
\342\226\240
209
nonzero
pi), and so
a ruled
twist
vectors?
How
on.)
surface with
a parametric
The first is
=
\320\240(\302\273,\320\2700
g(u)
+ wd(u)
(7.75)
straight line at
curve.
the distance
ratio of the point
point
gives
e
then
If
7.29).
u,w
(see
Figure
p(ti,w)fromg(u)
[0,1],
ld(u)l equalsthe length
of the straight
line when w = 1. The vector functions g(t() and a(u) in this
are not necessarily restricted to the cubicpolynomialform.
form
An
alternative
based on the straight-line rulings joining
expression
on two space curves d(t() and h(u) is
corresponding
points
\320\270
on
the
d(u)
direction
is the
The parameter
vector of a
210
\342\226\240
The
Bicubic
Hermite
Surface
p(u,w)
- (1 -
w)g(u)
wh(u)
w[h(u) - g(u)]
where
u,w e [0,1]. Again, in this form the vector functionsg(u)
not necessarily restricted to cubic polynomials.
730
Figure
vector construction of a ruledsurfacevia Equation
(7.76).
=
Degenerate
(7.76)
g(t() +
and
h(u)
illustrates
are
the
Patches
unusual
patches immediately attract our attention to their
of an array of
Almost
shapes.
invariably, these strange shapes are the result
which may
with
unusual
coefficients
characteristics,
geometric
equally
and
include coincident control points or other
unconventional
values
or
are possible
accident.
Degenerate
through intention
relationships.
patches
For now, the best source of these patches is our imagination.
bizarre
Any
form
we can conjure up is certain to appear unbidden
and
at an awkward
moment in any sophisticated modelingsystem.
we are about
The
conditions
to explore can be createdwith
of the forms we have discussed thus far,
any
as wellas those yet to be discussed, including the Bezjer and B-Spline
of these forms have obvious idiosyncrasies\342\200\224superimposed
surfaces.
Some
vertices
vertices of their characteristic polyhedra.
or, perhaps,
jumbled
Degenerate
Figure
7.29
Ruled
surface.
Special
Hermite Patches
P|'\"f-
to
Pat4)
Figure 7.30
There
\342\226\240
211
are
ways
categorize
those
The degeneratepatchesin
characteristics
in
their
assume that
\320\222
matrices.
=
pm
pw, then
For
the
the
B(n)-
poo
different
zero-length
be as
kind of
fourth
follows:
three-sided
easily identifiable
patch
in
Pm
\320\240\321\210
pop
Pli
pBi
Pm
7.31 a,
if we
Pi'.
(7.77)
\320\240\320\227\320\223
\316\241\316\257\316\223
\316\241\316\257\316\257
\316\241\317\212\316\271
Pi'o
side,
Figure
is
\320\222
matrix
poo
have
7.31
Figure
731b.
Its
Instead
\320\222
matrix
of a
might
212
\342\226\240
The
Bicubic
Hermite
Surface
poo
\321\200\321\210
poo
poo
poi
\320\257\320\274-
Pm
\320\240\321\210
\321\200\320\271\320\276
Poi
(7.78)
\316\241&\316\244
Poi
\320\240\320\2311
\316\241\316\252\316\252
\316\241\316\257\316\277
\316\241\317\212\316\271
pio
When
be as
points
shown
in
Figure
the
each other are coincident,
opposite
diagonally
7.31c,
the
and
B<d-
\320\222
matrix
would
be as
poi
P<M!
Pio
\320\264\320\260
\316\241
pio
Pn
\316\241\316\257\316\220
\317\201\317\212\316\277
pSo
pi',:
\317\201\316\257\316\257\316\271
poo
(7.79)
*Vio
\320\240\320\276.\320\257\321\200\320\256
{0
7.31
may
follows:
\316\241\317\212\316\271
pio
\316\241\316\212\316\244
.\316\241\316\220\316\277
Figure
result
Degenerate
patches.
Blend Surfaces
731c and
points,
the
with
7.31d, an
jn Figure
Finally,
from Figure
by
the
joining
the
results
opposing pair
diagonally
remaining
using
\342\226\240
213
following
\316\241\317\211
pio
poo
pio
poo
pi'o
\316\277\316\271
\316\241
piio
\320\240\320\231\320\223
Pn
(7.80)
B\302\253i)\320\240'\321\210
pSj
Pii
Lpio
\316\241\317\212\316\277
pvr
at
degenerate and pathologicalare toopejorative,
for the examples we have just explored.Although
some
have little
may
practical value,
have a certain aesthetic appeal.
they
clearly
the terms
Perhaps
7.10
of
\320\222
matrix:
least
SURFACES
BLEND
Blend
transition
a somewhatdifferent
polyhedral,
we
first example
we
Then
another
Blendbetween
Two
Given
continuous
conditions
are
and
\321\200(1,\320\270>)
a direct
requirements
a way
where
patch.
We
r(l,w)
extension
and
q(ii,w),we
can
find a
smoothly
them, creating a G1
that
assume the common boundaries are such
q(0.w) (see Figure 7.32). The modeling
of those shown in Figure
for continuity
7.16
between
blends
that
surface.
composite
Patches
Disjoint
two disjoint
trimline based,or
is a
curves
where
study
patch,
we look
Finally,
classify
(1994) take
of constructing
methods
spine based,
consider
will
patches,
boundaries.
of
based,
rolling-ball
bicubic Hermite
boundaries
and
aesthetic
constraints,
and Varady
Martin,
others.
among
The
Vjda,
fillets.
approach
as
blends
parametric
functional
strong
by
across a common
boundary
between
two
patches.
The blend
214
\342\226\240
The
Surface
Hermite
Bicubic
0, I
Pdo
! Po,
PED
pe,
! iSd
43,
pSd
\321\200\320\270\320\267
\316\232,\316\241\316\220\316\261
k,p;, '. \316\271,\316\241\317\212\317\213
*,\320\240\320\237
ps;
PS,
7.32
two
has
\320\263(\320\275,\320\234')
A patch
degrees
%a
ioi
\"\316\257\316\277
; PEl
Figure
MlBo i
VSi
blended
' \320\272\320\260\320\2478\320\276
\302\253
of freedom,
P7,
PTd
P|\302\260P\342\200\236
! P,,
Pi\302\273
\316\241\317\212\316\271
\317\201\317\212\302\260
pt;
\320\247\320\225;
patch
I.I
I., 0, I
I. I 0, I
kt
that
allow
\320\272\321\212
and
on
p(u,w)
and
us to
vary its
q(u,w).
Patch
we wish
surrounding
are given
to
patches,
and
the constant
coefficients
k,
are
Surfaces
Blend
\342\226\240
215
\320\230
1
-
w2-
1-
W|
w2
w2-
wl
(7.81)
11
lli-
\302\253[
1-
\302\2532
\320\272\320\273
UZ-
General
t(]
Blend Surfaces
allows
of constant-radius
construction
parametric
self-intersections.
and
singularities
radius.)Edgeblends
Corner
created
are
blends
by a
blends
for
distance
rational
by sweeping
type
of rectangular
smooth,
without
any
are
surfaces
offset
(The
created
are
offset
0,'
!
! ^Pdi
\316\241\316\277\316\271
PS,
VB,
I^PET
\316\271
Pd,
\316\271
Pqi
p,o
Pdo \342\226\240
Pod
,'
Po,
!
1
Pn
PS.
\316\2418\316\257
k3ps\302\253
: vs<:
^m
\320\223 -\316\271
Pud
^p?d
Mt,
j^pff!
\317\201\317\212\316\271
! ^\317\201\317\212\317\204
!
1
1
*?
Pod
P\342\200\236
\342\226\240
W,
pn
\316\234>\317\212\316\271
P\302\260i
\316\271
PSd
!
1
Wj
! Pn
! P1d
\316\241\316\257\316\277
\316\241\316\252\316\231
PTo
\320\230
PES
PET
k'P%
Pdi
*<\316\241\316\252,
*,PI\"a
\316\272<\316\241\316\220\316\220
\302\253\320\266
\316\241\316\257\316\277
\316\241\317\212\316\271
! \316\241\316\252\316\252
i \320\240\320\247\320\223
1
1
1
1
\316\241<\317\207>
!
! K|PfjD
! \320\240\321\216
!
!
1
1
\342\226\240
h
-r
h
\317\204 \"I
k,Pui
p1D
wa
!
1
!
1
Wo
M?d
*,\317\2015\317\212 k<p;d
\\\320\272*,\320\240\320\237
\316\247,\316\232\317\205\316\241\316\222\316\252
P%
\"\316\212\316\241\316\252\316\252
! \320\272\320\267\320\240\320\225\320\276
!
I
I
'.0
Figure
7.33
Blending
a patch
to the boundaries
of another
patch.
216
\342\226\240
The
Bicubic
Hermite
Surface
differential
is
Representing blend surfaces as solutionstopartial
equations
Bloor
and
Wilson
demonstrate
that
this
by
They
proposed
(1989).
approach
between
the blend
and
easily achieves the requireddegreeofcontinuity
d
and
surfaces.
More
work
in blen
surfaces
related topicsis reportedby
primary
and Lee (1990); Hoffmann and Hopcroft (1987);
Choi
Chiyokura
(1987);
Holmstrom
who
djscusse-s
(1987),
quadric blending of implicitly
piecewjse
defined
and Sears (1985);Rockwood and Owen (1987),
Middlcdjtch
surfaces;
who
blend
discuss
surfaces
in solid modeling; and Woodward
(1987),
among
many
others.
SURFACES
BEZIER
The Bezier
these surfaces,
here.This
chapter does discussthe bicubicBezierpatch,
the
bicubic
Bezier and Hermite forms, degreeelevation,
applicable
repeated
between
Bezier
8.1
THE
and, briefly,
surface,
Points on a
the
p(u,w)
\321\200\321\206
comprise
an
1)
the
The general
following
\317\207
+
(\316\267
1)
on a
tensor
not
conversion
composite
same way
as
matrix equationfor
e [0,1]
u,w
array
of
polyhedron
hull.
eonvex
for
a Bezier
product, a
Bezier curve:
rectangular
characteristic
its
within
defined in the
the
Bhi(w)
\316\243
\316\243\317\201,\316\221\302\273
= (\316\231
= II
\316\271
\316\271
(m +
definingthe verticesof
which lies entirely
hy
for points
equation
general
topics
are
PATCH
extensionof
functions,
BEZIER
PRODUCT
TENSOR
The
extension
of the Bezier curve.Many
but discussed under Bezier curves,
a direct
is
surface
to
B,Ju)
and
simple
(8.1)
of control points
the Bezier patch,
are
5;\342\200\236(w)
the
basis
curves.
patch is
Bezier
UM\342\200\236PM\302\243Wr
\321\200(\320\270,\320\270>)
(8.2)
or
=
p(\302\253,w)
U1Xi,lMamxi,lPMX\342\200\236M\302\243(IX(IWiX|
217
218
Surfaces
\342\226\240
Bezier
of the
of the matricesdependon the dimensions
sizes
are
not
the
matrix
array.The
indicating
repeatedin
point
subscripts
their
later
and
are
used
here
to
illustrate
expressions,
they
merely
to
the
control
relationship
points. The Bezier patch need not be describedby a
a 4 x 4
array of control points, although we will
begin
by exploring
square
of
Bezier
which
the
bicubic
defines
array
points,
patch.
the dimensions
where
control
8.2
THE
We can
mite patch.
the
Using
matrix
PATCH
BEZIER
BICUBIC
for a
equation
binomial
p(U,W)=
where
again,
this
Expanded,
of the
representation
bicubic Her-
to the
similar
a form
of
control
points
is
(8.3)
4^4*1
\320\2701\321\2074\320\234\321\207\320\264>,\320\264\320\2404.^\320\234^4\302\253
the subscripts on
becomes
equation
'
dimensions.
(1-
wf
3w(l - wf
u3]P
3u2(\\-u)
3ti(l-ii):
P(\".w)=[(l-\3")
3w2(l
(8.4)
w)
wJ
where
P=
The matrix
and,
thereby,
the
\316\241
contains
the
Bezier
pn
pi;
pis
Pi4
p21
p22
p23
p24
p31
p32
p33
p34
p41
p42
p43
p44
points
that
define the
(8.5)
characteristic polyhedron
patch.
and
the resulting
Figure 8.1 illustrates the control points,the polyhedron,
the
the
four
corner
In
bicubic
Bezier
formulation,
patch.
only
points pn, p41,
and
and
lie on the patch. The pointsp21, p31, plz, p13, \321\200\320\2642,
\321\200]\320\224,p44 actually
\321\200\320\264\320\267,\321\20024\32
control
the end slopes of the boundary curves.Thefour
interior
\321\200\321\2154
points
\321\200\320\270,
and
in
the
control
the
the
curves
cross
boundary
\321\20032\321\202
\321\20023\321\202 pjj
slopes along
same way as do the twist
vectors
of the bicubic Hermite patch. As this
figure
shows,
the
Bezier
patch is
completely defined by
net
of control
boundary
the
points
curve
number
of
Bezier Patch
Bicubic
The
\342\226\240
219
p\342\204\242 \321\200\321\213
f23
\"13
---
curve
w-1
Piu.1)\302\267
P\302\253=Pf1.1)
\320\240\321\206=\320\240(0.0)
-
u-1 curve
p{1.w).
w^O curve
p{u,0),
\320\240\342\200\2361-\320\240(1.0)
Bezier patch.
Cubic
B.1
Figure
on
Consider the generationof an isoparametric
curve
the bicuhic
for
iv = w\342\200\236
The
matrix
a
constant.
product yields four
following
patch
the
at
the Bezier curve along
defining
patch w,:
Pi
P2
3wX\\-Wi)2
= P
on pb
wherethe singlesubscripts
point
the
lies
on
\321\200\320\264
curve
point
curve
Points
pi,\342\200\236.
lie on
do not
and
(8.6)
w,)
\302\273'?
and
p2,
pj lies on
3w,2(\\
Lpi
curve-defining.
points
(1-\320\271-,)3
\320\240\321\215
The
Bezier
so
p2 and
that these
on indicate
the patch
boundary
an
the
p, control the
points are
puiv, and
curve
for a
expression
point on
\321\200(\321\213,\320\270>,):
Pi
p(u,w,)
[(1
u)3
P2
3u2(\\-u)
3u(\\-uf
\316\2673]
(8.7)
Lp4
Here
each
value of
to define the
\320\270
yields
on the
a point
boundary curves.For
patch.
the
example,
a similar
use
We
procedure
\320\270
0 is
curve
(\\-wy
p(0,w) = [pn
pi2
pla
p,j]
3w(|
-iv)2
-
3w2(\\
w)
(8.8)
220
Surfaces
\342\226\240
Bezier
or
Pii
Pl2
3w2(l-w)
3w(\\-w)2
-w)3
p(0,w)=[(l
w3]
Pi3
(8.9)
.Pk
The
curve
boundary
for
- 0
is
Pl4
3u2(1-u)
3h(1-u)2
p(u,0)=[(l-u)3
p24
u3]
P34
(8.IU)
.P\302\253.
the other
define
We
twist
vector
=
p\"*(u,w)
produces
(8-4)
Equation
differentiating
Appropriately
the
at any
poinJ
[(-3u2
+ 6u~3)
(-9u2
(9u2 -
+ 6u)
12u +
3)
(3u2)]P
(~3w2 + 6w - 12w+
(9w2
(-9w7
+ 6w)
3)
3)
(8.11)
(3^)
For
the
vectors
twist
at the
Poo
patch corner
=
points we have
+ p2z)
9(pii-p2j-p^
Pl0 = 9(p31-P41-P32 +
P\302\253)
(8.12)
\316\24124)
\316\241'\317\214\317\212'-9(\317\20115-\317\20123-\317\201,4
P\302\253 \320\240\320\274
p44)
\316\241\316\212\316\244
9(\317\2013\316\257
to the corner
that only the four control points at and adjacent
at that corner (see Figure8.2).
the
vector
twist
point in question affect
This
8.3
\317\207
5
tells us
ARRAY
RECTANGULAR
OF CONTROL
POINTS
of
a patch that is described by an array
a
to be
This
allows
surface
control points
relatively
complex
square.
in
bounded by simple
or vice versa. For example, the patch shown
curves,
- 0 and \320\270
- I
\320\270
8.3 has a three-point Bezier curve along boundaries
Figure
Occasionally we want
that
is not
to
create
A3
\317\207
5 Rectangular
Array
of Control
\320\240\320\263\321\215
\320\240\320\263\320\263
\320\240\320\263.
\320\240\320\263\320\263)
\342\226\240\321\200\320\2325-9(\320\240\321\206-\320\240\320\263'-\320\24015
Figure
B.2
Control
points
influencing
Figure
B.3
\317\207
3 Bezier
patch.
the
Points
\342\226\240
221
222
Surfaces
\342\226\240
Bezier
a five-point
and
= 0
\320\270
along
boundary
= 0
w= 1. The
and
is
Pi \316\271
=
p(0,\342\204\226)
w1]
2w(\\-w)
[(l-\302\273')2
(8.13)
piz
pis
Along w = 0we
obtain
Pn
p:i
4u\\\\-u)
6u2(\\-u)2
t(4]
(8.14)
p3i
Pji
Psi
For the
patch itself,
Pl2
Pll
\320\240\320\273
p:2
P32
P31
The
of a
advantage
a change
that
in the
Thus,
To
(1-w)2
2w(l -
\316\241\316\2573
P41
PJ2
pJ3
p5l
p52
p5:i
shape
patch
(8.15)
w)
w2
can
the
curve
be changed
adjacent
with
continuity
BETWEEN
HERMITE
does not
from
UMpBM/'W^
or more
patches.
FORMS
or
UM^PM^W7
Hermite
for
the
and
vice
(8.16)
simply,
(8.17)
MfBMi=M\302\253PM|\"
where
is
curve
affect the
convert
versa,
Pl3
23
\316\241
five-point boundary
hence
CONVERTING
u\"]
third or middlepoint
slope at eitherend.
end slopes,
maintaining
8.4
6u\\\\-u)2 4ti'7(l-t()
4u(\\-uf
p(u,w)=[(\\-u)4
basis function
Bezier,
transformation
respectively.
To convert from
B, obtaining
B=Mf-1MflPMBr[M/]-1
solve
Degree Elevation
After
B =
the required
performing
Pn
Pi4
P41
p4J
3(pi:-pn)
p41)
3(\321\200|4-\321\200]\320\267)
p4j)
3(p44
+ p24)
9(\321\200\320\277-\321\2002|-\321\2001\320\263
\321\200\320\263\320\263)
9(pii-p23-pl4
9(p3i
+ p4;)
9(Pii-p4i-p32
3(p\302\253-p34)
\342\226\240
223
that
3(p4i
3(p24-p|4)
3(p2|-p]])
3(p4i~p3i)
Surface
Bezier
in
pi4 + p44>
p43
(8.18)
Here we see
expressed
in
polyhedron.
of
boundary
The
the
the
that
tangent
of
terms
points
vectors
tangent
while
polyhedron,
are equivalently
the
characteristic
defining the vertices of
are given solely in terms of pointson the
the interior points contributeonly
to the
twist
vectors
and
vectors
twist
vectors.
A similar
P =
8.S
A way to
extend our
requires
adding
to
ability
(8.19)
SURFACE
the
manipulate
of a Bezier surface
raises the degreeof the
shape
This, of course,
control
more
Thus,
Mi'MfBM/[Mj]-1
A BEZIER
IN
ELEVATION
DEGREE
to Bezier.
Hermite
points.
the patch. We can
the w curves, or
polynomial
\320\270
curves,
\316\240,
+ i I,
,\342\200\236
\342\200\236
\316\243
\316\243^\316\233-^\316\271\316\257\")
flii\302\273(\",)=XZpA\"-(u)^(w)
= 111=0
=
\316\271
\320\263-();()
Solving
for
\316\247\316\206\317\206\316\256
produces
=
1\320\233\320\240*
+ 1
\342\226\240P-i,+
(' =
1-
m+
0,. . . jn
= 0,.
+I
. . ,/?
(8.20)
on
the
left superscript
upper
(see Equation [4.10]).The douhleindex
the
number
of times the degree-elevation procedure has been applied
indicates
to
each
parametric
To elevate
direction,
respectively.
direction:
i = 0,...
'-^r
,m
\316\267
+ I
(8.21)
224
\342\226\240
Bezier
Surfaces
both at
Doing
Pi - U
1 -
\316\234\316\241\342\200\236
m+
m+
\316\271
Pi-
\320\270
P'j
Pij-i
1)
\317\207
+
(\316\267
i = 0,..
\321\217
+ 1
1~-
1). Thus
,m +1
,\302\253+1
n + 1
(8.22)
8.6
COMPOSITE
BEZIER SURFACES
Consider a compositesurfaceconstructed
by
Bezier patches (see Figure 8.5).For G\302\260
continuity,
share control points along theirjoiningboundary,
Palch
Pll
\317\207
3
adjacent
shown
Patch
\316\241
13
\316\241
2
I. .
\316\241
\316\241>4
\317\204--
-\316\271
array
of
\316\241
6
\317\201
7
- \316\223_-
\316\271
\316\271
\320\240\320\263\321\215
\320\240\320\2634|
\320\240\320\263>
\320\240\320\263\320\263
1
\316\271
,
\316\271
1 \342\226\240\316\271
\316\231
Pi \316\271
P41
\320\240\321\215\321\215
pj
Li*
\320\240\320\267\320\263
-\342\200\22411
\316\271.
_--_\317\204
1
\316\231
P\302\253
\320\240\320\263\320\265
\320\240\320\2637
\320\24035
\316\241\302\253\316\271
\316\241\302\253
\316\2414\316\257
!
|
j
\316\24146
.,
\320\240\320\2557
\316\24147
\316\223
Set
of collinear
points /
'\"
Points
boundary
Figure
B.4 G1 continuity
bicubic
must
patches
as solid
circles in
defining the
curve
\316\2311
' \342\200\224\"Tt
H^
\320\223
Patch
Bezier
Rational
\342\226\240
225
\316\267 \316\223
\316\212 -
hU
\320\263
\316\267
'
,
\342\226\240
j \316\271 \321\201
j
1
\316\271 1
1
1
r-i
\320\263
\316\212
\317\200
I
\316\223
1
1
LJ
1
1
\320\263
points
tangent
the same
8.7
G1
least
vectors
\342\226\240
the same
have
3x3 array.
G1 continuous
continuity
throughout
boundaries
must
thus
L J
across
tangents
defining
corresponding
II
B.5 Composite
Figure
the figure.For at
\316\271\316\271
direction, but
not
necessarily
magnitude.
RATIONAL BEZIERPATCH
The
rational
Bezier
patch is
expressed as
J'J
I,
Bj\342\200\236(w)
\316\243
\316\243\316\233</\316\241\316\206\"'(\")
'
n(u,w)=
This
patch,
is the
but
weights
curve.
h4
ji,
\"
(8.23)
it is
226
Surfaces
\342\226\240
Bezier
as follows.
One way to evaluate curves and points on this
patch
proceeds
= w,\342\200\236we
w
each
For a curve of constantparametervalue,
treat
column
of
say,
\316\271\316\267
\320\270
the
characteristic
as
control points (or each row, if
\320\270\321\214)
polyhedron
control
the characteristic
defining
polygon of a rational Bezier curve.
points
the
We
each
of these curves at w
evaluate
w\342\200\236,
including
computing
corresponding
Thus,
weight.
2XpA\302\253K)
p, =
=
,\342\226\240
,m
0,...
^r
to
each
p, is
(8.24)
simply
h, - j>>AK)
We
the
interpret
wa
curve
on
rameterize.
p, and h,
the surface.
(8.25)
weights
that
describing
the
SURFACES
B-SPLINE
of a B-Spline
surface follows directly from the equationof a
This
Spline
relationship is analogous to that between Beziercurves
and
surfaces.
we define the B-Spline surface,like the Bezier
Furthermore,
in terms of a characteristic polyhedron.The shapeof the
surface
surface,
The
equation
B-
curve.
the
approximates
polyhedron.
The approximation
degree.
9.1
THE
SURFACE
B-SPLINE
PRODUCT
TENSOR
The tensor
= 0/
\316\257
The
as those
polynomials
For a
compute
control
N;,K(u)
points
and
and
are
=0
the
controlled
by
\320\232
and
L,
t, and
knot
tj
values
just
select
as for
each
of
same
basis-function
the
respectively.
is
and
the
values
curves. We
(5.3).
of K,
NiK(ii)
compute
Notice
L, m, n, and
that
and
two sets of
+
(\320\273 1)
points form an (m + 1) \317\207
228
9.2
Surfaces
\342\226\240
B-Spline
FORM
MATRIX
[5.14],
is used
equation
the
for
developed
of
interval on
and
[5.23]). A unit
[5-15],
of
1) rectangular
periodic B-Spline
array of points is
open,
form that we
to the
similar
curve.
B-Spline
a unit
is
B-Spline
The
surface.
Equations
u
and
matrix
general
1)
\317\207
(\316\267
se[\\:m+2-K\\
=
pD(u,w)
1e
UMsP^M^W
+ 2 - L]
[1 : \316\267
(9-2)
\320\275,\320\270>\320\265[0,1]
of the
that control the continuity
the
of the basis-function
surface,
degree
polynomials, and, consequently,the
s and t identify
a particular patch in the surface.
dimensions
of the matrices,
Therange on s and r is a function of the parameters \320\232and L and the
the rectangular
dimensions of
array of control points. The matrixU is
where
the parameters
L denote
\320\232
and
=
\320\270
\320\270\320\272~\320\263
\320\2701]
[\320\272*-'
(9.3)
W is
and
wL~2
\\\316\275-[\316\271\316\275\302\243-]
Elements of the
depend
on the
of control
matrix
\316\232
\317\207
L
full
(9.4)
I]
points necessary
p,(
to
these
denote
fill
PKL
matrix
elements; then
Pkl
The matrix
curve.
Ms
9.3
OPEN
CLOSED
AND
If the
identical
the
B-SPLINE
ranges
on s,t
/e[i-l
:s
je[t-\\
:t+L-2]
:m+l]
K-2]
(9.5)
matrix for the B-Spline
SURFACES
closed\342\200\224that
and i,j
is, rolled
transformation
to the
tube\342\200\224then
the w
is
= pj
into an
closure.
For
open-ended
example,
if
Open and
ie
[I
:n+2-L]
i e [(s -
+\\):(x
1)
je[r-l :T+L-2]
Similar
characteristic
some
grid.
(9.6)
\320\270
are closed.
curves
constant
lines
these
'
overlap;
boundaries. For
\342\226\240\342\200\224
,
--* |
1
1
__
in ^ jj = 2
1
1
I
1
1
\316\271
(
)
the patch
represent
when this happens,
lines
Dashed
polyhedron.
idealizations,
the
when
mod (m + 1)]
K-2)
the
wc idealize
an array of control points and
with a two-dimensional diagram, arrangingthe points
Solid lines represent the edges of the facesof the
produce
rectangular
(m
figures
following
they
patches
on
mod
apply
expressions
In the
Closed B-SplineSurfaces\342\226\240
229
.^-\342\200\224.\342\200\224.
\321\214
-j
(a)
Po.6
\317\201\342\200\224
\316\2414.\316\225.
\342\200\224\320\276
\"\316\244
1,1
2.1
3,1
\316\241\"\342\200\224*\342\226\240\316\223
P.
1
\320\223
2,3
1.3
\316\244\"
\342\200\224J
3,3
L^i
\316\241
\316\241
K = L=3
= 4
.i = 5
\316\274-
1,2
\316\2522.2
'J
2.1
-\316\227*
\316\241
3.2
3,1
\320\263
\316\257
.L\302\267.
.J
0>)
Figure
9.1
Open
quadric
B-Spline surface
idealizations.
230
\342\226\240
B-Spljne
Surfaces
is
patches are lightly shaded to highlightthem;this technique
between
for exploring the effects of parameterson the relationship
useful
of
the
All
at some
the control points and patches. Let us look
examples.
are
surfaces
generated by specific
B-Spline
following
periodic
examples
are shown.The
instancesof
Equation
(9.2).
\",'
m,s
\302\267
<\320\254)
Figure
9.2
Open
cubic B-Spline
idealizations.
surface
Open
Closed
and
B-Spline
Surfaces
\342\226\240
231
This
surface
quadric B-Splinesurfaceis produced.
a
3x3
and
minimum
of
array
throughout
requires
- 4 and \316\267
=
If
m
a
x
3
4
then
of
control
5,
array
(see Figure 9.1a).
points
results
(see Figure 9.1 b).
patches
= L = 4, a bicubic
\320\232
When
B-Spline surface is produced.C2continuity
at all points
on this surface and requires a minimum
4x4
of
exisls
array
to the bicubic
this
Hermite and
control poinls (see Figure 9.2a);compare
=
of patches
3 array
is produced
Bezier surfaces.If in = 4 and \316\267
5, then a 2 \317\207
to the result obtained
this
for the quadricsurface
(see Figure9.2b);compare
When
exhibits
in
Figure
\320\232
- 3, a
C1 continuily
9.1b.
= it = A
\320\226
\321\210\302\260\320\230
i
(a)
9* \320\233
\342\200\224\342\200\2240
Po,f
\320\255
\342\200\224 u
\321\203
K = l.= 5
m
\320\23131
= A
= 5
\302\253
\342\226\240
\321\202*\320\240\321\207
4,1
\342\226\240
\342\226\240\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\200\224
-<
-i I
>
\302\267
^.
\302\267
\342\200\224i
Pj.o
Po.0
(b)
Figure
9.3 Open
surface
quartic B-Spline
idealizations.
232
Surfaces
\342\226\240
B-Sp|jne
Quartic
Notice
surfaces
that
as
the
degree
controlpoints
each
define
and
control-point
It is
example,
array
is
This
patch.
quintic
surfaces
in Figure
94.
polynomials increases,more
particularly evident along the patch
regions.
boundary
with
K = L. For
surface
often more efficient to definea B-Spline
ruled
surface
may require second-derivative continuity in one para\342\226\240, '
\342\226\240
-* \342\226\2401
;\302\267>
\342\200\224\342\200\224,
-J
..-\342\226\240:\342\226\240
\316\275
:
\342\226\240
\342\226\2401
\342\200\224*
\342\226\240
\342\200\224
\342\226\240. \302\273\342\200\224\342\226\240\342\200\224
\316\227
(
<'
(a)
Pe.6
'.6
1I
<
\342\200\224\"\342\200\224p
.--\342\226\240-.----Ml
\316\275\302\267\"-;
'\316\271.
L..\342\200\224
-___J
t\342\200\224-
\320\236 \342\226\240
1
. >\342\200\224 .
\302\273_\342\200\224.
\342\200\224\320\276
(\320\254)
Figure
9.4
Open
quintic
B-Spline surface
idealizations.
Openand Closed
Surfaces
B-Spline
metric
while
direction,
cubic-quadricB-Spline
closed
partially
(9.6)
Equation
a4
to produce
results when
surface
B-Spline
(see
Figure 9.6).
Here,
= 4
\320\232
and
constant
\342\226\240
233
other.
the
-n
-4,a2x3
we imposethe conditions
=
L = 3, with m = 3 and \317\200
4,
=
curves are closed; the \320\270
are open. A
curves
numberof controlpointsisrelatedto
polynomials
the
degree
of
the
basis-function
by
np^{nu
+ K-\\f
(9.7)
where K = L.
\342\200\224Q
1.3
2,3
K-4
(\342\200\224-.
t- 3
- 1
m - \317\200
11,2
|
\342\226\240
,
-\320\254\342\200\224\320\247
r
B,(
\342\200\224\320\271
Pi.\320\236
\320\240\320\276\320\273
Figure
9.S
Open
cubic-quadric
idealizations.
B-Spline surface
234
Surfaces
\342\226\240
B-Spllne
\320\240\320\276.\320\273
\342\200\224\320\276\342\200\224
\342\200\224a-
'
.1-:\302\267
\\:
1,3
4,3.Iv\"
'
'
I
f
1
\342\226\240'\342\226\240
\302\243\342\226\240::\342\226\240
2.3
4.3
3,3.
[-\342\226\240'.\342\226\240
;t.T
\342\226\240:
\316\244
~vl..:--\342\226\240
\316\223\316\216.
.
\316\223
L=3
\"
* \"\316\244
\317\204\"?
\316\244
,\316\244\302\273\"\"\302\267-'
\316\252\"4:
\302\267\317\210
4.2
|;
= 3
\321\210
...i,2\302\267'-}.\342\226\240
\342\226\240\320\263.\320\263;\302\267..
[\302\267\321\215.\320\263
j 4,2 \342\204\242=~4\"
-:-. = \320\273\321\202.
1. 1
\".V;\" :,!\342\226\240.\342\226\240;\342\226\240t'-ij:.\",'
\316\271,\316\271r-.;.;
2,\316\271
.:;\\\316\220:\302\267..\302\267\302\267.;\302\2673.\316\271.,\302\267
j.4,1
\316\212,\316\271'\302\267;\317\206..;\302\267,
\320\240\320\276\320\264
Figure
9.6
closed B-Spline
Partially
then
closed,
np-na(na
One
arbitrarily
from
advantage
degrees
high
the
properties
shape of a
of
B-Spline surface is
modeling
(9.8)
K-l)
the B-Spline
formulation
is its ability to
of continuity
over complex surfaces.This follows directly
of the B-Spline curves. Also, any
in the local
change
These characteristicsmakethe
interactive
surface.
environment.
preserve
not
propagated
B-Spline
throughout
surface
suitable
the entire
for use in
surface.
an
Rational
Nonuniform
9.4
The NURBSsurfaceis,like
projection
product
The
hypersurface.
curve
the
apply
generally
P(m,w)
where
the
increases
control
corresponding
detail
modifying
using
are
weights.
the central
is expressedas
rl
\320\251\320\234
As with
the fullness
surface,
four-dimensional tensor
characteristics of the NURBS
(9.9)
weight
points.
the
constructions using rational B-Splines,
including
discussed
are
in
and
ruled
torus,
surface,
cylinder,
general
sphere,
of
and
discusses
t
he
Tiller
by Piegl
problem
(1987). Piegl (1989d)
the
of a rational B-Spline surface directly from its definition,
shape
Curve
circular
hif
Bezier
space of a
underlying
geometric
to the surface, which
Ml
values
rational
model
three-dimensional
into
\342\226\240
235
B-SPLINE SURFACES
RATIONAL
NONUNIFORM
B-Spline Surfaces
the
and surface
weights
and
control
points.
This
page
intentionally
left
blank
SOLIDS
do
not
solids are limited because they
modeling
the
cannot
internal
interior
of
solid. They
represent
propertiesor
offer
of representing
behavior. The techniques assume total
internal
ways
internal
are
of
model.
For many purposes they
the
homogeneity
adequate.
in
mathematics
and
this
we
the
However,
chapter,
investigate
geometry
ior
techniques
Many
represent
the
a more
supporting
complete
instances
form
provide
10.1
the
for
methods
solids
are
creating
not Boolean
assemblies
complex
and
SOLIDS
PARAMETRIC
Perhaps
the
model
a solid
the
scheme.
solid-representation
simplest
is by
and most
direct mathematicalapproachwe
single-valued
three-parameter,
continuous,
can
to
use
of
functions
form
where
the
parametric
M,v,we[0,l].These functions
comprising
the
solid,
exterior
z=
y-y(u,v,w)
x=x(u,v,w)
variables
define
as well
u,v,w
the
(10.1)
z(u,v,w)
to the interval
constrained
coordinates
of the set of points
are
and
para-
237
23\320\222 \342\226\240
Solids
the
are often used interchangeably, although historically
term
a
has
narrower meaning.
hyperpatch
We
will
the mathematics
of these solids as we did for curves
and
develop
surfaces.
In doing this, we find that fixing the value of one of the parametric
variablesresults in a surface within or on the boundary of the solid in terms
this process
of the other
two variables, which remain free.We continue
for
first
for one variable
any number of arbitrary valuesin the allowedinterval,
solid
metric
called
of
a parametric
network of cells
the solid.
Through
of each family.
These
surfaces, indicating a surface within
throughout
one surface
just
isoparametric
As
one of the three parametricvariablesis constant.
with
and surfaces, the positive sense on any surface
is the sense in which
curves
Associated
Figure
forming
surfaces
on which
solid
the
sometimes
are
surfaces
turn,
The
10.1).
set
is a set of boundary
8 corner points,the
solid
a parametric
consists
of the
elements
12
curves
(see
defining
the
the tangent
include
edges, and the 6 patches definingthe faces.Others
twist
the
and
face
vectors and
vectors
of
patches.
edge curves
For
an
solid, there are always eight and
only
ordinary
parametric
eight
corner
points: p(0,0,0), p( 1,0,0),p{0,1.0),p(0,0,l),p(l,l,0),p(l,0,l),
p(0,l,l),
andp(l,l,l).
The
obtain
edge
them
curves
are functions
by allowing
three parametricvariables.
We
the variablesto remainfree while succes-
of one of the
one of
Face surlace
\316\241
100
Figure
10.1
Parametric
solid boundary
elements.
239
ParametricSolids \342\226\240
sively
and
\317\201(0,\316\275,1),\317\201(1,\316\275,1),
\317\201(\317\213,\317\213,\316\271\316\275),
\317\201(1,0,w), p(0,l,w),
\316\241(1,\316\275,0),
The
them
obtain
We
faces
bounding
successively
fixing
results
in the
by allowing
the
p(0,v,w),
p(u,l,w),
remaining
p(l ,v,w).
a rectangular
represent
equations
followingparametric
\317\201(\316\272,\316\275,\316\231),
\317\201(\316\272,\316\237,\316\275\316\275)
\317\201(\316\272,\316\275,\317\213),
A rectangular
\317\201(1,1,\316\271\316\275).
are functions
]0.2).The
system:
\317\207
(b
a)u + a
+ c
(d-c)v
z = (f-e)w
example
define
not
also
all the
Here
cubic
introduce
we
parametric
This
the
(10.2)
w,v,we[0,l]
and
solids
tricubic
forms for
and the
general,
bicubic
in
Figure
10.2
but
Rectangular
parametric
solid.
240
\342\226\240
Solids
on the lower-dimension
formsof
a
it
area
is
fertile
for
However,
development,
a
is
a
where
greater analytic potential
requiredof solidmodel.This potential
has already
been amply demonstrated by Stanton and Gain (1974)
andTimet al. (1970) in the areas of structural mechanicsand
ablation
thermomer,
and aerodynamics.
Also see Lasser's (1985)Bemstein-Bezier
representation
of solids.
Earlier
limits on research and developmentof solid-modeling
of this
techniques
type were due to the thenseeminglymassivedata requirements.
have nearly removed this constraint.
current
resources
However,
computing
when
cially
to research
compared
functions.
multivariate
interpolation
10.2 THETR1CUB1C
SOLID
The
form
algebraic
tricubic solid
3
3 3
of a
p(u,v,w) = J^
=
/
the
of
source
the
\320\270,v,we
\316\243a^ifVw*
() / = (>* = ()
equation:
following
(10.3)
[0,1]
a:jk vectors
The
is given by
obvious
can
situation
this section.
in
later
When we
polynomials
There
consists
coefficients
are
similar
expressions
for y(u,v,w)
of
the
cubic
in u,v,w for
of
Next,
the
write
these
coefficients
notation:
p(M,v.w)
the
that
total
of algebraic
number
or 192 coefficients.
in a more compact
- a^juW
+a32iU3v2wi
+ a3i2iiVW
+
(\320\256.4)
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
+
a_130ii3v3
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
+\320\260(\320\250
This
but perhaps we can do even
is an improvement,
matrix notation. We are now confronted
with a modest
we
have
an extra
dimension.
With
parametric
three-component
(10.5)
belter
if we
use
complication, since
vectors
and
The Tricubic
lo
\342\226\240
241
are more
cumbersome.
variables, the matrices
independent
parametric
the product
cubic polynomials
in \320\270
and
of the first and second
matrix
form as UA\342\200\236,
and
reduce
the
so
third polynomial A\342\200\236Wr, lhal
V,
three
We
Solid
reduce
\316\275
lo
p(M,v,w)
4JA\342\200\236,.VrA,,Wr
(10.6)
where
U =
[u3
\\ = [v3
for
(10.7)
1]
1]
is considerably
(10.6)
1]
\316\2752\316\275
w2
W-[w3
Equation
\320\2702 it
surfaces.
Here
way to indexEquation(10.3):
is another
=
P(\".v,h>)
/=1
This
equation
is compatible
with the
one we will
and
more acceptable form of tensor
this
by
simplify
dropping the summationsigns and
lhal for cubics the range of the indicesis from
1 to
p1(lw
The same
The
a repealed
/-\"terms
are
notation.
We
adopting
the
can further
convention
4. so that
(10.9)
a(,tu4-'v4-V-1
form
geometric
=
\342\226\240
\316\241
F,(u)
where
the
for
encounter
it is a
geometric
form,
(\320\256.8)
\317\206)
(10.10)
Fk(w)bllk
F3,
F4. as
determined
by
is
the subscripted index and in terms of the specified
variable.
parametric
\320\252,)\320\272
of boundary conditions or geometricvectors.
the array
Notice
that
and
a,/lt
are
vectors.
4 or 64 algebraic
Again, there are 4 x 4 \317\207
\320\252\321\206\320\272
three-eomponent
sothat there are 192 algebraic coefficients
vectors and 64 geometricveetors,
coefficients.
and, of course, 192geometric
Considerthe b,y( terms. How do we interpret them? Although we will
more
formal procedures for doing this in the last section
of this
investigate
for
now
we
will
lo
their
empirical
apply
analysis
chapter,
interpretation.
Because the indiceson the
F terms, we can draw
some
functions
as
they
apply
b array
are
conclusions
to curves
with
those
coordinated
from our knowledge
we
establish
some
on the
of these basis
and surfaces.
indices
nomenclature
the
unit
cube
At
in
each
of
the
242
\342\226\240
Solids
0O1
(a)
10.3
Figure
eight
corners,
itself,
three
64 vectors.
and
\317\201(1,\317\213,1)
on the
coefficients
unit
cube.
boundary
defining
Geometric
we find the
tangent
mixed
third-order
(b)
Here is an example,arbitrarily
the eight
listing
boundary
comer
Pioi
comer
the
choosing
defined
by
condition vectors:
point
'
p',V
tangent
\316\241\317\212\316\277\316\271
jLJLA.
vectors
du
dv'dw
\316\241\317\212\317\214\316\271
\316\241\317\212\316\257\316\271
\320\240\320\270\320\273
twist vectors
dudv'dudw'dvdw
PlOl
triple mixedpa
10]
\316\241
clues.
