1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating materials,
components or assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in characteristics without destroying
the serviceability of the part or system. In other words, when the inspection or test is completed
the part can still be used. In contrast to NDT, other tests are destructive in nature and are therefore
done on a limited number of samples ("lot sampling"), rather than on the materials, components
or assemblies actually being put into service. These destructive tests are often used to determine
the physical properties of materials such as impact resistance, ductility, yield and ultimate tensile
strength, fracture toughness and fatigue strength, but discontinuities and differences in material
characteristics are more effectively found by NDT.
Today modern nondestructive tests are used in manufacturing, fabrication and inservice inspections to ensure product integrity and reliability, to control manufacturing processes,
lower production costs and to maintain a uniform quality level. During construction, NDT is used
to ensure the quality of materials and joining processes during the fabrication and erection phases,
and in-service NDT inspections are used to ensure that the products in use continue to have the
integrity necessary to ensure their usefulness and the safety of the public.
In industries
it is impossible to synthesize product which is totally immune to crack(s). Crack may occur during
manufacturing, testing or use. The products so developed are usually subjected to fatigue loading.
During fatigue loading, the component may develop crack due to cyclic loading. Crack is simply
defined as to fail or to give up. Crack may also be defined as break/rapture without complete
separation of parts. Crack generally occurs with a sharp or a sudden sound.
In industries the structures are generally subjected to fatigue or cyclic loading.
Manufacturing Failure is indicated by cracks which occur in different kind of materials such as
metals, composite, plastics and minerals. During production, time to time checking of product is
necessary to avoid any kind of damage to the product by cracks during its manufacturing.
Inadequate crack detection may result in various hazards which may cost human life at top. The
crack when propagated to a high level develops into fracture which ultimately causes the whole
structure to collapse.
The materials which exhibit a much high level of saturation magnetization are
generally referred to as ferromagnetic materials. Ferromagnetic materials have a enamors
applications in industry and in other places.
The ferromagnetic materials have vast applications in industries and power plants. In
some places ferromagnetic materials are also used for creating and distributing electricity. The
ferromagnetic materials are based on the property of Bohr Magneton. Bohr Magneton is defined
as the moment which is associated with the electronic property of spin.
The field of NDT is a very broad, interdisciplinary field that plays a critical role in
inspecting that structural component and systems perform their function in a reliable fashion.
Certain standards has been also implemented to assure the reliability of the NDT tests and prevent
certain errors due to either the fault in the equipment used, the miss-application of the methods or
the skill and the knowledge of the inspectors.

Successful NDT tests allow locating and characterizing material conditions and flaws
that might otherwise cause planes to crash, reactors to fail, trains to derail, pipelines to burst, and
variety of less visible, but equally troubling events. However, these techniques generally require
considerable operator skill and interpreting test results accurately may be difficult becau se the
results can be subjective. These methods can be performed on metals, plastics, ceramics,
composites, cermets, and coatings in order to detect cracks, internal voids, surface cavities,
delamination, incomplete c defective welds and any type of flaw that could lead to premature
failure.

1.2 NDT TEST METHODS:

1.2.1 Visual Inspection:
Visual Inspection is particularly effective detecting macroscopic flaws, such as poor
welds. Many welding flaws are macroscopic: crater cracking, undercutting, slag inclusion,
incomplete penetration welds, and the like. Likewise, VI is also suitable for detecting flaws in
composite structures and piping of all types. Essentially, visual inspection should be performed
the way that one would inspect a new car prior to delivery, etc. Bad welds or joints, missing
fasteners or components, poor fits, wrong dimensions, improper surface finish, delaminations in
coatings, large cracks, cavities, dents, inadequate size, wrong parts, lack of code approval stamps
and similar proofs of testing.

Fig: 1 Visual Inspection.

1.2.2 Radiography:
Radiography has an advantage over some of the other processes in that the
radiography provides a permanent reference for the internal soundness of the object that is
radiographed. The x-ray emitted from a source has an ability to penetrate metals as a function of
the accelerating voltage in the x-ray emitting tube. If a void present in the object being
radiographed, more x-rays will pass in that area and the film under the part in turn will have more
exposure than in the non-void areas.
The sensitivity of x-rays is nominally 2% of the materials thickness. Thus for a piece
of steel with a 25mm thickness, the smallest void that could be detected would be 0.5mm in
dimension. For this reason, parts are often radiographed in different planes. A thin crack does not
show up unless the x-rays ran parallel to the plane 0 the crack. Gamma radiography is identical to
x-ray radiography in function. The difference is the source of the penetrating electromagnetic
radiation which is a radioactive material such m Co 60. However this method is less popular
because of the hazards of handling radioactive materials.

