Study Note on Landforms by Running Water and its Three

Stages
Landforms by Running Water and its Three Stages

Denudation is general lowering of earths surface by agents of erosion such as Wind, Water, Ice, Waves
etc. Unlike glaciers & snow, which are confined to cold & temperate latitudes; waves, which acts only
on coastlines; winds, are only efficient in deserts; the effect of running water is felt all over the
world, thus, making it the most important agent of denudation.
The source of river is generally found in an upland region with a slope down for the run offs
Hence, the uplands form the catchment areas of the rivers & the crest of mountains become the divide
or watershed from which the streams flows down the slope
The initial stream that exists as a consequence of the slope is called the consequent stream
As the consequent stream wears down the surface, it is joined by several tributaries from either side
Course of a River

Upper Course
Gorge

Rapids

Waterfall

River Capture Middle Course

Interlocking spurs

River Cliffs

Meanders

Upper or Mountain Course (Youth stage)

Begins at the source of the river near the watershed, generally at the crest of mountain range

Flow is very swift as it descends the steep slopes & predominant action of the river is vertical
erosion

Valley developed is thus deep, narrow & distinctively V shaped which sometimes results in
formation of gorges & canyons
Some of the features associated with the upper course of the river River Capture
Also known as river piracy or river beheading
Its development depends upon different rate of back cutting (headword erosion) into a divide
mainly due to difference in precipitation received by streams.

If one side of the divide cut more rapidly than the other then its greater erosive power will
succeed in enlarging its basin at the expense of weaker stream.

For example in given figure, Stream A may eventually break through the divide & capture &
pirate stream B.

The bend at which the piracy occurs is termed as Elbow of the capture & the beheaded stream
is called as misfit.

The valley below the elbow is wind gap which may be useful for road & rail route
Rapids, Cataracts & Waterfalls
Liable to occur in any part of river course but most numerous in mountains course where
changes in gradient are more abrupt & frequent.
Due to unequal resistance of hard & soft rocks transverse by a river, the outcrop of hard rock
may cause a river to jump & fall, known as

Similar falls of greater dimensions are referred as

When river plunges down in a sudden fall via. some height, they are called

Their greater force usually wears out a plunge pool beneath.

Middle or Valley Course (Maturity stage)

In the middle course, lateral corrosion tends to replace vertical corrosion; active corrosion of
the bank thus widens V shaped valleys.

Volume of water increases with the confluence of many tributaries which increases rivers load.

The work of the river is predominantly transportation with some deposition in clearer manner,
although velocity does not decrease.
Some of the features associated with the Middle course of the river
Interlocking spurs
Downstream, interlocking spurs that project from both side of the valley are cut back into a
line of bluffs.

Rain-wash, soil creeps, landslides & gullying gradually widens the valley, cutting back the sides

As the stream flows on, the meanders migrate progressively outward with the interlocking
spurs alternating with the undercut slopes.

Meanders in the middle course are only the beginning of the downward swing as bends are
restricted by the interlocking spurs.

In the lower course, the loops are enlarged across the level plain & meanders are fully
developed

River cliffs & Slip off slopes

When the flow of water PQ enters the bend of the river, it dashes straight into Q, eroding the
outer bank into a steep river cliff at Q.

The water piles up on the outside of the bend due to centrifugal force.

A bottom current RS is setup in a cork screw motion & is hurled back into midstream & inner
bank. Shingle is thus deposited here at S, where the slip off is gentle.

The outer bank is therefore the bank of continuous erosion & the inner bank is the bank of
continuous deposition.

Meanders
As water flowing under gravity seldom flows straight for long distance, a winding course soon
develops

The irregularities of the ground forces the river to swing in loops forming Meanders

Lower or Plain Course (Old Stage)

The river moving downstream across a broad, level plain is heavy with debris brought down
from the upper course.

Vertical corrosion has almost ceased though lateral corrosion still goes on to erode its banks
further.

Volume of water is greatly swelled with work of the river is mainly depositional, building up its
bed & forming flood plains.