Thus,
for
-?\342\200\224
dudvdw
the
of the b array
surfaces offer more
elements
and
curves
we have
curves
(10.11)
which we
expand to
-
\317\201
F,(u)b[
+ F2(u)b2
+ fi(a)b3
FA(u)b4
(10.12)
The Tricubic
and
Solid
as
interpret
+
/\320\255\320\224\320\240\302\273
\316\241 \320\222\320\224\321\200\320\276
\320\227\320\224\321\200'/
\320\222\320\224\321\200!
boundary
look at this
Now
obvious.
development
-
(10-13)
condition
curve
Assigning
\342\226\240
243
(10.14)
/vO)b,y
F,(u)
\317\201
is
surfaces:
for
which we expandto
-
\316\241
F,(w)bu
F(u)
+ F(u)
+F2(u) F,(w)b2, +
F2(w)bl2+
F3(w)bn
+ F2(u)
F2(w)b22
F2(u)
F,(u)
F^w)^
+F3(u)
F^w)^
+ F3(u)
F2(w)b22+ F3(u)F^w)^
+F,(u)
F^w)^
F2(w)bi2
FA(u)
+ FA(u)
ft(w)b\302\253
+ F^u)
F,(w)bu
+ F2{u)\320\240\320\273(\321\213)\320\25423
+
F3(u)
+ F,(u)
F,(w)b^
F,(w)bAi
(10.15)
as
and interpret
=
\316\241 F^u)
+ F^u)
F2(w)Pl)l
\320\233(\342\204\226)\321\200\320\274
Ft(u)
+ F2(u)
F2(w)pu +
Fziwfth
+ FA(u)
/?2(w)pl1'1+
+F2(u)
/?1(w)p10
+F,(u)
^\320\230\321\200\320\271\320\276
F3(u)
+F,(u)
F,(w)P\"o
FA(u)
ft(w)pff+
F^W
(10.16)
by
comparing
simply
Some
generalizations
that when
elements
of the
b}, array
Equations
based on
all
less
is
term.
to observe
than
3, then
order mixedpartialderivative
Next, we must find a rule
of constructing
method
current
empirical
following
the
of
the
interpretation:
function
p(w,v,w).
b vectoris applied.Our
arrays of geometric coefficientssuggeststhe
a zero,
For each odd index on b, assign
to tell
us where the
for each
and
Now
curve,
we
are
For
denotes
244 -
Solids
point.
the
because
And
is p,.
result
coefficient; the
it denotes
that
from
transformation
The
\321\200'\321\210.
to algebraic
geometric
4
V-\316\243
coefficientsis given by
- 1 \316\271\316\271
= l
I = 1 \321\202
compactly as
or more
\320\260\321\206\320\272
\320\234\320\260\320\251\320\277\320\234\320\272\320\277\320\2521\321\202\320\260
(10.18)
\320\234
\320\235\320\265\320\263\320\265
is the
Stanton
the
denote
indices
subscripted
64
transformation
matrix, and the various
elements
of the matrix.
specific
a slightly different approach, treating
(1974)
developed
us to
as 4 sets of 16 parameters.This
allows
parameters
Crain
and
hyperpatch
understand
between
forms: the
equivalent
ables.The
as
F\",(u),
the
familiar
is
at tbe
requires
triple
following
and
algebraic
given
thus
form
point
given
basis
Hermite
p(w,v,w)
Point form:
p(\302\253,v,w)
basis
and a
but
point
summations:
Geometric form:
are
distinct
forms,
p(w,v,w)
F\302\243(w)
relationship
three
one-third
Algebraic form:
F\"(v),
geometric
the
functions
defined
Ff(u)
Ff(v)
Fl(w)al}k
(10.19)
F?(u)
Ff(v)
Ft(w)bljk
(10.20)
Ff(u)
Fj^v)
\320\257\320\230\321\200,,*
(10.21)
applied
to the
algebraic coefficients,
by
Fi(u)
F$(u)
\320\2703
= u2
(10.22)
Fi(u) =
and similarly
Ff(u),
coefficients,
\316\275
and
for
Ff(v),
defined
w.
Fftu)
F%(u) =
2\302\253s
-2u2 +
3u2 + 1
u2
geometric
Tricubic
The
F%(u)
F%(u)
and
for
similarly
Finally.
coefficients,
/*?(\302\253),
defined
\316\275
and
Ff(v),
w. Equations
F((w)
= ri3
are
2u2
Solid
\342\226\240
245
(10.23)
+ \320\270
- \320\2702
\316\257\316\2573
(10.23) are
basis functions
by
(10.24)
and similarly
We
are
for
free
\316\275
and
w>.
to contract
(10.24)
Equations
are from
- UN.
If we
coordinates.
any of the three parametric
a
for w. then we write the geometriccoefficients
in
element arrays.Wc denote
these
as the matrices
arrays
this
sequence
of four
do
16-
\320\262. [\321\214,71]
\320\2622 [\320\260\320\264
(10.25)
\320\262, [\320\260\320\264
\320\262, [\320\260\320\264
We
expand
them
\\fim
as follows:
pooo
B,=
B,=
\320\240\320\276\321\216
\321\200\320\276\321\216
\321\200'\320\276\321\216
Pioo
\321\200\320\270\320\276
\320\240\320\272\321\216
\317\201\317\212\316\212\316\277
\342\200\236III\302\267
\302\253\317\207\316\271
in
\317\214
\316\241
\316\241
\316\241\317\213\316\257\316\267
\321\200\320\276\321\216
pv>
(\316\234 \316\241
\320\275\320\276
\316\241'\316\257,\317\213
\316\241\316\231
pooi
\320\240\320\276\320\270
Pom
pioi
pin
mi
\316\241
\321\200\320\276\320\270
\317\201'\316\257\316\271\316\271
\321\200\320\270\320\273 Pitoi
\316\241'\316\277\316\257\316\271
\321\200\320\263
\316\267\"1'
\316\241\316\252\316\277>
Pioi
\317\201'\316\257\316\271\316\220
plli
(10.26)
\317\201\316\257\316\272\317\212\316\277
pom
\321\200\320\266\321\216
pom
Pun
\320\262,-
pioo
\316\241'\316\257\316\277\316\277
\320\240\320\277\320\276
nv
\342\200\236\320\270
\342\200\236III.
p \302\253\316\272\316\271
\320\240\320\276\321\216
\321\200(\320\232\320\256
Pnii)
\342\200\224
II HI'
\342\200\236H1V\320\270\320\2701111
\316\241
Piwi
\320\240\320\277\320\276
_ pino
\320\271\320\277
\316\241
\316\241\316\271\316\220\316\271\316\271
\317\201\317\214\316\277\316\271
\321\200\320\276\320\270
111
\320\222,-
KU
III
\316\241
\316\241
\316\241\317\212\316\277\316\271
\321\200\320\242\320\275
\342\200\224
\320\235\320\230'
\320\274\320\270
(\302\253\320\270
\316\241
\316\241
\316\241\316\252)\316\212\316\212
pun
\316\267\"\"\"'
\320\232\320\230
. \316\241
\316\241',\",\", \316\241\317\212\316\277\316\271
Pin
in a three-dimensional
think of these equations as being
organized
as
We
must
in
of
in
10.4.
vectors,
mind, however, that
array
Figure
keep
are
the
each
the
because
elementsof
vectors,
array is more correctly 4
array
x 4 x 4 x 3, a four-dimensional array.
a similar approach
with the point form, contractingthe third
We
take
w
and
variable
expressing the point-form coefficientsas a
parametric
We denote these arrays as the matrices
arrays.
sequenceof four 16-element
We
can
and
expand
\321\2001 [\321\200\320\224
V2-[Pifl],
\320\240\321\215
\320\253,
(10.27)
\321\2004 [\321\200\342\200\236\321\207]
as follows
\317\200\342\204\242
\316\241\316\277\316\271\316\271
\321\200\320\254,
\316\241?\342\200\236
\317\201\316\232
pS\302\273
Pcoi
\320\240\320\260\321\216
POIQ
Pioo
\317\201\342\204\242
\320\240\320\276\321\216
&
\316\241\317\213\316\223\316\277
Pq\342\200\236Pool
PSoo
VW
\316\241\316\2777\316\223
\320\240\320\276\320\270
\316\241|\316\271\316\237
\316\241\316\277\316\212\316\277
\317\201\316\220\316\223
\317\201;,.
\316\241\316\277\316\220\316\277\"'
\316\241^
\316\241\316\252,\316\277
\317\201\316\226
\320\240\320\277\320\276
P\302\260,\302\253>
\316\2223
\"\316\277\316\257\316\277
\321\200\320\223\320\223,
Pa\302\273 \316\241\316\277,\316\214
\316\2222
\316\241\316\252*
\316\241\316\271\316\231\316\237
\316\241\316\220\317\216
\320\262,
Figure
10.4
Three-dimensional
array of
Tricubic
The
\317\201(\317\213.\317\213,\317\213)
p(o,j,o)
Solid
\317\201(\316\237,\316\231,\317\213)
p(o,|,0J
p(J,lo
p(H
\317\201(\316\257\316\2570Plj.fo)
p(\302\273
p(H\302\273)
\317\201(!\302\267'\302\267\302\260
\317\201(\316\234\302\267\302\273)
P(i,j,o)
pfi,f.o)
Pi
P(i,o,0)
PI \302\260
At
Pi
\321\200(\302\260'\320\243\320\243
o,f
,1\320\233
P2 =
p(LLO)
111
111
\316\277,\316\271,\316\241
l'1
\320\227'\320\227'\320\227 \320\227'\320\227'\320\227
\321\200(,\320\243\320\273'\320\243
\321\200(,\320\267\320\264\320\267
\316\271'2
\316\267
111
2\320\246
\316\271'2
.
\320\240(\320\243\320\233'\320\243
\320\227'\320\227'\320\227 \320\227'\320\227'\320\227
1
I
\316\271.
\316\271,\316\277,-r\317\201
\316\241
'\320\227'\320\227
,.21
pi1
\317\201
-\321\203
-\320\267
,\342\200\23612
\321\200\320\276\320\264
\321\200(\302\260'\320\243'\320\243
'3
p(4i
,1
111
111
-\320\270
\320\240(0,.|
. 2
\320\227'\320\227'\320\227 \320\227'\320\227'\320\227
\321\200(\321\203\320\273\321\203
LLPs'
'111
,'2
\320\250
\321\200(\321\203\320\273\321\203
\321\200'\320\267'\320\267'\320\267
\320\227'\320\227'\320\227
11
\320\240|..\320\276|
,-,
\321\200\320\237
'\320\227'\320\227 \321\200(]'\320\243'\320\243p(Ll|
\321\200(0\320\2241)
P(0,1,1)
Plafi
\321\200^\320\236.\321\203.1
,12.
\316\211
>(11
Pf
\320\243'\320\243'1
\320\240\320\267
,22.
p(
\317\201(\316\231,\316\237,\316\231)
p(l,y,l
P|
yy\302\2671
i.f
.1
P(LL1)
\342\226\240
247
248
\342\226\240
Solids
10.5 illustrates
Figure
distribution within
the point
cube
unit
the
in
parameter
space.
the
Because
algebraic
coefficients
an
a-llk
are
unexpanded
with
to present
cumbersome
too
matrix
determining
format,
the
this
them by
transformation
universal
\316\234,,\316\234\316\222^-\316\227
\320\234|2\320\234\320\2222\320\234\320\223+
a,\342\200\236
\320\2341\320\255\320\234\320\222\320\255\320\234\320\223+
\320\234\320\230\320\234\320\222,\320\234\320\223
\320\2342|\320\234\320\222,\320\234\320\223+
\320\234,2\320\234\320\2222\320\234\320\223+
\320\234\342\200\236\320\234\320\222,\320\234\320\223
\320\2342\321\215\320\234\320\2223\320\234\320\263+
a,p=
a,;1
ailt
where
and
M/m is
0.291
v\316\240
M3|MB1Mr+Ms2MB2Mr+M1;iMB3M7+MMMBJMr
+ \316\234^\316\234\316\222,\316\2341
+ \320\234,3\320\234\320\2223\320\234\320\223+
\316\234^\316\234\316\222,\316\234'
\320\234,,\320\234\320\222,\320\234\320\223
a single
BbB2,B3,
A2
\320\220^\320\263\320\260\320\224
or,in
[ail2],
transformation
\320\220, [a;/J]
\320\2203=[\320\260,\321\203\320\267],
(10.30)
general,
=
we rewrite
Equation
we take
M*,MB;Mr
the summationoverthe
Figure
(10.31)
where
matrix
let
\320\220* [\320\260(,\320\233
then
'
10.S
repealed
Sixty-four-point
tricubic solid,
(10.32)
j'.
subscript
form of
The
We
geometric
would
do
defines
hyperpatch
function
this
(10.33)
F4(W)B,
of w,
value
patch corresponding to a specific
array [b,ltI] from which we extract the B, arrays.Next,we
at the one-third points to obtain
a bicubic
where
\316\234
is
the
basis
27
N=
_45_
now
(10.33)
and
substitute
solve
for
11
2
1
the
evaluate
N is
the array
of basis-
(10.24). Thus,
Equation
We
and
transform\320\260\320\270'\321\215\320\277
matrix
F/1 from
coefficients
given
(10.34)
G^M-'NPjN^M\302\2671]1
function
\342\226\240
249
form to
be able lo transformequations
from
point
we
introduce
a
we
denote as
function
that
this,
patch
Giw) =
This
Solid
as follows:
define
and
G(w)
like to
To
form.
Tricubic
_27
2
18
_9
(10.35)
_9_
from
results
the
to
obtain
final
B,
the
B,-= [Fg]-1
Equation
transformation
equation
\316\234-'\316\235\316\241,\316\235^\316\234-1]^
(10.36)
in Equation
matrix whose elements are the basis functions
The expanded form of this matrix
points.
(10.23) evaluated at the one-third
where
[Fj]
is a
is
Ft(0)
FS(0)
F$(0)
Ft
\302\245\321\214
F\302\247
Fj(0)
./1
,3~
\321\200\321\202\320\260-
'2
\316\220
Ffd)
When
this
matrix
is evaluated,
(10.37)
,\320\2532
\316\267\\\317\204\\ \321\211=\320\263
Fb2(\\)
FS(1)
it becomes
Fill
FJ(1)_
250 - Solids
0
0
1
\317\213
[\320\237]
11
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
its
as the
them
recognize
respectively.
is no
or
single
Spline
Tangent
restriction
mixed-degree
a three-dimensional
using
9
2
-9
11
27
7
27
27
27
20
27
27
27
27
0
20
There
is
inverse
We
(10.38)
-1
and
0
1
arrays from
(10.39)
solid.
Vectors
the
parametric
similar
to those
Computing
processes
the
parallels
tricubic
function
partial
of
derivatives
for the
the
tricubic solid
we
might
involves
suspect,
derivatives
this
function.
We encountered
constituents
We
of
now
the
geometric
here.
oil
(10.40)
\342\226\240=g^(\302\253,V,40
p;;;\302\267,,
dw
p(w,v,w)
of twist
251
\342\226\240
vectors,
^\321\215^*\"^
(10.41)
partial,
triple-mixed
\320\2553
lC\"=
Just
as these
distribution
also
control
not
of
the
s-hape of
edges
in place
control
the
Second-level
and
shape
of Hermitc
auxiliary
the
10.6
Parametric
and
a tricubic solid.Thesevectors
faces,
but
also the
triple-mixed
partial
\321\200\302\273\321\202
P;\302\253\321\200\320\223'1'
\321\200^-\320\270\320\274\320\262=\320\270\320\274[\321\200\302\253
Figure
curves
interior
on a solid. Noticethat
of the twist vectors
change
vectors
(10.42)
p(\302\273,v,w)
surfaces, so do they
control
solid tangent
vectors.
vectors
tangent
p,,\342\204\242,\"\342\204\242
252
. Solids
a variety of ways lo control the exterior
of a
provide
shape
Ihe corner points of a solid,we can create concave and
convex faces
at will by
the tangent and twist vectors.
For simple
manipulating
wc
can set equal
lo
shapes and constrained demands on interiorbehavior,
zero some or allof Ihemixed
mixed
vectors
defined
in
derivatives,
by
partial
the manner of the F-patch
for surfaces.
vectors
These
solid. By fixing
The Parameter
The
of a
\320\221\321\200\320\260\321\201\320\265
solid
parameter
course, becausewc
a set
have
now
decomposing
tricubic
to
difficult
solid
visualize
in model
behavior
coordinates.
\320\234',\320\263)
a curve
of
an additional
for
of four-dimensional
([(,!',
(u,\\>,u>,y),and
account
must
parametric variable. We
parameter spacesdefinedby
to curves
Contrary
of
or surface,
(u.v.wjc),
and surfaces,
space.
We can.
as
we
however, apply
did for
each of
the
insights,
faces.
six
from
We
a dynamic
might
produce
not
computer-graphics
phenomena.
Continuity
and
Composite
Solids
(10-43)
Piv\342\200\236.
qo.,
For G1 continuity,
through
each of
we must investigate
the
these points.The tangent
thus,
curves
vectors
of constant
of
the
\316\275
and
curves
w passing
at these
Figure
Parameter
10.7
Embedded
Surfaces
and
Curves
space of a
In
a Solid
parametric solid.
(10.44)
P'i\342\200\236,
A:q'(W
The surface
in
the
same
we
now
have
\321\200\320\270\321\205\321\200\320\270
\320\263>\321\200\320\263*,
the
then
10.3
tangent
coordinate
system
way,
a paramelric
system
which
on
the isoparametric
results when
which
we hold two
the
of
someconstantvalues.The
curve
a and
\316\275
(\320\256.46)
surface.
a parametric
that
found
We
EMBEDDED IN A SOLID
SURFACES
AND
CURVES
indicated
vectors
if
direction
(10.45)
\317\201'\316\271\316\275.\316\274
\316\241\316\220..\342\200\236
qon,)
fl(qo,\302\267\302\273
If we
\342\226\240
253
b, where
a and
three
tricubic
in Figure
p\342\200\236&11.
10.9
b are constants.
In the
and
p\342\200\236blr
variables fixed al
results when we assign \320\270
parametric
same
figure,
we find
two
254
Solids
\317\201(\",\317\205\317\201\317\204\317\205)
10.8
Figure
A parametric
For
isoparametric
surfaces.
Pa\342\204\242,
pnm\302\267.
pnrfiv,
conditions.
Continuity
solid
on
orthogonal
nets.
modelspace
parameter
componentsof pointson
and
curve
shown
in
space
an
introducing
by
additional
para-
are
curve
the
c(0
In model
by six
ar|d
p\342\200\236ve> p,(1/.
bounded
= u(0
+ v(f)
w(f)
(10.47)
p[u(t),v(t)M0]
(10-48)
Curves and
Surfaces Embedded In
a Solid
Suifacei' = i\302\267,
p\342\200\236fc^
A distcwied
Figure
10.9
Isoparametric
in
Figure 10.10
cubical
a parametric
solid.
curves and
surfaces
solid.
\342\226\240
255
256
\342\226\240
Solids
\"
000
Parameter
The procedures
General
10.11
Figure
curve
in
solid.
a parametric
embedded
curves
for
use
space
in
surfaces.
Because
coordinate
surfaces
unit
patch
in parameter
t(s.i) = u(s,f) +
In model
we
proceed
as wilh
variety of surfacesto
Beziersurfacelies
within
model
are
(10.49)
w(j,r)
r(*.y.z)
Again
v(s,t)
space
model
p[u(s,t),v(s,t).w(sJ)]
curves in solidsand
in
the
a tricubic
(10-5\302\260)
We can choose a
What
solid.
parametric
happens when a
How do we map sucha surfacein
solid?
on
surfaces.
space?
we
permit
trimmed
them
to have
boundaries.
irregular
A specific
000
\316\267
Parameter space
10.12
Figure
is shown
example
initially
in
either
in
in
a parametric
solid.
10.13.
Figure
by a nonisoparametric
defined
surfaces
Nonisoparametric
parameter
modelingsituation.
10.4
SCHEME
NOTATION
GENERALIZED
each
introduce
notation
reduces
subject,
scheme.
the
vector
Incorporating
and
complexity
logicalstep is to
the preceding
introduce
awkwardness
a
more
not
only
curves
The
scheme that
surfaces, but also to
convention
we use
summation
generalized
and
notation
258
\342\226\240
Solids
Parameter space
Figure 10.13
involving
We
will
vectorelementsof
ith component
vector elementsof
aihl2--->n
-/\342\200\236
ith
. .
The
,*,\342\200\236)
point
algebraic
coefficient
array
of
the
bjl)2__
in model
geometric
coefficient
array
hi
space (dependent
variables)
variable)
elements
algebraic
form is
of
oialil2...la
component
vector
the
polynomial form.
parametricvariable(independent
[(=
rrijk
II
lo polycubic interpolation
paramelric variables and
and others.
characterislics
it applies
of independent
number
can directly extend to any odd-ordered
the following
general symbol definitions:
\316\206\316\231\\)2--\316\212\342\200\236
p(X\\,Xl,.
boundary.
lhal
apply
\\h
these
has
arbitrary
a system
suggests
a trimmed
with
solid
parametric
the
transformation
matrix
\316\234
\320\222
Elements
Higher-Dimension
- \342\226\240
=
\321\205,(\321\211,\320\2702...
.,\302\253\342\200\236)
\316\243 \316\243
\316\243^.^''1\"'\"'''
4\\=l
is the ith
J,
i e[l
where
and
m\\
p,
function.
Wc
;rth
omit
can
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\"\"\"'\342\226\240')
(\316\214.51)
/\342\200\236=1
the summation
a dependent-variable
of
component
isof
259
\342\226\240
this
\317\200-cubic
vector
parametric
polynomial
the equation
and
order,
There
*,(\302\253,.^)
The
= 1
is
arbitrary m and \316\267
form for
geometric
(10-52)
ief1:3i
\316\243 \316\243\316\275'\"'1\"5''1
=1/2
/\316\271
4
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
x&MuUi
\302\253\342\200\236)=
\316\243 \316\243\"'\316\243
= 1/2 = 1
:m]
FiSu\bm---i/ieV")
Fit(ui)Fb(ud
1,1=1
/l
(10.53)
The F-terms
/,= l,
F,(ur)= 2ii?-3u;+l
j,
2,
F2(\302\253f)
3,
= \320\270? 2u2r
\320\240\321\212{\320\270,)
/r =
/',
The
following
The
coefficients.
the
which
determined
the
four
product
preceding
of
a sequence
boundary.
values
Ft(ur) =
= 4,
\316\267
Table
+ 3u;
+ \316\267,
(10.54)
\320\270} uzr
more
to
at
evaluated
p\342\200\236
a summary of the
the
previously
information associatedwith
subscript.
The followingexamplesdemonstrate
Example I. n = 1,cubic
have
10.1 is
of the/rth
Ff. we
F-terra.
construct
applied
operators
-2u\\
requires
we can
correctly,
geometric
\320\254
array
multisubscripted
rules
rth
Hermite
how
curves
Z>,:=[1),y,(1)=,y,(I)
to use
this table:
260
> Solids
J,
Boinidarv
J>1
\320\263\320\260
lor
Ope
= 0
\320\270,
= 1
\320\270,
= 0
\320\274,
\320\255\320\271,
u, = l
\320\255\320\270,
=
\317\200
2,
2.
Example
Hermite
bicubic
patches
\320\255
\320\254,\320\270
[1]
\320\255\302\2532
6,4J
= 3,
\320\273
3.
Example
\317\203\316\257\316\2572
\320\255\316\257
\321\215
\316\257
\342\226\240*,(0,1)
\320\255\320\271
\316\271\320\255\320\271,
Hermite
tricubic
solids
\320\260
\320\254\320\23724={1][1
,i(o,U),^ui
\320\255\320\270\320\260
\320\255
b,J44
\320\255\302\2533
\320\255\320\247-0.1\320\224)
*;0\320\224\320\224)
\320\255\320\271?
\320\255\302\2533
\320\255\302\2731\320\2551;2\320\255\302\253\320\267
\320\255
[1
\320\231/413
,,(1\320\2200),^1\320\2501
\320\255\302\2531 \320\255\320\230;
The
braces
multiplication
imply
the
Finally,
is
coefficients
equation
except
for the
4
4
<4\316\275-\316\233=\316\243
It
is simple
and
\316\243'\"\316\243
10.5
and quite
B-Spline
INSTANCESAND
A direct
an existing
operators.
[1].
Iransformation
The operations do
not
/1 = 1/2=1
Bezier
the
separate
in the case of
and
indicate
\321\215\302\253,\321\215\302\253\320\267
/n
= ]
\321\202\320\243<\321\202*\320\271
\342\226\240,,nUiV---4,
''e[l:m]
(10.55)
PARAMETERIZED
SOLIDS
iransformation
way of defining a new shape is as a simplelinear
one. Let us considera unit cube. There are several ways of
of
trans-
Instances
and
a new
it into
forming
three-dimensional
a
in
shapes
initial,
shape
transformation
Unit
produces
specific
cubes. Differential
cube or rectangular
instances
an
instance.
sphere
DilFerenLial
Unilorm
all
initial cube.
of how
examples
of
\342\226\240
261
scaling of
Equal
operators.
new different-size
solids. Each new
creates
of the
instance
transformalions
The
scaling
using
of rectangular
variety
particular
Figure 10.14shows
an unlimitedvariety
such
by
components
scalingcreates
solidis
shape
Solids
Parameterized
scaling
scaling
UniT cube
\320\222
C=^
UnlL cvlmdei
Figure10.14
Instances.
shape.
or
shape is
the shape in Figure
a primitive
Instancing
note
example,
10.15.We
can
transform
this
for
\316\226
section
by
equal
or differential
solelyon these
transformations.
fully
Using
parameterized
shapes
removes
this limitation.
objects.If each
dimension
is an
sufficient
independent
to define
variable,
or
by specifying the key dimensions
then
use
these parametersto
Geometric-modeling
parameters.
algorithms
a more
mathematical
In Figure 10.16,we
compute
complete
representation.
the same
see
basic shape as that in Figure 10.15but with much
greater
particular
shape
representational
within
a class
of objects
power.
Figure
10.1S
instances
of a Z section.
Solids
Instancesand Parameterized
\342\226\240
263
It is not difficult
in Figure
section
and easily
to
procedures
are
restricted
shape.
of data
the validity
verify
10.16, for
We can develop
(he \317\204\317\204-celled
structure
Parameterized
10.16
Figure
> 0,
Z>
<
and
\316\226
restrictions
following
h >
variable
with
to a
the
> 2r,
\321\217
\321\201/,
parameterizedshapes
in Figure
specifyinga model.Forthe
4/.
topologies,
such
as
parameterized-shape
single topology.
A related scheme,calledgroup
technology,
came
into
use
in
concert
with
manufacturing
computer-aided
techniques to encourage
and
The
standardization in part
central thesis and main advantage
design
production.
of group technologyis that many manufactured
parts can be grouped into
of similar
where individual members are distinclassesor families
shapes,
certain
= numbei of
\320\273
i o,b
f
Figure
10.17
wall
cells
[hickness
tell dimensions
= length
Parameterized
264 - Solids
a few
by
guished
parameters
(key dimensions). A
members
generic primitive, and individual
10.18 shows examplesof genericprimitives.
they
are
prevent
it.
in constructive
For
primitive
surfaces),
primitive
is a
shapes
Figure
example,
an envelope
of
instance into a boundary representation
(probably
to
more
evaluates it
Boolean
combinations
of instances, and forms
or
Parameterized-shape
are
They
of
instances.
complexshapes.
use.
single family
are not
instances
The
are
unquestionably
though
primitives,
large,
group-technology
models
concise;
however,
is limited. Modeling systems
of
type
10.6
SWEEP
Sweep
SOLIDS
solid
representations
along
some
path.
are based on
The locus of
for
representations
they
offer
modeling
opportunities
to
shape
for
a sweep
point-
equation
among
Shih
others.
SSS/SA
\320\243///\320\243/\320\233
ZZZZZ2
\320\243////\320\233
(a)
VmL\302\267
(c)
(b)
Figure
10.1B
Typical generic
primitives.
(1994).
265
Sweep Solids \342\226\240
generating
sweep or extrusionby
a translational
define
We
rotating
a planar
a spatial
rotation,
straight
and
the
a solid.
latter
curve
or
the former
plane of the curve,
We define a rotational sweep by
area
about an axis. Although this is
to the
normal
line
a planar
moving
finite
curve or shape with
the axis is usually in the
usually
the context.
from
clear
When does a
intuitive
concept
generator
a director
shape,
at
generator
application?
we cannot go wrong
answer. However,
each
point
if we
path,
and rules
on the
director.
it is
that
is a
This
difficult
no longer
question
on the
insist
with
a useful,
no
presence of a
easy
the
in geometric
because they
modeling
of
and
manufacturingobjectsand
engineering
accurately
represent
and in contemporary
modeling systems they prove to be practical
processes,
cons tant-ciOss-scetion
mechanical parts. We can
efficient
for
and
modeling
for
them to detect potential interference betweenparts of mechanisms;
use
\320\222
if the volume
a
A
th
a
collides
wi
fixed
swept
example,
object
moving
object
is in simulating
use
and analyzing materialby A intersects B. A related
Sweep shapes
arc
important
a large
removal
operations
and spherical
dass
in manufacturing;
for example,
in
studying
a hall-shaped
the
cylindrical
cutter
moving
raw
stock for a part,
the
predefined path intersectingand machining
from
the part.
removed
material
where the intersectionvolume
represents
The two principal
of sweep
Figure 10.19shows
examples
representations.
along a
types
of
are
trajectories
and
depicted\342\200\224translation
element
of
the
rotation.
Note
that
the
the
nonlinearsweep
director
of a
representations.
rotational
266
\342\226\240
Solids
Generator
J Axis
surface
Figure
or
levofurion
id)
\316\234
10,19
Examples
of sweep
shapes.
There are
and
some
obvious
not-so-obvious
ways of creating
In
the translational
10.20a,
dimensionallynonhomogeneous
objects.
a
of
curve
a
surface
alsocreates
In
creating
sweep
dangling
edges.
a one10.20b, two two-dimensional regions are connected
Figure
In Figures 10.20c and 10.20d,creatingsolids
dimensional
structure.
several
Figure
two
by
using
or
invalid
solids
nonhomogeneous
passing
results
the
through
surface
results in dimensionally
generators
and
The
rotational sweep of a generator
ambiguities.
axis of rotation, as in Figures 10.20eand
10.20f,
produces
nonhomogeneous
for
most
or solid with a
unacceptable
and
Sweep
Solids
\342\226\240
267
\320\236
<\320\254)
\316\257\316\237
(\320\265)
\320\256.20
Figure
ff)
Djmensionally
nonhomogeneous
sweep
representations.
even desired.
freedom\342\200\224computer
this
and
figure
algorithms,
Translation
and
we
requiring
can
degrees
of
in
By following
them in the design of sweep-representation
be sure to create dimensionally
models.
Generalized
Sweeps
a
Lossing and Eshleman (1974)developed
powerful
representing
greater
criteria suggested
example.
incorporating
generating
homogeneous
for
constant-cross-section
objects.
Their
approach
technique
for
emphasizes
proce-
268 - Solids
dures
that
minimize
data
storage
requirements.
curve
called
They use a
a position
six-component
and
direction
section of a mechanical
planar
is
an
axis
surface of a raw-stock
translated
along
part
model.This model is then trimmed by limiting planes to produce the
of the part. Figure 10.21 illustrates these features.
If the finished
boundingsurfaces
the
a
a
on
model
curved
nonlinear
would
followed
transformation
axis,
part
(PD) curve.A
describe
curve
closed
this representation.
an
almost
unlimited
Lossing and Eshlemanare ableto define
variety of
define
a PD
curve as a general form
swept solids using (heir technique.They
a cubic
Hermile
curve that continuously
of a six-component curve,usually
Specifies position and an associateddirection.The first three components
define
a continuous
parametric cubic equation of positionin threedimensional
Space. The second three components define a corresponding
cubic
continuous
for an associated direction vector.A
parametric
equation
a
variable
associates
the direction vector with
common
parametric
specific
defines
a curved and
on the curve. The pD curve in Figure
10.22
position
twisting coordinate system.
a local orthogonal
We
construct
system at pj as follows:Computep;',the
vector.
From
and
d, (remember,
d, is given by another parametric
tangent
p\"
unit vectors l,m, and n:
equation),we find the orthogonal
Limil
Figure
10.21
Outline
Diane
surface of a
constant-cross-section solid.
SweepSolids
\342\226\240
269
Difeclion
d,
associated wild ^
curve
PD
Trans
,
!..___!_
m =
ld'
n=
\320\223\320\276
rmed
\342\200\236
orlhogonal
\" \316\241\"'
on curve
x m
10.22 Characteristics
Figure
axis
aipoinlp,
of a
PD
curve.
I =
ip'/i
d, *
m =
Id,
n =
The axes I
curve. A
tan gent
as the
or
a PD curve to producegeneralized
a constant-cross-section part
(he
with
cross
complex
with
an
multiple
section.
cross
Losing
and
surfaces.
outline
that
is not
only
curved
Figure
but also
curves can
cross-section
an
generator.
We can use
10.23 illustrates
tube
xm
curve
extract
p'/l
a direction
\316\267
define
changes
plane
outline
and
(10.56)
Pi1
\317\207
inner
sections
and
with
high variability
in the
axial direction.Multiple
PD
270
- Solids
Swepi
solid
Reference dneciion
Consiam
Cfoss-secriori
curve
(genefarc-f
PD curve
Figure
10.23
constant-cross-section
curves and
normals
and
can be
part
that
twists.
create,
in
effect,
half-spaces
lo
with
a raw-
Parametric
Figure
variable
10.24
Components
of a
PD
curve.
Sweep
of surface
variety
be used
can
geometry
be defined by
shapes can
envelope
\342\226\240
271
of section
and
rules. Martin
blending
from differential
surfaces
of a solid body.
and
transformation
how
a sel
specifying
Solids
theory
the
by
Rotational 5weeps
One
a plane
of revolution is by revolving
curve
around an axis line in its plane (see Figure 10.25). The plane curveis called
the
curve,
and. in its various positions around the axis,it creates
profile
meridians.The
circles
created
by each point on this curve are calledparallels.
the
let
the
axis
For
be the axis of rotation and definethe
\316\266
case, we
simplest
curve
Ihe surface of revolution has
Then
\316\266
\321\200(\320\274)
x(u) + z(r\316\271)in the \317\207,
plane.
way
to
generate
a surface
the equation
\317\201(\316\272,\316\270)
x(u)
Of course,
circular arc,and
cos
be
+ x(u)
\316\270
a general
sin
+
\316\270
z{u)
curve, elliptic
soon.
Figure
10.2S
Surface of
revolution.
(10.57)
segment,
272
Solids
shown
general surface of revolution, we considerthe situation
The
are
a
cubic
Hermite
curve
10.26.
or
initial
elements
Figure
given
a defining
the direction of
defined by its geometric coefficients,a unit vector
a more
For
in
passes,
and
surface.
We
surface
in
and
the
the
b locating
a point through which the
the curve rotates to sweep out
vector
axis
the
which
\317\210
through
a
a bicubic Hermite patch that describes
such
and
elements. First, we must determinethe scalars
k0
/\321\201,
r(( and r,. We do this by solving the following sets of vector
like to find
would
terms
angle
of these
vectors
equations:
\320\252
+ kpa
+To-p0
where
a-r0-0
where
(10.58)
and
=
b +/c,a+11!
pi
by
\302\267-
r0
a and
0 makes
r0
\302\267=
r,
mutually
=
r0
po
Equation
(10.59), we
(10.59)
perpendicular;
obtain
\320\233\342\200\236=\320\260.(\321\2000-\320\254)
From
\316\234
\320\254
(10.60)
(10.61)
obtain
Ma-(pi-b)
r,
Figure 10.26
p!
A:,a
(10\302\26762)
- b
(10.63)
Solids
Sweep
Now
can
we
proceed
Clearly,p'0= b +
and \320\263',
(see
The
tangents
respectively
vectors at
of
to
thesevectorslo
in the
vector
directionof
r(,
and
vector
as
the
\320\263\302\243
sum
in the
direction
of
one
arithmetic,
of the
t'0,
tangent
vector product
of
magnitude
(10.64)
of two
We
t0.
begin
by observing
that the
elementary
r0. Applying
we obtain
= I rn
\320\223\320\277
\320\223(1
sin
lr0l
or,
final
the
\317\207
a I
the vector
direction
find
to and
r'0
r(|Xa
lr0
can define
p',.
tu, so that
t0
We
= b +
+ r\\. Thus,
\320\272\320\263\320\260
\317\201\316\212
and
a
\320\223\321\206
two
other
the
find
r'0 and
10.27).
lo the circular
Figure
unit
faa
\342\226\240
273
lr0
\317\210
\317\207
al
(10.65)
simplified,
r0=
r0cos\\ii
. r0 \317\207
a
-smf
lr0l
lr0x
Figure 10.27
vectors
of
al
Circumferentialtangent
a surface
of revolution.
(10.66)
274
. Solids
find
We
in a
r,
similar way:
\321\205
\320\263,\320\260
r, = r, cos \317\210+\316\231\317\204, sin
xal
\317\210
(10-67)
r,
We
components
in
also define
can
of
directions
the
tfl
and
to =
the
as
sum
of two
r0:
cos
t\342\200\236
\317\210-\316\263--sin
(10.68)
\317\210
lr0l
or
\317\207
a
\316\223\316\267
= \342\200\224 \320\263
cos
r\342\200\236
\317\207
al
lr(l
know
We
that t, =
and
t0
.
~r0 sm
\317\210
\342\226\240i\"oJ
(10.69)
= t',.
now find
t\\
\317\210
the
of these
magnitudes
for circular
the
= -\321\202.
\316\267
Furthermore,
that
po +
\342\204\242t0=pO-mto
and
Ipo-ppl
m =
itn
From
these,
+ t;j
we obtain
Ipo-pol
+
p \320\273P\302\273
pu=4lr0l
substitutions,
appropriate
- cos
sin
Ito + toi
(\317\210/2)
(\317\210/2)
p2-po
Ip2
Pol
we find
(10.70)
and
1
- cos
(\317\210/2)
po-p;
41\320\2630
\321\200\320\276\",=
sin
lp
pz'
(10.71)
\320\276
and
\317\201',\316\214
pjl, at the other end of the
the
have changed
nomenclature: We now denote
patch.
point
p'o as p01,and, of course,p0 of the initial curve is \317\201^on the patch. It should
help to keep in mind that we are creating a surface patch by sweeping a curve
an arc
around
an axis.
through
We use this
Notice
same procedure to
(\317\210/2)
that
we
find
275
Controlled Deformation Solids \342\226\240
(he tangent
we compute
Next,
rotating pi!through
the
vector p^,
angle
which
is,
of
the result
course,
we sec that
a. First
around
\317\210
=
lp;(il
of
Ip'ol (see
Also,
10.28).
both
(pS.a)a +
p;,=
find
We
the
vector
tangent
required elementsof
10.7
vectors.
Hint'.
surfaces
of
What
the
same
way. All
of the
patch
except the twist
do the \320\260\320\270\321\205\320\250\320\260\321\202\321\203
curves
on
have
the interioT of the
with
are
\320\222
matrix
the
effect
revolution
at the
(10.72)
(pS.^)
= 0
\317\201\"\"'(\302\253,
w)
determined
or with
p\"\"'
(u,
w)
* 0?
can
thereby
of
deformation
the
use
new
creating
the
parametric
nonlinear
praxis
variables
Figure
10.28
\320\270
and
t;
Axial tangent
vectors of a surface of
revolution.
276 - Solids
Axis
10.29
Figure
deformation.
t=t(u)
Then Ihe
deformed curveis
(10.73)
p'= r[t(u)}+Pim
where
1 =
r1, m=
\317\207
\316\266
1. and
unit
\316\266
is (he
vector
in the
\316\266
direction.
basis deformation
way lo deform a shape is by a simple
(sec
Figure
We
the
in
the
m and \316\267
initial
coordinate
define
with
system
shape
10.30).
unit
hasis
Wc
Ihe
vectors.
deformed
wilh
lo a
orthogonal
map
shape
respeel
is no longer
and express il as
transformed
basis m' and n', which
orthogonal,
Another
p',
m(m'
+ nn'
(10.74)
Axial Deformations
of Ihe
Axial deformations are a generalization
methods
discussed
in (he
preceding
shaping operations, such as scaling,
technique
reference
lo some convenientaxisin
and
bending,
twisting,
stretching,
hy
which
wc induce
the desired deformations subsequently lo be passedon lo
the
model.
and Jancene (1994) have worked in this area,
Lazarus,
Coquillarl,
and Bechmann (1991),Welch
earlier
work
Borrel
and
Wilkin
on
drawing
by
Barr
and
Their
lo
ihe
others.
axial-deformalion
approach
(1992),
(1984),
makes
axis
use of an arbitrary, but convenient,
Ihree-dimensional
technique
as
Ihe
basis
for
models.
model
or
If
ihe
existing
(straight
deforming
curved)
itself is representedby a sel of control points, as is the casefor Bezierand B-
sections.
This
controls
Solids
Deformation
Controlled
n/
\342\226\240
277
)p;
Pi
\316\271
^-
\302\273.
m
Deformed shape
Inifial shape
Figure 10.30
Spline
and
curves
these points.
Each
within
located
surfaces,
then
control
point
a local
in
the
axis deformations
is \"attached\"
to
coordinate
*\342\226\240
\317\207
system
work
the
axis
Next,
proposed by Bishop (1975)orKlok(1986).
to achieve the desired resultsin the model.
If the axis itself is
defined hy control
then the points may he movedto producethe axis
points,
transformed
model control points are computedand
deformation.