Fig: 2 Radiography
1.2.3 Liquid (Dye) penetrant method:
Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the most widely used nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) methods. Its popularity can be attributed to two main factors, which are its
relative ease of use and its flexibility. The technique is based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn
into a "clean" surface breaking flaw by capillary action. .

This method is an inexpensive and convenient technique for surface defect inspection.
The limitations of the liquid penetrant technique include the inability to inspect subsurface flaws
and a loss of resolution on porous materials. Liquid penetrant testing is largely used on
nonmagnetic materials for which magnetic particle inspection is not possible.
Materials that are commonly inspected using LPI include the following; metals
(aluminum, copper, steel, titanium, etc.), glass, many ceramic materials, rubber, plastics.
Liquid penetrant inspection is used to inspect of flaws that break the surface of the sample. Some
of these flaws are listed below; fatigue cracks, quench cracks grinding cracks, overload and impact
fractures, porosity, laps seams, pin holes in welds, lack of fusion or braising along the edge of the
bond line.

Fig: 3 Dye penetrant method.

1.2.4 Magnetic particles:
Magnetic particle inspection is one of the simple, fast and traditional nondestructive
testing methods widely used because of its convenience and low cost. This method uses magnetic
fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect flaws in components. The only
requirement from an inspect ability standpoint is that the component being inspected must be made
of a ferromagnetic material such iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys, since these materials
are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to be effective.
On the other hand, an enormous volume of structural steels used in engineering is magnetic. In its
simplest application, an electromagnet yoke is placed on the surface of the part to be examined, a
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kerosene-iron filling suspension is poured on the surface and the electromagnet is energized. If
there is a discontinuity such as a crack or a flaw on the surface of the part, magnetic flux will be
broken and a new south and north pole will form at each edge of the discontinuity.

Then just like if iron particles are scattered on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to
and cluster at the pole ends of the magnet, the iron particles will also be attracted at the edges of
the crack behaving poles of the magnet. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the
actual crack and this is the basis for magnetic particle inspection. For the best sensitivity, the lines
of magnetic force should be perpendicular to the defect.
1.2.5 Eddy current testing:
Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction. When
alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in
and around the conductor. This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum
and collapses as the current is reduced to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the
close proximity to this changing magnetic field, current will be induced in this second conductor.
These currents are influenced by the nature of the material such as voids, cracks, changes in grain
size, as well as physical distance between coil and material. These currents form an impedance on
a second coil which is used to as a sensor. In practice a probe is placed on the surface of the part
to be inspected, and electronic equipment monitors the eddy current in the work piece through the
same probe. The sensing circuit is a part of the sending coil.
Eddy currents can be used for crack detection, material thickness measurements,
coating thickness measurements, conductivity measurements for material identification, heat
damage detection, case depth determination, heat treatment monitoring.
Some of the advantages of eddy current inspection include; sensitivity to small cracks
and other defects, ability to detect surface and near surface defects, immediate results, portable
equipment, suitability for many different applications, minimum part preparation, no necessity to
contact the part under inspection, ability to inspect complex shapes and sizes of conductive
materials.
Some limitation of eddy current inspection; applicability just on conductive materials,
necessity for an accessible surface to the probe, skillful and trained personal, surface finish and
roughness, necessity for reference standards for setup, limited depth of penetration, inability to
detect of the flaws lying parallel to the probe coil winding and probe scan direction.

Fig: 4 Eddy Current.

1.2.6 Ultrasonic Inspection:
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses a high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations
and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection I evaluation,
dimensional measurements, material characterization, and more. A typical UT inspection system
consists of several functional units, such as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A
pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulse. Driven by the
pulser, the transducer of various types and shapes generates high frequency ultrasonic energy
operating based on the piezoelectricity technology with using quartz, lithium sulfate, or various
ceramics. Most inspections are carried out in the frequency rang of 1 to 25MHz. Couplants are
used to transmit the ultrasonic waves from the transducer to the test piece; typical couplants are
water, oil, glycerin and grease.
The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of
waves and reflected from the opposing surface. An internal defect such as crack or void interrupts
the waves' propagation and reflects back a portion of the ultrasonic wave. The amplitude of the
energy and the time required for return indicate the presence and location of any flaws in the
workpiece.
The ultrasonic inspection method has high penetrating power and sensitivity. It can
be used from various directions to inspect flaws in large parts, such as rail road wheels pressure
vessels and die blocks. This method requires experienced personnel to properly conduct the
inspection and to correctly interpret the results.
As a very useful and versatile NDT method, ultrasonic inspection method has the
following advantages; sensitivity to both surface and subsurface discontinuities, superior depth of
penetration for flaw detection or measurement, ability to single-sided access for pulse-echo
technique, high accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape, minimal

part preparation, instantaneous results with electronic equipment, detailed imaging with automated
systems, possibility for other uses such as thickness measurements.
Its limitations; necessity for an accessible surface to transmit ultrasound, extensive
skill and training, requirement for a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound energy into
test specimen, limits for roughness, shape irregularity, smallness, thickness or not homogeneity,
difficulty to inspect of coarse grained materials due to low sound transmission and high signal
noise, necessity for the linear defects to be oriented parallel to the sound beam, necessity for
reference standards for both equipment calibration, and characterization of flaws.