Finally,
the
used
and
to represent
deformed model.
compute
such
frame
as that
is deformed
Bfvariate Deformation
We
define
a deformed
create
can
this
of
Deformations
parametric
Figure 10.31). We
Then
or B-Spline
define
a bivariate
we map
the curve
V,
TVivariate
in an embeddingspace.
object. For example,we
a Hcrmite,
\316\266
\321\203,
space.
space
shape by defining it
passed on to the
are
surface,
in a
normalized
variables
p(u. w) in the
ti,w
\320\273-,
\321\203
plane
p[u(t),w(t)]
or
(see
in
.\316\275,
(\320\256.75)
Deformation
Similarly,
in three
curve
t(i)
and
embed
it in a
trivari-
ale
p\302\243 p[\"(0.
v(0\302\267w(0J
(10.76)
278
- Solids
(a) in
parameter
space
p{u,w)
(b) in
2D
p{u,v,w)
in 3D
\320\230
Figure
1031
deformed bivariate
Shapes via
embedding spaces.
Figure
10.32
Shapes via
deformed
univariate
and
that
points
(1992)
a set of local
and curves. Their
leaves
describe
a method
process
This
surfaces.
deform
279
\342\226\240
spaces.
embedding
DeformableSurfaces
Celniker Welch
Solids
Deformation
Controlled
embedded
coordinate
as
shape
to constrain
how
curve
fair
system;
interpolated
by minimizing
any parametric
in the surface to
and how to
on the surface.
and Battels (1993),whose
Relatedwork in
direct
method
allows
of geometric properties and
manipulation
surface
to control
shape, rather than to control verticesor deformation
relationships
see Battels and Bcatty (1989), Clark (1976),
Also
lattices.
Coquillart
(1990),
and Witkin (1991), Kramer (1991),Light
and
Gossard
Welch,
Gleicher,
and
Barr
Serano and Gossard (1987), and Witkin,
Fleischer
(1987),
(1982),
constrain
surface
among others.
normals
This
page
intentionally
left
blank
MODEL
CONSTRUCTION
COMPLEX
In
models.
The
completed
dimensional
must
solid,
and
connectivity
we
techniques
model
we
modeling,
geometric
it
must
homogeneity
combine
must
use
two
constructive
technique
solid
geometry
called
boundaryrepresentation
simpler
and
The
associating
the
\320\241
The
elements.
shapes
using
All
are
of
the
Boolean
of
instances
of
parameterized
shapes,
these
complex
solid
models.
281
282
11.1
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
TOPOLOGY OF MODELS
Complexmodels
require
attention
considerable
connected
subjected
topology. We must
the complex model
lo form
lo a variety of
to their
transformations.
Topological
thoroughly
and
imaginatively
for
sources
recommended.
Abelson
fundamental
this discussion,
and
topological
theorem,
closed-path
which,
as
simple
and obvious
as
it
appears,
happens
lo be
difficult to
283
Topologyof Models \342\226\240
(b)
(d)
'
(f)
(e)
Figure 11.1
prove
two
the
theorem
The
rigorously.
properties
of a
closed
Rotation number.
implies
that
path\342\200\224the
there is a
turning
and
relationship between
the
crossings
or self-
intersection points.
are
that can be deformed into one another
closed
paths
arc topologically equivalent, Total turning is a topological
invariant for
arc
closed
topologically
paths, and any two closed paths that
equivalent must
have
the same total turning.The converse is also true:If two
paths
have
the same total turning, they can be deformed
into
one
another.
This was
W. \320\241
first proved in 1936 by H. Whitney
and
who
observed
that
Graustein,
Curves
curves
defining
that
two closed
they
have
the
same
total turning.
into
one
another
if. and
only il.
2B4
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Construction
The simple-closed-pa
is more
theorem
th
than the
comprehensive
closed-
The simplemore
path theorem,and its proofis
complicated.
is
a
information.
Since
link between local
global
closed-path theorem
is no direct
crossing points on a curve are nonlocal phenomena,
way
for a traversal algorithm
around
is, an algorithm
proceeding
stepwise
the path) to detect crossing
To do this requires looking at the entire
point.
curve at once.
it is possible
to determine
total turning by local
computation, this theorem relates total turning to the existence of
considerably
and
there
(that
However,
and
a powerful
crossing points,
as
in the
contained
information
defined
turning
capability
exercise demonstratesthe
A simple
We
theorem.
we
path,
total
accumulating
the
circuit
does not
turning
perhaps
total
our
on
and find
equal
\302\261360\302\260,
that somewhere
the path must have at least one crossing
we do not know where the crossingpoi\302\273ts are and we were
assert
can
Although
point.
and global
by a
local
between
link
the theorem
must
exist.
Thus, the
crossing points
a
is an example
of powerful principle: It is often
theorem
simple-closed-path
local information.
possibleto determine
by accumulating
global
properties
This theoremis useful
in determining
the validity of a model.
unable to
Deformation of
and
Curves
the
traversing
or
path,
by applying
more
Planes
theorems
proofs of the simple-closed-path theoremand related
turn
our attention
we
to the
topology of simple closed curves,
of deformations
show
of curves and planes. We must
that, given a
consequences
simple closed path (a path with no crossing points), the total turning around
the path is equal to \302\261360\302\260.There are many paths for which this result is
To develop
about
the
the
is the
simplest
simpleclosed
curve
Given
further:
stretched,
as
itself
deformed
closed
\320\260\321\203\320\273\321\203
simple
theorem
simple-closed-path
into a square.
not only
path,
a square,
Deformationsof
playye
be
deformed
the
can
is an
paths
ayyd
playyes
are
closely
related.
Imagiyye
ayyd
pulled,
the
playye
that
kind
of slretchiyyg
arbitrarily stretchable rubber sheet.\320\220\321\203\320\273\321\203
the
or
Topology of
that
shrinking
we draw
does not
a closed
that
remain
such
deformation
rubber
the
sheet
deformation.
then any
plane,
If
deformation of
Figure 11.2).Next,
stretchedand distorted must
in the initial plane. Clearly, straight-linesegments
curve
under
thai
are
(he
of
the
deformation.
legitimate
Many
changes
and
cannot
of curves,
such as the overlap phenomenon, do
path on
Models \342\226\240
285
the
flat
of the
a deformation
path (see
sheet is arbitrarily
rubber
but
may
for
not
a deformation
that
with
in the plane. We observe
crossing
points are
neither created nor destroyedduring
deformation.
plane
are more conservative than path deformations.
Plane
Every
deformations
is a path deformation,but a path deformation
that
plane deformation
introduces
crossovers
to be a plane deformation.Themathematical
is loo violent
a rubber
term
while
for a path deformation
sheet
is regular homotopy,
make
observation
to
deformation
is an ambient
An
here
is that
isotropy,
important
a square,
this
and, moreover,
any simple closed path can be deformedinto
can be done with a conservative
that is, a plane deformation.
deformation;
ean
theorem for simple closed
In summary,
we
stale
the deformation
curvesasfollows:Forany simple closed eurve in Ihe plane, there is a rubber
sheetdeformation
that reduces the curve to a square.
of the plane
happen
V \316\224 \\-
\\
\\V
\\
\\
\\
\\
\\
!AXt
O^-ViVr^.
\320\233\320\224?\321\221^\321\206^\321\213-
=\320\250\320\266
\320\272.
^
j
-\342\226\240*
0*\302\267
4/\302\267
**
\317\207_
Figure 11.2
286
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Construction
Curve Theorem
The Jordan
Another resultof
the deformation
the
is
simple
and
and
an outside.
an inside
having
deformations
must
in the
curve
closed
inside
closed paths
simple
Jordan
curve theorem,
of
topology
theorem
the
and an outsidearc
under
invariant
rubber
sheet
If the
the
The Jordan
curves can be
theorem
curve
complex
arbitrarily
is not true if
we
a simple
example,
closed
torus into
Not
two
curves
consider
curve
distinct
only docs
probably
and
can be
loo
seems
convoluted.
on surfaces
so
drawn on a torus,
yet
it may
not divide
the
regions.
outside,
but
the
inside
of a circle in
dcformable, in the rubber sheetsense,into the interior
the plane. A region
that
can be deformed in this way is a topological disk.A
a
disk
has no holes or isolated points in it. In general,
deforming
topological
the
rubber sheet region does not require
a
of
flat
the
region
part
keeping
11.3 shows
a
is, the region may be planar or nonplanar).
(that
Figure
plane
the
total
curve deformed into a rectilinear polygon,wherewe see that
turning
or angles.
turns
is reduced to summing clockwiseand counterclockwise
90\302\260
itself is
Figure 11.3
a curve
by
Approximating
a rectilinear
a grid.
\321\215\320\277
path
of Models
Topology
Angle
\342\226\240
287
Excess
or simply excess, is by
mathematicians call angleexcess,
that
some
reference
turning
pointer undergoes whencarriedaround
a
a closed
Excess
rather
is
path.
general concept;it is an angle associated
a
on
a curved
surface.
We can restate
the closed-path
with
closed path
theorem so
that
surfaces:
it holds for simple closed paths on arbitrary
The concept
definition
the
74
where
trip
along
this path
associated
excess
angle
equator along a
equator to the starling point.Noiice
be transported parallello itself
to the
return
then
the
that
fixed
Angle
lo
the
is the
closed path on a
continue
and
reference
pointer
surface
in which
same no matterwhere
path,
we
is
find
that
the following
excess
additive,and
the excess
the path.
along
with a
meridian
different
relative
For
(11.1)
= excess
along the path and \316\225
Figure 11.4illustratesthe
sphere.
\302\243=360\302\260
the
trip
pole,
along the
must always
theorems
apply.
polygonal
subdivision.
288
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Construction
3. For any
the
surface,
of the
excess
angle
around
interior.
show
can
We
the total
curvature
for
sphere
for any
is
and
4\317\200
the
angle
excess is
enougharea,
almost
We can
sphere.
choose
will
We
as
area
unit
surface
any
will
appear
small
in
the
so
on\342\200\224isvery
the
the approximating
planar.
by
using
piece of a
a small
not change
does
patch of a surface. Therefore,if \320\272
radically
then all of the geometry there\342\200\224angles,
and
total
turning,
close
to the geometry on a sphere whoseradius
is determined
patch,
of
\320\272
the
1/r2. The
is the
pieces
If the initial
\320\232
is
precisely
Therefore./i
true
for any
same
region is
equal
to
in
both
cases.
theorem
implies
of
the
polygon.
that
it
is
Topology
Spheres,
Models
\342\226\240
289
Handles
and
Tori,
of
Let us compute\320\232
for
a region
that has no boundary at all\342\200\224the sphere.
We
a
divide
and
southern
sphere into two pieces; for example,the northern
Each of them is hounded by the equator,
we know has
which
hemispheres.
excess 2\317\200,yielding
4\317\200
for
the total curvature
of the spheres. Observethat the
A:
of
the
curvature
a
on
radius, but the total curvature
density
sphere
depends
\320\232
same for all Spheres.
is the
It turns out that the total curvature
\320\232
is a topological
for closed
invariant
the total curvature is unchanged by
surfaces. For surfaceswith a boundary,
do not affect the vicinity
that
of the
of the surface.
deformations
boundary
are not asserting
We
that a torus is flat
Any torus has zero totalcurvature.
a cylinder
or a plane, which would imply
the curvature
like
that
density is
zero everywhere, instead,we observe
that
as
much
torus
has
any
just
negative
curvature.
as positive
curvature
We now
and tori.A
sphere
the same
topologically
The torus
kinds
two
of
of closed
as a torus, yet
a handle
attached.
surfaces, spheres
they
are
related.
The process
of
ones
but
flared
topologically
to blend
out
a torus
with
(see
the
Figure
flat
regions
11.5). In other
sphere- 2disks
Next,
sphere
we
has
compute
- 4\317\200;
\320\232
the
the total
disks
be
words.
handle
= torus
(11\302\2672)
The
curvature on each sideof the equation.
- 0. The torus, as we
flat and thus have \320\232
were
Figure11.S
Sphere
with
a handle.
290
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Construction
- 0. Then, for the
also has \320\232
equation lo be balanced,
just asserted,
the
= -4\317\200.
curvature
a handle
of
this process
With
flattening, culling, and gluing,we can attach
and we see that it
lo any surface.We now know the curvature
in
the
handle,
total
curvature
find
that
the
total curvature
decreases
the
4\317\200.
We
always
by
or
of a two-holed torus is the same as that of a torus with a handle attached
handle
total
have
must
for a
In general,
handles
surface
attached,
is given
about
fact
is
of
number
handles
equivalent
six
with
see
from
Equation
solid
also
of
models
as
closed
of
an analytic
it as
(11.4) thai
shown,
Figure
11.6a
in
is
closed
space is an
is immediately
surfaces
characteristic
of topological
\321\215\320\263
determinant
<a|
Figure
surface
in three-dimensional
characteristic
What
handles.
deform
We
handles
11.6b?(Hint:Topologically
(H-4)
g)
equivalent
lopologically
attached.
to a sphere
4\320\242\320\223(1
with
spheres
three-dimensionalspace
as a sphere with
by
handles =
wdhji
^sphere
The important
the same
is lopologically
that
curvature
total
(11.3)
11.6
type.
<b|
Topological
equivalent
handles;
(b)
five
of a
handles.
of Models
Topology
that
Remember
total
turning
now
of 2\317\200,and
we
multiple
in three-dimensional
closed
surfaces
have
space\342\200\224all
that
arbitrary
combine
somehow
\302\253291
an
integer
property
for
and
denting
to give precisely
in changing
change
ordinary closedsurface,we
to fit into three-dimensional
There are closed surfacesthat are too
a total
curvature
that is a multiple
space and, as a consequence, do not have
must
ones,
of 4\317\200.As it turns out, any closed surface, includingthesetwisted
is
not
of
2\317\200.
This
class
of
surfaces
a
have total curvature equal to multiple
it by
twisted
must
significant
in
modeling.
geometric
Knots
exploration of the
the
at
\320\241
the
which
two points
within
any
one
curve
of the
plane.
are
It is
of closed
properties
topological
Jordan
theorem
obvious
characterized
regions (such
and curves
that
by the
as a,b and
the
\320\241
divides
property
c,d)
paths.
forming
can
plane
that any
be
a point
a path that lies wholly within the region; whereasif we take
connected
by
them
will
as a and c), then every path between
from each of the regions(such
\321\201\320\260\320\275
the
be called
cut \320\241
11.7). The bounded region \320\220
(see
Figure
necessarily
The first proof of the now-famous Jordan
the
outside.
inside of C, and \320\222
the plane
that
curve
theorem,
every simple closed curve in the plane divides
in 1893 in the important book, Coursd'Analyse,
into two regions,
appeared
Jordan did not solve the problem
Jordan
\320\241
although
(1838-1922),
by
Jordan's
Even
simplioriginal proof has by now been greatly
though
completely.
Fjgure11.7
Division
of a
a closed
plane
curve.
292
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
fied.
not
still
is
it
definednotionof
easy to
inside
bearing
on
theorem
Jordan's
circle
embedded
problemof
knot
Incidentally,
problems.
geometric-modeling
many
An
prove this apparently obvious theorem.The wellfor simple closed curves has direct
outside
and
theory
in
is to
three-dimensional
also
is
useful
for
three-dimensional
knot. The
is a
space
when two
determine
it
basic
that
11.8
Figure
11.9).
However,
they can
shows
an
the first
to make a seriousstudy
mathematician
Listing (1808-1882).Hisapproach
was
to
project
of
11.B
Jordan
curve theorem
knots
onto the
(\320\253
<a|
Figure
the knot
and knots.
was J.
B.
plane and
analyze it by
the
considering
The
were
Euclidean
dimensional
had
in 1910.
defined
important
unanswered
another
geometric
P. G.
the complement
Tail
of the knot
very
difficult,
and
in
three-
M.
Dehn
many
have mentioned
questions
it has
because
by J. W.
by studying
space and
obtained
were
invariants
track of
T. P.
(1831-1901).
the more elementary knots.
of knots that were effectively computed
Alexander
and
K. Reidemeist.These
1920s
the
in
of knots.
keeping
used later by
\342\226\240
293
to classify
characteristics
invariant
first
found
intersections,
was also
a method
Such
crossings.
Linking numbers
11.9
Figure
Models
of
Topology
We
modeling.
Flat 5urfaces
Piecewise
future
schemes for
representation
and
their
supporting topology, so thereare
objects
polyhedra
the
for
material
presented here.The classical
many
opportunities
applying
a discussion of
is
an
excellent
with
which
to begin
polyhedron
example
we mean an arrangement of polygons
piecewise flat surfaces.
By polyhedron
thai
such
potential
use
modelingsolid
two and
to traverse the
only two
surface of the
The simple
are
the sourceof topology's
polyhedra
the
contribution
simple
polyhedra.
Furthermore,
entirely
important,
to
geometric
since they
modeling.
are historically
The term
polyhedra
sphere.
most
all
that
it is possible
its
by crossing
edges and moving
have
been traversed by
polygons
refers
Regular
to all
polyhedra
a topological
it does
property,
simple
A toroidal
polyhedron.
one: Every
imply
is a
polyhedron
convex polyhedron
is
nonsimple polyhedron.
Euler's
Formula
well-known
V, E,
states
and
relationship
F, respectively,
formula
regular
It
that
+ F=2
V-E
This
faces
and simple
a direct
provides
(11.5)
five
polyhedra.
prove
this, let
to
theorem
9F
9F
(11.6,
f-E+f-2
or
For
both
we safely
a polyhedron,
h and
\320\272
were
than
larger
implies
that
impossible.
< 5.
3 < \320\272
\342\200\236,
\342\200\236\320\2
> 3. On
the other hand,
assume that h, \320\272
that
3. then the above equationwould
imply
= \316\231+'1<!
\316\277<\316\247
\320\272
\316\225 h
which is obviously
either/;
Therefore,
By symmetry,
\316\231_\316\231
=
if
\320\272
3, then
(\316\227.8)
v/
2
or
\320\272
equals
3 <h
if
3. If
< 5.Thus,
- 3, then
(h,k,E)
They are, in
(3,3,6),
possibilities.
(4,3,12). (5.3,30), and (3,5,30) are the only
the
the
tetrahedron, the cube, the octahedron,
fact, realized by
the icosahedron.
use
Observe that we did not really
dodecahedron,and
respectively
the fact that the edges of the polyhedron all have the samelength.
as
As
long
the numbers h and \320\272
still
have
five
are
we
constant:,
only
possibilities
(up to
or contracting).
stretching
295
Topologyof Models\342\226\240
Poincare
points,edges,
and
the
denoted
He
hedron
Euler's
Euler's
generalized
he
faces,
formula to
0-, 1-T2-,
of each
numbers
(or polytope)
formula as
defined
as
Nt),
\316\267
3, this
These
regular
were
there
however,
reduces to
polyhedra
no others.
rather
\316\233\316\212.
N2, . . .
imprecise
This
are topological
therefore,
examples
parallelepiped
a hypcrpolyand
expressed
in
l-(-l)\"
direct
(11.10)
Euler's formula.
polyhedra. Nonsimplcpolyhedra
of
elements.
, \316\235\342\200\236
\316\271,
respectively,
in the
...,/?- 1-dimensional
of these elementspresent
+ jV,
\316\234,-\316\233\316\212
For
n-dimenstonal space.Insteadof
ofany
solid
object
use
/\320\245\320\226\320\226\320\223\320\233
Figure 11.10
Examples of nonsimple
polyhedra.
some
whose
296
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Construction
into
Iwo
two
polyhedraof
where2G
the
without
common
points
connectivity.
Thus.
V-E+F-2(l-G)
=0
(11.11)
number.
This is the
Euler-Poincareformula.
vertices,
the
counting
and
connectivity
and
connectivity
by
Conversely,
the
Furthermore,
regions.
genus
any
N,
define
of nonintcrsecting
number
surface into
We
regions.
separaie
maximum
or
that do
genus
N=-V+E-F+2
G= (-V+E-F+2)
2
Thus,
can
we
parallelepiped
Atlas
We
will
topological
planar
pieces
surfaces.
simple
a through
complicated
Topological
deform
with
(11-12)
and
Orientation
additional
a more general approachto developing
consider
surfaces formed by taking a collection of
flat
gluing them together along their edges,creatingpiecewise
be flat everywhere
surface
formed in this way will obviously
now take
properties
and
Any
and
297
Topologyof Models \342\226\240
curvatureonlyat
crucial
The
is simply
representation
which
shows
edges
the
straight
deciding how to
straightforward
are
atlas
then
together.
the glued
adjoining.
of a truncated
represent thesesurfaces.
The
-\320\232\320\255
11.11
flat
most
\302\251\342\200\224
Figure
In fact,
vertices.
the
step in designing
is in
geometry
of
the edges
along
possibly
except
if all
Topological
atlas of
a truncated
pyramid.
298
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Construction
possibility,
construction.In
illustrates
two ways of joining a pair of edges.
The
identifies an orientation-preserving construction,while
shown on the right, identifies an orientation-reversing
an
we have numbered each edge,using
arrow
figure
11.12
Figure
on
the
direction of the
contain
each
that
first,shown
the
other
to indicate
the ascending
some
including
the
sequentially
face
collection
We
surface.
square
piecewise
specifying
the
take
for a closed
numbers
curiosities
mathematical
In Figure 11.13.
we
and edge
cube
the atlas
shown,
four
(3.3)]
12
\316\227
edge
\316\227
1\342\200\224l
3
(b|
<al
Figure
11.12
Orientation.
Oof
12
\320\263-\342\200\224\316\271
\316\231
\316\271
faces
(4,3)]
(6,1)]
[(5.2)
(6.0)]
We
the
face clockwise
(4.0)][(1,3) (3,0)]
(5,1)] [(3,1)
[(2,3)
(6,2)]
[(2,2)
edges
number
of each
is
[(2,1)
Including
enables
atlas
an
in
joints
orientation-reversing
the
of
direction
is orientation-preserving.
construction
the
counterclockwise,
have
and
numbers,
face 2, and
4
\316\227
so on.
Topology of Models
0
3
\342\226\240
299
\320\276
\316\271
Figure
orientation-preserving
way
the orientation
reversed.
amountsto
resulting
in
the
Try
a half-twist
making
Mobius
Atlas
11.13
of a
a pair
identify
cube.
of opposite
sides in an
the
with
or, instead, identify
edges
of paper. This identification
the strip before gluing the edges together,
a cylinder
with
this
in
a strip
strip.
As inhabitants
phenomenon.
If
when
and
righl
turn
surface
depends
are looking
on setting up
we
left
left
or right
are
defined.
on the side of the
not intrinsically
depends
and
from. It is an extrinsicpropertyof the surface
the
an external reference.
we
must
that
Thus,
specify
300
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
each time
exactly
what
on
happens
A surface
on which left
or
the same
generate
orientation
a path
the orientability
an orientable
example,
demonstrate
easily
will
right
to establish
able
find
to a
return
we
are
to go left
the commands
face,
For
too.
property,
a
and counterclockwise rotations in a consistentway: We choose
S and imagine standing at that point.Next,we decide
surface
on the
point \317\201
is called
an
this
which
of the two possible rotations to call clockwise;
orientation
at p. Now, we let q be another point on S. (Note:
q may equal p.) As we
some
as
walk to cf along
path, we keep track of which rotation we defined
This induces an orientation at q; that
of clockwise or
clockwise.
is, a sense
clockwise
counterclockwisefor rotationsat q.
are
There
many
obviously
paths
from
always a uniqueshortestpath.Different
orientations.
If
we
obtain
the same
orientation
there
Furthermore,
induce
different
paths
may
we take,
no
which
path
we
walk
around
|he meridian
to
\317\201
q.
matter
is not
then
is orientable.However,if
of \320\260
our
end
orientation
from
we
will
with
the
Mobius
up
original
strip,
opposite
one. Therefore,
we again conclude that the Mobius
is nonorientable,
strip
that orientability is
and our new definition agrees with
the
old. We conclude
an intrinsicpropertyof surfaces.
closed
surface
that fits into three-dimensional space must be topoAny
zero.
the
of a sphere with g handles, where g can equal
equivalent
logically
that
the surface
must be orientable.
Now we add another condition,namely,
A sphere is orientable.and it is not hard to show that adding a handle cannot
the surface
that
the
Mobius
strip
does
fit
into
three-dimensional
strip,
it
is
nonorientable.
rather
the Klein
drastic
of
Topology
Models
\342\226\240
301
<a|
(\320\253
b
(dl
11.14
Figure
The
atlas
must specify
the orientation is
whether
the
scheme,
transition
parity.
the
including
that
simple
topological
properties
Curvature
(a) a cylinder;
strip; and (d) a Klein
Atlas of:
(b)
a torus;
(c) a
Mobius
bottle.
but
also
a +1
or-1,
a
shows
several
of
11.15
notation
Figure
examples
number.
transition
It should now be obvious
parity
changes produce dramatic changes in the
bookkeeping
of a surface.
now
turn
of piecewise
to a
our attention
flat surfaces. It so
seemingly paradoxicalsubject:the
happens that all of the curvature
around eachof
the
vertices;
thus,
makes
total
curvature
a piececurvature
in
302
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
*\342\200\224\302\273
I'
2
\302\273\342\200\224\302\273
t 1],[11,11(1,2)
(1,01(1,3)
+1]
+ I]. 1(1,1)0,3)t 1]
(1.0)0,2)
- 1]
[(1,01(1,21-1],[(1,11(1,3)
10,01(1,2) til.[(1.11(1,3)-]]
<d|
Figure
11.15
transition
Atlas and
(c) a Klein
a torus;
(\302\243>)
bottle; and
=
\316\232
parity
of:
(a) a
sphere;
(d) a projectiveplane.
(11.13)
\316\243\316\225,
!=1
excessofa
around
this expressioninto
recall that excess is equal to
minus
Ej is the
To transform
where
the
path
the
2\317\200
vertex
simplest,
total
the
equationas
;'.
most
tumijig,
meaningful
and we
terms, we
rewrite the
(11.14)
\316\232=\316\243(2*-\320\223()
\316\271
<=
where
2\317\200
terms
7\",
is the
(one
total
turning
for each
= 2\317\200
V
\316\232
Ti
= 1
\316\271
Factoring
out
the
(11.15)
where
clarify
V is, of course,
this expression
all the
of
sum
We
surface.
the
\321\201\320\260\320\275
further
interior angles
turning
meeting at that
\342\226\240
303
the total
that
fact
Models
of
Topology
Summing
faces in the
of
all the
they
lie
(11.16)
K^lKV-^ft
where/ isthe
of
sum
This is a
knowing
the
edges
of the
angles
we
because
result
surprising
how
interior
the
face i.
the second
compute
together. Therefore,
are joined
if
we know
and
the
about
V,
we
we
term
have
can
without
all the
compute
atlas.
V vertices,
with
surface
\316\225
edges,
+ F)
2n(V-E
and
(11.17)
= 2\317\200
Because we already know
that
\316\232
V
to
\316\243\316\257=
\\f\342\200\236prove
Equation
we
show
that
sum
be
must
the
of
(11.17)
Xf=]/can expressedindependently
the particular
values of the angles. We do not know
much
about
in general
the sum of the interior anglesof a face,
but we do know a closely related
ti
sum
of
the
es.
The
exterior
quan
ty\342\200\224the
angl
boundary of each faceisa
dosed
so
sum
we
the
of
the exterior anglesis 2\317\200.To
know
that
simple
path,
relate
the exterior
each exterior
that
angles to the interior angles,we notice
[sum
= nxf,=
angle
edges
- exterior
\316\277\316\257(\317\200
there
are
as
angles)]
face)
(11.18)
- 2n
\317\207
\317\200
e,
the facesgives
=
to sum to \317\200
and
18\317\213\302\260,
to a face. Therefore,
face
i. Summing
this quantity
over all
304
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Xf,
;^
we
Now
precisely
by
(11.19)
Xe,-2nF
= \316\271
\316\271 \316\271
lhal
\316\271
Xf=
e-\342\200\236
noting
simplify
two faces, and that
all the
that
means
twice.This
^e,
1=1
with
(11.20)
Equation
Combining
(11.19)
=
yields
into (11.16)
(11.21)
Equation
(11.20)
(\316\2311.2\316\231)
2\317\200(\316\225-\316\267
\316\243/,
1= 1
Substituting
= 2E
yields
F
(11.22)
K^2%V-^j]
1=1
or
=
The
denoted
by
\316\225
+
is the
F)
letter
Greek
the
\317\207
(chi).
(11.23)
(11.24)
\316\232=2\317\200\317\207
We
think
can
curvature
have seen,
has
\320\232
only piecewiseflat
equation leadsus to
properties.
This
E + F) is
not just
tools
for
ones.
piecewise flat
counting
for
defined
invariant.
a topological
algorithm,
Therefore,
not
this
invariance. What
and
all surfaces,
Can
If
surface?
we
As
modeling.
Look at topological
deform a piecewise flat
just a
following
ones?
is
\320\232
more.
the Euler
that
invariant?
topological
geometric
\320\232
is
Also,
suspect
the
suggests
First,
properties.
special
total
the
a piecewise
of
is
as
formula
curvature
(V
quantity
+ F)
2n(V-E
Absolutely
unless
to
happens
we cut
nothing!
a face in
transformation,
perform some other nontopological
can change. This, then,is our introduction
to the
(V
After
two,
none
next
topic.
\316\225
+
when
F)
remove
of
we
- E + F) is
all, (V
an edge,
the
numbers
or
of Models
Topology
The
Curved Surfaces
of Closed
Topology
Lei
us
imageof
distorted
lerms
vertices,
faces
on the
piecewisc
\316\225
+
on a general surface.Therefore,
we
arcs with a
we
topological disks.For convenience,
net edges,
the
\317\207
by
formula
same
= V
\317\207
of a
a net,
Given
faces.
and
vertices,
into
everywhere
the elements
to call
continue
will
will
arcs
of simple
surface
the
divide
edges
arbitrary
define
will
disks, and
as topological
but
polygons
on a general surfaceas an
each
end by a vertex) that
at
F works
surface
as simple
but
lines
flat
a net
(terminated
and faces
edges,
not as straight
define
Ihc sum
how
see
now
\342\226\240
305
\316\225
+ F
The
characteristic.
Euler
same
the
have
surface
then
or
transforming
edges.
can do
We
into
net
this
a different
this in several
ways.
net on a surface,
with
a particular
one by adding or deletingvertices
We
out two elementary
net
single
transformations:
1.
Adding
(or
by drawing in
deleting)
a face
deleting)
a vertex.
existing
vertices.
2.
Adding
(or
produce
type
of
not
only
hy 1, and
that
complete
is
\317\207
the
affect
transformations
by
F also
1. But
1;
by
F is unchanged;then
under
invariant
proof
of
the value
increases
And
unchanged.
first
these
\316\225
increases
the two
\316\225
+
F is
again
an
add
we
\316\225
is
unchanged by the
an edge,
\302\243
each
unchanged.
we
increase
We conclude
that
If
\317\207.
hence
will
give
the same
value
to the
of \317\207,
we
assert
from
one
gel
other by somesequenceofthese
transformations.
and
is a topological
surface
has an Euler characteristic \317\207,
\317\207
Every
for
invariant. This
means
that now we have two topologicalinvariants
surfaces\342\200\224
Euler
K. Furthermore, we know
the
and
the total
curvature
characteristic
\317\207
=
that they are related by \316\232
for
flat surfaces. But does this hold
2\317\200\317\207
pieccwise
306
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
surface? It does,and we
for any
closed
any
related
surface,
by
both
arc
\317\207
total
=
\316\232
This
2\317\200\317\207.
the
is
of
proofs
topological
a piecewise
the deformation
it into
deform
invariants,
for
the
2\317\200\317\207
Since
surface.
flat
then
is
that
proof
flat surface,
piecewise
well.
caveat
only
be deformedinto
piecewise
flatten
the
in this
The
\320\232
and
both
are
\317\207
it
we
topological
that
know
=
\320\232
true
for
must
show
approachis to
wise flat
surface.
flat
surfaces.
theorem
Gauss-Bonnet
The
because
Euler Operators
Eulerobjects
faces,edges,
always
and
Euler's
satisfy
vertices
to create
formula.
a new
The processes
that add
Euler
or delete
operators.
for constructing
operators
provide a rationa I method
solid, polyhedralike objects and ensure that they are topologically
valid (that is, closed and
These
oriented).
The connectedness
of
from, independent
of,
the
and
orientation,
and
properties of
the
quantitative
the
boundary
the
enclosed
of a solid is a property
interior points. Connectivity,
surface
distinct
surface
Models
of
Topology
\342\226\240
307
end.
4.
At
least
three
edges
must meet at
are proper,
is. a
that
of
in this
each vertex.
figure satisfy
Figure 11.16.It is
of simple
collection
in action in
formula
the
vertex
5,
that
vertex,
and
edge
Figure 11.18c
edges(3.5)
Edges (1,
An
(1,2)
adjoins three
is not a
(4,
5),
to the
modifications
interesting
can
<a|
remedy
longer
spherical
nets.
(4,
1)
\320\241
polyhedral
cells,
vertices,
<c|
(\320\253
Euler's
Figure 11.16
formula:
\342\200\224
/;' t F
\320\243
' 2
Euler'sformulaand simplepolyhedra.
in
by adding
faces.
states that
the
ohject
two
and
edges
define a
formula
the
stands,
this situation
of Euler's
modification
dimensional
in a
resulting
and
faces.Therefore, as it
We
solid.
valid
valid
shows
and
divide
for
three-
edges, faces,
308
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
figure
related
are
cells
and
applied to a
sphericalnet.
by
V-E+F-C=\\
By addinga vertex,point
it to
joining
each of
9,
Lookat
what
11.21.
Figure
surface
net
the
edges
the
the
vertex,
the Euler
proper.
a six-celled
create
our
faces
disks, and
topological
two
11.21a,
Figure
The
convention.
and
containing
lines, but
objects.
Thus,
+ 2P
E+F-H
V-
= 2B
(11.26)
\\
/
1
\320\243
/\320\243
/
1
1
1
\320\243
\320\270
'2
(b|
<a|
Figure
of
therefore the
We correct
as dashed
formula
we
edges,
formula is satisfiedin
the
is not
edge,
polyhedral
inadmissibleaccording
to
and exit to
hole
are not
shown
the
Modifying
to
happens
Although
of a
interior
the
to
(11.25)
11.1B
Euler operations
<c|
on a cube.
\\
\\
<a|
Figure
where
V, E,
and
Models
of
Topology
\342\226\240
309
<b|
Modification
11.19
Euler net
of an
on a sphere.
F retain their
//denotes
usual meaningand
denote
the
of
number
the
faces;
the
of passages (holes through
entireobject);
the
denotes
number
of separate, disjoint bodies (objects).
variation
acceptable
is shown in Figure 11.21c; here, the
in Figure
11.21a and
passage
11.21bis now merelya
If we add edges as in Figure 11.21d, then
the original
Euler formula. (The individual faces,as
as the
satisfy
vertices,
edges,
and
faces,
number
\316\241
denotes
\320\222
and
Another
through
we
concavity.
well
are
each
entities.)
simply connected
A polyhedron exhibits nine classesof topological
relationships
of the three types of elements:vertices,
pairs
edges,and faces
characterized
11.22). Thus, for example, a vertexis topologically
interior,
figure
11.20
Euler's formula
polyhedral cells.
and
between
(see
by
Figure
adjacent
310
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
S\320\243
/-
\316\233
<a|
/1
|b|
\320\243
//
f-E+F=2
V~E tF=2
16- 24*10 = 2
16
= 2B
f -+ 2/\302\267
16 - 24 + 10-2+2=2
\320\243-F+
- 32 + 16 =
0*2
V-E*
16-32
+ 16-
2P = 2B
+
2 = 2
\\
>
/
W
<d|
?
M\342\200\224
\316\223\316\221
V
\302\243
V-E
+ 21>\302\2612B
F-H
+0 = 2
+ 11-1
16-24
11.21
Figure
vertices,
faces
adjacency
11.2
F:
faces
among
\321\203
y-E+F=2
2
formula.
[V],or
[V),\302\243:
F:
[V] to know
are facilitated
operations
shape
V : [F], arkd
vertex
the
around
Boolean
whereas
relationships
are joined,
4N
connected
Multiply
and faces.
edges,
one of the
16-28+14=
Euler
to use
the Euler
operators usually
a good
idea
how vertices
by the ring of
require
{F).
GRAPH-BASED MODELS
A
model
geometric
together
linking
We can
meeting
at
pointers
the
represent
each
to
a list
of the
structure,
vertices,
with
data
pointers
is a graph-based
object's faces
model.
and their
vertices
vertex.
and
the
represent
their endpoinl
We
equations.
with
topological
faces, edges,
represent a solidobjectas
respectivesurface
equations,
emphasizing
an object's
Graph-Based
\342\226\240
311
Models
1. The
edges,
the topology or
pointers defining
and faces
and
between
connectivity
surface
vertices,
and vertex
equations
coordinates
or
both.
11.23 is an
Figure
may alter
operations
modeling
Subsequent
numericaldata,
model.The
example of a graph-based
contains
model
information,
can
in
but
many
speed
graph-based model in
of time
amount
an
proportional
to the number of
edges.
There
are
differences
interesting
among
are
with
boundary
no
are
there
Some
accommodated.
graph-hased
Others
hole.
systems. In addition
differences
in how the
graph-based
systems
allow an
outer
require a face
plus
boundary
\316\226\316\233
/
V: F
\316\265
\316\275
F
E: V
E: F
\320\257:
\316\225
FA
l/
F.
F:
F- F.\\
F
L._K
Figure
11.22
Topological
relationships
between
polyhedron elements.
pairs of
312
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Vertices
Faces
Edges
v,
F.
\302\243,
Ex,
\302\2432,
\302\243],
E\342\200\236ElrE
j
\302\243\342\200\236
F\342\200\236F,.F4
^2
Fi
\302\2432
\302\2435
Ei> Ej, ^\321\207.
F,,F3,F,
F\342\200\236F5.F.
\302\2433
F3
^2. ^
l\302\267\302\267,,
\302\243\342\200\236,...
\302\243\342\200\236\302\2432,..
Figure
disjoint
in
11.23
loops
\320\273\320\265\320\263-boundary
structured
more highly
systems
connected)
complex (multiply
A graph-based
holes.
representing
and
model.
offers
This
computational
the
advantages for
characterizes
solids.
as planar-faced polyhedra,many
are
solids represented
economies
with graph-based systems. Because all edges are straight-line
we can
store them as vertex pairs, and face boundaries
as ordered
lists
segments,
of
vertices.
Or
treat
a
as
a
we can
simple
graph, listing
(chains)
polyhedron
the vertices with
their
coordinates
in one array and their connectivity in
The
matrix
another.
latter is \321\217
connectivity
(see Figure 11.24). The
For
available
is a
matrix
connectivity
connectivity
elements
and
exists,
between
as
the
binary
well,
and
elements indicatethat
no
elements
indicate that connectivity exists
We can construct such a matrix for other
one is shown in this figure
for the connectivity
between
one-valued
of
pair
matrix. Zero-valued
vertices.
polyhedron.
Models
Graph-Based
\342\226\240
313
called an adjacencymatrix.Thesematrices
that determine whether an edge exists
algorithms
between
two
vertices.
If we let a:j denote the clement of the connectivity
matrix
the existence
of an edge betweenvertex \320\263
and
vertex
j.
describing
then an algorithm accesses atj and reads
its value.The
time needed to do this
is independent
of the number of vertices and the numberof edges.
The
main
a
matrix
is
that
it
V2
of
connectivity
requires
storage (V=
disadvantage
number of
even though most a:j = 0. If efficientpackingis availablethe
vertices)
The
are
is also
matrix
connectivity
for
convenient
be reduced
to V1 bits.
can
requirement
A graph, then,is a set of nodes(orpoints)connected
hy branches
(lines).
itsdegree.Ifany branch has a
The number of branches at anode determines
associated with it. then the graph is a directedgraph
direction
(see
Figure
For
directed
we
can
an
in
and
an
out
11.25).
assign
degree
degree to
graphs,
eachnodeby counting
the branches
to
it and
from
it,
pointing
away
A
tobe
from one node to another is the sequenceof branches
respectively.
path
the path is a circuit.
traversed.
If the start
and end nodes of a path are the same,
there
If
is a path between any pair of nodes of a graph, the
is
graph
connected.
A tree
is a connected graph without circuits.A graph
some
containing
or all of the nodes and branches
of a graph G and no other nodesor branches
is a subgraph
G is a subgraph
of G. A spanning tree of a connectedgraph
all
t
o
and
branches
maintain
withits
nodes
containing
enough
connectivity
storage
out
creating
any
circuits.
Vertcs
I
II
I
0
1)000
0
0
10
10
10
\320\233 1
\342\200\224\302\243
5
I
0
0
11
0)01
__-
0
0
11
0
1
\320\262
CDF,
0
I
Face
1 =
0=
Connectivity
Wo connectivity
u.
Figure
11.24
\321\201
11
1)
\316\225
I
0
Connectivity matrices
I
0
for
{j
11
a polyhedron.
10.
314
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
(a)
Figure 11.25
We
may
a graph
represent
(nodes)
their
and
in
Examplesof graphs.
connectivity
One
ways.
many
matrix
(branches),
interesting
bit vector
uses
matrixis
Note
vertex ;'
that
to
The
CD
\320\222
\317\213
\316\225 F
\320\241
\317\213 0
\316\225
\317\213 0
1
0
1
0 1
0 0
1 0
0 0
\317\213
1 only
if there is a directed edge from
graph, an \342\200\224
six adjacency lists are
for a directed
vertex/.
Graph-BasedModels
\342\226\240
315
vertex
vertex D[E]
A[B,F]
vertex B[QF\\
vertexE[C]
vertex
vertex
C[D]
F[E]
in an adjacency
of undirected graphs are representedtwice
matrix.
is an undirectedbranch
vertex
/
to
vertex
j,
(or
edge)
connecting
= 1.When wc delete an edge from an undirected
then a\342\200\236
we
delete
graph,
dj,
both a(J and a;i from the matrix. In the case
of adjacency
lists, we create a
the search
to link the double entries of edges and
speed
supplementary
array
Edges
If there
process.
Again, a
no
with
A tree
circuits.
additionalproperties:
1.
is
There
2. Every
one
only one
unique
relative
one
the root
from
path
in Figure
outline
node are
3. There is a
bold
and
and
node to
only
no
enter.
branches
one entering
branch.
in
11.26).
exiling
branch,
to the
branch,
parent
node, and
descendant
root node.
leavesat
R =
the
it
may
bottom,
to see
disconcerting
that
is the convention.
be
iqqj nude
Figure
11.26
A tree
graph
316
\342\226\240
Complex
Construction
Model
Several quantitative
parameters are associatedwith a tree, as in Figure
11.26. Looking at node b, we find that the depth of this node in the tree is the
from
the root R to b The
length of the path (numberof branchestraversed)
of the longest
height of node b is the length
path from b to a leaf. We also
that the height \316\277\316\271
notice
tree
of anode
the
Ls the height of the root. The level
height of the
is the
If the
descendants
use a specialtype
has
each node
in
is a binary
node
every
then
models in Section 11.3, we will
Boolean
study
a binary
tree, which is an
tree
ordered
and a right
descendant
left
left to right,
from
say,
where
tree.
11.27
less than
leaf
is. a
\320\243\321\201
tree is completeif
A binary
is complete.
of depth
of depth
node
every
This is
for
and right
a left
\320\272
has
the figure.
3 in
Figure
\320\272
integer
and
we
called
tree,
descendants\342\200\224a
two
11.26
Figure
of
node.
in
heights is2*+1- 1,
complete
binary
a binary
on which it
tree
of
Algorithms
information about it
1.
Visit
the
2.
Visit
in
root
preorder
traverse
often
or
the
r.
the
subtrees
with roots
dL and
Height = * - 3
of nodes
Number
= leal node
rooi node
R =
Figure
11.27
A complete
in
that
2*' '-1
= 15
dR.
binary tree.
order.
317
Graph-Based Models \342\226\240
(a)
Figure
We
define
the
poslorder
11.2B Traversals
traversal
of
7\"
of a binary tree.
recursively
follows
as
(see Figure
11.28b):
1.
Visit
2. Visit
in
postorder
the rootr.
the subtrees
with roots
dL and dR,
in
that
order.
318
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Finally, wc
as
follows
(see
Figure
11.28c):
1. Visit
in
2.
r.
Visit
3. Visit
in
inorder
the
left subtree
inorder
the
right
subtree
If we assigna number in
The
properties.
interesting
of
consisting
sequence
inorder
a way that
in such
occur
tree
binary
less than
r (if it
of root
of r (if it
to
exists).
exists).
each
traversal
each
while
\302\253R,
each
in the
node
right subtree
has
nH.
model,
a
connectivity
Hojnicki White
of
representations;
and
Lequett
wireframe
from
curvilinear
solids
wireframes
converting
Usinga data
(1995a)
for
(RGS)
structure
present
synthesis
new
to surfaced
of
(1989)on
constructing
and solids
surfaces,
on converting
CAD wireframe data
on the automatic
construction
(1988)
(1988)
(see
complex
geometric models
Chapter 12).Their
graph
from
curves,
points,
is more
structure
the
than
conventional
tree,
11.3
it
any
part
of
parts
MODELS
BOOLEAN
The
in
in contingent
reflected
discussion
affects
Boolean
of Boolean
models
a brief
review
In geometric
of set
theory as
modeling, when
we
Models
Boolean
319
shapes,
shapes calledprimitivesto form morecomplex
have
useful.
in
theory
Solid-modeling techniques,
particular,
For
from
the
axioms
set
drawn
of
considerably
theory.
example,
important
from
to
point-set
early work at the University of Rochester draws
topology
for
establish more rigorous mathematicalfoundations
solid
modeling
(see
and
Voelker
and
and
We
Tilove
begin
Requicha
Requicha
[1977]
[1978]).
a look
at pointwith some of the basic concepts
of set theory and finish
with
to
its
set topology, includingset-membership
classification
and
relevance
of sets dates back to
treatment
solid modeling. (Incidentally, the first formal
second
of
the
half
the
when
Cantor created the
nineteenth
century,
only
main body of the theory.)
The term sel denotes any
collection
of objects.
well-defined
Objects
In geometric
to
a
are
its
members.
set
elements
o
r
solid
modeling,
belonging
indicate
the
or otherwise, the basic clementis the point.The symbols
I
[
}
and
on
notation
describe
the
in
terms
of
conditions
set-builder
set
any
of the set\342\200\224conditions
that
of the set must meet.
element
element
arbitrary
every
Forexample,
is a set consisting of all real numbersin the
[x\\2.5<x<3.5]
specified interval.
On the left-hand
side of the vertical line we read, \"the set of all
\317\207...'' On
the right-hand
side we have the conditions for set membership.
thai
is
A
contains
all the elements of all the sets under consideration
set
the
of
be
the
H.
A
deck
52
cards
universal
sei, denoted
playing
may
by
if we are investigating
of
the probabilities of certaincombinations
set
universal
a
selis
a
cards
in
hand. Conversely, a null
set which has no elements at
poker
to as the empty sel or tbe void set.
all. It is denoted by \317\206
and
is also referred
the simple
combine
becomes
set
In
two sets
genera],
\320\222
are
and
A =
wheneverset
A. Two sets A
to-one
in
and
S,
each
element
sets
equivalent
\320\222
with
in
if we
one
exactly
A and
A
their elements
can place
with
in
element
in
one-
correspondence.
Any set/1
B.
in
\320\222
are
and
(11.27)
one element
exactly
li contain
set
and
in one-to-one
\320\222
arc
as
equal,expressed
The
\321\201
indicates
symbol
if
subset
every
in A
element
is also an
clement
relationship.Thus,
\320\233\320\265\320\271
means
that
A is a
subset of B.A
is contained in
set is a subset of itself, but
New sets are formed by
\320\222
and
some
fashion.
Given
if
sets
is
a proper
at least
\320\222
has
not
a proper
combining
A and
subset
(11.28)
of li
if
element
every
one
subset.
the
elements
in two
or more
set
\320\241
whose
in A
Every
sets in
e|e-
320
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
menls
elements in A
the elements in
all of
with
together
C-AuB
or in
other set
sets, wc
of two
union
the
By
sets.
both
Akj B= [a,b,cfd,e,f].
Notice
\321\201
is in
element
though
or is
what logicians
(11.29)
For example,
both/1
is the intersection of A
and
the elements
includes
AkjB
to
common
and B,
both/1
B, expressed
are
that
elements,
then
sets,
both
in
we
selD
as
D=AnB
D=AnB,
B; that
this as
write
B. We
and
(11.30)
mean
sets.Thus,
[c,d].
sets, then
and
If/1
(A
the
\320\222
are
complementofa set
A)
a|] elements
set of
Furthermore,
form
if we
then/1
subsets,
in
\316\225
that
complements
=
\320\222
A ncB
are
not
respect
elements
in
A,
cA.
written
evaluation
intersection
algorithms,
is
operator
required.
One way
useful
particularly
operations
properties
combine
and
to
study
sets
and
in representing
which
and
are
such
set
and intersection.Figure11.29illustrates
set
some
are
these
There
can
several
we
using
operations
diagrams.
ways
and
certain
that
these
sets,
well-established rules
govern
operations
(see Table
as union
11.1).
the
boundary
of a
geometric
solid.
Boolean Models
\320\273
\321\217
\320\270
(\320\260)
\320\233-\320\222
(c)
figure
Let
consider
us
the
Venn
11.29
and set
diagrams
line defined
real
\320\237
\320\237
\320\270
(\320\233
\320\257)
\320\241>
(\320\220
(J)
theory.
F.1,
E'is
where
\342\226\240
321
the universal
We define a
limiting
b symbolizethat
in
the
lower
figure
these
are
points
not included
their inclusion.
of all its limit
indicate
union of the
interiorof a closedsetis
the
set
of
X =
set
of
boundary
the
set,
and
the solid
The closureof an
points.
These
set
Open
concepts
circles
is the
extend
to
sets.
point
of all
all points
in
its limit
points. Conversely,the
boundary.Thus,
bXuiX
points
(11.31)
and iX
points.
Operators
A distinguishing
that we
deal
with
subset
here is
and an
322
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Properties of operations on
Table 11.1
Union
Properties
Closure
set.
1.
\320\220
\320\270
\320\222
is a
2.
~ \320\222
\320\220
\320\270
\320\222
\320\270\320\233
=A
3. (du8|uC
= A
\317\205
4. \316\221
\317\206
sett
property.
Idempoiem properly.
property.
Complement
\320\263\\
\320\222
1. \320\220
Is a sei.
2. \320\220\320\263,\320\222=:\320\222\320\223\\\320\220
= \320\220
\320\223\\
\320\263,
3. {A ri B) r\\ \320\241
(\320\222
\320\241)
4. A nE=A
Properties
Closure properly.
Commutative
properly.
Associative
properly.
property.
Identity
5. Ar\\A~A
Idempoiem property
=
r\\cA
properly.
Identity
Intersection
property,
Associative
\320\270
\\j (\320\222
\320\241)
5. A \\jA = A
6. A\\j cA- \316\225
6.
property.
Commutative
property
Complement
\302\247
jes
1. \320\233\320\270(\320\271\320\277\320\241|=(\320\233\320\270\320\224)\320\223|(/1\320\270\320\241)
Union
is distributive over intersection.
\316\221
\316\267
\\j \320\241)(\316\221
\316\267
\317\205
\316\267
2.
is distributive over union.
{\316\222
(\316\221
\316\262)
\320\241) Intersection
Properties
Complementation
1, cE = \317\206
- \316\225
2, \321\201\321\204
3, c(cA)
4,
c(A
5, c(A
= \321\201/1\320\273\320\263\320\271
\320\270\320\271)
cA^jcB
r,B)-
of the
The
complement
of the
set.
empty set is the universal
of a set \320\233
is \320\233.
difference
algorithms
are
also
DeMorgan's
of a
empty
set.
complement
law,
DeMorgan's
law.
subset.
interior
that
c-omplemeni
Thecomplement
-A
and
The
We use
to combine
BooleanModels
\342\226\240
323
a<x
<b
sei
Open
a ^
\317\207
^ b
\317\207
Closed set
11.30
Figure
Open and
closed sets.
the ordinary
set-theoretic
how
intersection of
Figure11.31demonstrates
two well-defined two-dimensionalobjectsproducesa result
that
does not
meet our requirements. First,A and \320\222
are
defined
because each
well
possesses
a boundary
iB. Second,
the
set bA and bB and an interior set iA and
to
set
but
resulting intersection is mathematicallycorrectaccording
theory
\320\241
has
no interior.
or
at
least
because
inadmissible,
incorrect,
geometrically
is not
Thus, \320\241
like A and B. It is not a two-dimensional
objectand, clearly,
this intersection
did not preserve dimensionality.
We
would
operation
prefer
an operator
that recognizes this condition and producesa nullset.Requicha
and
others
(1977)
early on proposed the use of regularizedset operators,
which
and homogeneity
dimensionality
(no dangling or
preserve
disconnected
of lower
dimension).The
importance of these regularized
parts
operators
will
become
soon
apparent.
11.32.Both
and
boundaries.
and
The
arrows
\320\222
are
\320\222
are
indicate
parameterized
simple
two-dimensional
polygons
A and
objects
B, as
Ob
Figure
shown in Figure
with straight-line
11.31
Degenerate
intersection
of two
well-defined two-dimensionalobjects.
both
are
324
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
\320\227\320\242
I
\316\271
\316\271
\316\271
L_
i-P^
-\321\213\316\271
U \320\257
\320\233
Union:
11.32
Figure
/1-\320\257
Intersection\302\267 \320\224\320\237\320\222
and intersection of
difference,
Union,
\316\271
Difference:
two simple
polygons.
consistency in
By maintaining
a convention defining
establish
the
left in our example.
polygon\342\200\224on
counterclockwise.
both
polygons'
can
we
edges,
pointsinside
the
1.
Find
all
intersection
the
2. Segmentthe
of A
and
in
3.
Find
that
the
\320\233
and
\320\270
0 to
\320\222.
Thus,
\320\270
1 and
has four
example
\320\270
\320\265
[\302\253jjuj.
and ve
of
edges
from
parameterized
of the edges of A
points
has
\320\222
also
if the
segments:
four
and
to
and
scaling
B; points
-
for
an algorithm
at
boundary
= 0
\316\275
\320\222
from
the
orienting
1,2,3. and
4.
polygon of A is
1, then the boundary
\316\275
\320\270
e
\320\263*\320\263],\320\263*
\320\265[\302\253>\302\253^],
[\321\206;
\320\265[\302\2532;\302\253\320\267],\302\253
segments:
e
\316\275
[vj;
v3].
\316\275
e
[v3; vz],
e [v2\\
\316\275
i-'i],
[\316\271\316\257;
\316\275\316\221].
a point
segment
4. Starting at p0,
B, point
on the
is also
trace
boundary polygon of A
outside
the
that
is outside
B, say,
p0.Then
B.
boundary
of A to
with
1.
5. Find the
Boolean Models
\342\226\240
325
which
direction,
clockwise
that
means
a hale.
encloses
it
aaive
have
/i that
comprise
boundarv
other
the
seen.
just
Boolean
involving
operators.
The example
simple\342\200\224too simple,
and
tracing,
testing,
sorting.
Determining
when
basic
applying
in fact,
to
Boolean
approach:
that
the
are
product
of Boolean
and
express
and
\320\222
as
A =
where,as
and
\320\263
denotes
in
(11.31),
Equation
the
set of
Next, we translate
Boolean operationto
A
B=bB\\JiB
and
bAviA
b denotes
the set of
interior points.
and
form
\320\222
into
object
position
\320\241First,
prior
we
points on the
(11.32)
boundary
326
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Construction
edge
-Wangling
Figure
and regularized
proper
shown
result
in the
Booleanintersections.
is obviously
result
this
intersection
the
with
correct
Regularized
intersection
Set-theoretic
11.33
intersection,
edge;
Set-theoretic
set-theoretic
is the regularized
denoted
\316\221
\316\267
Booleanintersection
closed
*\320\222,
dimensionally
We
Given
homogeneous.
this
rewrite
the
intersection,
and
we have
C^AnB
(11.33)
uM)n(iBuifc)
(11.34)
as
C = (bA
which
set-theoretic
to
expands
C =
(bAn
bB) u
(iA
\320\270
\317\200
\316\267
(\320\254\320\220
\320\250)\320\270
\320\254\320\222)
(iA
n iB)
(11.35)
correctly
surmise
that
iC=iC*
= iAniB
(11.36)
Boolean
Models
\342\226\240
327
A
\320\222
\316\262
{
,
ft)
(a)
\320\262
\316\262
id)
\317\211
Figure
Candidate
11.34
components
of a
regularized Booleanintersection.
must
we
Next,
determine
of any new
boundaries
bC*. where
object
will
bC* -
always
Valid
assert
(bA
kj
Note
\320\252\320\222).
of boundary
consist
this
observation
whereas
regularized
interior
that
the
segments of
as follows.
points cannot
intersections,
we
that
bC*
iAnbBtz
(11.37)
and
bAniBcbC*
accounted
we
(11.38)
Figures 11.34b to 11.34dof the
for
to determine
effort
the regularized
to determine
which
r\\bB)
(see Figure11.34a)
analyze (bA
of its subsets
are valid subsets of the boundary
of C*. The isolated
point is a
valid member of bC*,becauseit must
of
be a member
both (iA \316\267
always
\320\252\320\222)
in
intersection.We
and
(bA
intersections
interior
\316\267
iB).
of
our
now
must
We
and
to neither
328
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
At some
a new point
point p, on segment1,we create
it a distance
e to the right (relative to the
offset
p\302\253
from
perpendicularly
a similar
and
parameterization),
point
p,_
to
the
left
of
direction
11.35).
(see Figure
do
We
the
that
we
can
classify it.
properly
tangent vectorp/'
do
the
representation.
boundary
We
from
the
same
A boundary
In our example,
a consistent
we adopt
At p, we compute the
and p', from the \320\222
representation
if
for segment
arc
vectors
in the
same
at a
direction, From this we conclude:If the respectivetangent
vectors
A and \320\222
of the overlapping boundaries of two
intersection
objects
point
are
in the same direction, then the overlappingsegment
is a valid boundary
- A n *
the segment
is not a valid boundary.
of C*
otherwise
\320\222;
valid
Let us summarize
The
the
results.
regularized intersection of two
objects
A and
\320\222
is
C*=An*B
(11.39)
Segment
\316\231\316\267\316\233
InB
Pr
Pi
o-*~
P,
Pfl
Segment
7
P2
L.
-\302\273U
PR
Pi
Note1
= yes
0= no
P\302\253J
Figure
11.35
Regularized
boundary
InB
\316\231\316\267\316\233
test.
Boolean Models
\342\226\240
329
where
C* =
bC*uiC*
(11.40)
= Valid,,
\316\267
\320\270
(\320\254\320\220
\320\254\320\222)
(iA
in this
is nothing
There
conclude
that it applies
objects. Later in
this
to
equally
indicates
that
two-,
one-,
dimensionality,
so we
or n-dimensional
three-,
we will
First,
let
11.33.
Figure
The
Figure
expression
section,
solids.
three-dimensional
\320\270
\316\267
\320\270
\316\267
\316\267
(\320\254\320\220
\320\250)
(\320\263/1 iB)
\320\254\320\222)
11.36.
in
are
shown
set-theoretic union of A and \320\222
are the full set of valid candidates for determining
as in the preceding intersection, by expanding the
of the
components
they
Again,
\320\241*
-\320\220 \320\270*
\320\222.
We
begin,
set-theoretic
expression
C =
Equation
(11.42)
iB)
\320\270
\320\270
\320\270
u
(\320\254\320\220
\320\250)
\320\254\320\222)
as correct
of
separation terms.
(11.43)
the parenthetic
\320\270
\320\254\320\222)
(iA
(\320\237-41)
iA )\\j(bBu
C=(bAu
C^(Mu
AuB
is just
and
subject
to
(iA
\320\270
iB)
interpretation
(11.43)
without
Thus,
C=Mu6flui/lu6fl^MuiBuMu/B
(11.44)
\320\262
\320\222
{< )
(\320\254)
A
\320\262
(0
Figure
11.36
Candidate
components
regularized Boolean
union.
of a
330
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
The redundant
so that
them
delete
Equation
(11.44) becomes
is identical
which
components,
iC* =
note
and
(11.45)
kjiB
\320\270
bB^JiA
\320\254\320\220
include
notice
that some
these points,
it
that
that
observe
we
\317\212\316\233\317\205\316\257\316\260\317\205
\316\267
(\320\254\320\220
[Valid,
bB)]
(11.46)
is redundant
of Equation (11.46).Why
Next,
these
From
deleted.
not
this
is
\316\267
\320\250)\316\267
(bB
\\j(hA
the case
to
\316\267
iA)
for u[Valid,(M
the right
side
\316\267
bB)}'}
that
we observe
bC* = Valid\342\200\236(M
\320\270
(11.47)
bB)
where
Valid
in
\320\254\320\220
not
\320\254\320\220
iB and
part on
bB
(11.48)
\316\267
(11.49)
\316\267
Z>S)]
(11.50)
or
Valid
\320\254\320\220-\320\254\320\220- \316\267
[(\320\254\320\220iB)
\320\270
Valid^M
bB)]
Similarly,
Valid bB^bBAn
discussed
then
bC*
\320\270
\316\267
\316\234)
Valid,(M
ambiguity
that
[(bB
exists in (bA
for
\316\267
/>S)
that
we must
the intersection
bC* ^bA^jbB-
[(bA
\316\267
iB)
\320\270
(bB
\316\267
iA)
\320\270
Valid^M
\316\267
Z>S)]
(11.51)
(11.46) and
C^A-B
a
lost,
(11.52)
to yield
C--(bA-hB-
iB)
\320\270
(iA
-bB-
iB)
(11.53)
Boolean Models
W
Figure
Two
bB - iB; in
11.37
Candidate
of a
components
regularized Booleandifference.
iA
equal
Second,
the
certain
because
(d)
are
things
\342\226\240
331
C*
\317\210
\320\241,
to C,
\316\267
bB
is
11.37d, the boundary is still incomplete.'1\320\252\320\265 missing
segment
bA
bB.
must
a
to
\316\267
Here,
we
lest
determine
the
again,
perform
subset.
(~\\
are
For the case of the difference operator,Valid(Zvl
bB)
Thus,
r \316\262).
segments adjacent to only iC* or (iA
as in Figure
a subset of
valid
those
bC*
-fcCu
=
Therefore
(bA
the
\320\241*,
C*= (bA-bB-
\316\267
Valid(M
bB)
(\316\240.54)
-bB-
iB)
\\j
\320\270
(iA
\316\267
\320\270
\316\267
\320\243\320\260\320\251\320\254\320\220
\320\254\320\222)
bB)
(iA
- 5),is
(A
regularized
iB)
\320\270
\316\267
bB)
(iA
u Valid(M
\316\267
bB)
- bB
\316\267
\320\270
\320\254\320\222)
(iA
- iB)
(HAS)
Other
between
relationships
and
\320\222
are
just
If we
developed
verify
the results.
objects,
then
the
result
depends
or
more
encJoses
completely
This is a
on the
Figure
possible.
\\vay
Boolean
to
model
11.38 shows
B. The
holes.
operations
order of the
on a
sequence.In
set of
Figure
332
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Construction
|a) aus
\320\273
\320\262
\316\221
\316\223,\316\222
|\320\254)
(\320\241)\320\220-\320\222
Figure
11.3B
11.39,three objectsare
of Boolean
Examples
and
combined,
the
results
on the order.
BooJeanoperators
operations.
are obviously
dependent
produce
three-dimensional
operators
to
these
solids
do. The
that
intersections
regularized
to
two-dimensional
that
are
not
last three
three-dimensional.
Applying
the
results.
Classification
Set-Membership
In order
we
must
sets,
bound-
Models
Boolean
Order
11.39
Figure
\342\226\240
333
of Boolean operations.
dependence
of a given
set. Three important subsets of any regularized
set A are: the
ary
set of all ils interior points,denotediA; the sel of all points on its boundary,
denoted
of a specific
bA; and all points outside ii, denoted cA.
Assignment
The
classification.
point to one of thesesetsisset-membership
early work in
and
for
class
i
fication
formalizing
making rigorousset-membership
done
R.
and
of
geometric
was
B.Tilovc
at
the
others
modeling
by
(1980)
University
a
Rochester.
similarity between four types of geometric
They observed
problems
to modeling:
related
1. Point
on
the
2. Line/polygon
clipping. Given a
the
part
3.
is on
Polygon
polygon
Solid
is the
point,
point inside,
outside, or
polygon?
and
polygon
What
part
intersection
4.
solid?
of the
and
B,
what
of
is the
\316\221
\316\222?
\316\267
interference.
Given
two solids,
do
interfere
they
(that
is, intersect
unintentionally)?
In each problem,two
determine
some
sort
geometric
of inclusion
elements
are
involved,
requiring
us
\320\263\320\276
set-
334
Model Construction
> Complex
Id
lb)
/
\316\262
4r
4\321\2027
47
/7
/\317\210-\316\263
/
|f)
{e|
Id|
11.40
Figure
Boolean operations
on a three-dimensional
solid.
and
solids.
this
as M[
function
involving points
Relationships
unifies
function
classification
membership
We
are shownin
easily overlooked,classification
Figure
yet
relationship
test point may be the same as a given point, or it may
some
degree
algorithm to compare coordinates with
produce
the
is
11.41.
The
between
be
two
different.
of precision
most basic,
points: A
A simple
will
classification,
A point
possible\342\200\224on
may be on or off
the
initial
point,
given
curve;
on the
if on
the curve,three
endpoint, or on an
subclasses are
intermediate
point.
Models
Boolean
pair of
on the
For
back
the
or
right
left
A
\316\277\316\271
parameterization.
point.
of the curve
we find
the
a bounded,
Given
on
a plane
curve
is a
on
indicates
lying
be
inside
the disk,
polygon
winding
plane
(see
calculus
other
to
textbook).
of parameterization
the winding numberdependson the direction
We
can
the
numerical
11.42).
integration of the
arrange
appropriate
line
and
the
direction
of
integral
paxiimeterizalionto yield cither the
shown in the figure or the reverse.
The sign of
(see Figure
signs
\321\203\342\200\224\302\260\321\215
\316\257\316\261
on
boundary\342\200\224the
way
compute
side
which
the
number
find
additional
the
its
a consistent
Given
to
point.
simply-connected
non-seif-intersecting
polygon
exist\342\200\224on
line. Finally,
point
closed,
of the
extension
a point
for
classifications
forward
\320\262
335
la)
[\320\254)
Id
Id)
Figure
11.41
Point classification.
336
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Winding numbei = -1
= +1
number
Winding
number
Winding
Outside
Inside
Figure
11.42
=0
The winding
classification.
Given
candidate
a solid,
point
can
setof points,a
that is, a regulari zed three-dimensional
the
three
basic
to it\342\200\224inside,
have
relationships
again
solid is a polyhedron,then
the point on its boundary as beingon an edge or a
Let
several ways to determinethe inside-outside
status.
outside,
on
or
If the
its boundary.
describe
approaches.
Figure 11.43ashows
is a parametric
assume
on tife
an
shaped
arbitrarily
surface.
Given p,
normal
the
\317\200
at
convention
*-x
la)
lb)
Figure
11.43
Inside
and outside
a solid-
further
can
are
vertex.There
us
look
at two
boundary we will
we computethe closestpoint
direction
\302\253
solid whose
we
q and
to it
compare
its
of an
outward-
BooleanModels
\342\226\240
337
then if
normal,
pointing
solid; otherwise,
it
\317\200
and
q) have the
is outside
same sign,\317\201
the
- 0).
the boundary,in which case\317\201
q
defined
as the Boolean intersection of
(if not on
inside
is
(p
test
set of
the
\317\201
against
inequalities
As we
half-spaces.
identically.
Line and
in
Figure
11.45:
the polygons
E2. A
line segment defining an edge of
single
A
in
three
polygon
ways. The membership-classification
and
of the
subdivides
classifies
this line: \316\233-,
is a suhset
]
a subset of the interior of A, or \316\247\317\204,
the
is a subset
outside or
of
R intersects
polygon
function
M[
of
boundary
\320\224
X2
is
complementof/1.
suggested
In
earlier.
Figure
This
Several
11.46,
convention
permits
We
object
ambiguity
arises
w hen
were
\316\257\316\277\317\204
these
conditions
tests
membership
so we
previously,
we
try
to
classify
point
then
boundary
poim
with
extract
respect
to
respect to A
A and
about
information
representation.
2, say, with
of an
An
n
\320\222
separately.
Jj, given
We
boundary.
M[X,A\\OP\\Ii\\
in
terms
338
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Construction
la)
If)
lb)
lg)
|h)
id)
Figure
11.44
ii>
Curve
of
vectors
each
at
one
any
and line-segment
intersecting
is represented
point on them.
classification.
We
can
use
this
in a
information
of
that
the surfaces
setthe
Models
Boolean
\342\226\240
339
\320\222
\317\207,
\321\2051.\321\2052.\321\2051\321\201\321\214\320\262
\321\210
X2C\\A
X^CcA
Figure
Line and
11.45
classifications.
polygon
V. \321\217
1
\320\226
\\\316\221\302\267
3\316\257
L4ftifl
Figure
11.46
Tangent
vector
convention
two-dimensional objects.
for
340 *
Model
Complex
Construction
\320\233/
\320\243
j/
//
\320\262
\317\207
\302\267\342\200\224
-1 *\342\226\240
\"\320\273
\"\320\262-
\317\200
\320\243
/\321\203
=\316\267\316\257
\320\260\320\273
Figure
11.47
Normal
three-dimensional
vector convention
for
solids.
have taken
classification.
\320\250\320\2501
\320\262
^
\316\212
fej
Figure
11.48
ibj
Probiems for
set-membershipclassification.
Boolean
\342\226\240
341
Models
8oolean
Models
If we
represent
simpler
denote
be
then
solid
and
if
A {OP)B
of the
representation is a
where
\320\241
~A(Op)B,
model.
Boolean
is any
(OP)
model of
is a Boolean
same spatial
combination of
Boolean
by the
object
then the
objects,
solids
operator,
\320\241
must
If A,
or
more
B, and
\320\241
regularized Boolean
that A, B, and
assume that
will
on,
wc
can drop
conciseness,
Remember
\320\241
two
we
for
denote
will
the
regularized
*_j-
D - fAUBl
Figure 11.49
-C
simple
procedural
model.
342
> Complex
Model Construction
The
has 32 vertices, 48 edges, and 18 faces.
undirected
\317\207
is
a
of
the
32
32
vertices
1,024
array
containing
connectivity
to
3
elements.
each
in
model
is
connected
Since
vertex
this
exactly others,there
96 nonzero
cvaluator
are
elements in the matrix. A boundary
routine
only
uses this information to construct the boundary
representation.
The
nodes
The
leaf
tree for this model is shown in Figure11.50.
are
binary
node
the primitive solids, with Boolean operators at eachinternal
and
the
root. Each internal node combinesthe two objects
below it in
immediately
in readiness
the tree and, if necessary,transforms
the
result
for the next oper-
The
of
boundary
matrix
ation.The
the
constructive
Boolean
How are
into
operators
the
primitives
graph-basedmodel
be scaled positioned
and
and
primitive
may
be
of
representation
a Boolean
Figure
an object
is a
direct translationof
modeled?
become
11.50
a unit
The binary
tree for D = (A
wB)
\320\241
Models
Boolean
directed
is a surface
surface
unbounded
primitive solid.
into
two
unbounded
each
regions;
space
intersection of an appropriate set of
divides
surface
The Boolean
a half-space-
is
region
form
can
half-spaces
the inside
Cartesian
determines
point
An
\342\226\240
343
three-
a closed
dimensional solid.
We
The
0-
define
we
Thus,
is given
surface
directed
Each
surfaces
directed
use
may
model.
f(x,y,z)-
function
a complex
surfaces:
(11.56)
f=G(n^
/; are directedsurfaces
where the
or
surfaces
of the
implicit
usually
divide spaceinto
Boolean
these
and
systems,
a primitive
\316\240
denote
is
\316\2402
it has a
is another
11.51
Figure
let
functions
The
half-spaces.
f4 describing
the
These
functions
we
can
easily
half-spaces,
as satisfying/,(*,.)',\320\263)>0
< 0. which
evaluate points
we then classify as
\316\277\317\204\316\262,\316\266\317\207,\316\263,\316\266)
to
the
set
or
to
its
belonging
object's
point
complement, respectively.Fora
sec
fuller
treatment
Mortenson
(1989). Parametric surfaces do not formally
define
because they do not divide spaceinto two parts in a direct
half-spaces,
would
first have to be converted into implicit surfaces.
analytical way They
te
Othersystems
with
solid, bounded primitives. At any node of the
opera
valid
solid. The
binary tree, two valid solids combine to producea third
are
circular
a right
to
produce
and
two
solids
complex
is generated
quickly
in
object.
cylinder.
form/;,(*,j>,z)
= 0.
S2. similar
Here
7\",
is a
\316\240\316\271
rectangular
denotes
union
combines
operator
rectangular
to 5, but
a transformation
ears.
Next.
and
parallelepiped
that scales and
and
\316\223,\316\240,
T2l\\z
to
and
7'\320\224\320\242,
'\320\223\320\224\320\242?
5,
St..
Then
and
S2 creates
the intersection
344
\342\226\240
Complex
Model
Construction
Se = ^6 ~ ^7
^4
\302\2736=
- ^5
s2=r3n1uriln2
Figure It.51
Boolean
model
of a
mechanical part.
S5)
\342\204\226
\320\270
\320\237\320\2372)
(78\320\2372
\316\267
\320\270
u \316\2447\316\2402)
\342\204\226 \316\2442\316\2402)
7\320\243\320\2372)
(7\342\200\236\316\2402
(\316\244\316\230\316\2402
=
=
(\320\220',-52)\320\277^\320\2372-(76\320\2372\320\2707\321\202\320\2372)-(\320\2238\320\2372\320\270\320\2239\320\2372)
\317\205
\316\267
\320\270
\316\2445\316\2402
[(\316\223,\316\240, \316\2442\316\2402)
(\316\2233\316\240,
7<\316\2402)]
-(\320\223\320\271\320\270\320\2237\320\237\320\263)-(\320\222\320\224\320\270\320\242,\320\237\320\263)
Ss
\316\267
u
(7,\316\240\316\271 75\316\2402
This
\316\267
7,\316\2402\316\267
75\316\2402\317\205
72\316\2402\316\267
\316\2445\316\2402)
\316\2445\316\2402)
(\316\244^\316\223\316\231
\317\205
77\316\2402)
(7\"6\316\2402
string,
symbol
unevaluated
and
\316\240,
u 74\316\2402)
(\316\223\302\253\316\2402
(11.58)
including the
We
model.
geometric
Although
the distributive
use
we
Then
fixed
are
\316\2402
types, the
primitive
transformations
\316\223,
vary
also
note
that for
We
depending
shape of the objectmodeled.
r\\
this example, all operations involving
T5Yl2 are trivial,
7,\316\240,
\320\263\\\320\2422\320\2372
except
since all the other bodieslie entirely
within
Thus,
\316\2445\316\2403,
on the
size and
7\320\263\320\2372\320\27775\320\2372=7\320\263\320\2372
\316\267
\316\223?\316\240,
\316\2445\316\2402
\316\2443\316\240,
\316\244,\316\2402\316\267\316\2445\316\2402=\316\244,\316\2402
these
process
system
modeling
sophisticated
will
detect
the
condition
and
will
not
trivial operations.
in evaluating the
importance
Computing intersections is of central
we
of two
define
the
boundaries
of
a
Boolean
model.
If
boundary
complete
the
then
the
is
sum
of the
primitives or
subobjects,
complete boundary of A(OP)B
boundaries.
These
of A and \320\222
are the active regions on A
segments
segments
bounded by the intersection of the original
\320\222
are themselves
and
and
boundaries
of
and
Let us
B.
three
Boolean
operators
on a set
of two or
including primitives, to be a
the
and some the boundary.
interior
comprising
points,
\320\270
of points that belong to
The
union
of two objects, say, \320\220
is
a
collection
\320\222,
B, or A and B. The difference of two
A,
B) is a collection of
objects
(A
to the surface
A
but
and
is
not inside B, a
that
interior
of
belongs
points
A. Figure 11.52
is inside
that belongs to the surface of \320\222
and
collection
of points
three
collection
objects.
primitive
of
We
consider
an object,
some
346
>
Construction
Model
Complex
A-B
AS
AUB-C
11.52
Figure
and difference.
of union
Examples
The operation
are of
These
The order
in
is important;
which
we
perform
combining
operations
in
a Boolean
AuB-C*A-BuC
However,
we
the operators
can
randomly
mix the
order
without
within
affecting
model
(11.-59)
a sequence
subset
the resulting
where
all
shape. Thus,
Boolean Models\342\226\240
347
Figure
11.S3
The intersection
uB-C=BuA
operation.
-C
(11.60)
or
H-B-C-Du\302\243M-(3uCuO)u\302\243
^-(SuOuC)u\302\243
(11.61)
M-(DuBuC)u\302\243
so
and
A
understand
on.To
order
system
geometric-modeling
and
difficult,
potentially
a complexshape.
pathological
Some
of
these
dependence
accommodate
many interesting,
situations
when evaluating the boundary of
11.54.
The
situations
are shown in Figure
must
of two
the difference
use
algorithmic
computations.
If
numberof
Figure
two
points\342\200\224a
11.55a).
to
equivalents
closed
planar
If two
Model Construction
<d)
<c)
*/
1
1
1
\\
I
1
1
rn
I
1
'
a point
11.S4
is
also
surface
bounding
number of
true
of
Boolean
A, then
curve
S,
Constructive
entirely
will
the
curves
(see
the
not
are
tangents
then
inside
closed
intersection
Figure
curve
A\342\200\224the
the
intersecis
it at an
even
counted
11.55d).
Solid Geometry
Constructivesolid
methods
\320\222
is
situations.
curve
\316\241
intersects
nonintersecting
modeling
points\342\200\224again,
unbounded plane
dimensionalshape
of
variety
curve
is inside
\320\276\320\275
\320\222
converse
(h)
<g)
<0
Figure
<e)
defines
that
Boolean
operators
is
model
nodes
or directed
sized and positioned in space,
shapes,
and
the
branch
nodes
are
the
set
(union,
operators
(half-spaces),
of this
and intersection). For a good entry
into
the
literature
difference,
and
the
method, see Requicha and Rossignac(1992).
They
survey
critique
field of solid modeling,including
mathematical
foundations,
representations,
algorithms,
applications, user interfaces, and systems.Requicha,Voelcker,
are
surfaces
simple
primitive
Boolean
on
others
and
Boolean
includingregularized
and
procedures,
many
CSG. Also
of
these
concepts,
boundary-evaluation
we have
of
decomposition
limited
wc will review
them here in
many
con
the
CSG as a generalization
of cell decomposition.
we combine individual cells usinga gluing
models,
form of the union operator where we join
components
need
uses
11.SS
Four general
\316\216/
all the
<d)
In
at
are
operators
\321\202\321\210.
(\321\201)
of
text
others.
viewed
Figure
already
Although
see Mortenson(1989),Tilove
among
(1977),
Requicha(19S0)
a
operators,
primitives,
classification.
point-membership
discussed
operation,
\342\226\240
349
introduced
Rochester
cell
Models
not
reg-
350 *
Model
Complex
Construction
Boolean
add material
ularized
can
solid
Constructive
transformations.
The
transformations
subtree
of
combining
geometry
and
intersect\342\200\224so
representations
of complex
thai
we
or
or terminal nodes are either primitives
are either regularized Boolean operatorsor
nonterminal
nodes
that
on
their
two subnodes (or subsolids).Each
operate
leaf
whose
trees
binary
difference,
operators\342\200\224union,
as well as removeit.
from
(not a transformation leaf) representsa solidresulting
it.
The
and transforming
root,
operations indicated below
Let
a
us
look
at
the
final
object.
simple example.
represents
a node
of
course,
In Figure11.56,
leaf nodes
the primitives \316\240]
and
andn2
represent
nodes
results
two
internal
of
the
the translation
represent
operations
and
root
node
the final object. Note that the
\320\224\320\273\320\2372.\320\242\320\254\320\265
represents
\316\2402)
(\316\223\316\244
the
four
Ax. The
solids.
Of course,
primitive and intermediate objectsare valid bounded
The full range
to rigid
motions.
of sealing
and
transformations are not limiLed
is
S
uch
transformations
are
theoretically possible.
symmetry transformations
limited
only by the capabilities of subsequentBooleanalgorithms.
bounded
If the
elements
of a modeling system are valid
solids
primitive
the
and the combining operators are regularized,then
solid
models
resulting
\320\273
\321\203
\320\266
\320\247
\321\207
>
*>\342\226\240\342\200\224'
1*
>
_^s
\342\226\240^
i primitive
\320\237
Figure
11.S6
Constructive
Boolean
Models
and bounded.
valid
are
user-defined
primitives.
validity of a
\342\226\240
351
model.
The most
a finite
position
and
in contemporary
approach
of concise,
set
compact
orientation).
The
operators.
transforming
The
primitives
set of
themselves
curved or planarhalf-spaces.
represented
by
the
regularized
by the intersection
cylinder
spaces
sophisticated
(see Figure
11.58).Only
are usually
For
represented
example,
intersection
of six
the
by
the
primitive
of the
six half-spaces
two
of a
block is
planar half-spacesand
of a cylindrical half-spaceand
three
intersection
planar
defining the
the
half-
shown
are
block
material
are
of
and
not
in Figure 11.58a.
the direction
necessarily
Model Construction
\316\212
\316\227
Cylinder
(\320\254)
|d) Insidefittel
/1
~L\302\267*^
\316\223
\316\227
R>*j
\\
|f)
|h)
|g) Spftere
11.57
Figure
\320\223\320\276\320\273\320\270
Primitive
Tetrahedron
|i) Cone
solids.
as we just discussed.The
transformations,
which
the
describes the faces,edges,and
boundary
representation,
of the boundary
vertices
of the sotid. This descriptionitselfhas two forms\342\200\224
a topological
elements
of the connectivity of the boundary
representation
operators
combining
using
second
and
is
and
numerical
elements.
The
data
shapedata.
The
boundary
sen \"tation
by
a set
of algorithms
of these
the geometric
Boolean
evaluator
and
determines
vertices
where
are created
component
or deleted. Where
Models
boundary
\342\226\240
353
new
edges
overlap
or
c<y<</
Primitive
Half-spaces:
solid
\316\271\316\257\316\257,^\316\257
!\316\220/
nOi shown
Figure
11.S8
354
>
Model
Complex
Construction
assumes
intersection
that
of
or heuristic
tests
for intersection.)
candidates
with
combinations,
simple
reasons
actual
edges
are
surfaces
both
that
that
the
edges
that
produced
be apparent.
new solid \320\241The
segment
evaluation,
36
the /-edges.
intersecting
boundary
each
surface
of B; this operation
unbounded.
our
In
example, there are
only 10 producing intersection edges. (Note
will soon
of the
of
concepts
/-edge
the faces
Edge
enb
of surfaces
e\342\200\236b
unbounded,
to produce
is divided
defining
also.
points
three segmen Is
segments as outside,
into
solid
to know
and which
Figure
71.S9
ace b
Boundary
evaluation.
Boolean Models
model,
consisting
are
inside
and
points
neighborhood
which
indicate
\342\226\240
355
11.60
a neighborhood
to
combinetheseneighborhoods
or on the next
of the
level
11.61.
We
create
the
segment
is outside,
inside,
tree. More
highest
Figure
if
determine
a neighborhood
ROMULUS
computationsare
procedural
necessary
representation,
11.62.
Extensive
system
(circa 1980s) in Figure
to generate
the boundary representation from
but the boundary
contains a
representation
modeling
systems
properties,
form
procedural
global
the
evaluated
model. The
most versatileand
use both.
Neighborhood
Figure
11.60
Neighborhood
wealth of
of segmeni 2 of e^
model.
Side
view
\320\233
11.61
figure
\320\222
models.
neighborhood
Combining
11.4
will
be
evaluation.
Boolean
helpful.
BOUNDARY MODELS
The objectiveof
representation
of
a solid
as an
as a union of
turn are bounded by
a solid
model
boundary
(or
b-rep)
is to
build
complete
We
organized collection of surfaces.
faces (surfaces),bounded by
vertices (points). Faces,then,
edge
endpoints.
edges
lie
on
A boundary
ean
represent
(curves),
which
surfaces;
edges lie
in
357
Boundary Models \342\226\240
Cytinde
Cylinder
\320\241
utavirey view
chamber
ol
Diiierince1
Spherjcal
Figure
chamber
11.62
Cub*
A
ROMULUS-treated
solid.