Fig: 5 Ultrasonic Inspection

1.2.7 Acoustic Method:
There are two different kind of acoustic methods: (a) acoustic emission; (b) acoustic impact
technique. Acoustic emission:
This technique is typically performed by elastically stressing the part or structure, for
example, bending a beam, applying torque to a shaft, or pressurizing a vessel and monitoring the
acoustic responses emitted from the material. During the structural changes the material such as
plastic deformation, crack initiation, and propagation, phase transformation, abrupt reorientation
of grain boundaries, bubble formation during boiling in cavitation, friction and wear of sliding
interfaces, are the source of acoustic signals. Acoustic emissions are detected with sensors
consisting of piezoelectric ceramic elements. This method is particularly effective for continuous
surveillance of load-bearing structures.
Acoustic impact technique:
This technique consists of tapping the surface of an object and listening to and
analyzing the signals to detect discontinuities and flaws. The principle is basically the same as
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when one taps walls, desktops or countertops in various locations with a finger or a hammer and
listens to the sound emitted. Vitrified grinding wheels are tested in a similar manner to detect
cracks in the wheel that may not be visible to the naked eye. This technique is easy to perform and
can be instrumented and automated. However, the results depend on the geometry and mass of the
part so a reference standard is necessary for identifying flaws.

2. Literature Review
The application of the main NDT (Non-Destructive Testing) methods associated with the
inspection of metals during manufacture. The NDT of metals is a vast subject covering a large
number of NDT methods and a wide range of defects. Within the scope and length of this article
the defects highlighted are limited to those that are most common and associated with NDT
standards. A brief description is provided for a selected set of metal processes including the parent
material, forgings, castings, welds, and coatings. Each defect associated with each metal process
is described briefly along with the most suitable NDT method. A range of dedicated and special
NDT methods are also discussed for certain defects that are difficult to detect by conventional
methods.
L. Boni, et. al. metal pads which have thin bonds are more effective to achieve damage tolerance
in case of cracks present in structures. Four different tests are performed based on four different
configurations to know about the residual strength and the growth of crack. It is observed that a
minor role is played in case of thin bonded metals by pads debonding.
A.chudnovsky. has discussed in his paper about the empirical equations. Under the conditions of
creep and fatigue, these equations are used to calculate the slow growth of the crack. Energy
release rate or stress intensity factor are the basic functions in terms of which the propagation rate
of crack is generally expressed. Under varying load conditions, the crack behavior is determined
using crack stability analysis. Also the crack growth resistance technique is used to determine the
crack behavior. A constant crack resistance is assumed for stable crack propagation.
Haiying Zhang, et. Al. has mentioned in his paper about the crack-layer concept for the slow
growth of crack. The estimation of lifetime and fracture growth is done by modeling of crack-layer
model. This method has been applied to a numerous engineering materials in past few decades for
the brittle fracture. Finite Element Methods are used to calculate the driving forces of crack-layer.