358
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Construction
data of the
mathematical
geometry on which
the
surfacegeometry
on
edge
(the coordinates)
geometry
lies
and which
of the vertices.
lies, the
face
the
which
the
curve
point
edges and
of
number
method
b-rcp
simple
edges
any
face.
the
surrounding
faces surround
and
a conical-type surface).Theseconditions
rule
must
the
of
a
solid
satisfy
boundary
Finally,
Generalized
of a
Concept
exception
out
shell-like
open,
conditions:
certain
closed, orientable,non-self-intersecting,
bounding,
an equal
of the apex of
Similarly,
surfaces.
It must be
connected.
and
Boundary
of physical
To begin the discussionof boundaries
let us review
objects,
\316\267
can
be denoted
certain concepts. Cartesian space of any dimension
by
the symbol E\". Thus, ordinary three-dimensionalspace is F?, and
twodimensional
by two real numbers, in \302\2433
space is E2. Points in E2 are defined
three
by
real
and
numbers,
in
E\"
by
Coordinate
numbers.
\316\267
real
points
The
is
space
space
of the
points
that
its boundary
Thus,
any
region
region
the set of pointsdenotedby R can be divided conveniently into two subsets
the
of a region andi^is
R, and
Rh, where
R, is the set of pointsin the interior
set of points on its boundary.
We write this as
lie entirely
either
comprise
within
or on
the
R = [R\342\200\236Rb]
objects are
All physical
Ry
region
is a closed
three-ciimensional regionsR3.
Given any point
set Rb, or
boundary
surface.
is a
curve
unlessit is
the curve
A
are
surface
one-dimensional
closed
in
(1162)
curve;
then
in
in
space,
the
The
it is
interior
boundary
obviously
set
of an
either
this
and
R\342\200\236
there
R[
of
R],
is a
always bounded
two-dimensional region
by
dosed
curve.
R2.
On the
An
ordinary
surface
within
open
this
surface
curve
is
may
Boundary
to
one
occur
Figure
nonintcrsecting
other
All
R\\,
or loops. All
of the curve
curves
closed
\316\267
the loops
points
Models
\342\226\240
359
points
on all
the
are in
R\\ (see
11.63).
we expand
Now
Let
of
a region
R'\"\302\267\"
be
the
of
dimensionality
our horizons a
notation
the
=
\316\257\316\223'\"
[\316\222'\"-'-\",.\316\223'\"1
B\"'
where
points
in
~'\342\226\240\"
is
the
set of
of the
interior
the
its
a similar
conceptof
Any
with
Table
interior.
construct
any region
2.
It is
on the
of
formulation
definition
of
the
the solid
is
(that
is.
it is
\316\267
we
is necessaryand
in /\")
of the
a member
a homogeneous
outline
the
is
when m
for
B'\"~1\302\267\".Thus,
B13 of
is, it
region,
\302\243?.
Of
course,
wc can
B'\"~'\342\226\240\".
three properties
R'\"\":
a homogeneous
region
boundary and a set
the following
of
set of
expression
one
inside
For
in
\316\223'\302\267\"
is the
a proper
is itself
of any
It is
outside,
R\"1\" and
on ils
points
1.
3. Itis
of
~yjl
regions
in the
in space
to
respect
regions
(11.63)
B'\"
in spaces
is contained
boundary
point
for
of
set
allowable
\320\246.2defines
table
scheme.
- dimensionality
of R and \316\267
Note that m <n. Then
is located.
\302\243in which
space
where
E\",
set
/\"'\342\226\240\".
a member
can
/'\"\342\226\240\"
by an
imply
solid in E3,the
sufficient
or boundary surface
are implied by B13.
for
\320\247-*
~-fi|
plane
figure
and
definition
of
of the solid,where
Figure 11.63 A
the
explicit
explicit
its boundaries.
360
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
Allowable regions in
Table 11.2
& r-O
Class
Order
E3
RIU
Point
TTiepoint
R13
Curve
The iwo
R2
Surface
One or more
Jmn
No interior
iiseif
endpoinLs
points
define the
surface
ihni
curves
closed
oF the
boundaries
soiici
the
on
the
surface
bounding
the boundaries of
define
thai
\320\222\321\216
in
sei of all
points
those
on the
except
fi'J
curves in
The
Solid
R1
points
surfaces
bounding
in
B2i
B-reps
The
of a solid
boundary
are
appearance
Even
The
reflection.
interface
Manufacturing
surface
the
part's raw-stock
Boundaryrepresentations
(b-reps)ofsolids
The conditions for a well-forme-d surface are
must
between
distinguished
and
objects
the
of
refine
will
boundary
each
with
patches,
should
Faces
1.
finite
2.
3.
The union
face
number
of a
face
satisfy
CSG
and its
for
boundary
representations.
of the
it
conditions.
be closed,
must
We have
or<-
already
dimensions)
our notation
that
shape.
certain
satisfy
connected.
evaluator
investigate a specifictype of
convenient for us to segment
vertices.
of an
arbitrary
and
bounded,
\316\267
on-self-intersecting,
objects
the
determined
entable,
the solid.
outside
points
solid and
the
between
of light
Reflection
environment.
surrounding
texture.
separates pointsinsidefrom
is the primary
The boundary
bounding
representations.
of
surface
a solid
It is
and then
computationally
surface of a solidinto facesor
or patch in turn
bounded
by a set of edges and
the following minimal set of conditions:
of faces
boundary
the
representation.
boundary
defines the
solid is a subset of
of all faces of object
the
an
boundary of a solid.
solid's
defines
boundary.
its boundary.
Boundary Models
4,
A face
is itself a
subset or limitedregion
area
and
of
some
more
be dimensionally
extensive
\342\226\240
361
surface.
homogeneous.
of the simple
These conditions are illustratedby the boundary
surface
of [aces.
11.64. Both objects have a finite
cube and cylinder
in Figure
number
intosix planar faces, defined
The cube's boundary is convenientlysegmented
our
intuitive
notion
by the discontinuities at the edges, and it coincideswith
with
of a boundary. The cylinder'sboundary
is more
arbitrarily
segmented,
the
and
the
natural
the end planar faceshaving
only
segmentation
surface
a division into faces in any number of ways.
cylindrical
is,
requiring
(That
number
of faces
assuming
by vertical edges, wc can have
any
segmentation
of equal or unequalsize.)
<b|
Figure
11.64
Faces
defining
the boundary
of a solid.
362
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
No single
therefore,
cube
or
the cylinder
defines the
of the
subset
entire object;
face
is also
every
complete boundary.
or limited(bounded)regionof a more extensive
sUrfaee. Thus, each
face of the cube is a boundedregionof an infinite
and so are the
plane,
or end faces of the cylinder. Howabout the
disks
surface
circular
cylindrical
a finite
area and is dimensionitself? Each face of the cube and cylinderhas
or isolated
ally homogeneous. (There areno dangling
edges
points.)
We can represent the planar facessimply
bounding
by their
edges.
the
faces
more
information.
For
curved face
However, curved
require
example,
be
a
of
a
surface
Bezier
where
we
define
this
surface,
by its
may
region
and
the
eUrve
on
this
surface
characteristic
we similarly
define
that
polyhedron,
face
is a
Each
a subset
the
delimits
computational
face
or
conventions
one
illustrates
parameterized
in
face
the
delimiting curve
the
actual
devices
to indicate
polygon.
There
on which side of an
are
edge
or
lies. We
convention.
such
direction
a consistent
characteristic
its
with
curve.
data
structure
of a
Figure 17.65
Face boundary
convention.
Models
Boundary
tions
the cube
for
having
equivalent,
topological
the same
are
object's
information
(for
we
segmentation,
boundary
combinatorial
structure.
We
example,
with
each
vertex
For example,in
then the object is
other.
2,
scheme.
speaking, a
Strictly
regardless
speak
use
In general,topological
structure
independentof
course.
of
to avoid
Sometimes,
segmented.
cube is its
of each
right
boundary-segmentation
are
surfaces
Ihe
to
\342\226\240
363
and
metric
to mean geometric
information
Figure 11.67,
no longer valid.
if
we
We
make
arc not
1 coincide
a valid
a valid
vertex
that
conclude
\316\252}
/\320\243
\320\273
L_
j\342\200\224~
>
\320\243
\320\243
Figure
\320\243
\321\203
\320\243
\320\243
11.66
Boundary
representations
are not
unique.
364
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
by
Ordinarily.
facesembedded
the solid's
where
be determined
must
validity
face,
these surfaces.
where
than
surfaces,
lim-
edges).
schemes
b-\320\263\320\265\321\200
meansother
computing
theseschemesdescribe solid
extended
are
schemes
directed
in
of
intersections
since
half-spaces,
to the
related
not
the
their net
external
behavior
remote
on b-repsare
using Booleanoperations
evaluation
or
algorithms.
merging
examples.
The
statement
following
as boundary
known
commonly
Let us
the shape
implies
of a complexohjectb:
S=AuB
In
primitives
We
regions are
bounded
by
intersection
the
te regions
of appropria
B. These
and
and
aH.
\316\261\316\273
set
means
this
schemes,
boundary-representation
of S consistsofa
(11.64)
\320\254\320\222.
the
In
two-dimensional
B;
is, bA \316\267
intersection
consists of points 1 and 2, which
that
the type
example
of combiningoperation.Second,
we
\\
\\
\\
V
\\
'
/S
'1^-V
f
\\
/\342\226\240
K.j
y/
select
-~
Figure
Interdependence
and
11.67
of
topology
geometry.
in
obviously
the
hy
First,
ihe
surfaces of
boundary
are
them
active
Figure
11.68,
and
the
independent
region
ofaspe-
of
Boundary Models
\342\226\240
365
based on its
primitive
of other combining
boundary
eific
the
primitives.
three
linear
by the
represented
primitives
the
A uB-C.
sequence
binary
Each
primitive
in
for
position
this is
Because
11.69a).
(11.65)
\320\234\320\277\320\254\320\222=[\320\270,,\320\2702]
This
operation, the
active
regionofbBis
are
both curves
divides
operation
of bA is
region
that
boundarycurves.
The
active
from
0 to
ulA
and
u>B
to u2B-
on
bB\342\200\224from
intersections
is,
bC with
the
the
as
well
the first
again,
active
\320\241
(see
revised
step. In
regions
\316\267
Once
part
the
we find
effect
of bC that
11.69c).
regions
on
aA)
is one
we
this,
of
Here
and
bA
Find
bB.
only
two
intervals\342\200\224
active interval
\320\270
\320\224
and
\320\220
a\342\200\236
taking
we find the
active
Computing
the intersection
of
of bA and
(bC
determine
Figure
doing
of
results
the
using
respective
consists
aA,
1. There
to
\302\253M
definition by
the shape
difference with
regionson bCas
from
other
We complete
its Boolean
the union
For
segments.
on bA, denoted
region
the
two
active
one
of bB
segment
into
t segmen
tha
\320\270
(bC
\316\267
aH)
[\320\2703,\320\270\320\273]
(11.66)
and
we
\320\2704,
on aA and
select
the
aB. Because
Figure11.68 Boundary
intersection.
366
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
S = [AVB)
\320\241
\321\214\320\274\320\270\320\273|
\"\320\267\321\217
, .
'\342\226\240\320\233\"\320\267\320\273
]
\",\321\217
^bS
\320\272
IS
\"\320\260\321\201UJC
Figure
ing
Only
those
by the bold
Two-dimensional
11.69
A similar
regions
representation.
boundary
situation
(faces)
the
more
active
closed
occurs
on all
with
after
intervals
1 J
aH,
the
and
right
any combining
is shown
\321\217\321\201
in Figure
operation
loops.
three-dimensional
the primitives
combined to
objects.
form
The
a solid
active
will define
Models
Space-Partitioning
by fl2. We
sphere
Figure 11.70the
of
regions
primitive
onto
Ylt
unit
into
(cylinder)
square
outlined.
surfaces
the
that
clockwise direction.)
We
of
and
bYlt
parametric
space
surface
case,
t
map
is a
\320\254\320\2372
regions.The
surface
bound
we
also
closed-space
First,
representations.
in
the primitive
\316\2402
(sphere).
The
intersection
fl3
of
functions
space from
the
or
each
unit
MODELS
take a commonobject\342\200\224a
it into
decomposing
these
space.
parameter
SPACE-PARTITIONING
We can
the
D; second, it is associated
the curve is a function ol a third parametric
variable
into the unit square in u,w parameter
the curve
interval
11.5
sec
surfaces
union of these
in parameter
(Remember
lace
bound
cylinder by
\316\240
and
\316\271
of three
combination
the
union
of [he
consists
shape
a skew-truncated
with
sphere
[he
For example, in
surface.
a closed
of
\342\226\240
367
separate
coffee
pieces so that
mug.
each
for
imagine
example\342\200\224and
piece
is easier
to describe
are
multiply connected
two
parts
with
topology.
a simply
connected
topology
If necessary,
we continue to
decompose any
or
all ol
This
criterion.
parts until wc meet some predetermined
describability
is known as cell decomposition.Wc can represent
any solid as the
process
sum or union
of a set of cells into which it is divided.Cell
is
decomposition
the total object may not be amenableto representation,but
useful
where
its
cellsare. There are many ways of decomposing a solid into constituentcells;
none
but all are unambiguous.
is unique,
these
368
\342\226\240
Complex
Model
Construction
Figure 11.70
Space-Partitioning
\342\226\240
369
Models
Figure
of the
resolution
Cell decomposition
11.71
model.
cells. Cell
of adjacent
set
example.
arrays
spatial
are often
cited: It
There are
spatial
alsodisadvantages:
There
is no explicit
between
the
parts of an
relationship
schemes
demand
and
such
amounts
of
data
usually
storage.
object,
large
A ceil
in a spatial array is either occupiedby a piece
of the solid or it is not.
1 or 0 to indicate spatialoccupancy.
A ceil can be marked with
the
binary
this
of
were
schemes
Early
type
highly redundant, becauseall cellsof an
it
was
were
even though
marked,
object
highly
likely that any particular cells
had the samestateas cellsadjacent
to it. Only
close to an object's boundary
for a change of state.
do chances
increase
Quadtrees
and
use
first.
spatial-occupancy
The quadtree
recursive
a square
their
point,
and
three-dimensional
enumeration
uniqueness
analogs,
is assured.
octrees,
suggest a
way
quadtrees
to
370
Construction
Model
\342\226\240
Complex
of
tree
has two
plane of the display. Whereas each node a binary
has
four.
each
node
a
of
descendants,
quadtree
two-dimensional
In Figure
11.72, we superimpose a square on an arbitrary
If the object does not uniformly cover the
then
we subdivide
square,
object.
If any of the resulting quadrants is full
the square into four equal quadrants.
or empty,
which
is true for
then we do not need to subdivide it further,
of
the
quadrant 3 in this
is
full, we
resultingquadrants
example. If any
partially
We continue to subdivide partially
subdivide it again
full
into
quadrants.
are
full
or
or
until
wc
until
the
either
quadrants
empty
resulting regions
screen
can
declare
reach some predeterminedlevelof resolution.
We
the
arbitrarily
a
full
or
as either
full
quadrants
empty according to conventionwe
partially
establish.
root
from a
subdivisions
nested
of
number
represented
quadtree
to
node
given
height of
If the
node.
the
by
the
and
the
also the
the tree is n,
element
universe
the
then
~ 3, and
in Figure 11.72, \316\267
2\". For
the example
array size is 2\" \317\207
potential
are
33
of the efficiencies of quadtree representation,
there
because
only
The
nodes instead of 64 (that is, 23 \317\207
resolution
to
accurately
23).
necessary
in size of gross and fine
represent an object dependson the difference
of the object
and curvature of the boundary.Thegreaterthe magnitude
features
of n, the greater the resolution. Reducingan object
model
into a quadtree
is
quadtreeencoding.
representation
Octree
is an extension
into three dimensions of qu adtree
encoding
a sol id-mo deling method basedon octree
encoding. Meagher
(1982b)
developed
for
the
encoding
manipulation,
analysis, and computer-graphic
high-speed
a
of solid
uses
His
objects.
spatially presorted8-ary
display
approach
tree
hierarchical
that
the
structure,
grow only
linearly
with
Each
a cubical
height
For
of an
node
of
region
the
tree
to represent
octree,
complexity
object
tree
the
quadtree
structure.
encoding.
computations
analysis
representing,
on
algorithms
uses
also
algorithms
advantage of the
The octree encoding of a
Here we recursively
by taking
or eight cubicalregions(seeFigure
|1.73).
not a leaf node has eight descendants.If the
into octants
octree
that
is n, then
is
= 3.
the example
in
the
\316\267
figure,
Octree
and quadtree encoding schemes
possibilitiesfor
solids, ft
analyzing,
these
fast
and
models
are
and amenable
suggest
displacing
many
size
is
2\"
\317\207
2\".
2\" \317\207
interesting
\320\276
\320\263\320\276
1\320\233
\320\263\320\273
r*j
fl\320\263\320\273
~. \320\223\321\207
\317\203>
.;
tD
\320\263\320\276
(\320\234
\320\276
\320\241\321\2071
\320\223\321\207
\320\233
\320\223\321\207
\" \321\201\320\276
\342\226\240%.
1\320\233
\320\223\321\207
\320\277
\320\240^
~ *\320\242
\320\223\320\2471
\"
\317\204
(0
\320\223\320\236
\316\261.
\342\226\240\320\270
\321\212_
\317\211
\317\211
\342\226\240*-\302\267
\317\207\316\271
ta
\317\203
\320\263\321\207
\320\263\302\273
\316\277\316\271
372
\342\226\240
Complex
Construction
Model
Figure 11.73
others
models;
combine
that
geometric
that translate,
rotate, and scale octree
Boolean
using
operators; and that compute
and
interference
analysis. These schemes, and
perform
offer
hcuristi-c
tools for rapid preprocessing or sorting
demonstrated
have
properties
variations
on
them,
Octree representation.
algorithms
them
modelsbasedonothertechniques.
RELATIONAL
GEOMETRIC
SYNTHESIS
to geomemc modelingand
an
innovative,
object oriented,
design,
structured
environment
that
the
relationally
efficiency of
greatly
improves
the design processand resolves
many
long-standing
problems. This chapter
to the characteristics
of relational geometric
begins with an introduction
a discussion
followed
synthesis,
of relational model structure,model
by
and
relational
evaluation, serialization,
entities. A detailed example and several
are
concludes
with a discussion of open
applications
presented.This
chapter
Relational
relational
in
developer
Seth
chapter
of
relational
H.
Porter,
geometry.
by Dr.John S.Letcher,Jr.,principal
synthesis, and his associates D. MichaelShook,
A. Dickson. They can be contacted
at:
Aero-
was co-authored
geometric
and George
Inc., P.O.
Hydro
http://www.aero
12.1
approach
it offers
geometric
issues
This
is anew
synthesis
geometric
computer-aided
04679,
(207)
244-7347,
INTRODUCTION
Relationalgeometric
synthesis
provides
outstanding
important
profound
structure
new
benefits
characterized
in practical
(RGS)\342\200\224or
relational
for
CAD
problems
design.
geometry
an
(KG)\342\200\224is
geometric design. RG
for computer-aided
framework
object-oriented
in geometric
Compared
with
conventional
CAD,
RG
is
by:
373
374
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
1. A
Synthesis
points,
geometry\342\200\224from
Up
to
curves,
from
simpler
to more
complex
sequential
surfaces\342\200\224through
constructions.
2.
geometric
and
extensible
model.
3. Supportof
rich
large variety
elements
the
between
relationships
of a
retention
and
Representation
easily
of
(objects)
set of
constructive
comprising a geometric
methods
for
object
construction.
and
construction
for
Methods
4.
in
embedded
durably
in surfaces.
embedded
surface
between
5. Methods for construction of accurateand durable
joins
objects without performing surface-surfaceintersections.
of para metrically variable modelsinvolving
in the
6. Facility
construction
surfaces combined with durable
free-form
and
sculptured
complex,
topology.
7.
and
serialization
Compact
of complex
storage
form of a geometric-representation
language.
for
throughout
geometry
parametrically
generating
and/or
evaluation
engineering
for refinement
and
In the
lead
characteristics
These
relational
of
optimization
balance of
designs.
we
Introduction,
this
amplify
briefly
each of
these
characteristics.
5yn
thesis
to more complex
simpler
Curves
are typically
model.
any
of ways or, in some cases, from other
in a variety of ways
from
or,
curves
RG approach
constructedfrom points
curves.Surfacesare
in
typically
in some
and from
cases, from
variety
constructed
from
constructed
be
on
surfaces.
Capture of Relationships
The
CAD
conventional
geometric objects
added to a
CAD
by
model
design
process
execution
is created
of
requires
\316\220\316\267\316\265
creation
user commands.
in some definite
of a
Almost
sequence
of
every object
relationship to one or
\342\226\240
375
Introduction
more
objects
in
even
but
and
model; for example,size,position.shape,
exist
in
of
the
mind
the
relationships
designer;
only
the cases where the intended relationshipis explicitly
utilized
is
by the CAD program, as soonas the new object
information
is discarded. Thus, a conventional
relationship
communicatedto
and
the
constructed
in the
already
these
of
Most
orientation.
from
the
of
essentially
and
outset
independent,
unrelated,
the completed
could
envision
of the
relationship
might
is seldom
that
known
forward
the
objectives may be present. In each
stage,
to
will
have
designer
repeat many previously
performed
operations
to restore
in order
(updating),
relationships disrupted by the revision of earlier
and
optimization
designelements.
is a
existing design to meet new requirements
similar problems are encountered.A change
that
an early stage of the designrequiresat least one forward
pass through
oi
Revision
common
alters
a previously
in which
situation
have
been
lost.
RG provides a
relationships
between
objects.
of one
constructive
dependency
directed
graph.
The
relationships
automaticallyupdated
preserving
relationship
property
principal
is that
of
advantage
the set of
376
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Rich and
Synthesis
RG is also
of
each
by
a rich
one or
which
different
2. Essentially,each entity
requiresa
However, the
object-oriented
modeling
Embedded
and
types
different
flexibility
and
quantities
of dsta.
cvaluator
procedure.
to
confer
be
through
in
advantages
manageable
profound
accuracy.
Geometry
embedded
in
other
RG
of higher
objects
in a
embedded
Beads\342\200\224points
Magnets\342\200\224points
Snakes\342\200\224curves
constructions
provide
embedded
embedded
or same
curve
in
a surface
in a
surface
object is durable
relationshipof
supporting object (host).
The embedding of an
through a dependency
are explicitly
dimensionality,for example:
of objects that
the
qualitative
embedded
property
object
(guest)
captured
on the
AccurateJoinsbetween5urfaces
In
play
conventional
a
prominent
must share a
and
and
often
Introduction
\342\226\240
377
than
necessary
of intersection
the curve
portions
solution
the intersection.This
a long
off
for
the unwanted
difficulties
pitfalls,
response,
account
which
of robustness
lack
and
ParametricModeling
combined
result
from
with many
captured
so as to
are constructed
models
RG
Typically,
have
metrical
topologicalpropertiesor
The parametric degrees of freedom
often
values, parameter values,or coordinate
point objects which are acting as supports
permit visual,interactivevariations dragging
is to support numeric variables
expressions
which geometric elementscan depend. either
variable
models
high level
parametrically
of
as
as
optimization designs,
adaptation
quantitative,
can
and
for
parameter
other
point
by
with
well
new
a combination.
as coordinate
offsets
of various
tends to
This
geometry.
An alternative
objects.
relational
as
In
Compact
properties,
or
properties,
be expressed
and
designs to satisfy
durable
many
objects
on
at a
refinement
and
rapid
the ability
case,
enables
customization
and
to work
of existing
requirements.
Storage
The serialization of
an
RG
model
includinginterobject
the compactnessresults
from
redundsneies
in
the
the
expresses
in
relationships,
use
an
More
representation.
profoundly,
of
terms
the compactness
constructive
Related Developments
Sutherland's
Sketchpad
project
(Sutherland
connections
[1963])
utilized
between
stored references
to
Reference
lines.
378
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Synthesis
underlie Boeing'saerodynamics
grid
some
one
(AGPS),
may
automatic
of
level
of RG
reference
which
entities
in the
Multiob-
Multipatch,
elements
system
paneling
used
also
system
generation
grid
proprietary
and
were
languageapproachto
changes
in
underlying
a complex
to regenerate
variations.
geometry with parametric
of
a
multilevel
r
elational
Further,
examples storing
structure of
selective updates of only the
interobject
dependencies,
permitting
are actually
affected by a change. Armit (J982)
portionsofthe modelwhich
discussesthis capability
in a surface
modeler,TAG. PADL-2 is a CSG solidorder
in
executed
are some
there
framework
modeling
with
this
feature
(Brown
[1982]).Gossard,et
describe a dimension-drivenpolygonalsolidmodeler.
and
Constraint-based
of RG,
Updatingcapabilities
variationalmodelingaccomplish
but we
MultiSurf
flavor
to
three-dimensional
some of the
different from
to be
modeling
be quite
RG,
limited.
relatively
apparently
find their
al. (1988)
RGKemel
and
12.2
in
several
RELATIONAL
Object versus
Any
countries.
MODEL STRUCTURE
Entity
geometric-modeling
from
must
program
or classes, such
provide
as point, line,polyline,
circular
arc,
solid.
CAD
nomenclature
tends
to
the
words
patch, rectangular
apply
more
or less interchangeably
to both the abstract objectclass
object and entity
several
Bezier
object
types
these
differentiate
the
and
concepts,
convention;
following
The
abstract
The
instantiated
to think
way
suggestive
on oneof
abstractdata
is
allocated
From
forms.
these
plus
type,
the
and
one
for
form
blank
structure.
names
RG entities
represent
the
(supports);
objects
is for
RG
in
the
an
specifying
object
by filling in all required fields
the programmer's
point of view, the entity is an
or more methods for utilizing the data; an object
data
filled-in
is as a
is created
In RG,
characteristic
use
379
\342\226\240
the need
to
from it. In RG we experience
to avoid confusion wc recommendadherenceto
instantiated
the objects
and
Structure
Model
Relational
construction
identity
Within
in
utility
of the
supports is expressedby
use
of
their
names.
Example:
RelPoint
Point
Relative
the name
object
from the
is instantiated
the
RelPoint entity
coordinate
x,y,z
by
offsets
filling
in
from the
basis point.
Example:
BCurve
B-SpHne
made
of
Curve
from an
The
degree
of supporting
specified
set
Example: CLoftSurf
A
C-Lofted
Surface
curve objects in
object
is a
parametric surface
that
interpolates
curves
supporting
is specified
a set
of
by an
Classes
and
Subclasses
Most RG
into
a class
as in
primarily on the
12.1. The parent classis
hierarchy,
Figure
380
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Synthesis
RGSolidsare
RGCurvesare
parametric
are
RGSnakes
are
RGPoints
=
\317\207
dimensions,
x(u,y,w).
curves
in three-dimensions,
curves embedded
parametric
in three-dimensions
\317\207
=x(f).
in an RGSurface.
points
RGBeads
RGMagnets
RGRingsarepointsembedded
in
an
RGSnake.
inheritance
diagrammed in Figure 12.1 primarily
of methods permitting objects of one class serve
of another class. For example,any
or any
RGPoint,
The
to
evaluating
true;
From
=
surfaces in three-dimensions,\317\207
x(\302\253,v).
are parametric
RGSurfaccs
three
in
solids
parametric
an entity
name,
as
a
value
degenerate
existence
instances
degenerate
of the parameter
as an
the
indicates
as
/. (The
converse is not
be evaluated
as a degenerate RGSnake. As
another
method to be evaluated as an
an
RGSnake
a
example,
requires
for
coordinates
RGCurve,
x,y,z
given parameter value /; but it
returning
does
not make sense to try to evaluate
an RGCurve
a s an RGSnake,sincean
in general
RGCurve
does no! Jie in any surface.
There
are some problems with
in Figure 12.1. Clearly, it is
the
hierarchy
rife with multiple
inheritance which, although supported to somedegreein
many
object-oriented
systems, is nonetheless a rich sourceof
programming
and
of solids, surfaces,
difficulties
conceptual implementational
Embedding
Similarly,
RGMagnet
any
sentablc
in
the
can
solids
presents
more
complex
possibilities
not repre-
diagram.
are other
versatile
way
to
reparameterizc
curves
and surfaces.
versus
iterative.
as direct
Entities can also be classified
Objects instantiated
number
from a direct entity
be evaluated
can
exactly and uniquely in a finite
be
evaJuof operations
the
can
exact
and
that
arithmetic,
(assuming
supports
381
Relational Model Structure \342\226\240
RGObject
Contours
Solid
(5)
Frame (2)
Plane (5)
(0)
Surface (24)
Line
Curve
(1H
*- SubSurf
(17)
Snake(15)
Bead
SubSnake
(4)
Magnet
(3)
(1)
(1)
Ring (3)
Figure
12.1
Class
hierarchy
represent
the
of relational
current
population
of each
class.
382
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Synthesis
the
AnAbsMagnetisa simple example;it just requires
evaluated
Iterative
entities
at a single specifiedu,v position.
a
or
an
a
search
For
iterative solution.
require
example, IntMagnetis
point on
a surface at its intersectionwith a curve; locating it requires solution of three
in the three unknowns t.u.v.The
simultaneous(usually
equations
nonlinear)
iterativesolutionmay require many surface and curve evaluations; may fail to
fail to converge; may have multiple solutions;
exist;may
may
require
provision
of starting va lues for the unknowns;
and may have limited accuracy becauseof
for their simplicity,
truncationerrors.Direct
are highly
entities
preferred
ated exactly).
to be
surface
supporting
recently
procedural
Essentially,
constructing
combination
repetition
that
of
domain.
As
broaden
the
robustness,
bu
tivc
itera
entities
sometimes
provide
entities.
available
through
class of entity is designated as procedural.
developed
the construction of a curve, surface,or solid
entities
permit
one
or
typical
point, curve, or surface using any sequence
of point, curve, or surface objects,
the
then
automating
over a one-, two-, or three-dimensional
construction
parametric
the
entities
entities,
essentially
user-defined
vastly
procedural
the direct
not
constructions
necessary
by
and
accuracy,
efficiency,
of relational
flexibility
modeling.
logical
an
relationshipcomprising
(support,
ordered
A relation
dependent).
number
We speak of the
of its
to
is an
there
which
upward
the
Figure 12.2
12.2aconsistsofjust
relationship
of its
in
between
dependents.
R (the
of \320\236
in the
order
pair (<?,,oy) of elements
can be depicted by a directed graph (digraph)
which
degreeis
a set
of
descendants
path as the
there
the object,
is
a downward
path
and the set of all objects
object's ancestors.
shows
absolute
configuration. However, in
points are
RelPbints,
different relational
structure,
curve
translate
\320\222\320\241
will
the
case
of
Figure
12.2c, three
of the
provides a quite
with this possibly useful property: If PO is moved,
the
to a new position, while retaining its originalshape.
relative
to the
AbsPoint
PO. This
Evaluation
Model
RelPoint PI
PI
RelPointPI
\342\226\240
383
P3
\320\236
P3
RelPoint
\317\203
PO
AbsPoini
P2
RelPoimP2
(a)
12.2
Figure
Digraphs
a BCurve
from
made
points,
As
for three
absolute
poirkt;
objects,
Two
objects,
absolute
three
an
points and
relative
evidently
indeterminate
MODEL
four
or
contradictory
the digraphis requiredtobe
12.3
Five
{\302\243>)
(c) five
them;
dependencies
cyclic
models,
acyclic.
EVALUATION
The logical
model is insufficient
Although
manufacturing
purposes.
for
display,
it presumably
of a desired
interrogation,
contains
and
model
specification
thitt
in
representations
objects
is the
terms
of x,y.z
coordinates\342\200\224from
the
corresponding
logical
384
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Object
Synthesis
Evaluation
the
What constitutes the evaluation of an object dependsupon
class
object's
a state
and may be implementation-dependent. Each objectcontains
whether
variable evaluated
its evaluation is currently valid. An
indicating
evaluated
data
contains
structures
object
holding some evaluated form
appropriate to its entity class. For example, the evaluation of any RGPoint
the
coordinates
of the point. An object
in the
x,y,z
object will include
or RGRing class will additionally
RGBead
include
the object's t parameter
location
on the
include
the object's
evaluation of
points from
a topologically
could
Derivativevalues
The
of
evaluation
any
object
will
the supporting
a uniform tabulation
of an RGSurface might
additionally
surface. The
(sampling) of
be
from
the
surface.
mesh of points
in curve and surfaceevaluations.
evaluation
rectangular
be present
also
be
might
the
curve;
on
location
\302\253,v
parameter
RGCurve
an
the
tabulation of
supporting
can be
the
display
on
Program
the
and
for
of absolute
export
plane).
structure
Although
geometry is presented as an
relational
framework\342\200\224suggesting
object-oriented
the
particular
language\342\200\224in
The
entirely in ANSI \320\241
appropriateness
to
date
fact,
object-oriented
an
of implementation
in
RGKernel
is implemented
between an application
is a set oi classevalualors,
absolute geometricdsta and the RGKernel
for each
One
for
evaluator
is the
class.
class
argument
entity
any
cvalua te. The otherarguments
on
class:
the
depend
principal
RGPoint:
out-\316\247,\316\245,\316\226
RGBead:
out-
identity
of host
interface
curve;
parameter
requiring
one
object to
Evaluation
Model
RGRing:
out-
RGLine:
out-
of
in-
parameters
of
vector
points: \316\247,\316\245,\316\226
va lues
parameter
out-
vector
RGSolid:in-
of
parameters
values
parameter
of sampled
tabulation
outRGSnake:
u,v
identities
of host snake and surface;t.u.v
X.Y.Z of one point; unit tangent
vector
in- vector
RGCurve:
surface:
of host
out-identity
RGMagnet:
\342\226\240
385
of
vector
u.v
parameters
of
values
\316\275
parameter
of w
values
RGPlane:
one
point-;
unit normal
occurs;
of
value
return
The
a primary
math routine is an
error codeif
an
error
0.
else
ITie essential
structure of a classe-valuator
is
simply
(pseudo-C):
int RGClass
[
int
err
= 0;
else
5witch(object->entity)
[
case
ENTITY1:
break;
case
ENTITY2:
err
= Entityl(
err
= Entity2(
object,
other arguments);
object,
other
break;
case ENTITYN:
err
break;
return err;
EntityN(
arguments):
386
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Synthesis
basis
B-Spline
functions.
new entity
to
an
existing
class requires
only:
Recursive
effort
linear
Only
set.
entity
supported
Model Evaluation
Provided
evaluator
the
that
reentrant
functions
are all
may
Table
the
arc
calls
slow.
unacceptablv
Lookup
duplicate
of
evaluations,
curves,
tabulated
values
be
that
enormously
sampling
will be
and
the evaluation
of an
and
object
in later
required
will accumulate
as a
prevents
needed,as
parameter
evaluations. Truncation errors
generally
and
surfaces,
present,
accelerating
structure
previous
when
the
will
to a degree
that
is
difficult
to predict
and
can
Serialization
\342\226\240
387
Updating
Est of its supports,
data stored in an objectis an ordered
as
for
the
is
the
model
evaluation
outlined.
This
required
process
previously
For efficient updating, it is also
primary representationof the model relation,
of
the
store
and
a
list
to
maintain
When an
expedient
objeet's
dependents.
it can notify its dependents, they
object is changedin an editing operation,
can
their dependents,
and so on, in a recursive processthat finally
notify
invalidates
all descendajits.
(Invalidation is resetting the evaluateduag.)
the
of an object, as noted earlier,eachofits supports
evaluation
During
be evaluated.
If a support is marked as invalid,
it will
be evaluated
must
before a value is returned.Thus,
invalidated
evaluating
any
object will cause
of
to
in
its
ancestors
that
are
invalid
reevaluate
themselves,
any
recursively,
the correct
to update this particularobject.No object
needs
to be
sequence
Part
of the
evaluated
12.4
more
the entire
in updating
once
than
model.
SERIALIZATION
File
mode I requires
a serialization
of a relational
of the object data
storage
for all of the model's objects.Besidesthe object data, the file must convey
model
any model-level information.This canincludea language
version,
and
version, symmetry flags, identifica tion of units, model-levelcomments,
so
on.
for
has a method
the file is a sequenceof objects.Each entity
of
its
data
a
a
to string. An object pointer, that is, the identity
writing
support,
is output
as the
name
of the referenced object. It is not necessary
to output
the
as this information can easily be
list of dependents,
object's
reconstructed
the file is read back in.
when
The
body of
Entity-name:
as follows:
is essentially
string
color visibility
divisions
the entity;
identifying
keyword
[other
object
attributes]/
for example,
Abs-
Point,RelPoint,
BCurve.
A name
object-name:
color:
visibility:
display
color
integer
An
integer
code
code
object.
the objectaspects of the object's
for displaying
controlling
appearance.
divisions:
tabulation
An
for the
and
Specifies
display.
the number
388
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Synthesis
object attributes:
other
Include optionallayer,unit
object
weight,
remark.
/: Terminates
supporting
object
required
AbsPoint
object-name
RelPoint
object-name
/\316\247\316\245
\316\226;
dX dY
/point
/ relabel
BCurve object-name
type
A variable-length list of
is enclosed in
and
float,
integer,
to instantiate
dZ;
the
control
j;
pointN
point2
(point]
supports, suchas
of a
points
BCurve,
braces.
serialization
The
functions as an interactiveintcrpreler/compiler
for
The model language docs not currently
support
ming-language constructs as subroutines,branching,
could be
for
additions
fruitful
the
the
model
such
and
langnage.
typical
iterators,
programbut these
future.
order
file
in the model
Early versions of MulliSurf required top-down
be used as a support for
(i.e., an object had to be definedbeforeit could
another object)as well as in the internal data storage. This conditionwas
when editing the model file manually It was
lo
difficult
to maintain
later
found
file read-in
lo
require
only a modest amount of bookkeeping
during
dispense
12.5
with
RELATIONAL
In
this
\316\225\316\235\316\244\316\223\316\240\316\2255
we specify
section
representing
all object
tiSurf/ RGKernel
The
entity
classes. (This
is about 75
Some shorthand
percent
in the form of a
template
notation used in these
of the
entities
current
Mul-
population.)
arc presented
entities
descriptions.
explanation:
order.
top-down
class
names
for
their
templates
signify
model
file
requires
the name
of an
of
indicated
the
objects;
1 to N.
: Ellipsis
indicates
color,
indicate
): Braces
{ ....
counted
\342\226\240
389
Bitities
Relational
visibility,
of some
position
attributes
and
for tabulation
divisions
that are
class-specific\342\200\224
some
display\342\200\224plus
optional
attributes
surfaces
to a
parallel
surface.
a curve,
and
bead/curve: Either a bead or a curve.Thisspecifies
a point on it, which is usually
used
as the starting
value for a
iteration.
knotlist:
and
ring/snake
Similarly
entities.
NURBS
Points
Three-Dimensional
AbsPoint name
..../XY Z;
dX dY
.... /point
name
RelPoint
magnet/surface.
A knot
optionally
fixed-point
radius;
direction
from
poinl
are
polar coordinates.
of spherical
terms
Jon
Polar Relative
in
dZ;
ProjPointname ..../pointmirror;
The Projected
is
Point
name
MirrPoint
at the
located
..../point
mirror,
times
is. two
mirror.
mirror,
projection
the
mirror
the displacement
image
of poinl with
respect to the
of the ProjPoint.
Rotated
axis line,through
Point
is located by
an
angular
rota
distance
ting
from
the
of angle.
position
of point,
about the
390
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
The Tangent
startingat
Synthesis
name
OffsetPt
of
location
the
bead,
to
tangent
offset;
..../magnet
Point is
Absolute
Frame
The
.... Iframe
name
FrameAbsPf
FrameRelPt
located at x, y,
name ..../framepointdx
dy
\316\266
specified
name
Beads
and
Point is
Blended
The
wtl
..../{point!
dz;
wt2
point!
coordinates.
in frame
BlendPoint
of magnel,
\317\207
\316\266;
\321\203
Frame
The
of bead,
host curve
the
distance offsel.
at signed
the
offsets
the
.... pointN
wtN
dx, dy,
dz
j;
- \316\243
\317\207
w,x,
component
points:
embedded
in a
curve. A
Since
snakes
Rings
A bead
class
class entity
a single
constructs
entity
subclass of curves,rings
also as a magnet on that
name
AbsBead
The Absolute
Relative
offset
of beads.
surface,
therefore
can
at
value
parameter
t.
/ bead dt;
is a
point
on the
host curve of
dt.
ArcRe/Bead
surface.
Bead
a snake.
/curvet;
Re/Bead name
parameter
point
point embeddedin
a subclass
are
also embedded
is logically
The
a single
constructs
name
bead/\321\201\320\270
rve
ds;
bead,
at the
signed
ring
are a
a ring
serve
Entities
Relational
The
Bead is a
Relative
Arclcngth
signed arclength
offset is from
the
bead,
name
IntBead
point on
a curve
When
ds.
offset
the
at the
of bead,
curve
host
is direclly
\342\226\240
391
specified, rather
than
t = 0.
/bead/curve
mirror/surface point;
The IntersectionBeadis
a
on the curve
designated by bead/curve.
point
the
surface
parallel to
by
implicit cutting
is
mirror/surface
which
a head, its parameter
point. It' bead/curve
passes
through
as the starting value for the iterative
if it is a curve, the
location / is used
search;
where it
intersected
is
at
starts
search
i- .5.
The followingthreering
AbsRing name
Ret
to the corresponding
heads.
/ ringdt;
IntRing name
/ring/snake mirror/surfacepoint;
/ ring/snake]
name
JmRingl
parallel
/snaket;
name
Ring
arc
entities
ring/snake2;
the
intersection
with
Magnets
Each magnet
class entity
AbsMagnet name
The
The
Absolute
Magnet
Ret Magnet
name
Rclalive
Magnet
parameter
offsets
du,
IntMagnet
embedded
in a
surface.
/surface
\320\270
\316\275;
is the
/magnet du
is the
dv
u.
v.
at
dv.
name
/magnet/surface bead/curve;
The Intersection
Magnet
magnet/surface
where
a point
constructs
it is
intersected
is
a point
If
mag\302\267
392
Geometric
Relational
Synthesis
is a
\316\267
el/surface
name
/point
\320\270
at
.5,
for starting
is used
\316\275
position
starts
search
the
Pro/Magnet
its u,
magnet,
search; otherwise
= .5.
\316\275
magnet/surface mirror/surface;
The Projected
is a point
on the surface designated by
the projection
of poinl along a radiant
of mirror/surface.
is
used
is a magnet, its \316\275
for
position
starting values for
Magnet
formed
magnet/surface,
by
magnet/surface
u,
search; otherwisethe
at
starts
search
= .5,
\320\270
If
the
= .5.
\316\275
Curves
An RG
parametric
by
Relabel object,which
performs
Specifying the default relabel,denotedby
natural parameterization.
is a
nominal
However, curves
al any parameter
[0,1]-
be evaluated
division
curve
with a
curve x-x(t)
a parametric
of
range
can
and
is
Line
name
/relabel
point]
an
reparameterization.
curve's default
optional
accepts
*,
the
or
point2;
Arc
Arc
The
/relabel
name
type point]
poind
default
points.The
is uniform
parameterization
/relabel
Conic name
type
point]
and
poinl2
starting
point3
and ending
Helix
is a
depending
semimajor
conic parametervalues
Helix name
The
establish
with
points
point2
\317\201\316\277'\316\271\316\267\316\262;
of sixways(lype
is acirculararcconstructedinone
standard helix.
graph
to arc
respect
three
from
\321\216\320\261)
length.
sO si;
on lype.
poinll
is the
si
t
are
I.
angle;
mirror
is
constant,
radius
the
and
resulting
pitch.
If line
curve is a
The
with
B-Spline
Curve
uniform
knots,
is an
Curve
C-Spline
with
(cubic)
point2 pointN};
/ relabel
name
CCurve
The
name
BCurve
Entities
Relational
FoilCurvename
type
\\,B,(t).
interpolating
/relabel
\316\243
pointN};
parameterization
chord-length
x(r) =
N vertices:
[point!
pointN
point!
symmetric
five
be
full
foil.
cambered
full
name
NURBCurve
pointN
393
/ relabel
....
wt2
poind
wtN J;
supplied by
a KnotList
rational
and N
object,
\320\272
order
with
\320\222-Spline
with
lype
+ 1,
weights
w;.
knots
\\{t)
\316\243\316\275,\317\207\316\262^\316\231\316\243\316\267,\316\222\316\247\316\256.
name
RelCurve
/relabel
The RelativeCurve
fit
new
between
default
of its
endpointsxo,xi:x(()
SubCurve
positions
a copy
point] graph;
The
Xi(l)].
The
is
curvepointO
is
SubCurve
sn and
/ relabel
name
the
The PolyCurve
to the interval
curve
ProcCurvename
in the
the
context,
value
l-
more
or
associated
[0,1] parameter
/ relabel'point
at
beads
this
to the
[0,1].The real
in
bead! bead2;
of a
Si, reparameterized
PolyCurve name
where that
portion
f(t);
curveN
].)
+ isi\\.
j;
curves,
reparameterized
with each curve specifies
space of
the
PolyCurve.
(bead/ring/graph! ....bead/ring/graph
Nj;
394
Geometric
Relational
Synthesis
poinl
which
the
is
locus
over the
in unison
varied
graphs
the
has
generally
Curve
as supportsareevaluated
for any real parameters
at
supports as
supporting
interval
parameter
each
value
parameter
in poinl.
Snakes
class object is a
of
1].
[0, embeddedin
range
An RGSnake
surface
object.
parametric
emphasized
by definition
a snake
that
with a nominal
It needs to be
curve
parametric
a
absolute
dimensional
three-
composition
by
w = (u,v)
in the
location
at this
name
LineSnake
line is constructedin
A straight
magnel2:
w(f)
(1
()
+ t
W[
J magnei2;
magnet
the
parameter
(u,v)
space, from
w2.
The LineSnake
curve
corresponding
CSnake
..../relabel
FoilSnake
...J relabel
name
SubSnake
name
PolySnake
name
....
j ;
magnetN
wl2
wtlma^>net2
/magnetI
snake magnet]magnet2
....
snakes
Pro/Snake
....
name
....
(2 .... snakeNtN
(snakel tl &nake2
/ relabel magnet f bead/ring/graphl
have
/relabel
graph
..../relabel
name
following
magnel/surface,
....magnetN j ;
graphN}
The
magnet i nuignet2
RelSnake
ProcSnake
magnet3
.... magnetN j ;
NURBSNakename
magnetN wtNJ
type j
relabel
.... /
to the
I magne\\2
( magnet
type
I magnei2
magnet
type
..../relabel
name
magnell to
no direct
curve
projection
minor/surface
j\\
bead/ring/
magnet/surface
of curve
for the
mirror/surface;
onto the
projection.
surface identified by
Relational Entities
.... /relabel
name
IntSnake
the
surface
implicit
to
parallel
identify
to magnel).
is closest
end
/relabel
UVSnakename
is a
UVSnake
The
intersection of the
to mirror/surface
three
serves
magnel
magnet mirror/surfacepoint;
is an
Snake
Intersection
The
\342\226\240
395
type
/ = 0
and lo identify
which
end of the IntSnake.
end
magnel;
- constant
parametric line \320\270
or
= constant,
\316\275
according
to
lype.
/relabel
EdgeSnuke name
The
is one
EdgeSnake
surface;
type
surface,
according
to lype.
/relabel magnel]magnet2;
GeoSnake name
The Geodesic
arc from
a geodesic
is
Snake
magnell to magnel2.
Surfaces
class
RGSurface
An
nominal
parametric
is a
range
of [0,t]
unless the
surfacesis Relabel
object,
in the v-direction.
the
Specifying
surface
1.
ordered
an
by
at
(u,v) is a
a position
2. The
curve
master
Each
points
resulting
wilh
extend
master curves.Evaluation
three-stage process:
is evaluated
xf.;' =
at parameter value
1... . ,JVare
! curveI curve!;
of
v.
a lofted
u.
name
surfaces
evaluated
type.
appropriate
3. The lofting
TranSurf
curves,
parameterization.
entities belong
set of curves called
surface
Several
[0.1].
Like
a division
which
\321\205
be
can
in
results
evaluation
object
curve
of
396
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Synthesis
Surface is generated by
The Translation
a\\ongcurvehx(u,v)-\\i(u)
The
x2(v)
curvel
/ relabel
name
but
solves
curve!;
connecting
= (1
x(u,v)
v)
xj(u)
\316\264)]
xj(w
This
developability.
(2,
(il +
ruling\342\200\224which
first
12\342\200\224a
suggested
xz(\"
for
solution
\316\275
\317\207\316\212(\316\272).
curvel
between
surface
ruled
+ \316\275
x2(u
rulings
x(w.v) = (I - v) xt(u + \316\264)
the tangency
condition
(scalar triple product).
+
+ \316\264)
[\317\207,
(\321\213 \316\264) x2(u
6) =
ensures
on
points
corresponding
are skewed:
which
swept
I bead/curve2;
/ bead/curve
name
DevSurf
of curve2,
copy
by revolving
anglel to angle2.
RuledSurf
translated
x2(0).
is generated
Surface
Revolution
name
RevSurf
say),
they
\316\264
requires
and curve2,
-\316\264), where
6(\320\270)
\320\236
iteration.
If the
at \320\270
supply a starting value for \316\264
between
to
select
helps
possible
multiple solutions.
BlendSurfname
/graph!graph!
curve!
curve!
The
\\(u,v) -
- a) Xi(w)+ a x3(
U-(l
the
curves,
= U(h.v)
1 -\320\270)
(l-g)(l-fc)X|(0^^14(l-fl)fc^3f^
supply
graphs
sequence:
boundary
x(h,v)
+ bx2(v)
X=(]-b)X4(\\-v)
The
graphsare
four
curve4;
where:
W(m,v),
W =
the
curve3
the
identities
blending
optional
a(v)-
\316\275,
b(u)-
interpalates
all
functions
\320\270.
If
the
four
of them.
Relational Entities
name
NURBSurf
v-type knotlistl
/u-type
rational
poinls
wtNM j;
pointNM
w;j: x(u,v)
weights
front a
made
surface
B-Spline
with
x(J
knotlist2 \320\277\321\201\320\270
11 will
{ point
\342\226\240
397
\316\243
\316\243
w,t
x(J
\316\222,^\316\222^\316\231\316\243\316\243^\316\275,\316\222^\316\222^,).
The
1 to
/ relabel type
lofted surface is
The B-Spline
It interpolates
\320\241
Loft
The
Surf
C-lofted
pola te
all the
The
is lofted
with C-Spline
master curvesin
type (
is lofted
surface
curveN j ;
curve!
curvel curve2
and
thickness
SweepSurf
curveof bead
is generated
(the
path),
with
by
fifth
are
fourth
and
sweeping
optional
offset3
offset2
parallelsurface.If offsels
bilinearly blended.
are
/surface
given
( point
for
only
the
shape)
(the
is generatedfromthe basesurface
RelSurfname
and
first
Foil-
graph3;
grciph2
graph]
(see
camber.
name
The SweepSurf
inter
sections
airfoil
standard
with
curveN
or five master
curves. The
Curve). There can be three,
four,
the trailing edge, the third is the leadingedge,and the second
control
in
sequence.
/ relabel
Foil-lofted
= \316\243
\317\207(\316\271\316\271,\316\275)
x,(n)
type (curve]
FLoftSurfname
curves:
B-Spline
/relabel
name
surface
with
curveNj
x|V and
and
X]
curve2
(curve]
lofted
same
the
Specified
6.
BLoftSurfname
B,(v).
with circular
is lofted
Surface
Are-lofted
type,
cnrve2 curve3;
type citrvel
/ relabel
name
ALoftSurf
by
offsetting
in the
normal
result is a
corners, the normal offset is
offset
four
} ;
offset4}
1 is
given, the
[ point2 poim3point4jj ;
398
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
surface is a
The Relative
corner
new
Synthesis
poinls.
the (0,0)
bringing
a bilinear
displacement is
x(u,v)
+ (1
it \316\275
[x3-
\320\270
to
that
specifics where
(!-\302\253)
v) [x2 -
uN
surfaceN
more
surfaces,
snake2 ( snakeSsnake4
/{ snake!
the
given,
xft(1.0)]
\316\275
[\317\207*-xft(0.1)]
I ul surface! it2
or
\320\270
(1
translation
parallel
j j
} ;
reparameterized
each
[0.1]. The real value u, associated with
the
surface
ends in
[0,1] if-parameter space of
name
SubSurf
x,(0,0)]
is the concatenation
of two
interval
the
\316\275)
[\317\207,
xft(l.l)]
/ /surface
name
The PolySurf
in
- u) (1 -
span four
and stretched to
are
corner to pointl. If all four corners
blend of the corner displacements:
xb(u,v)
PolySurf
rotated
of surface,
copy
If only
surface
the
PolySurf.
theBlendSurf.
ProcSurf] name
poinl is any
ancestors.
Eire
The
viiricd
in
parameter
beads,
interval
[0,1].
value
curve
kind
rings,
Any
i. and
which
object,
second
The
parameter
magnetN
};
of
curve
ancestors.
supporting
I magne(2
kind
ProcSurfename
curve is any
magnet
kind
first
/point {
bead/ring/graphl
generally
of Procedural
.... bead/ring/graphN
j ;
5olids
=
\317\207
class objectisa parametricsolidhyperpatch
with a
x(u,v,w)
\317\207
nominal
are not currently
Solids
parametric range of [0,1] \317\207
[0,1]
[0.1].
in
the
but
are
a
version of
MultiSurf
in
implemented
product,
development
An RGSolid
Relational Entities
RGKernel.
surface
corresponding
surface2
and
The
Solid
Revolution
to
anglel
by connecting correspondingpoints on
lines: \\{u,v,w) - (1 - w)xl{u,v)
+ w x2(u,v).
is generated
ang!e2.
B-Spline
lofted
BlendSolid
name
solid
surfaceNj;
/relabel
BLoftSolidname
The
to
/ relabel surfacelineangle]angle2;
name
RevSolid
parallel
surface2;
surfacel
is generated
with straight
Solid
Ruled
surfacel
entities.
/ relabel
RuledSolid name
The
construction
supported
Currently
\342\226\240
399
with
\320\252
lofted
curves:
B-Spline
x(u,v,w)
\316\243
\317\207,(\316\272,\316\275)
B{w).
surfacel ....surfaceo;
hexahedral
a topologically
surround
nominally
trilinear
is a
BlendSolid
The
graph! graphs
/graphl
Contours
Each Contourobjectisa
a family
of parallel
Contours
The
distances
cutting
q
set
or
name
surfaces
are implicit
qS + i
spheres.
};
at
signed
XContoursname
YContours name
ZContours name
/first XO
/first YO
/first last
name
last
Xint
last
Yint
( surfaces
Zint
{ surfaces
ZO
cut through
of contours
parallel
= firsl,...
\320\263
j surfaces
to
the
j ;
j ;
j ;
planes; for
coordinate
lasl.
tint
( surfaces
j;
400
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Synthesis
The cutting
i =firs(
(tint,
at
t-
values
parameter
tB
lasl.
Graphs
name/
BGraph
The
the
and
used
for
tN j ;
{ti (2
curves
reparametcrizing
f, =
with
BGraph
special
- 1.
0, f..v
surfaces.
and
values,
and nondecreasing
The parameter
the relabel
through
\316\243/\316\262,(\316\257).
/ type
The Relabelis
fN}
fit)
name
Relabel
\316\262
basis functions
B-Splinc
vertices:
type ( fi
Graph
B-Spline
combination
of
univariate
is a
object
Graph
the
or
\316\275
is
put
or surface
curve
definition.
PolyGraph
The
to
is
PolyGraph
interval
the
il graph!
name/(graphl
the
[0,1].
of two
concatenation
The
real value
the
Each
defines
[0.1 ]
t2
i,
.... graphN1.0} ;
or more graphs,reparameterized
associated
parameter
with
each
space of the
graph
specifies
PolyGraph.
Planes
Plane
class
object
so
parameterized,
they
plane
passes
an infinite
support
/ pointlpoint!;
Plane2name
The
cannot
through
pointl
and is
poin(2
\317\201\316\277'\316\271\316\267\316\262;
point2.
name
P/\320\260\320\277\320\265\320\227
/point!
poinll
to
Detailed
The P|ane3
name
XPIane
points.
/Y;
name
/Z;
These are
three
/X;
YPIane name
\316\226
Plane
the
* 401
Example
coordinate
planes,
at the
specified X, Y, or \316\226
positions.
Frames
Frame
Each
system, used
coordinate
in the
of the
plane
The Euler
Frame
by
frame
constructed
in
is
the
global
of point2,
the direction
anglel angle2
by translating
three
through
\317\207
axis
three points.
/ point
is
rotations
with its
at pointl,
is located
name
12.6
frame
The default
FramePoints.
x.y.z coordinate
orthogonal
right-handed
/point] pomt2point3;
/uilerFrame
followed
local
system.
frame
its \321\203
axis
of
location
for
Frame3 name
This
is a
class object
and
angteS;
a copy of
frame to poinl,
Euler angles.
EXAMPLE
DETAILED
Table
design.
sailing-yacht
The
blended
surface. The
parameter lines
(XContours
bull is a
MCC,
each
- constant
\320\270
through
stations)
visualizing
cabinside
cablnfwd,
surfaces;
is a
model
example
having
surface
are C-Iolted
and
cabin_top
only the
to be displayed. Eleven transverse sections
the model are also displayed for purposes
of
the shapes.
C-lofted
deck
surfaces;
with
four absolute
1. which
causes
curves MCA,
as
points supports.deckalsohas three
three
B-Spline master
MCB.
mas-
402
\342\226\240
Relational
Geometric
Synthesis
Table 12.1
1.08
MulIiSurf
Units: none
50.00
10.00
31.700 6.0235.173
0.0O0 -1.451
0.000
Extents:
View:
\320\236
Places:
BeginModel;
//
3x4
clofl hull,
141
AbsPoinfAl
.000
AbsPointA214 I \320\233
AbsPoint A3 14 \\ J 2.500
1.410;
0.000
0.000 -0.840
0.000 -0.900
AhsPointA4
14
BCurveMCA
jAl A2A3A41:
/ 15.0005.8402.640 ;
14 W 15.0006.0000.540 ;
J 3.000
11 I8x4/i2
14 |
AbsPoint
Bl
AbsPojnl
B2
AbsPoinlB3l4
3.900-1.200
I \316\257
15.000
AbsPoinlB4l4l
\320\233
5.000
BCurve.MCBII
0.000 -1.440
;
Bl B2 \320\222\320\227
B4 ] ;
*2
|
8x4/
AbsPoint
CI 14
1/ 30.0003.5002.760
AbsPoint
C214
3.5001.410
2.500 0.220
30.900
AbsPojnl C3 14 I \320\243
31.700
31.700
AbsPoinlC414 I \320\243
BCurve MCC 111 8x4 /
10
hull
CLoftSurf
0.0OO 0.220 ;
*2
|
CI C2 \320\241\320\227
\320\2414
] ;
| MCA MCB
0 / * 3
10x3
8x2
MCC];
AbsPoinl
liansomt)
14 1/
29.SO00.0003.0(X):
AbsPoint
transoml
14
29.SO0
BCurve
I /
10
lransom_rop
10x1
IiansomO ] :
10
deckjieam
deck_clr)
CLoftSurf
deck 7 1 4x3
transomjop
/ * 2
10x1
10x3 0 / *
nO 13 1
1/
AbsRingrOll
11
8x4
* 2
nO 0.25500
/r0
3 ( Al
deckjieam
deck ;
;
0.42600;
dm2 12 I /
RelMagnet dm3 12 1 /
RelMagncI
r0 41.37000
r0 -0.65000
SubSnakenl 14lSx4/*K)r|
AbsRingr2
3.450;
| Bl deck_mid
j ;
EdgeSnake
RelRingrl
3.450 ;
II
| /n|
0.50000:
0.0 ;
0.03000 ;
Detailed Example
Table
12.1
(Continued)
BSnaki: fp_sidt
LineSnake
11 | 2()x|
11
fp_afl
l| |
RelPoinlrpI
RelPoint rp3 11 1
11
RdPuint
rp5
RelPoint
rp6 11 |
RelPoinr
rp7 11
RelCurve
-0.800OOO.0;
rl
|0xl / * 2
11 |
fp_fwd
0.0 ;
r2 -0.800IX)
RelMagnel dm4 12 I /
RelMagneidm5 121 /
BSn;ikc
* 2
/
10x1
/1()2.000
| K)
|
dm3 ] :
dm2
0.000
/ dm5
-0.200 -0.500
rl
1.400;
0.000 | .800 ;
-0.300
| / r2 0.0000.0001.650;
/ *
11 I l()x|
;
fp_fwd
rpl rp3
*
*
11 I 2()x| / fp_side \320\263\321\200\320\227
;
rop_side
rp5
*
*
;
rop_afr 11 I 10x1 / fp_afl
rp5 rpo
RelCurve
RLiledSiirfcabin.fwd
II
RiiledSurf
II
I 20x1
c;ibin_side
10x1
1x10/*
Ixl
fp_fwd
top_fwd ;
fp_side
rop_side :
RuledSiiifcabiii_aft 11 1 10x1]xl 0
fp_afl
CCurve
lop.clr 11 | |0xl / *2 | rpl rp7 rp6
/ *
BlendSurf
cabin_lop
(lop_hvd
XContours
hull
] ;
rl :
dm5
/ dm3
rop_fwd
RelCurve
\342\226\240
403
deck
RuledSurf
topside
siaiions
14
4x2
top_afl
12 1/0
top_all;
j ;
5x2 0 / * *
lopctr
] ;
10 1.9492.733
\316\225
lid Model;
identicalcurves.
in
three
a similar
adjoining
ruled surfaces
to one
fashion
surfaces.
404
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Synthesis
Figure 12.3
blended
it uses
a ecu
six
rate
Jy
objects.
The
because
three
surfaces
ruled
accurately
as data,
their upper edge curvestopjwd, top_side,
top_aft
each of them. Its fourth side is a three-point
C-Spline
top_ctr,
in the center plane becauseeachof
a zero
vertices
has
exactly
interpolating
its
lies
which
surface
coordinate.
\321\203
and
Exact
relational
1.
surface joins
are accomplishedin
this
model
by three
techniques:
transfinjte
Two
durable
cabin_side
surfaces
to cabinet
a common
sharing
curve as edges,for
example.
op.
12.7
Parametric
APPLICATIONS
Variations
example
An
incvease
\342\226\240
405
Applications
ncctivity
and
relative
the
absolute
as
preserved
further
example
position
of
belongs to an EdgeSnakealong the centerline
edge
deck. Because RelRing rl is relativeto rB, and the several
dm magnets are
relative to these two rings, the entire cabin structure transports intact to a
new locationwhereit continueslo jointhe deck precisely.
Also, rl can be
(see
Figure
12.5). r8
of the cabin.
dragged to changethe length
The parametric handles tend lo be the floating-point
that
various kinds of points.Thishas the advantage
most
which
can be selected and dragged,as in the
visible points
data
of the
preceding
components
of
handles are
examples.
Discretization
example,
and aerodynamic
hydrodynamic
electrostaticand electromagnetic
problems.
The
panels
of
consists
representation
tessellating
the
an assemblage
exposed
of small
discretized
triangular or quadrilateral
surfaces.
Figure
12.4
Example
model
following
of
point
coordinate
a change in the \321\203
B1.
406
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Synthesis
Figure 12.5
the
t parameter
of ring r0.
is partially covered by
provides
way
one
adheres to the
or
more
the exposed
to panelize
other
patches, the
portion
with
SubSurf entity
quadrilateral
curves
edge
mesh
or snakes
that
for
Figure
propeller
12.6
for
Pa nelized
model
potential
flow
of a
analysis.
Applications
407
\342\226\240
on the
one
and
Design
The
ability to
discretizations
invariant
configuration.
it is
in yacht
important
Asinany simulation-based optimal designprocess,
the
to
rather
than
simulate
any particular
subsystem
design
completesystem,
of the following
steps:
(Oliver [1987]). In this casethe simulationconsisted
of geometric
1. Choice
2.
of
Generation
model parameters.
discretized
model.
of AC classrule measurement,
yielding
fluid dynamic (CFD) analysis,
4. Computational
3. Simulation
hydrodynamic
5. Equilibrium
Prediction
and
Program
wind
Race
7.
Simulation
8.
drag,
and
distribution
for
the
for
coefficients
yielding
moments.
wind
areas.
speeds.
course
6.
predicted
lift,
sail
allowable
speeds
wind
speeds.
designs
in the
(Race
of yacbts.
for
the
entire
race series,
yielding win/loss
scries.
single
objective
for
408
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
In a
Synthesis
competition
the
involving
world's
and
Animation
Relational models
mechanically realistic
parameters
having
are
ways
be controlled
can
it
handles,
arbitrary
motions. The integration of physics
unrealistic
powerful
of parametric
a number
with
control programs
course,
Of
robot.
is developed
by programming
a model
Once
scenes.
animated
them to deform in
basis for creating
cause
which
a potentially
may
and
produce
physiology
unphysical
with
or
relational
and possibly
DevelopableSurfaces
shell
as
structures
cutting
and
or riveted
welded
efficient
The
forming
ships
and
processes.
that
metal construction of
airplanes
requires high precision in metal
Fabrication
is greatly simplified when the
flat
sheet
material
is, they can be formedfrom
by
than
with
of in-plane
any
stretching.
bending alone, rather
degree
that
can
MultiSurf provides several surfaceentities
construct
cylinders
and cones, plus the DevSurf
that
entity
generates
explicitly developable
two supporting
curves. Developable surfaces made by any of
surfaces
spanning
can be accurately flattened (developed)onto the plane,with
these methods
their
snakes, and contours intact. Figure12.8is an
magnets,
dependent
are
surfaces
example
Compound
of
this
developable,
capability.
Plate Layout
shell
Similarly, constructionof nondevelopable
(compound-curved)
can
benefit
from
the
structures
features
and
greatly
modeling
precisionof RG.
Applications
12.7
Figure
A relational
potentialof
RG
\342\226\240
409
animation
studies.
plates,eachof
will
which
be
individual
ly
formed
from
a flat
blank by some
Each
is covered
with a Subcompounding process before
plate
is exported to an
Surf. The three-dimensional
of each
SubSurf
simulates
the
auxiliary program
forming
process in reverse, yielding
a flattened outline
accurate
of the blank from
material,
plus
cutting
which
can
of
tools
strain
the
maps
guide
application
assembly.
geometry
which
for
flat
compounding
(Letcher
[1993b]).
410
\342\226\240
Relational
Geometric
Synthesis
lb]
surface
with
model
for
panels,
(b) MSDEV
positions
of stations,
hard-chine
expanded
sailboat
panels
for
made up of 9
hard-chine
sailboat,
Open
12.9 Subdivision
Figure
in Relational
Issues
\342\226\240
411
Geometry
of compound-curvedsurfaceinto individual
for
expansion
plates
and fabrication.
CNC Machining
of
a precise
Numerical-controlled
requires
sculptured
parts
of
for
In
the
RG
the
tool
future.
description
geometry
generating
could well come into use
the
fundamental
standard
for
toolgeometry
NURBS
transmitted
IGES
files are
path generation.Today.
through
the most commonform of part description.
In order to
with
and other applications, RG surfaces
NURBS-based
CAM
be exported
machining
paths.
as
surfaces
communicate
must
in the
NURBS.
form of
Sincemost
RG
in
most
done by
surfaces
cases approximation
least-squares
fitting
are
in fact
not exactly
is required,
to a
tabulated
with
some
representable
loss
by
NURBS,
of accuracy.
This is
a CNC
marine
part derived fro ma MultiSurf model.The part is a custom
for a production
item (a bow chock) designed by Peter
Smith
hardware
Co., Southwest
Harbor, Maine.
power yacht built by the Hinckley
machined
12.8
Logical
OPEN ISSUESIN
RELATIONAL
GEOMETRY
Completeness
the
number
of
years of developmentof RG (1991to 1992),
a long list of entities
grew rapidly, and there was always
implemented
412
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Synthesis
Chock designed in
Figure 12.10
NC
milling
Rendering made
Hydro).
in MultiSurf
with
POV-Ray
by
by
inclusion.Sometimesit appearedthat
population
be exponential
if we
implemented
Dickson
George
Ed Stanley
clamoring for
might
by Peter
dimensions
two
made
the
(Aero-
(AeroHydro).
growth
in entity
be far
away.
The
number
(evidently,
similar
digraph
the
to
structure
of objects
is potentially
Issues
Open
Relational
in
\302\253413
Geometry
languages.
related
of
much
the 1.000- to
beyond
relational
models.
Subroutines
models are
Many
constructions
characterized
having
sometimes
similar,
in the
locations
in different
repeated
by
identical,
sails
of
and highly
Variables,
alternative.
attractive
and Functions
Expressions,
Many entities,particularly
name
Float
the
in
real
It is
numbers.
as
/expression;
can be
of an object on oneor more
numeric
variables
within
the usual dependency relation. Besidesa set
as sine and cosine, some numeric-valued
functions
such
functions
such as Distance( pointl, point2) would beuseful.We have
the dependency
and
represented
of
numeric
of
objects
tentatively
maintained
variables,
implemented
version
of RGKernel.
current
product
Constraint
expressions,
and functions
in
development
in
the
release.
Equations
RG accomplishes
some,
but
typical
With
of
constraint-based
numeric
general
explored.
constraint
variables
and
equation
not
all, of
414
B-Rep
Geometric
\342\226\240
Relational
Synthesis
Solid Modeling
today
is a
boundary
in
surfaces
of edge-face
representation,
comprising
models.
Our current,
solid
b-rep
modeling
Boolean
approach
BFitSurfname
/u-type
nit
Desirableadditionsto
\316\275-type
\316\267
\316\275
tolerance
this
facilitate
surface;
to surface,
fitted surface is a least-squaresapproximation
using
\320\270
and
\316\275
The
and
for
the
directions,
B-Spline
types u-type
v-type
respectively.
number
of control points nit, nv for each direction
can be specified, or if
the
as 0. will start at type+1 and be increased
as
to meet
specified
necessary
on
the
of
fit
the
control
tolerance.
Statistics
and
number
of
specified
quality
the BFitSurf. The fitted
surface
points used are available
by interrogating
The
B-Spline
can
object
be viewed,
trimmed
reached
(unlike
surface,
and
can support
other
is performed.
/ magnet ( snakesj;
name
surface
fitting
other
is the
portion of
the
trimmed
domain,
that
can
be
surface
this entity
\342\226\240
415
Conclusions
to deal
problems
12.9
that
free-form
with
arise
would
and
surfaces,
from
approximation-based
CONCLUSIONS
Relational
encouragesthe captureof
the geometric
a design
is
synthesis
geometric
and
qualitative
the
creation
and
flexibility
and
accuracy
far
modeling,
and
design
animation
arc
and
between
amount of
relationships
the same
in a
conventional
\"dead\"
refinement\342\200\224\"live\" versus
Promisingconnectionsto solid
manufacturing,
static
and
variation
providing
roughly
that permits
CAD
of a relational
model having many eoncombined
with many degrees
properties,
single,
quantitative
framework
beyond
engineering
being developed
surface
modeling,
NURBS-restrieted
analysis,
and explored.
methods.
CNC
This
page
intentionally
left
blank
APPENDIX
VECTORS
In
this
text,
a vector
the
vectors
with
or
segments,
we
which
derive
denote
properties of direction and magnitude or length.
line
boldface, lowercase letters, and visualizethem as a directed
arrows. A vector with zero magnitudeis a null vector, and we denote it by 0
We
(no directionis
The
traditional
for
defined
it).
form is
(A.l)
\321\200=\321\200\320\220+\320\2404+\321\200,\320\272
where
the i,j,k
In general,
vector
\320\261\320\260\321\210
vectors
orthogonal
(see
nor
Figure
of unit
A.l).
representing
displacements in the
the
axes,
x,y,z
x,y,z
along
respectively. A free
vector is not necessarily
with
in
any
space, while \316\206
position
point
vector
or radius vector has its initial point fixedat the origin
so that its
are
to the coordinates
of a point.
components
equivalent
magnitude.
The
p.uP\342\200\236Pz
directions,
where
i, j,
components
\320\272
oeeur
associated
In matrixform,Equation
(A.l)
is
\316\241
\316\241
\316\241 \\\316\241\317\207
\321\203
\320\263]
or,
(A.2)
alternatively,
417
418
\342\226\240
Appendix
P=
p,
\316\241 ['
(\316\221.3)
A
To simplify
the
matrix
P=
is particularly
This
the
component
[-r
\320\243 \316\266]
appropriate
for the
\316\277\316\271
(\316\221.4)
we
the components,now
matrix
the superscript
tensor
form,
interpret
In
we o-mit
form,
as
x,
or
\321\203
z, respectively,
=
\317\207
\320\273'\320\265,
(A.5)
or
simply
\317\207
re.
(A.6)
Vectors
\302\253419
The
in tensor
used
equal.Thus,
positionvectors)are
if
W. R.
aK - bs,
are
vectors
Free
ay
az -
by, and
if and
equal
and
only
then
bz,
or
(or
if their
only
equal
Hamilton
of vector
foundations
analysis-
Two vectors a
index i indicates
of the
repetition
convention
can be
if they
mid-nineteenth
the
in
analysis
to
contributions
century,
the
present
analysis.
Vector Magnitude
The
or norm)
lengih
(also
magnitude
numher
It is
is,
vector p ~[px
pz]
/>v
is the
real
Ipl, where
=
Ipl
that
of a
\317\201 [0
Ipl
(A.7)
Vp2+p2y+pl
> 0.
Furthermore,
Ipl =
0, if and
only
=
if \317\201
0;
Multiplying a vector by
a scalaF
its magnitude.
changes
Thus
kp-_\\
\320\272\321\200
[\320\272\321\200\321\217
kpt
(A.8)
\\kp\\^kVpi+pj+pi
fK
and
If
that
Alpl
of \317\201
is reversed.
of a vector is invariant under rigid-body
is independent of direction.
the direction
< 0,
\320\272
The
\321\207
magnitude
is, magnitude
transformations;
Vector Direction
The
numbers):
direction
cos
of
a, cos
a vector
cos
\316\262,
is given
\316\263
(see
Figure
by its directioncosines(or
direction
A.2).
cos a
P*
= \342\200\224
Ipl
cosp--^-
(A. 10)
420
\342\226\240
Appendix
A.2 Vector
Figure
Since Ipl
vpx+pl
p\\,
direction.
then
\316\241\316\233\\(\302\243\316\224\\(\316\241.\"
so
that
cos2
that
means
This
any two
\316\261
+ cos2
\316\262cos2
1
\316\263=
(\320\220.\320\246)
to
the
determine
of a vector.
direction
Unit Vector
The
its
following
unit
magnitude
equal
to
one;
is useful: If \317\201
is any vector,
then \317\201
denotes
the
direction
of
a
vector
in
is
vectorp
having a
\317\201
convention
notation
Litis
given
by
m\302\243
This
means
that
(a\302\26712)
Vectors
Pv
\316\241\317\207
\342\226\240
421
\320\240\320\263
\320\240\321\203=\302\245' \320\240\320\263~\302\245
\317\201'\316\262\317\212\316\257'
and
|\317\201|= \\/#
+\317\201)+\317\201\\
\\
Obviously
pl+Pi+pi-1
Using Equation
- cos
\316\261
pt
= cos
\316\262
pz
- cos
\316\263
px
that
demonstrates
This
of a
the components
unit
are
vector
also
its direction
cosines.
Basis vectors
In a vector
e, is a
basis if
can express
every vector
vectors and iftheerare
In three-dimensional
Cartesian
vector space any three
linearly
independent.
form
such
a
linearly independentvectorsform a basis. The unit vectors i. j, \320\272
are
0
basis because i = [1 0 0],j = [0 1 0].andk= [0
linearly
1]
of a vector depend on the basischosen,and.in
The
independent.
components
space
in that
of vectors
set
the
the
general,
change
components
if the
we
basis
the
of
combination
basis changes.
VectorAddition
vector
vectors
two
Given
Figure
(sec
difference
Order
This
A
join
of two
+ qx)
[(\317\201*
vectors
means
graphic
the tail
qy
gj,
their
sum is
the
\320\220.\320\227\320\260)
\317\201 Q
The
pz]andq-[qx
pv
\317\201 [px
that vector
interpretation
iPy +
a +
ip,
b +
(A.13)
Figure A.3b)
is (sec
qx)
(Pz + qj]
4.)
(P(
<7v)
then
\321\201
it is
(A. 14)
-<?;))
d =a+
addition is commutative.
is:To add two or more vectors(drawn
head
of the
preceding
as
\321\201
+ b.
arrows),
one. The
422
\342\226\240
Appendix
A.3 Vector
Figure
an
addition.
the tail
arrowfrom
of the
first
vector
to
Scalar Product
The
scalar
product
productsof
their
(or inner
product)
q is
the sum
of the
components:
corresponding
\342\226\240
Q =Pxq,
\316\241
(A.15)
+p>>qy +Pt4z
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
If \317\201
q, then \317\201\317\201
\317\213,
lplz.If \317\201qthey
scalar products ofthe basisvectors
and
i,j,
are
perpendicular.
\320\272
produce
i-i=j-j=k-k
=l
i-j=j-k=k-i
=0
the
The various
following:
(\320\220.16)
i-k-j-Uk-j-O
The
scalar
product written
is
tensornotation
in
(A.17)
p-q=p>q%
where
is
\316\264,*
the
delta, and
Kwnecker
if
j~k
if
j*k
r\\
=
\316\264,1
two
vectors
and
\317\201
(A.18)
q satisfies
\342\226\240
q=
\317\201
Ipllql cosB
so
the following
equation:
(A.19)
that
-cos-'-P-^lpllql
(A.20)
Vectors ,423
The scalar
of
product
in
which
of the coordinatesystem
is independent
vectors
two
are expressed.
they
Vector Product
The
vector
vectors
of two
product
and
\317\201
q is
vector r:
another
(A.21)
pxq-r
where
\320\263
[iP,4z-
Itis
\317\207\317\201\317\201
that
show
to
easy
parallel.
{p*qt- PA')]
if
0. Furthermore,
of the
The expansion
(P,q* - p*qz)
P-Sh)
\317\201 q
also
determinant
following
\317\207=
0, then
produces
(A.22)
q are
and
\317\201
the
vector
product:
q-
px
The
angle
q is
and
\316\270
between
\317\201
Ip
so
xql
'
Px
p.
\317\201,
4x
4i
\320\247\320\263
\320\272
a by-product
sin
-Ipllql
(\316\221.23)
of the vectorproduct:
\316\270
that
- Sin
(A.24)
Ipllql
from
right hand in
hand
pxq.
this
will point
angular
in
the
intuitive
sense
of rotating
into
\317\201
an
Think
direction.
direction
of
pxq
Figure
A.4
Vector
of the
product.
424
\342\226\240
Appendix
Vector
products
of the
i,j.k basisvectorsproduce
ixj^k
jxk-i
(A.25)
kxUj
ixi = jxj
vector
The
A.5).The
area
product
of the
is useful
in
ABC
triangle
=k xk^O
area
the
finding
ol a
is
\320\220\320\263\320\265\320\260\320\224\320\233\320\222\320\241^-1\320\260\321\205\320\253
Triple
(A.26)
Product
The triple
\342\226\240
scalar product \317\201
r given
qx
of
terms
in
a determinant
is
\320\257, \320\252
\316\241\317\207
pqxr
it is
and
An
easy to
alternative
Pr
\320\257.
ry
P;
4z
\320\223;
(A.27)
tensor
is
(A.28)
\317\201\302\2679\316\247\316\223^\316\276,^
where
even
~
Si*
if
Figure
i,(,k is an
A.5 Area
o\"f
odd
of
permutation
other
a triangle
in vector
form.
1,2,3.
Vectors
The
vector product
triple
yields
= (p-r)q-(p-q)r
px(qxr)
the
where
of
result
\342\226\240
425
the plane of
lies in
\317\201
x(qxr)
(A.29)
q and r.
VectorProjection
scalar
The
s of
projection
q is
onto
\317\201
s ~P
The
vector
of
\316\275
projection
\"
TT
\\\\q\\
onto
\317\201
A.6)
(see Figure
'
q is
Ipl cos
(A.30)
\316\270
(see Figure
A.7)
(A.31)
Vector
of
Equation
The vector
Figure
(see
a Line
in component
-Xi,
z(u)=z0
if
(see
Figure
is
\320\270
e
[0,1].
(A.32)
+ Utx
(A.33)
utt
then
(A\302\26734)
p(\=pa") + \"(pi-po)
Equation
(A.34) defines a line segmentfrom p0 to p,
A.9).
If q(iv) = qt,
+ ut
form is
alternative
where
to vector
form,
X(l<)
An
parallel
A.8)
p(u)=p0
or,
and
p\302\273
point
+ ws
and
\302\273q
Figure
A.6
Scalar
projection.
p0
and
are
q\302\273
parallel.
426
\342\226\240
Appendix
*-q
Vector projection.
Figure A.7
Figure
A.B
Vector
equation
of a
line.
Pi
^IP,-Pol
,P|u|
Figure
A.9 Vector
Vectors \342\226\240
427
Vector
of a
Equation
Plane
p(f/,w)
with the
condition s \317\210
kt.
In
+ lis
p\342\200\236
ya +
\321\203
unit
normal
\316\256
to
the
plane
is the
is
(A.36)
+ wtz
vector product
ft-Sxi
Thrcenoncollincar
plane(see
Figure
A.
unit
normal
for
are also
(A.37)
11). Thus,
p(u,w)
The
p0,p,.p2
points
to two
(A.35)
\320\270,\321\207\321\203
wt,
+ Us,
\316\266-\316\226\316\261
The
+ wt
form this
component
parallel
this
= p0 +
ff(pi
formulation
po) +
w(p2
- pi)
(A.38)
is
(P)-Pfl)x(p2-Pi)
(A.39)
!(\316\241\316\271
-\316\241\316\277)\317\207(\316\2412-\316\241\316\271)\316\231
Figure
A.10
Vector
equation
of a plane.
428
\342\226\240
Appendix
Figure
Vector Equation of a
One
way
point
such
on the
\317\201
a plane is
d is
plane
points.
Form
Normal
that
noncolljnear
three
containing
plane
Plane:
to define
point on it
any
A.11
by
to the
perpendicular
must satisfy
d from
a vector
specifying
the origin to a
Then
plane (see FigureA.12).
(A.40)
(p-d)-<U0
Expanding
this
produces
equation
(x
ds)ds +iy-
dy)dy
(z-
d7)dz =
or
dtx
Figure
A.12
dyy +
Vector
dzz
- (d\\ + d] +
equation
of a
d\\)
\320\236
plane: normalform.
(\320\220.41)
Vectors
\342\226\240
42 9
d1
Because
d\\
dj
A,4l reduces
Equation
cos
cos a,
cos
\316\262,
\316\261
cos
djd,
and
\316\262 djd,
cos
then
\316\263 djd,
to
\317\207
cos
where
+ d2?,cos
\316\261
+ \321\203
cos
are
\316\263
+
cos
\316\262\316\266
(A
42)
of d.
cosines
direction
the
-0
- d
Solution of VectorEquations
The
vector
equations
lib + wc
a +
equation
in
unknowns:
three
- d+
fe
of three linear
form
these
component
equations
it,
a system
represents
w, and t. In
are
as
+ wcx =
+ ubs
\320\260
+ ub
\321\203
az +
lib; + wc7
(b x
Because
this
equation
\317\207 \342\226\240
a =
for
method
(b
c)
+p
+ r)
+
\317\201 (q
3. *(/p)
kip
- (p +
q)
\317\207 \342\226\240
e
c)
+ r
c)
and
expressions for \320\270
d
e)
\317\207
\317\207 \342\226\240
d
c)
\342\226\240
\317\207
(c
\317\207 \342\226\240
a
e)
\317\207 \342\226\240
b
e)
\342\226\240
e)
and
Given vectors p, q, r and scalars\320\272
2.
(b
(b
\317\207 \342\226\240
a
e)
\317\207 \342\226\240
\321\201
e)
Properties
+ q^q
each
\317\207 \342\226\240
e
(b
1. p
(fb
\317\207 \342\226\240
a
(c
of Vector
isolating
c, then
and
yields similar
(c
Summary
by
\342\226\240
(b \317\207
c)
(d + te)
c)
(b
this
produces
(b
Continuing
+ Iez
\317\207 \342\226\240
d +
(b
c)
+ tey
follows:
wc) -
ub +
(a
dy
and
u, w,
c) is perpendicularto both
(b
Solving
for
+ tex
-dz
\317\207 as
\321\201)
\342\226\240
+
(bxc)
y + wcy
dx
/, then
w:
in turn.
For
430
\342\226\240
Appendix
4.
+ Op
(\320\272
5. k(p + q)
6. pp-lplz
kp +
kp +
/p
kq
7. p-rrr-p
8.
9.
10.
\317\204\317\201
cos
Ipllrl
\342\226\240
+ q)
(\320\263
\317\201
(kp)-r^p-(kr)=k(p-r)
11. If
\342\226\240
r-0,
\317\201
12. If \317\201 q
\317\207 =
they
r, then
'
13.
\316\270
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\320\263
+ \317\201
q
\317\201
are perpendicular.
\320\263
is
perpendicular
\320\272
x \320\263 \321\200\321\205
\317\201, \317\201\316\266
\317\201
\320\247\321\205
\320\257\320\263.
\320\247\321\203
14.
15.
\321\200\321\205\320\263^-(\320\263\321\205\321\200)
px(q
+ r)=pxq
16.
(\320\272\321\200)
17.
If
18.
\317\207^\320\263
0
\317\201\317\201
+ pxr
\317\207
\320\263
\317\207
\317\207
\320\263)
\317\201 (\320\272\320\263)
\320\272(\321\200
=
\320\263
\321\200\321\2050,
they
are parallel.
to both
and
\317\201
q.
APPENDIX
\320\222
MATRICES
is a
matrix
in m
arranged
a21
\"21
\320\26431 a31
where
aif
is
element
matrix
the
of
matrix
[1: n].
value
nonzero
is the
means
that
\320\222
if
/th
the
in
is of
largest
\"23
\"21
a33
aiA
row
determines
columns
\316\267
columns
the
order
\317\207
\320\277.
Then
square submatrix
/ e
of a matrix. A
[1 : m] and / e
whose determinanthas
A and
matrices
Two
and
of
order
The
and
alA
an
an
\302\253\320\270
A^
elements
mathematical
\320\222
are
if corresponding
equal
\320\260\321\206
b,j for all
i,
elements are
equal. This
/.
and
refined
is a
the
algebra
of matrices.
431
432
Special
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\222
Matrices
A
(he
on
except
\"\320\237
= 0 if /
matrix.
or
identity
has
that
\321\217\321\202\320\260
the \320\264\320\263\320\263
are
equal,
matrix
diagonal
matrix
unit
*/. If all
0
\320\2607\320\263
Thus,flfj
matrix
diagonal
fljj
the diagonal
then
elements
unit
the
on
matrix is a scalar
is a
main diagonal
matrix:
0
1
\"1
0 =%
0 1
delta.
where, again,6,y is the Kronecker
A square matrix whoseelementsare symmetrical
is a symmetricmatrix, so thai atj - ey/. For example,
A=
\"5
\316\212
about
the main
diagonal
4 -2_
or skew symmetricif \321\211
-a)V For example,
1
matrix
square
is antisymmetric
0 -9
A= 9
-1
where
implies
\321\211 ~\316\261\316\274
A null matrix,
0_
ati = 0.
(hat
denoted
-3\"
by
0,
is one
whose elements
MatrixTranspose
(he
Interchanging
For example,
rows
and
of a
columns
3
A^
3
then
matrix A
if
-1 -2
produces
its iranspose
A'.
Matrices
0-3
3
A'-
-1
2-2
matrix
and
(AAT)r=AAT.
have a transpose,
matrices
All
\342\226\240
433
is a
its transpose
symmetric matrix,that
if
is.
\320\222
[\317\207\321\203\316\266],
then
/\342\226\240_
\320\222
Matrix
Addition
lwo matrices A
Adding
or
of
A and
\316\261,, \316\260,\317\212c,r
\320\222
must
as the
order
same
the
elements
Thus
equal
the same
of
\320\241
whose
ate
elements
+ B= C,
B. Thus, A
A and
original matrices.
matrices
and
\320\222
is
matrix
another
D whose
difference
Multiplication
Multiplying
order
same
Matrix
produces
be of
matrix
a third
\320\222
= D,
\320\222
and
equal to the
\320\222
of
=
ka,t
the
b,r
Multiplication
= C. il'and
if the
to the number of rows of B, in
only
x
A and \320\222
\316\267
\320\222
is \317\200
case
are
If A is of order m \317\207
and
which
\317\201,
conformable:
A.
\320\241
and
\320\222
then
is m xp.
In this example. A premultiplies \320\222
postmultiplies
S =
Given
and
matrices \316\241
M, with R - MP (where \316\234
premultiplies
P). and
PM (where \316\234postmultiplies
R \316\250
for the
S, except
P), then in general
Multiplying
identity
matrix,
a third
matrix
C. AB
where
= \316\231\316\221
\316\221\316\231
The
product
of two
matrices defined
in
terms
(\316\222.1)
of their
elements
is
434
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\222
\320\260>\320\272\320\254\320\272
\321\201\321\207=\316\243
where
of columns
number
\320\273
is cqualtothe
(\320\222.2)
and
\320\222
such
all
elements
that
\316\221
\316\222
\317\210
\317\210
\316\237,
0, but
of
B.
AB =
are zero.
Matrices
Partitioned
It is often computationallyconvenient
and to treat it
to
partition
elements
whose
a matrix
as
Thus
\320\274\342\200\236
\320\2741\320\263
\316\234
22
M71
where
similarly
number
of
columns
similarly
(and
A =
+
M21
must
\320\234]2and
matrices must
Al; and
an
be
(and
the same
if
\316\2122
\"13
\320\222
B27
12\"23
Bnl
B,then
A2I
the
example,
b,,b12b
A22 A23
+ \320\222\321\206
+
\320\220\321\206
Ai2
Hereis
For
M22).
It
\321\201-
where
have
necessarily
\320\220\321\206
\320\220\320\277
\320\22013
A2i
and C=A
for
B,; are
conformable
\320\222
23
conformable.
matrices.The
before and after partitioning.
of partitioned
for multiplication
flu
au
a\342\200\236
=
+ Bi3
of the multiplication
example
+ B2I
Bl2 Au
nlA
\321\21715
\321\2172\320\220
\320\2602\321\212
\320\220\321\206
\316\22112 \316\221\316\267
\320\224\320\2674
\321\2173| \320\260\321\2121
\320\260\321\212\321\212
\320\260\321\212\321\212
'21
'22
\320\247\320\267
\"\316\256 \"\316\2125
\"\342\226\24011
\"\316\2122^\320\220\321\202,
\316\222
bu
\320\254\320\277
\320\254\320\270
b2i
\320\254-22\321\21423
bu
\320\254\320\277
\320\254\321\205\320\222?| \320\23022
\320\222,,
\320\222]2
\320\252* \321\214#
\320\254\320\220\\
LB3i
B,2J
\320\254\321\212\320\263
\321\214\321\217
\320\254\320\273
AB
\342\226\240+
+ \316\22112\316\22221
+ Al2B22
\316\221,\316\271\316\222,\316\271
\320\220\321\206\320\222\320\273
\320\220\320\237\320\22212
+ \\ZZR2,
.\316\221\316\226(\316\222((
+ AaB3J
\316\221\316\267\316\22232\"
+ \320\220\320\260\320\222\320\267\320\263
A;,B,2 + \320\220\320\263\320\267\320\222\320\260
.435
Matrices
the products
Determining
Matrix
Ai2B2i,.
\320\220\320\274\320\222\321\206,
the indicatedsumscompletesthis
and
.,
so forth,
and performing
computation.
Inversion
of a square matrix A
The inverse
is
and its
matrix
A\"1. A
inverse satisfy
the
conditions
AA\"1 =
The elementsof
are
A\"1
A-'A = I
(B.3)
where
<?ry,
\316\227\316\223'\316\212\316\221,'\316\231
(B.4)
\321\211-=\316\231\316\221
I
the determinant of
IA;;i denotes
where
A;).
Scalar
and
exists, then
IAI
the (n - 1) x (n
A (note
i from
column
derived
1) matrix
*0.
Vector Products
and
If row matrices\316\241
=
Q
q2
[q,
p3],and
the vectors
represent
scalar
the
<?3],then
and
\317\201
product
of the
q where
=
\316\241
[pi
pi
vectors is
p-q = PQr
(B.5)
where
PQT
Using
the
= \316\241\316\2714\316\273+\316\241\316\2714\316\271+\316\241\316\2574\316\271
(B.6)
[PiP2P3]
of
components
then a matrix
form
to
\317\201
represents
multiplication
Pj
-p3
Pi
-p,
~Pi Pi
matrix,
q:
\302\260
and
0
pxq
Pi
\320\247\\
-\320\240\321\212
\321\200\320\263
\320\270 -\316\241\\
'\320\240\320\263
\316\241,
\320\270
\320\247\320\263
\320\257\320\272
(\320\222.7)
436
\342\226\240
\320\222
Appendix
and
Eigenvalues
Eigenvectors
p' = Ap
The expression
where
transformed
point
it is possible to
is the
p'
conditions
certain
(he
represents
transformation
general
of a
point p,
(\316\222.
8)
\316\273\317\201
of A, and \316\273
is true is an eigenvector
is the
to
A
an
Matrix
sends
eigenvector into a
corresponding
p.
and
is
collinearvector,
the corresponding
eigenvalue
equal to the ratio of the
of the two collinear vectors.
magnitudes
Every
vector
eigenvalue
of
to
(\316\221-\316\273\316\231)\317\201=0
This
solutions if \317\201
*0
equation
(\316\222.9)
and
\316\231\316\221-\316\273\316\231\316\231=0
of Matrix
Summary
1.
of
A.
B+A
2. A + (B +
(A +
jfcA
+ kB
C)
3.
jfc(A +
4.
(A +/)A = AA
5.
Properties
B =
equation? and
characteristic
is the
This
(\316\222.10)
B)
= (kl)A
k(!A)
+ \320\241
\320\222)
+/A
= l(kA)
6. (AB)C=A(BC)
7. A(B+ C)
8.
9.
IB.
11.
(A
BC
=
\316\221(\316\273\316\222)=\316\273\316\221\316\222
(*\316\221)\316\222
+ \320\222)\320\223=\320\220\320\223
+ \320\222\320\223
(\320\220
= kAT
(kA)T
12. (AB)T
13.
AB+AC
+ B)C = AC
If AA\"1
= B7A7'
= I and
A_1A
I, then
A is
singular.
is orthogonal.
A is
nonsingular.
Determinants
A determinant
following
isa squarearray
a well-defined
of
procedure.
elements
that
Determinants
reduces
to a single value by
Matrices
\342\226\240
437
matrix
not
and
a determinant,
However,
operations.
If
\302\25311 \302\25312
A^
<721
\302\25322
then
|A|
flu
\302\25312
<7ll<722-\302\253l2ib
fl22
If
\302\25311 Ol2
A =
fl2l
<722
<73l
\320\25732
then
IA1 =
The
\321\201\320\276
factor
\302\25312
\302\253\320\270
\302\253:: \302\253\320\270
\302\253\316\220\316\220
\302\253\320\270
+ \320\260\320\277
\316\262\316\271,
~\302\253I2
\302\25331 \320\247\321\212\321\212
a-si
\302\25333
\302\25331 \302\25332
of element
aif
of
cr/
where 1A,JI
the
denotes
(-i)'\"+'iA,;i
- 1) \317\207
(n
of Ihe (n
determinant
IAI is
determinant
from
derived
1) matrix
A.
Properties
determinant of a squarematrix
1. The
transpose:
IAI
2. Interchanging
If we obtain
3.
any two
\320\222
by
If two
is
to the
equal
determinant
of its
= 1A71.
rows (or
multiplying
columns) of A
one
are
of
row (or
the sign
A changes
column) of A
identical,
then
IAI =
by
of
IAI.
a constant
c,
0.
of A
A by adding
a multiple of one row (or column)
from
5. If we derive \320\222
=
of
then
IAI.
to another
row (or column)
IBI
A,
\317\207
of their product
both
\316\267
\316\267
then
6. If A and \320\222
are
the determinant
matrices,
islABI=
7.
If every
determinant
IAHBI.
element
is
zero.
of a
is zero,
then
the value
of the
This
page
intentionally
left
blank
APPENDIX
\320\241
TRANSFORMATIONS
define
we
Once
are
transformations
Geometric
a curve,
surface, or solid, we
meet
to
us to changethe
position,
Linear
and projective
translations
equations
of
a more
it. duplicate
it. and
model construction or
move
can
complex
allows
would
impossible,to achieve.
are
transformations
of
refined
be tedious, if not
otherwise
homogeneous
more
an integral
the
focus of this
chapter.
transformations, they
are
With
given
the
of
exception
by linear
the form
x' = a, ,x +
+<*\\?,Z
\320\260\320\2632\321\203
y'
\342\226\240= \320\273\320\273\316\261->\316\273\317\207
\316\261-\317\207\316\266
\320\260-\321\217\321\203
z'
= ayix
+ a^y
+ al2Z
restores
the
homogeneous
character
of these
equations.
transformations
property
by the
is one
that
invariancc
does
not
439
440
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\241
that
one
change,
transformation.
translations
and
transformations.
parallellines.
angle,area,
For
is preserved
The rigid-body
or
An isotropic
so on).
and
volume,
dilation
uniform
(scaling)
Nonuniform,
properties.
lines
restrictive
brings
and
stretching,
linear
another
preserved.
in part
these
addressed
We
as well
dilation,
anisotropic
parallel
least
parallels. This
not
transformation,
the
other
metric
in
10.
Chapter
scaling
other
geometric
'Die transformations
symmetry,
sequential
multiple
and
many
Mortenson
see
theory,
transformations,
and group
including symmetry
(1995).
tangent
defined by a
The Bezier
and B-Splinecurves
set of controlpoints.We
know
already
and
surfaces
that
Bezier
are
that
and
simply
and B-Spline
this
while
invariant,
a Bezier
Hermite
We
transformthe model
think of transformationsas
really just mappingsof
within
fixed
when
we use
space to produce a
then it is
Each
Cartesian
use
act on
and
There
is
a transformation
explicitly
is, we
to sweep air
is
the
incorporate
idea
it
into
element
of a
the
through
its
specie of
equations.
representations.
We
we
imposed.
That
sense.
active
coordinate
higher-order element
and
obvious
transformation
in an
accomplishing
functions.
trajectory. Only
particular
441
\342\226\240
Translation
in
coordinates
homogeneous
by a
space
transformations
sequential
that
+ 1
vector of \316\267
represent a point
the
by
coordinates
homogeneous
three-component
by
the
four-component
[x
\321\203z]T,
vector
[x
and homogeneous
Cartesian
coordinates, we
Cartesian
In ordinary
vector
components.
in
and
The
\321\203\316\266h\\r.
hx
hy
hz
These
equations, of
C.I
the
[x
point
from
we use
things
mplify
the
earlier
[x
discussion
\321\203\316\2661J'
of
to
\321\203z\\r.
TRANSLATION
of a point is given by
The translation
y'
= y +
z' =
where
and
t\342\200\236
ty,
preserves
the
size
z + tz
of the
components
f; represent
and
shape of an
(CI)
ty
translation. Translation
therefore,
one
of the
rigid-body
transformations.
that
Tlie rigid-body translationof a geometric
every
objectrequires
point
a
distance
in
a
direction
(see Figure CI).
equally given
given
This meansthat we may specify a translation by a vector I so that
on it moves
p'
The
prime
mark
form we write
denotes a
p+
these
In
purely
matrix
this as
P' = P+T
Expanding
(C.2)
matrices
produces
(C3)
442
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\241
of a
Translation
Figured
x'
\317\207
tx
\320\243
+
\320\243
\316\266'
\316\266
h
tz
curve.
x +
h
y + 1,
z
If we
vectors
and
convention
matrices
as we
of treating
(C4)
+ tz
our
(C.3) as
p' = p +
(C.5)
equivalent
p + li
+ l2+
=p
its vector
Thus,
+l\342\200\236
+ 2>
i
Vector
to
to
p'
transformations.
For
equivalent
geometry
example,
if the
(C.6)
= I
then
\320\275\320\260,
its
Translation
translation
bylisp'(ti)
=
+ wb.
is \321\200(\320\270,\320\270\320\236
pu + \302\253a
+
(p(l + l)
I. Similarly,if a plane
=
is p'(ii)
(p0 + I) + \"a + wb, or
=
or p'(u)
ua,
its translation
then
\342\226\240
443
p(u) +
1.
\321\200'(\321\213,\320\270>)=\321\200(\320\270,\320\270>)
not necessary
It is
the
translate
to
sufficient
or surface. To
curve
matrix of
or
to translate every point on a curve
control points, from which we can then
=
\316\244
For
a new
generate
must
its
transform
geometric coefficients.
Thus,
B'
where
we
It is
surface.
[I
a bicubic
\320\222
+ \316\244
(C.7)
0]r.
Hermite patch we
ha-ve,
the
again,
general
form
= \316\222
\316\222'
+ \316\244,
now
but
T =
110
1(00
0 0 0
the
and
(C.8)
tangent
and twist
vectors are
unaffected.
For
for
curves
Bezier
curve
or surface
we translate
(.Thus,
we have
\317\201'(\302\253)=\316\243(\316\241'+\316\277^(\
/ = o
(C.9)
Xp;bju)
i
and
= ()
for surfaces
Vr(u,w)
=\316\243
i (l
\316\243(\316\241*
/\"= (1
')
B\302\253M
Mw)
(CIO)
/
= o
/=o
the
same
way,by
translating
the
444
C.2
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\241
IN THE
ROTATION
PLANE
about
\317\206
the
rotationof
circumference of a circlecenteredat
in
preserved
find
a rigid-body
(or
point
vector)
and
Figure C.2. Because\317\201
is shown in
origin
the
and
origin
Ipl
p'
lie on
the
Ip'l (distance is
from elementary
transformation),
an
through
\317\201
trigonometry
we
that
Furthermore,
cos
= cos
cos
+ \317\206)
(\317\211
sin
+ \317\206)
(\317\211
= sin
o = je/lpl
and
sin
\317\211
cos
+ cos
\317\206
\317\211
cos
ro =
- sin
\317\206
\317\211
sin
\317\206
\317\211
sin
\317\206
j'/lpl,so that
substitution yields
\317\207
cos
\317\204'
\316\275
= ^\342\200\224
= \342\200\224-\321\201\320\276\321\217
+ \317\206)
(\317\211
-rrsin
\317\206
Ipl
sin
-*--
simplifies
Ipl
\317\206
Ipl
=-2\342\200\224=\342\200\224-sin +
+ \317\206)
(\317\211
\317\206
Ipl
which
Ipl
cos
\317\206
Ipl
to
\317\206
(\320\241\320\237)
=x
\321\203'
Figure
C.2
sin
Rotating
\321\204
+ycos
about the
a point
\316\266
axis.
\317\206
or vector
form this
matrix
In
the rotation
R is
cos
sin
the convention of
will use
\317\206
(C.13)
cos
\317\206
\317\206
the
the Origin
about
Rotations
Successive
\317\206 -sin
IRI = 1 is
that
Notice
matrix.
transformation
(C.12)
Rp
R
We
445
\342\226\240
equation becomes
p' =
where
plane
in the
Rotation
rotations
successive
and
of
\317\206\316\271
\317\2062
about
a point
the origin
is given by
p'
R e,R
(ij:
cos
cos
\317\206\316\271
\317\206,- sin
sin
\317\206]
R^R^!
which
us that for
tells
followed
\317\206\316\271
sin
\317\206^
\317\2062
R (*1+\320\2442
+ The
order
example.
in
the
plane
in space,
results.
-sin
+ cos \317\206\316\271
cos
sin \321\204\320\267
\317\2062
\317\206\316\271
the
in
plane
in the
sum
resulting
this
to the
\317\2062
the origin
matrix
rotation
about
product of
we
of
\316\267
successive
or
\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240
+
+
+ \317\206\342\200\236)
-sin
(\317\206, \317\2062
cos
+
+ \317\2062
(\317\206,
sin
-t- \342\226\240\342\226\240
+ \317\206\342\200\236)
+ \317\2062
cos
(\317\206!
'
+\320\244;\320\263)
sin
\317\206]
cos
\317\2062
\317\206\316\271
(C.15)
successive rotations
the origin,
- cos
-sin
(\317\206,+\321\204\320\263)COS^+\321\204\320\263)
We
about
matrix
order.The
that
-Sin^+\317\206;,)
COS^+\321\204\320\263)
Sin
in
\317\2062.
wc find
identities
by
+ sin \317\206\316\220|
cos
\321\2042
\321\204\320\263
trigonometric
elementary
Using
(CM)
RA,p
- +
\317\206\342\200\236)
(C.16)
+ \342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240
+ \317\2062
+ \317\206\342\200\236)
(\317\206\316\271
in which
R^R0l
about
different
orders
produce
different
446
Rotation
\342\226\240
\320\241
Appendix
an
about
Arbitrary
A rotation R
about an arbitrary
combination
as
cumbersome
the plane
requires first a
origin.Next,
=-prthat
and
then
p'
The
p(. in
point
translation li
rotation
Point
we
obtaining
R(p-pf)
the
execute
(C.17)
pL
becomes
see
will
that
workable
more
Given
vector
equations
and plane, we
of aline
them
about
+ iiRa
Line:
\321\200'(\320\275)
Rp0
p'(u,w) = Rp0
Plane:
+ iiRa
the
as
transforms
attention
to how
we
let
Pi
X,
\320\243\\
pa
x'6
\320\243\320\247
\320\253
\316\241\316\252-
a rotation
some
(C.19)
*o
pn
coefficients
(C.18)
+ wRb
Then
rotate
follows:
origin as
the curve
(C20)
yU
follows:
B' =
RB
(C.21)
p'(u)
For a
Bezier curve, we
rotate
UMRB
the
set of
= UMB'
conlrol points,
p; = rp(
(C.22)
so that
(C.23)
and
p'(\=Zp^m(\")")
= 0
\320\263
(C24)
Coordinate
447
Rotation
5ystem
the coordinates
compute
coordinate
coordinate
R*
so
to
leads
and
system,
cos
-sin
(-\321\204\321\201)
sin
cos
(-\321\204\321\201)
cos
(-\317\206,.)
(-\321\204\321\201)
sin
\321\204\321\201
-sin
\321\204\302\243
(C.25)
\321\204\321\201
\321\201\320\276\321\214\321\204\321\201
that
(C.26)
Rd
We
see
also
that
= R^
R, = R[
C.3
ABOUT THE
IN SPACE
ROTATION
in
Rotations
plane. We let
respectively,
of
space
a fixed
view, where
global
PRINCIPALAXES
are more
and
\316\270,
\317\210,
(C.27)
about
rotations
denote
\317\206
objects
geometric
the x,
we are taking
frame. Remember,
are
the
\317\207
sin
sin
\317\206\321\203
+ \321\203
cos
\317\206
the
\316\266
axes,
active
repositioned
in
rotations
and
\321\203
point of
in a fixed
because
simply
it looks
expand
\317\206
\317\206
(C28)
\316\266'=\316\266
and
make
appropriate
changes
to the
cos
R*=l
\317\206 -sin
sin
sind> \317\206
The
rotation
matrices
for the
\317\207
and
\317\206 \317\213
cosd>\317\2060Ol
cos
axes
\321\203
are
(G29)
simple
extensions,namely
448
\320\241
\342\226\240
Appendix
10
\317\210 -sin
\317\213cos
R,
sin
(C30)
\317\210
cos
\317\210
\317\210
and
\316\2700
-sin
it is
Obviously,
SuccessiveRotationsaboutthe
\316\270
(C31)
\316\270 \317\213cos
IRJ
IRVI
\316\270
= IRJ
= 1.
Axes
Principal
use successive
can
We
sin
cos
Rf
three
to
axes
principal
it is
However,
place a geometric object into any orientation.
important
we establish a convention for doing this, because
it turns
out that, for
successive rotations
in space,
order is important. Here is the first
convention
that
we
will use:
1. First,
2.
3.
if
Next,
axis.
about the \316\266
by R0 about they axis.
by Ra
rotate
\317\206
*0,
if
rotate
\316\270
*0.
if \317\210*0, rotate
Finally,
this
Using
by Ry
about
to rotate
convention
the
\317\207
axis.
a point we have
(C32)
The expanded
of
product
cos\316\270
cos
+ sin
cos \317\210
sin \317\206
R, .|\316\220\316\262\317\210:
sin
sin
\317\210
\317\206
cos
A different
We
that
three
-cos
\317\206
rotation
matrices is
\316\270
sin \317\206
\317\206sin
sine
sin \316\271-sin
\316\270
sin
\317\210
\316\270
cos
\316\271cos
co-s
\317\210
sin
\317\210
\316\270
cos
\316\271sin
sin \316\271
cos
sin \316\270
\317\210
\321\201\320\276\320\267\321\204+
\317\210
sin
\317\210
cos
an entirely
different
yields
we can use
IRJ = |RVI = IRel = l,and
=
raises the following comment
1. This
\316\231\316\232\316\275\316\270\317\206\316\231
kn0w
of rotations
sequence
will
IRI = 1
\302\261
e. The
the
errors,
and,
sine
of
it
no
deviation
and
course,
is
cos
\316\270
cos
\317\210
\316\270
\317\210
(C33)
product matrix.
matrixalgebrato
and caution:
that
rotation matrix
computing
these
unavoidable
that
the determinant
After
show
of the resultant
longer
equal
on the
in
Rolalion
will produce
equivalent
Rotation
product. In
non-rigid-body
to the final
ing
Coordinate
Axes
the absenceofcorrective
this
measures,
transformations and incorrectvalues
\342\226\240
449
deviation
for
System
or
components
to
the initial
of
we
which
in a
a vector
a point
rotation a succession of
rotated
by
the
Rotating
coordinate
point or vectorby
Rotating
the
by
system
and
order,
has
the
\321\204\321\201
a coordinate
axes leads
system
to their
final
\317\206-\321\204\321\201.
about
\321\204\321\201
z' axis
and
in that
\321\204\321\201,
\316\230\316\225,
\317\210\316\225,
under
but
transformed
and
original
C.3 shows
Figure
position.
while
Ihe Principal
aboul
rotations.
of the
are
Space
the
remains
\316\266
axis
the
displaces
coincident
the
with
\317\207
and
axes
\321\203
initial
to the
axis.The
\316\266
x' and
next
/ axes,
rotation,
the y\"
the y' axis,displaces
leaves
the
x' and z' axes to x\"and z\" and
with the y' axis. The final rotation,\317\210\316\225
the x\" axis,
axis
coincident
about
and
axes
and
x'\"axis
fixedand
the
z\"
to
the
/'
/\"
z\"', leaving
displaces
the
as
the x\" axis. We denote the first
as \320\232(\321\204\321\201),
coincident with
second
rotation
=
the third as \316\232(\317\210().
with
\316\230\316\225,
\317\206
Letting
\316\232(\317\206\316\223,
R(6C),and
\317\210,.) \320\235(\321\207\320\263\321\201)\320\235(\320\265\321\201)\320\2
0C about
=
=
and
we
=-\317\206,, \316\270~\320\262\342\200\236
\317\210 -\317\210,,
find
from
Equation
coordinate
system.
(C33)
450
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\241
\316\262(\316\246<-\316\221,\317\210\316\223)
cos
cos
-cos
sin
sin
\317\210,
cos
\316\270,
+ cos \317\210,,
sin
\321\204\320\263
As
we
nor the
cos
\321\204\320\263
+ sin \317\210,
sin
\321\204\320\263
sin
\317\210^
might
cos
\316\270,cos
\316\270,
cos
\342\200\224sin
\317\210,
\317\206,
it turns
expect,
inverse of
this assertion.Thus,
R;1
\316\270,
algebra
Rj RJ \320\251=
suffices
[R4
Re
(C34)
cos \316\230\316\223
\317\210\316\223
the transpose
is neither
\320\255\321\201,
\320\232(\321\204\321\201,
\317\210\316\225)
matrix
R^' =
Ri'
-sin
sin \317\210\302\243
cos \316\270,
\321\204\320\263
+ cos \317\210\302\243
sin \316\230\316\223
cos
sin \317\206,,
\317\206\302\243
out that
\316\270,
(\317\206,
\317\210).
Simple
\316\270,,
\316\232(\316\246\316\277
\317\210.)
sin \317\206,
\316\230\316\223
cos
+ sin \317\210\316\223
sin
sin \316\270,
\317\206\302\243
\317\210\302\243
cos
\317\206,,
to demonstrate
R\302\245]r
and
\316\227\316\223(\317\206,\316\270,
\302\245) [R^ReR^l\"'
in general
However,
[R$ Re
Euler
Rv]
\317\210
[R,,
R9 R$]
Angle Rotations
The rotation
in
sequence
\321\200' \320\232(\320\263*\320\233)\320\260\320\264\320\262)\302\253(\320\263.\320\244)\321\200
the
local
\317\207
convention
for
frame
rotation.(Notice
rotate*'
through
any
into coincidence
about
-\317\210
the
global
of
with
the
one
\316\266
axis,
global
of the
or R(z,
the
\317\207
and
x'
axes
into
Rotation
We now
coincidence.
to its
perform R(j,
rotations
to
equivalent
R(a',
first
two
R(z,
of the
R(Z,
RU-',\316\230)
Using
\316\230)
rotations
-\317\206)R(z,
\316\246)
Principal
Axes
x'
returns
which
\316\246),
R(z,
\342\226\240
451
R(*',
\317\210)
R(z,
\316\230)
\317\207
convention
-\317\206)
produce
R(z,
\321\204)
\321\211\321\205,
\316\270)
the above
=
R(z,
\316\230)
by
is a
there
R(x,
\317\206)
to simplify
the third
wc perform
R(z,
\317\206)
=R(Zj
= I
R(x\\
When
followed
\316\230),
that
the
about
Space
\316\230):
R(*',
The
in
\317\206)
R(z,
-\316\246) R(z,
\317\206)
equation produces
R(a-,
\317\206)
rotation R(z\",\317\210)and
(C.35)
\316\230)
using (he
simplify
again
that
find
R(Zi
\316\230)
\317\206)
R(z,
\317\206)
R(.v,
\316\230)
R(z,
(C.36)
\317\210)
local
The
\317\207
convention
and Koh(1995).
Lee
by
given
used
is frequently
in
applied
other
conventions
successiverotations
should
kinematics,
mechanics,
rotation
Equivalent Rotationsaboutthe
sequence
Many
\317\206).
\316\230)
R(z,
no
and
two
Axes
Principal
a sequence
of many rotations producinga net rotation
R, we often must
the
inverseproblem:Given
matrix R, find a set of
solve
rotation
any
proper
that
and
matrix. This problem is
rotationangles\317\206,
an equivalent
\316\270,
\317\210
generates
and we must choose conditionsthat
limit
the
somewhat
stated,
loosely
first select a specific sequence of angles and corresponding
axes.Using
problem. We
the
that produced
the arbitrary
sequence
R^ in Equation (C.33), we equate
After
proper
\320\223\321\206
cos
\320\223\\3
\320\223\320\263\320\263
\320\22323
\320\223\321\206
COS
to
obtain
\316\270
cos
the following
relationship:
\317\206
+
\317\210\316\272\316\257\316\220\316\220\317\206
5\316\252\316\267\317\2105\316\257\316\220\316\220\316\270\316\270\316\237\317\212\317\206
\342\200\224
Sill
\320\223\320\2672
\317\206 0\316\2375\317\2105\316\252\316\267\316\270\342\204\226\317\212\317\206
\320\223\321\2121
\320\263\321\212\321\212
\317\2105\316\23111
-cos
cos
cos
\317\210
\316\270
sin
~
\317\206sill
sin
\317\206
sin
\317\210
5\316\220\316\267\317\210\316\26005\317\206+
COS\\|!Sin0sil^
sin
\316\270
\317\206-sin
\316\270
cos
\317\210
COS\\||COS0
\316\270
(C.37)
452
\320\241
\342\226\240
Appendix
matrix
Because
apply:
ru =
cos
r2,
=cos
rM
=sin
cos
\316\270
sin
\317\210
= cos
= sin
/-,,
= 51110
= sin-1
\316\270
\\|l
\317\206
\317\206-cos
\317\210
sin
\316\270
cos
\317\206
sin
\316\270
\317\206
cos
-sin
\317\206
\317\210
sin
\316\270
sin
\317\206
+ cos
\317\206
sin
\317\210
sin
\316\270
\317\206
(C.39)
cos
\317\210
COS\\|ICOS
\316\270
\316\270
\320\223\320\2522
COS
\316\270
/
\320\237\\
-\316\271
=
\321\204\320\24105
However,
from
function
the
if
Furthermore,
undefined
or
sin
then
\317\200,
and
angles
Equations
(\302\261\317\200/2)
functions.
arctangent
Sill
-\320\22321
+
Sin
\317\210 \316\2233|
+
\317\210 r31
\317\210
COS
r22 COS
Sill
\317\210 -\316\22332
\316\270
cos
sill
The
matrix
element
in row
on the right
COS \317\210
+ \316\223\302\273
Sill \317\210
COS
\317\210 T21l
Sill \317\210
+ \316\22333
COS
-/\"\320\263\320\267
+ \320\223\321\2122
COS \317\210
\317\210
-siii
2 and column
to that on the left
ambiguous.
'13
Sill
\317\210+r32
cos
\316\270
'12
COS
\320\2232,
\317\200
to produce
by R;1
(C.37)
Equation
(C.43)
(C.41)
\316\270
and
cos
(C.42)
(C.41)
an angle
= 0.
\316\270
=
because
\316\270
\302\261\317\200/2,
when
(C.41)
(C.38) and
have the
(C.43)
example,
computing
the
between
distinction
= 0
\316\270
follows:
(C.39)
Equations
For
problems.
makes
to
(C.41)
Equations
as
\317\210
from Equations(C.40)and
cose
computational
(C.40)
from Equation
i-l3
= COS
\316\270
cos
and
these equations for \317\206,
\316\270,
to solve
is tempting
sin
cos
\317\210
i-23=-sin
=
\317\210
\317\210
rl3
r3}
+ sin
\317\206
sin
\320\2372
(C.38)
\317\206
\317\210
r12=-cos
II
equality, the
elemenl-by-elemeiit
implies
equality
also
following
relationships
is
\317\206
zero.
produces
\316\270
sill
cos
\317\206
\316\270
cos
\317\206-cos
sin
Equating
\317\206sin
\317\206 cos
this
\316\270
\317\213
\317\206
\316\270
sin
\317\210
\317\210
(C.44)
\316\270.
element
in
the
about an
in Space
Rotation
r2i cos
+ r.iS
\317\210
Axis
Arbitrary
\342\226\240
453
= 0
sill
\317\210
= \342\200\224\342\200\224
Ian
\317\210
\316\2522\316\273
= tan\"
\317\210
are
solutions
two
These
apart.
arbitrarily
\316\270
and
compute
also possible
=
\317\210 0.
set
all the
know
we
\317\210,
we can
and
(C.44)
for
value
compute
It is
180\302\260
r23
Otherwise,
r33
= 0;
Ihen
once we
elements
\317\206.Thus
sin
=
\316\270
\320\263,\320\267
=
\316\270
sin
+
cos
~\320\263\320\263\321\212
\320\273
\317\210 \320\263
cos
that
\317\210
that
so
\320\223\321\206
= lair
\316\270
sin
+
cos
\317\210 \320\263\321\215\320\267
\317\210;
\\~\316\257\317\2012.\316\271
the
With
For
and cosine
sine
we
\317\206
value
for
\316\230-
have
=
sin
cos
\321\204\320\2633,
cos
\317\206rn
cos
\317\206
+r3l
\317\210+rn
sin
sin
\317\206
\317\210
^5\316\2311\316\2201\316\234
\317\206\316\2523\316\267-'\316\257^05\316\246
+ \320\263\320\2521
cos \317\210
sili \317\210/
\\/23
We
find
C.4
ROTATION
from
conclude
and
\316\270,
\317\206,
IN
all this
\317\210\"
problem,
SPACE
ABOUT
The
transformation.
rotationpasses
through
AN ARBITRARY
AXIS
in space
the
We
define
simple translation transformation to produce the condition.
hand
rule
a.
The
axis by a unit vector a and the angleof rotation
right
by
applies to the sign of a: If Ihe thumb of the right hand points in the direction
sense of
hand
curl around
a in the positive
of a, then the fingers of Ihe right
the angle (see FigureC.4).
454
\320\241
\342\226\240
Appendix
axis.
transformation:
this
the
perform
an arbitrary
about
Rotation
C.4
Figure
will
we
use
to develop
ihe rotation
matrix R
the
the vector a into alignment wilh
\316\266
Rotate
axis,
through Ihe angle a, and Ihen return a to ilsoriginal
is expressed algebraically by the following
process
rotation
This
orientation.
equations:
p'
R=
terms
Reading
rotation
R,,,
This
places
axis
through
about
R-y
the
and
on
from right
R_,R.vRaRvR+p
(C.45)
R^R.VR\342\200\236R,R(
(C46)
an
about
arbitrary
point \317\201
the axis a in the y, \316\266
plane.Then
the angle
\316\266
axis,
R.,,
through
rotating
which
\317\210,
the
ali gns
angle
the point
by
the
axis
\316\266
and
R^, rotates
first
through
the point
execute
the angle
a
\317\206.
R$
its initial
a to
returns
position. We
appropriately
of course,any
on
points
the matrix
that
see
an arbitrary
it invariant.
rotates
point
to
\342\226\240
455
product R^R^SaRy
p' and leaves a and,
produce
\317\201
Axis
Arbitrary
Performing
is a
produce
we use the
matrices:
following
R,
cos
\317\206-sin
sin
\317\206
\316\246\317\213
*
cos
(\316\223
-\316\270-
cos
-s
\317\206sin
\342\200\224
-sin
\317\206\317\213
\317\206cos
\317\2060
\320\236
\"
1
R,
cos \317\210 -
sin
sin
cos
\317\210
Ru
R-v
j
\317\210
cos
\316\261 -sin
sin
\316\261
cos
\317\213
-sin
\317\210
\"1
\317\210
\317\210
sin
cos
\317\210
\317\210
\316\261 0
cos
\316\261\317\213
where
\320\24105\321\204
Vax
SHI
cos
sin
angles
sin
\317\206,
\317\210,
ax,
and
cos
sin
cc
we
al (1 -cos
+ ax az (1 + ax az (1 -
a +
sin
\320\260\320\263
~av
Then
\317\210.
ay, and
cos
\317\210 aL
\317\210
VaJ
we have a\\
of R in
elements
+
+
\320\251
a]. +
a] =
1.
cosine
functions
of the
cos
to replace the sin \317\206,
appropriately
terms
with
their equivalents
\317\210
using the unit vector
a7. Finally, we obtain
and
\316\230,
\317\206,
components
a unit vector,
the
wefind
Fivst
a is
because
and,
<h
\320\271\\
substitute
a)
cos a)
cos a)
~at
sin
\316\261
+ er
cos
ay (1
-cos
\316\261+\316\254){\\
a, sin
a + ay
az
(1
- cos a)
a)
~ cos
cc)
~ cos
a sin cc + \316\261,
\316\254\317\204
(1
a)
~ cos
-a, sin cc + \316\262,,
az (1
a)
cos a + a\\(\\ -cos a)
(C.47)
456
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\241
the
Compare
olher
matrix
r\342\200\236
patterns
also the
and
elements,
or regularities in
correctnessof a complexexpression
= 0
\316\254\317\207
~\316\254;
= lfso
\316\254\316\266
and
and
the
of the
any
example,
principal
if a lies
coordinate
along the
\316\266
that
often indicate
this.
These
elements.
\316\267,
of terms
as
such
axis,
and
rr;
distribution
the
sm
\316\261
cos
\316\261
\316\261
as expected.
Rotation
and Quaternions
Quaternions,
invented
the
computing
product
the
extracting
subsequently
(three
components),
define
a quaternion
rotations
rotation
equivalent
hypernumbers,
component
prove to be usefulfor
about arbitrary axesand
are
fourangle and axis. They
in 1843,
R.Hamilton
byW.
of sequential
with
+s
is another quaternion
that
A+B
of
the
in
both
term
(ab
+(r+s)
(a+b)
is
B = (a+r)(b
=
The result
quaternions
A +
presence
properties
quaternion
- r
cases
consists
\317\207
s in
the vector
s)
(as +
\342\226\240
+
s)
br + r
x s)
of a
This is
conjugate
of R
is
Reflection
R*-
P'
is the
\316\241
where
a, we
\316\261
about
the quaternion
perform
by
given
multiplication
sin (a/2)a
cos (a/2)-
\342\226\240
457
- RPR '
representing
quaternion
part of
sea lar
(the
\317\201
and
\316\241
is zero
the
p'. For a
normalized quaternion,the inverseis equal lo the conjugate; thus. R~[ -R* =
inverse
is found by simply reversing the sign of a.
cos (a/2) - sin (a/2)a.The
It is easyto prove that ihe product of two normalized quaternions is another
vector part
normalized
quaternion,
which
from
when
characteristic
necessary
we extract
dealing
with
rotations.
This
process
extends
to and
about
arbitrary
axes
rotations
then
rotates
to
\317\201
RPR'1
and
.S1
takes
this
have
S(RPR
l)S-l
= (SR)P(R-lS~l)
and
R-iS-l = (SR)~l
If
= SR,
let T
we
then we find
that
Clearly, the
sequence
the
through
is equivalent lo the
rotations
of
about axes
by
any sequence
an equivalent single rotation. It is easy to extract
the
quaternion
\316\244
describes
that
rotation
S. Thus,
followed
origin
'
= TPT
(SR)P(SR)l
has
\320\242.
1\320\252\320\265
quaternion
components of this equivalent rotation from the resultant
the
and
the
defines
Ihe
scalar
is
one-half
vector
of
7\"
cosineof
axis,
part
part
the
C.5
rotation
angle.
REFLECTION
Although
transformation,its handedness
may
reason
it is
either,
reflection;
that
change,
do
not
as in
reflection
mirror reflection. For this
change
a
under a
not strictly
transformation
object
458
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\241
and stretching
without culling or piercing.Yet combinations
twisting,
or more reflections can produceall the rigid- body transformations.
Reflection
transformations play an importantpart in constructing
and
bending,
of two
analyzing
planes
ihe
symmetry
of symmetry
lines
the
and
subject
10
-1
-11
4
It
\316\270
0
-5.\320\221 13
5.5
0
-\320\255.\320\255-12
-3.8
-13 0
12 0
\320\276
\320\260
13 0
-12 0
\320\267.\321\215
-\316\233
-1 1
-5.5
4 0
in
the
x,
\321\203
plane.
- 459
Reflection
same
procedures
Reflection
the
may
lhe
component
corresponding to
in Figure C.5 is a plane curve,
example
apply lo a curve that twists
take place across any of the
also
A procedure
origin.
of Ihe
coefficients
analogous
lo that
throughspace.
principal axes or
for
reflection
of the reflection of
Rf is equal lo-l:
are
that
us
tells
This
transformation
investigate
(for
IR,l=-l
reflection is an orientation (or handedness)
example, a right hand becomesa left hand).
pseudoreflections,
transformations
of
(he origin.
or through
axis
look
that
like
through
a plane
through
a curve.
(C.49)
reversing
We
will
a reflection
also
but
Inversion
in
the
We can
Origin
consider inversions as a
special
form
\316\275
\317\207,
plane,
inversion
through
of
reflection
through
the
three
they take
the origin is given
in that
460
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\241
C.7
Figure
a curve
Reflecting
principal
by
x' = -x
y'
or, in
(C.50)
-y
matrix form
(C.51)
where
R,
-\316\271
\317\213
\317\213-\316\271
We
notice
that
inversion
in
\\Rf\\
the
= +1,
origin
and
this transformation
in three-dimensional
=
\317\207
preserves orientation,
space is given by
~x
\320\243 -\320\243
\320\263'=-\320\263
(\320\241.52)
and
-\316\271
R/
\317\213
\317\213-\316\271
-1
\317\213 \317\213
(\320\241.53)
Reflection
in three
that
so
\342\226\240
461
dimensions
(C54)
IR,I=-1
A
of
study
dimensions demonstrates
in higher
inversion
that
in
inversion
in the
Plane
Reflection in the
is given
\317\207
axis
by
x' = x
and,
Rf
\320\243
=-)>
in the
Reflection
is given
axis
\321\203
\317\207
axis,
cident
with
-1
R,
and
0]
\317\2131
at an ang1 \320\265
with
arbitrary line m through the origin,
\321\204\320\273\320\263
first
execute
a
makesthe
line
coinwe
rotation that
requires
=
the
\317\207
then
we execute
a reflection about the \317\207
axis
axis,
\317\206-\317\206,\342\200\236;
that
Thus
rotation.
initial
-sin
\320\236
\321\204\342\200\236,1\320\2231
\316\265\316\277\316\264\317\206\342\200\236,
sin
\317\206\342\200\236
\317\206\342\200\236
cos
-I
-sin
cos
\320\274\320\277\321\204\321\202
\321\201\320\276\320\261\321\204\342\200\236|_0\317\206\342\200\236\317\206\342\200\236
cos 2
2
sin
Reflection
(C.55)
\317\213-\316\271
in an
Reflection
the
\317\213
by
x' = -x
\320\243' \320\243
(C.56)
2 \317\206,
sin
\317\206,\342\200\236
-cos
\317\206,\342\200\236
\317\206
in Space
all of
that
a combination
of two
the rigid-body
X' = -X
=
\320\243' \320\243
z'
= z
-I
and
R,
0 1
\320\236
\317\213\317\213
(\320\241.57)
462
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\241
in the
Reflection
\321\2030
is given by
plane
\317\207
=x
and
\320\243' -\320\243
R,=
z' = z
Reflection
is given
\316\212 \317\213
and
y'=y
Rf=
z'=-z
by
1
R f~
and
\342\200\224
~~z
\316\266
C.6
Similar
where
transformations,
uniform
the
(C.60)
\317\213
0-1
0
about
half-turn
\317\213
-\316\271
really a pseudoreflection,
and
occur
\316\266
axes.
about (he \321\203
may
It is
\317\207
axis.
half-turns
SHEAR
AND
DILATION
(C.59)
-1
/ = -y
=1.
0\"
\320\276\317\213
\317\207'
-x
is the same as a
because here IRfl
(C58)
by
\317\207'
-x
A transformation given
0
\317\2131
= \317\213
\316\266
plane
the
in
\317\213\317\213
\317\213-1
least
expansion
and
general affine
are more
shear
preserved. Isotropicdilation,that
all
directions,
along
preserves
parallel
is
shape and
bul nol
lines,
IsotropicDilation
dilation as follows: If the distancebetweenany
then
a uniform dilation ihe distance
between
them
after
points
the
are
The equations describing a uniform dilationfixing
origin
We
define
a uniform
is d,
pair
of
is kd.
x' = kx
y' = ky
z'
In matrix
(C.61)
= kz
~k
\317\213
(\320\241.62)
\317\213\320\272\317\213
\317\213\320\272
Dilation
and
Shear
\342\226\240
463
fc
is
the
scale
factor.
If
\320\272
> 1.
then
or contraction.
expansion
a dilation
of a Bezier or B-Splinecurve
or surface
by simply
We
scale
a cubic
the
the
dilation
transformationto
control
points.
applying
=
=
kB
Hermite curvevia its geometric
B'
coefficients.
Thus,
kpt
fcpii
[fcpj
of scaling on the tangent vectorsin
kp\"]T (see Figure C.8). We see the effect
execute
We
C.9.
Figure
The
inverse
of any
dilation is
\342\200\224
0
\320\272
D'
1
=
\317\213
(\320\241.63)
\320\272
\317\213 \317\213
We
will
consider
dilation
Figure
C.B
fixing an
Scaling
a curve
with respect
origin.
to the
464
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\241
Figure
The productof
two
C.9 The
dilations
vectors.
DL and
the
\316\2142
fixing
origin
is
p' = D2D,p
~ktk2
By
inspection,
dilations
is not
wc conclude
\320\236
\320\236
ktk2
ktk2_
that DZD L =
D|DZ
and
(C64)
that the
order of the
important.
Dilation
Anisotropic
In general,
or contraction.
Anisotropic dilation is a nonuniform
expansion
there may be three independentscale factors
an
arbitrary
fixing
pojnt,
referred to as the three principal
directions
in space.
For the simplest case,
a different
we Specify
the
scale factor for each of these directions,fixing
origin,
and
thus
producing
x' = kxx
/=*,\320\243
z' = kzz
(\320\241.65)
Dilation and
In
matrix
form, we
Shear
\342\226\240
465
write this as
**
\317\213
(C.66)
\317\213
*v.
\317\213 *.
with
direction.
To
situation the scale factor must
vary
in the
dilation
this, we look at the simplercaseof anisotropic
=
and
the dilation
axes correspond to
where
plane, where x' = kxx and y'
kyy
We
will
let
the
in
the
the \317\207
and
ratio
direction
axes,
k0 denote
\317\206
\321\203
(before
to the \317\207
axis
with
dilation)
respect
(see
Figure
CIO) and compare the distance
on
a line through
the origin before d and
betweena pairof pointsp, and \321\200\320\263
We compute k^asd'/d. The distancebetween
dilation.
after d\\ an anisotropic
Clearly,
in ihis
demonstrate
p,
and
before
\321\200\320\263
Following
is
dilation
an anisotropic
dilation
ratios
with
kx
and
ky, the
distance
is
between \317\201\316\212
and
\317\201\316\212
Substituting
for x'
d' ^kl(x2-Xiy
ytf
\320\251(\321\2032-
and
+
\320\272\320\246\321\205.-\321\205^
\320\272\320\232\321\203.-\321\203,)2
(Xi-XtY
+ iyi-yd1
\320\243
k,=
1.5
ky=2.0
Figure C.10
Anisotropic dilation.
(C.67)
466
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\241
This
in this
Because
more
becomes
equation
meaningful
are
if we
use y
= x
tan
it is
orthogonal,
so
\317\206,
that
relatively easy
to
dilation
and the effect of direction. A
interpret the maximum minimum
with
of
versus
an
and
the
and minor
kx
graph
generates
major
ellipse
axes, depending on their relative
The
of two sets of anisotropic dilationsalong
axes
product
principal
and fixing the origin is given
and
/\316\257\317\206
\317\206
ky
magnitudes.
the
by
^A-rj
\317\213
\320\272\320\2431\320\272\320\2432
Shear
in
shear
shown
an
Fixing a
Plane
the
amount
\320\276
(C.69)
\321\214*\320\232.
transformation
in Figure
\320\241\320\237.
Here,
proportional
lines
to their
In
coordinate.
\321\203
three-dimensional
describing
this
space,
transformation
+ kxy
<\320\24170>
or
Figure
\320\24111
Shear
fixing
the
\320\273
axis.
=
\316\241
Transformations
Sequential
Multiple
*,.
(C.71)
Similar equations
x' =
\342\226\240
467
the
fixes
axis:
\321\203
(C.72)
y'=kxx+y
or
(C73)
\316\232 \316\271
in three-dimensional
transformation
A shear
\316\241
space fixing
the
\316\266
0 plane
is given by
x' = x +
P' =
or
z' = z
Similar
fix
equations
C.7
\317\207
0 -and
the
kt
k2
0 0
\"l
k,z
= y + k2Z
y'
- 0
\321\203
(C.74)
planes.
MULTIPLE SEQUENTIALTRANSFORMATIONS
Rotation
that
requires
space
coincides
origin.
so that
an
about
arbitrary
we first
the point or
axis
to
its
the
results
We handle
initial
position.
fixing arbitrary points, lines, or planesin a
similar way:
translations and rotations before and
by executing
appropriate
the
after
Whenever translations are part of the
transformation.
primary
matrix
addition
is required
if we write the
transformations,
sequence
and
shear
in
their
Cartesian
for
rotation,
equations
and
dilations,
reflections,
returns
shears
of
reflection,dilation,
(nonhomogeneous)
matrix
algebra.
It is
in two
to express a general lineartransformation
or three
as a square matrixo\302\243
Order
two or three, respectively, if it must
not possible
dimensions
An
extra
include translationsor projections.
cases. This requires the use of homogeneous
hz
= 1,
If \316\256
\316\256]7\".
then
coordinates,
p'=
[*'
in both
is necessary
dimension
where
\316\266'
If.
\317\201 [hx
hy
4\320\261\320\222
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\241
Translation
We
may
now write
p +
t in
matrix form
p' = Tp
and
where
p'
\317\201
are given in
(C.75)
coordinates and
homogeneous
1 0 0
T=
_o
Because
Equation
(C.75),
- 1, when
h ~
tu
we
obtain
we
\320\223\320\273
ty
(C.76)
tz
\316\277\316\277 \316\271
matrix
the
perform
V\"
multiplication
z'
1
of
+ tx
y + h
A sequence
as
(C.77)
+ tz
of translations is given by
T2T,
TE=T,
(C.78)
-T\342\200\236
or
Ty =
\"l
\320\236
Rotation in the
Rotation
is not
+ f
' + r
+ !\320\2432
+
\316\233,
!^
ooo
Order
fi:
f\342\200\236
ttl +
t.* +
\342\226\240
+
t.
(C.79)
\316\212
T2
T, =
T, T2.
plane
in
the
plane
using a homogeneoustransformation
the origin
about
matrixisexpressed
as
cos
P'
\317\206
sin
\317\206
-sin
\317\206 \316\237
cos
\317\206\316\237
(C.80)
the
Rotation about an arbitrary point pt requiresthat
we
first translate
model so that p,.coincideswith the origin.Then
the
rotation
and
we perform
translatethe resultssothat pr returns to its initial position. This sequenceof
transformations
is
represented
by
the
matrix
product
Multiple Sequential
Carrying
out
xc
cos
,vf
sin
\317\206
sin
\317\206
-sin
\317\213-\320\263.
\317\213
~xc
cos
\317\206~-xt
sin
\317\206
cos
sin
\317\206 \316\275,-
\317\206yc cos
1
~yr
(C.81)
\316\271
\317\206xc
(C.82)
\317\206yc
Cartesian coordinates,this is
cos
*'=(.\302\243-\317\207-,)
)>'
in
\317\206
\317\206
0
0
\321\201\320\276&\321\204
Rotation
-sin
multiplication, we obtain
this matrix
cos
In terms of
\317\206
Transformations \342\226\240
469
sin
\321\204-(\321\203
-,vf)
sin
\316\246(\320\243
(\320\243-\320\243\321\201)
+ xc
\317\206
J'.) cos
(C.83)
+ \321\203,
\317\206
Space
Rotation
about the
\316\266
axis
as
is expressed
Similar
Again,
rotation
\317\206
\317\206
(C.84)
to derive,
easy
equations,
\317\206
0
1
sin
cos
about
.rand
axes.
\316\275
origin
requires
we first
p'
= TRp
1
\342\226\240sin
\317\206
\316\257.\316\275]
\317\2131
tr
\317\213
\317\213
ty
sin
\316\246
cos
\317\213 \317\207
0
\317\206\320\236
\316\275
\316\266
\317\2131
\316\231
(C.85)
470
\342\226\240
Appendix
\320\241
cos
order
the
p'
t,
\317\207
\317\206 \317\213ty
\320\243
\316\226
\317\213 1
of these
transformations, we obtain
tz
\317\205_
RTp
\317\206
\317\206 \317\213\316\277]
\316\223, \317\207
\317\2130
\317\2131
\317\213
ty
\320\243
\317\2130
\317\213
\317\2130
tz
1
\316\266
cos
\317\206
cos
\317\206
sin
results
sin
sin
these
\317\206
\317\206
cos
cos
From
sin
\317\213
sin
Reversing
\317\206
\317\206
\317\206 \317\213
-sin
\317\206
cos
COS
\316\257,
\320\236
\317\213
\317\213
\317\213
is
it
that
clear
\317\206
-ty
t+
sin
\317\206 \317\213\316\257,
ty
Sin
\317\206
COS
\316\271
(C.86)
is important,
order
TRp*RTp
Glide
Rotation
The glide
rotation (otherwiseknown
a translationand rotation
about
translation,
where
followingequation
the
translation
describes
cos
sin
Reflection
twist or
the
as
an axis
\317\206
\317\206
-sin
cos
\317\206 0
\317\206\317\213
0
(C.87)
\317\213
\317\213
\320\243\321\201\321\204
in Space
The homogeneous
transformation matrixfor
inversion
in the
origin
is
471
Multiple Sequential Transformations \342\226\240
-10
the parity
= +l,
Because
/y\302\253
0-1
0 0
0 0-10
R;
(C.88)
0 1
is unaffected, and
computation
\\Rf\\
= -1.
(C.89)
\321\200'^\320\242\320\233/\320\242\320\223'\321\200
where
TiR/T
Dilation
-\320\273-,
-y,
0-10
0 0 1 -z,
0 0 0 1 0 0 0
2x,
2y,
0-1
2zi
0 0
Z\\
0-10
0 0
0-1
)>l
-10
-10
X,
1 0
0 1
0 0
\316\2231
(C.90)
in Space
The anisotropic
defining
geometric
transformation
matrices.
relative to the
dilation about an
object
Here
point
arbitrary
pf of
a set of
points
principal axes.
kz are
have
We
(C.91)
p'=TfDT-p
where
TVDT
1 0 0 xc
\320\232
0 1 0 \320\243\321\201
0
0 0 1
0 0
Zc
1_
(1
(1
ky
k;
k(
\320\276
\320\276
0
0
1 0 0 -X
0 1 0 -y
k7
~z
1
-k\342\200\236)x,
ky)yt
{\\-K)z(
1
(C.92)
This
page
intentionally
left
blank
BIBLIOGRAPHY
This
provides
bibliography
loo
literature,
large
works
accessible
subject.
Because
and
research
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significant
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of entry
most
the
of
the
still true
due to proprietary
in part
today), access to these resultsis oflen difficult,
and reporting.
considerations as well as varying
standards
of documentation
enlries
are
the
second
new
included
in
this
of
edilion,
Many
bibliography
of course,and nol all enlries of the first edition are repeatedhere.The many
for this include limilalions of Spaceand changesof emphasis.
reasons
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works is not intended but is almost predictably
inevitable
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This
page
intentionally
left
blank
INDEX
Bezier,83
113.126
B-Spline,
initio
Ab
design,
characteristics
conversion
313
matrix,
Adjacency
transformation(s),Bezier
curve invariance
under, 87
40
Algebraiccoefficients.
Algebraic
geometry,
Ancestor,
315,382
408
11
Approximation,
APT language,
Arc length, 20
Area,
triangle,
Atlas,
296,297
Auxiliary
82
85,137
between,
even-degree polynomials,45
41,42-47
Hermite,
basis transformation
Hermite
matrix, 48
odd-degree
polynomials,45
of,
424
between
symmetry
Basis
pairs of,45
matrix,
transformation
48
vectors,4l7,421
Beads, 376,390
Bernstein potynomiats:
Bezier
curve, 176
45
orthogonal,
curves,
83,88
partition-of-unity
Beta splinecurves:
properly, 90
Barsky,B.A.,10
bias,
\320\222
Barsky,B.A\342\200\236
Basis,
34,142
cubic, 142
10
40,421
Basis function(s):
Bernstein polynomials.83,88
tension, 34,142
Beziercurve(s):
affine
Iransforma
u'ons,
invariance
under, 87
509
Bezier ciirve(s)(Continued):
to geometric
application
modeling,
matrix, 84
Hermite,222
Bernstein polynomials,83.88
Bdzier-Hermite
matrix
rational Bezier
105
111
Binomial
constructionof.88
Boolean
Boolean
endpoints,
directed surface,342
107
higher-order, 107
intersectionof,
half-spaces,
337
112
closed set,
321
intersection,321)
null
82
set,
319
open set,
108
319
operators,319
subdivision, 102
subdividing,97,1D2
primitives,
319
model,
341
97
procedural
system.
UNlSURF
81
332
classification,
set-membership
weights, 110
sets,319
Bezier,P..7,10,81
basis
of a
interior
points on, 81
Bezier
model, 310
half-space, 342-343
93
truncating,
319
graph-based
form,
of,
set,
empty
hyperbola,112
matrix
84
recursive
homogeneity, 323
dimensional
properties
348
320
difference,
112
rational,
set, 319
degree reduction,97
G2 continuity,
328
valid.
boundary,
closed
107
elevation, 95
parabola.
algebra, 321
boundary of closedset.321
cubic,84
modifying,
model(s):
Boolean
convex hull, 90
ellipse,
2.321
algebra,
82.89
at
83
coefficient,
Blend surfaces,213.215
11)5
points,
316,342,346,350
tree,
Binary
conic representations.
curvature
patch, 225
tensorproduct.217
composite,
degree
on, 217
points
93
control
217,222
form,
polygon, 82
circle,\320\2462
continuity.
isoparametric
83
coefficient,
characteristic
223
elevation.
degree
85
conversion,
closed,
224
convertingbetweenBezierand
83.93
transformation
binomial
224
continuity.
control points,217.220
33.81
basis functions,
basis
composite,
surface:
function
sets,
on,
sets, properties
of, 319
operations
transformations,
bicubic patch.218
characteristic
polyhedron,
218
222
subset,319
unevaluated
model,
319
341
- 511
Index
union, 319
Venn
139
320
diagram,
nonuniform
difference,320,321
union,319,321
basis
uniform
(b-rcps),
356,360
characteristic
228
closed,
control
358
358,363
358,363
10,33,113
functions,
basis
transformations,
factor, 141
Cardinal
conditions,
summary,
136
control points,multiple,115
between
functions,
Cell decomposition,367
Cells,
network
parametric
Circle,
114
70,141
115
115,117
Class
313
384
evaluators,
Classification
of points, 332
Closedcurved surfaces,305
Closed
matrix form,
Closed
124
82
Circular arc,71)
nonuniform,
knot spacing,uniform,
of,
equation, 435
Circuit, graph,
polynomial,114
values,
Cayley.A.,431
Characteristicpolygon,
functions, 128
196,199
splines,
Characteristic
basis
137
basis
227
deCasteljau,P.,7.88
points, 114
conversion
product.
\320\241
continuity, 134
control
232
124
closed,130
continuity
points on.227
tensor
113,126
circle, 141
shape
open,228
quadric,
basis
conic
227
235
NURBS,
application to geometricmodeling,
139
228
form,
nonperiodic,
B-Spline curve(s):
conies,
points,227
matrix
topology, 363
valid,
227
polyhedron,
358
Boundary,
126
functions,
B-Spline surface:
362
generalizedconceptof a boundary,
validity,
128
functions,
data structure,
knot
basis
quadratic
representations
boundary
knot
121
polygon,
evaluator, 364
Boundary model(s):
cubic
139
periodic, 127
dcBoor,C.,10
Boundary
139
rational,
NURBS,
320,321
intersection,
nonuniform
Boolean operators:
region,
113
nonperiodic,
314
set.
universal
paths,
path
282
theorem,
286
254
Cofactors,of
Combinatorial
history, 2,348
lea/ nodes,350
363
structure,
solids,
252
primitives,
Requicha,A.A.G.,10
root
350
node,
Computationalgeometry,
Voelker,H.B.,10
Continui
(CAD),1,
design
Computer-aided
Computer-aided geometricdesign
Hermite curves,74,77
Cone, 207
parametric,
77
Coniccurve(s):
32
characteristics,
of,
Hermite
approximations
hyperhoi
a, 69
of, 64
Bezier
B-Spline
polygon, 82,89
Conventionsand notation,16
net, 159
Convex
Coordinates,
Constructive
dependency,
375
346,350
ordered,
models, 320
Boolean operators,319
Cox,M.G.,10
Crain,L.M.,11
28
Cross
plots,
Cubic
curves, 32,39
Curvature
(b-reps),
representation
352
definition, \320\22748
homogeneous,
Curvature, 20,301
364
evaluator,
90
441
296
cell decomposition,
hull,
S. \316\221.,7,10,81
Coons,
Connectivity
branches,binary
114
characteristic
number,
boundary
surface,
B-Spline
Connectivitymatrix,312
boundary
114
curve,
Connectivity, 312
Boolean
89
curve, 89
Bezier surface,217,220
of, 31
64
tree,
77,107
points;
68
parabola.
binary
399
adding,
NURBS curve,139
Conjugate
Contours,
64
traditional,
equation
order,
Control
factor. 141
shape
construction
second
Controlled deformation,275
70
surface,
77
order,
geome trie, 77
1
graphics,
implicit
74,105
curves,
(CAM),1,5,6
conic
105
B-Splinecurves,134
first
manufacturing
circle,
ty:
Bezier curves,
composite
(CAGD),2
Computer-aided
Computer
355
348, 350
procedural representation,351
\320\2565
192,224
surfaces,
model,
neighborhood
Composite:
curves,
349
operation,
gluing
437
determinants,
Curvature,
288
density,
total, 288
Curve(s):
tree,
348
349
auxiliary,
176
Beta-Spline,
Bezier, 32,81
142
108,439,
Index .513
B-Spline,32
circulararc,
conic,
Cylindricalsurface,206
64
74,77,105
implicit and
between
conversion
parametric
cubic,
Cusps, 53
31,64
conic Hermite,
continuity,
22
form,
axial. 276
cusps,53
bivariate, 277
decomposition
controlled,275
28
of,
solution,
point
shapes.284
34
method
difference
forward
for
points on, 36
geometric
ty, 77
continui
implicit equation
22
of,
intrinsic
equations of, 19
intrinsic
properties,
19
loops,53
monomialbasis.48
equation
surfaces, 159,181
NURBS,9,139
95,223
Degree
elevation,
Degree
reduction, 97
375
379
interobject,
Dependency,
Designoptimization,407
436
Difference
320
operator.
313,382
Directed
graph,
Directed
surface. 343
Direction cosines,419
Direction
159,161
419
numbers,
net, 159
orthogonal
1\320\2631\321\203\320\260\320\2631\320\2601\320\265,277
Dilation (scaling),440,462,464,471
of, 20
nets on
surfaces,
279
Digraph, 382
natural
on
of, 284
Determinants,
surface, 160
on a
isoparametric
delormable,
topology
Descendant, 315,382
33
interpolation,
surfaces,
Dependency,constructive.
32,39
Hermite,
367
cell,
Deformation(s):
curvature, 20,107
fitting.
D
Decomposition,
25,32,39
parametric,
direct
54,97
truncating,
13,74,105
composite,
20
torsion,
70
34
solution,
Direct-point
parabola, 68
parametric
continuity,77
Discretization,
parametric
equations
parameterization,
points
on,
of, 23
reversing, 37
computing,34
268
position-direction,
power basis, 40
rational Bezier,108
segment,
26
topological
405
Disk, topological,286
Durableproperties,
375
\316\225
436
Eigenvalues,
436
subdividing,
54,97
Eigenvectors,
subdivision,
quick, 59
Einstein summation
symmetriesof,
22
invariant,
Ellipse,
32
convention,40
405
514
\342\226\240
Index
Embedded
geometry, 161,376
Entity,
376,378
Entity
classes
379
ancestor,proper,315
315
branches,
circuit, 313
formula,295
connected,313
294
formula,
316
tree,
binary
Euler operators,306
Euler's
matrix, 313
ancestor, 315
\320\256
models;
adjacency
450
angles,
W. J.,
Gordon,
Graph-based
and subclasses,
Eshleman,A. E.,jci,
Euler
Gluingoperation,349
152
parametric,
Ellipsoid,
Extrinsic properties,l9
315
descendant,
313
directed graph,
in degree,313
inorder
Ferguson, J. C, 7,10,81
and
model
element
Finite
leaf
analysis,
405
Forrest,A. R.,7
Forward
difference
method,
315
traversal,
node, 315
node, 315
out degree,313
traversal,
316
traversal.
316
postorder
36
interpolation,61
Four-point
4,
312
matrix,
connectivity
Extruded sweep,265
preorder
relational geometricsynthesis,
Frames, 401
root,
Free vectors,417
spanning
tree, 313
traversal,
recursive,
traversal,
tree, 316
subgraph,313
G
Gauss-Bonnet
Gaussian
306
theorem,
quadrature,
16
coefficients,
Geometric
continuity,
41
77
Geometric modeling:
ab initio design,3
geometric
metaphor,
history,
tree. 313
wireframe
directed,
Graph,
Group
263
technology,
\316\227
schemes, 8, 9
166
Hamilton,W.R.,419,456
Handles,
representation^
Hermite,C.,33
Hermite
spheres
with,
289
basis transformation
48
Whatisit?,l
wireframe,
313
Graphs, 313,382,400
rendering,3
3
318
model,
Half-spaces,
visualization,
316
polygonal
373
315
Hermite curves:
Gibbs,J.W.,419
algebraic
algebraic
40,49
coefficients,
form,
40
matrix,
Index.515
to
application
geometric
modeling,
trimmed boundaries,
256
basis
twist
matrix,48
Bezier-Hcrmite
85
conversion,
74
composite,
boundaries,172,180
41
61
four-point interpolation,
geometric
41
coefficients,
geometric
continuity,77
geometric
form, 41, 49
77
46
between algebraic
geometric
and
49
forms,
54
reparameterizing,
unit
Hermite
basis
normals, 182
patch,
203
of a patch,
184
form,
solid:
interpolation,l96
subdividing,191
241
form,
matrix, 241
transformation
tensorproduct,169,179
191
truncating,
twist
252
unit
in, 253
and surfaces
elements, 257
higher-dimensional
isoparametric
curves
in,
Homogeneous
252
Homotopy,
Horner's
253
curves in.
parameter spaceof,
182
normal,
History,
173,180
vectors,
coordinates, 108,439,
441
241
form,
nonisoparametric
169,179
for,170
orthogonalnet,174
spline
generalizednotation scheme.257
geometric
notation
sixteen-point
53
vector,
compositesolids,252
curves
form,
matrix
ruled surface,207
cells, 254
continuity,
geometric
186
60
interpolation,
algebraic
179
net, 180
reparameterization
54
tangent
algebraic and
plane
54
tangent vectors,50-53
truncating,
192
converting
degeneratepatches,210
parametric continuity,
three-point
continuity,
47
subdividing,
192
curve
parabola, 68
relationship
composite,
geometric forms,
approximation,69
form,
transformation
41
parametric,
directionality,
176
170
matrix,
hyperbola,
169
curve,
function
basis
cusps,53
quintic.
algebraic
74,77
cubic, 39,61
matrix
algebraic coefficients,169
auxiliary
endpoints,
bicubic:
surface,
form,
64
continuity,
250
vectors,
Hermite
cells, 254
parametric
33,39
253
regular,
rule, 34
Hyperbola, 32,69
Hyperpatch,237
285
Linear
432
matrix.
Identity
of parametric
Implicitization
transformations,
439
411
Logicalcompleteness.
form,
curves, 53
and cusps in
Loops
22,144
382
model,
Logical
Innerproduct,422
Inorder
315
traversal,
\316\234
260-261
Instances,
dependencies, 379
Interobject
Interpolation,7,12
320
Intersection,
Intrinsic
of curves,
equation
Invariant property,
439
435
37
solution,
459
Inversion,
tude, vector,
160
curves,
419
Matrices:
addition,433
313
adjacency,
matrix, 432
application
to
modeling.
geometric
12
basis transformation,
Bezier
Isome tries,440
Isoparametric
376,391
Magni
antisymmetric
Inversematrix,
Inverse-point
19
Magnets,
Bezier
basis
B-Spline
transformation,
characteristicequation,
435
Joins between
surfaces,376
Jordan,C, 291
curve
Jordan
286
theorem,
437
cofactor,
matrix, 431
column
conformable, 433
312
connectivity,
436
determinants,
eigenvalues,436
Kinematic
analysis,
436
eigenvectors,
300
Klein bottle,
Hermite
basis
Knot, 291
293
Knot
spacing, 115,117
delta, 422,432
Kronccker
432
group,
vector,
transformation,^
matrix,
identity
Knot
Knot
matrix, 432
diagonal
\320\232
Kronecker delta,432
matrix
48
algebra,
of, 433
multiplication
null
matrix,
432,434
of, 431
order
partitioned, 434
L
vector,
Length,
Letcher,
Line,
vector
433
postmultiply,
Leaf node,3L5
433
premultiply,
419
J. S.,v,xi,
equation
10.373
of, 425
properties,
rank of,
row
421
matrix,
84
84
curve,
431
124
Index
scalar
432
matrix,
Model
scalar product as a
matrix
relational
in
product.
378,382
412
relational,
structure,
Modularity
MultiSurf,v,378
\342\226\240
517
models,
435
matrix, 432
skew symmetric
square matrix.
43L
of, 432
transpose
unit
Nets, curve:
as a matrix
product
product,
435
Matrix
parametric. 159
Newton-Cotesquadratureformulas,
curve,
B-Spline
surface, 228
14
Hermite curve, 47
roots. 13
Node,315
241
364
algorithm,
recursive, 383,386
evaluation,
transformations,
surface, 298
Norm, 419
and
Notation
(b-rep),
representation
281,356
Numerical
analysis, 13
NURBS curve:
circle.141
evaluation, 383,386
conic
representation,
finite
conic
shape factor,
4,405
graph-based,
310
equation of,
logical, 41 \316\257
parametric,
shape
139
140
modification,
377,404
procedural, 341,351
relational geometry,373
solid,4
NURBS
surface(s),235
\320\236
367
space-partitioning,
subtractive,6
unevaluated,
139
139
weights, 139
355
neighborhood,
16
conventions,
CSG, 3,281,348
element,
440
Normals,surface,182,
318,341
Boolean,
boundary
315
Nonlinear
Nonorientable
299
strip,
Node,
leaf,
Meriwether, H. D.,xi,7,176
Model
for finding
method
Newton-Raphson
Hermitesurface,170
solid,
160
orthogonal,
124
B-Spline
Tricubic
160
isoparametric,
Beziersurface,217
Mobius
conjugate,159
covariant,160
form:
Bezier curves, 84
Merging
20
curve.
model, 355
Neighborhood
432
matrix,
vector
Natural equations of a
432
matrix,
symmetric
Object,
341
wireframe, 8,318
Model space,28
Object
376,378
evaluation,
384
Octrees, 369
Op timiza
tion,
design,
407
Orientable,298
Polygons:
298
Orientation,
star, 282
Polyhedron:
298
Orientation-reversing,
convex,293
curves, 159
net of
Orthogonal
82,90
control,
Orientation-preserving,298
Outline surface,268
nOnsimple,293,295
293
regular,
293
simple,
\316\241
Position-directioncurve,268
392
default,
Parameterization,
shapes,260,377,404
derivatives,
in
23,29
modeling,
modeling,
377,4()4
of
Quadrature:
Gaussianquadrature,16
Parametric variable,normalizing
domain of,
Partition of
301
Quadric
unity,
equation
282
Quaternions,
456
flat surface,
293
13
Radius
203,427
vector,
417
Rational forms;
Point(s):
Bezier curves,108
classification, 165,332
forward difference,36
importanceof
in
on curves,34
158
Bezier
225
surface,
24
modeling,
solution,
inverse-point
surfaces,
149
transformation,111
Piecewisepolynomials,
on
of,148
144-145
Quadtrees, 369
268
Perspective
Plane,
of,
of revolution,
surface
Path,simp]e,282
Piecewise
surface(s):
classification
90
Path, self-intersecting,
curve,
quadrature
14
formulas,
149
Patch,
PD
Newton-Cotes
25
transition,
Parity,
plane, 108,300
computation
equations, advantages
Parametric
271
curve,
Projective
of, 27
Parametric
Preorder
Profile
Parametric
40
traversal, 316
Proceduralmodel,341,351
77
continuity,
curves,
Primitives, 261,319
54
transformations,
316
traversal,
Power basis,for
parameter space,28,153
Parameter
417
vector.
Position
Postorder
37
392
natural,
Parameterization,
Parametric
13
interpolation,
Polynomial
68
Parabola,
34
homogeneous
in
variance
transformation,
polynomial,
coordinates,
under
111
108
perspective
108
Index
logical completeness.411
|05
space,
projective
weights,110,139
457,470
geometric
parameterization,
(RGS),318,373
parameterization,
376,390
414
snakes,376,394
CNC machining,411
398
solids,
408
layout,
dependency, 375
contours,399
curves,392
dependency,constructive,375
382
descendants,
407
surface
375
Roots,
entities,376,378
finite element
Newton's
379
40.5
sliding
Ross,D.T-,6
between
interobject
number,
282
sweep,265,271
Rotations;
history, 10
joins
tangent method. 13
Rotational
graphs, 400
13
method,
Rotation
401
frames,
polynomial:
finding
439
315
node,
and
152
transformations,
Root
invariant, 405
properties,
of,
Rings,390
discretization,topological
classes
29,54,100.186
Riesenfeld,R.F.,l()
Rigid-body
durable
378,382
structure,
Revolution,
and volume,
405
entity
Relationalmodel
Requicha,A.A.G.,10
375,382
surface
discretization,
Representation, 3
digraph, 382
graph,
374
model,
synthesis,
Reparameterization,
surface, 408
directed
395
surfaces,
Rendering,
optimization,
developable
relational entities,379,388
rings,390
class evaluators,384
plate
389
384
structure,
program
constructive
392
three-dimensional,
points,
compound
392
natural,
planes,400
animation,408
representation.
default,
ancestors,382
boundary
384
objects, 376,378
synthesis
Relational geometry(RG):
design
412
evaluation,
object
376,378
entities,
Relational
relational,378,382
MultiSurf,v,378
323
Regularizedset operators,
Relational
383,386
evaluation,
modularity,
beads,
model
model structure,
102
subdivision,
Reflection,
376,391
magnets,
\342\226\240
519
dependencies,
376
about
379
an
arbitrary
point. 446
Rotations
(Continued):
coordinate
system, 447,449
about
equivalent
hyperpatch.
axes, 451
principal
the
isoparametric surfaces,238
matrix
444,468
plane,
axes,447
parametriccell,
254
237
solid,
parametric
sweeps, 264
207
surface,
parameter
445, 448
successive,
260
parameterized,
456
quaternions,
241,244
form,
about principal
in space
260-261
instances,
Euler angle(s),450
in
244
matrix,
tangent vectors,250
Hermite
tricubic
SAGE
system, 6
twist
Scalar product,422
Scaling
Set, Open,
\316\231.,\316\231\316\237
Sphere, 151
321
Sphere
Spline
Settheory,3,3l9
Shear,440,462,466
Star
of
tic form,
quadra
147
Simple-closed-path theorem,282
Simplepolyhedra,293
6
syslem,
Sketchpad
Snakes,
Solids:
Stanton, E.
241
282
polygons,
Subdividing:
Bezier curves, 97
equal segments,58
construction,104
patch, 191
bicubic
Hermite curves,54
elements,
238,242
252
controlled
deformation,
reparameterization,54,1(H)
Subgraph, 313
252
solids,
composite
continuity,
Surface(s):
B-Spline,156
275
Bezier,
156
blend,
embedded geometry,253
composite,
extrusion,265
generalized
notation,
257
form, 241
59
102
recursive,
bounding faces,239
geometric
L., \316\240
quick subdivision,
form,
289
handles,
interpolation,l96,l99
Hermite
Solid mo deling,2,4,10,238
boundary
with
geometric
376,394
algebraic
enumeration,
occupancy
Spatial
Set-membershipclassification,332
Signature
model, 367
440,462
321
closed,
Set,
239,240
250
vectors,
Space-partitioning
(dilation),
Schoenberg,
solid,
boundaries, 256
trimmed
213,215
192
nets
on,
159,181
curves embedded
cylindrical.
146,206
on, 161
367
Index
degenerate patches,1.54
rotational,265,271
directed,
343
translationa
L52
ellipsoid,
144
\316\244
12
fitting,
156
Hermite,
Bezier
inverse-point
length, 50
loops,53
298
nonorientable,
normal
149,182
vector,
on, 159
orthogonal nets
parametric
nets on,
50
multiple
of chord
Tensor(s):
159,174
modeling,3
165
point classification,
scalar product in
tensor
227
quadric, 145
rational B<izier,225
of
rcparametcrization
patch,
186
surfaceof revolution,parametric,
152
143,157
product,
angle excess,
closed
connectivity,
312
connectivity
number, 296
deformations,
Sweep shapes:
discretizations,
extruded,265
288
284
invariant, 405
286
disk,topological,
Euler
265,267
282
curvature density,
I., 6
position-direetion
287
atlas,topological,
296,297
curvature, 288,301
149,157
vectors,
Sutherland,
60
interpolation,
Three-point
path,
149
vectors,
tangent
Topology:
sphere, 151
tensor
notation,
Tensorproductsurface,169,217,227
a
207
ruled,
tensor
422
158
a surface,
on
convention,
40
point evaluation,158
points
summation
Einstein
293
flat,
203,427
plane,
to geometric
of,
application
patch. 149,155
piecewise
length, 53
50
of, 149
equations
parametric
magnitude,
parameterization,dependenceon,
235
NURBS,
curves, 50
Hermite
161
boundaries,
irregular
53
cusps,
158
solution,
89
curves,
intuitive
shape, 50-53
on curve
affect
of, 144
equation
implicit
vector(s):
Tangent
hyperbolic paraboloid,208
general,
374
model,
Synthesis,
explicitequation of,
twist
1,265,267
161
curves on,
embedded
. 521
(PD)
curve, 268
Euler
305
characteristic,
operators,
Euler-ibincare
306
formula,
295
Topology
Euler's
(Continued):
dilation,
anisotropic.
formula, 294
dilation,
isotropic,440,462
Gauss-Bonnettheorem,306
geometric,439
gliderotation,
285
regular,
homotopy,
in
289
handles,
470
modeling,
invariant
curve
invariant property,
bottle, 300
Klein
nonlinear,440
298
298
298
301
transition,
468
293
flat surfaces,
shear, 440.462,466
sweeps,265
295
topological,
polyhedron,
293
polyhedron,
nonsimple, 293,295
440
projectiveplane.300
Translational
sheet deformation
rubber
of the
plane,284
282
sphere,289
topological,
structure,
363
binary,
Tree,
spanning,
313
patch,
164
Trimmed
305
surfaces,nonorientable,298
Triplevector
torus,
Truncating:
Torsion,
20
Bezier
Transformations, geometric:
transformations,
coordinates,
coordinate
curves, 97
Torus, 289
Cartesian
424
425
product,
289
affine
316
Tree,
closed curved,
surfaces,
Transpose
matrix, 432
Tree,313
282
paths,
paths,
265,267
sweep,
of a
Traversals,tree,316
self-intersecting
simple
parity, 301
Translation, 441,468
282
number,
441,468
translation,
Transition
regularpolyhedra.293
rotation
440,462
(dilation),
scaling
of Euler's
Poincare's generalization
formula,
457,470
reflection,
Orientation-reversing. 298
piecewise
440
projections,
Orientation-preserving,
parity,
439
linear,
Mobiusstrip.299
Orientation,
440
isometries,
knots, 291
Orientable,
439
inversion,459
286
theorem,
439,
441
isotropy, ambient.285
Jordan
coordinates,
homogeneous
284
properties,
440,464,471
cubic
Hermite
and homogeneous
curve,
441
system
repa
rotation,
ditation (scaling),440,462
curves, 97
Bezier
440
447. 449
54
54
rameterization,
shape invariance, 54
Twist
vector,
173,
ISO
97
Index
419
length,
\320\270
magnitude,419
319,321
Union,
system, 81
UNISURF
of, 425
line, equation
Unii vector,420
norm,
419
plane,
equation
of, 427
plane, normal
428
417
vector,
position
form,
projection, 425
Vecior
properties of,
423
product,
Vector(s):
addition, 421
applicationto geometricmodeling,
scalar
3.11
of
area
triple
basisvectors.417,421
unit
cosines,
direction
numbers,
419
419
form, 418,422,424
triple scalarproduct,424
424
basis, 42|
direction
422
product,
tensor
a triangle,
429
summary,
vector, 417
radius
vector
product,
425
420
vector,
Voelker,H.B.,10
419
equations,
solution
free vectors.
of, 429
4L7
inner product,422
Kronecker
delta,
Weights,
422
Wireframe
110,
139
model, 8,318
\342\226\240
523