3. Description
3.1 Crack Defects
Crack is nothing but simply a failure of material. Crack can also be understood as
breakdown of component without complete separation of its adjoining parts. Areas in low shear
and where bending plays a major role usually have flexural cracks. Bending stresses and shear
stresses are the key features for a crack to propagate and finally resulting in fracture. For a safe
structure, detection of crack is must otherwise the structure may collapse as a result of propagation
of crack. Crack could be symmetrical or asymmetrical. When determination of crack is done in a
rotor, then a spare rotor is used for the substitution of cracked rotor otherwise the consequences
may be hazardous. Cracks are classified as deep cracks or semi-deep cracks. Semi deep cracks are
the results of varying pressure and humidity conditions followed by the type of material used. Due
to sudden movement of structures as a result of earthquakes, semi-deep cracks are developed into
deep cracks. Complex Variable Approach is used to derive the general equation of crack in
anisotropic bodies. Stress functions are used to determine the value of stress-intensity factor which
represents the conditions of crack and its extension.
Microscopic techniques are used to determine and locate cracks and to study their
nature. Ultrasound, X-Ray etc. is used to identify the cracks and structural damage. Then
microscopic techniques are used to analyze the damage done to the structure. A high level of
precision is achieved using high powerful tools such as inverted microscopes. The Worn out part
is removed and analyzed under high resolution magnification to get more information about that
part.
Fatigue is the most important reason of crack initiation and propagation. Research
results show, in modern industry, most of the mechanical structures failures caused by fatigue
cracks. So the perfect solution is monitoring hot spots on structural part, detecting the initiation of
fatigue cracks, testing the growth of them and giving alarm before structural parts damages. An
electron microscope is probably the most positive means of measuring the fatigue cracks size. But
microscopic examination interrupts the structure operation process, so it can be used as a research
tool during the course of a fatigue experiment only. Researchers have been interested in finding a
method which can be successfully applied in the field for a long time.
3.2 DEFECTS IN METALS:
The NDT methods for metals are considered here in the context of the main defects
associated with both the manufacturing (or fabrication) processes and with in -service defects. It
is important to realize first of all that not every possible defect can be detected by NDT. Moreover,
it is often not the defect that is detected but the resulting effect on the material (i.e. the physical
properties have been modified, such as the attenuation to ultrasound or the electrical conductivity).
NDT standards are invariably written for manufactured components and are aimed principally at
ensuring the quality of manufacture (e.g., the quality of the welding or casting) and that the
components are fit-for-purpose. For in-service defects, ad-hoc NDT procedures are usually
necessary, which are often based on national NDT standards, but the nature of the in -service
defect, the component accessibility, and the material preparation are just a few of the additional
considerations that are critical in the choice of method and procedure. These ad-hoc NDT
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procedures are often company specific and while it is difficult to make generalized statements
about them in the way that is possible with the NDT of manufacturing defects, some consideration
will be given to the NDT of in-service defects.
The main type of defects that are relevant and that can occur at the manufacturing
stage in five principal areas: parent material, forgings, castings, welds, and coatings. These five
areas are considered to represent the largest percentage of metal components and products. A
section is also devoted to the principle categories of in-service defects. For each defect identified
and its likely cause, the most appropriate NDT methods are discussed and why they are the most
suitable. The article finishes by discussing how the data collected in connection with the defects
are interpreted and how this information is used to assess and sentence the defects.
The importance of detecting even small defects at the manufacturing stage cannot be
overstated. Such small defects can develop into fatigue or stress-corrosion cracks in-service, which
can be notoriously difficult to detect until it is too late and the component (or product) suffers
catastrophic failure.
The term defect is just one of many terms used by industry to describe an imperfect
material or component. In some texts and NDT standards, the term defect is taken to mean that
the defect is out of specification with the manufacturing code and a repair is necessary. Other terms
such as imperfection, discontinuities, or flaw, are often used as more generic terms to
describe that something is present or missing that could compromise the integrity of the material
or component.
3.2.1 Defects in Parent Material
The term parent material is used here to represent the nature of the material as it
leaves the mill or the machine shop. It could be in the form of ingots (i.e. large rectangular casts,
weighing several tons), or billets (i.e. much smaller rectangular pieces, usually produced from
ingots by some additional casting process), or the part of the component that has not been welded.
The types of defects considered in the parent material are as follows:
Surface Irregularities comprise rust, loose scale, weld spatter, notches, and grooves. These
may have arisen because of the casting process itself, the general conditions under which
the material is kept, or even from NDT methods such as Magnetic Particle Inspection (see
Detection of Defects and Assessment of Serviceability), which can leave particles behind
or damage the material at the contact points.
Surface Roughness refers to the general surface condition, which is measured in m.
Porosity occurs when small bubbles of gas get trapped in the hot metal as it cools and
solidifies. These bubbles become elongated and distributed within the metal.
Inclusions, both metallic and nonmetallic, can occur because of impurities in the base
metal, through the refining process, where oxides and silicates are produced, or through
additives to improve the machining properties of the material.
Laminations can occur during the pouring process of the metal where splashes can become
trapped in the material.
Pipe is a defect associated with shrinkage in the upper portion of the ingot during cooling
and solidification. There is usually insufficient molten metal to feed the ingot and a cavity
is formed, typically in the shape of a cone or cylinder.
Pipe can sometimes extend significantly along the length of the ingot (Figure 1).
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High Hydrogen Content can arise when water vapor reacts with the molten metal to form
hydrogen, which subsequently gets trapped in the metal grain boundaries. This can
cause flaking, which is the appearance of small cracks at the grain boundaries with highly
reflective and faceted properties.

Fig 6. A longitudinal section through an ingot, showing extensive centerline shrinkage.

3.2.2 Defects in Forgings
Forgings are formed from ingots or billets, which are then shaped using hammers or presses by
forcing the solid metal into a die cavity.
The defects that occur in forgings may have originated from when the ingot (or billet)
was first cast (see section 2.1), or through the initial process of reducing the ingot (or billet) before
forging or through the forging process itself. The main types of defects associated with forging are
as follows:
Surface Defects can arise because of the working of the ingot or billet. For example, loose
pieces of metal getting rolled onto the surface, discontinuities or laps occurring when the
hot metal is folded over but not bonding because of oxides on the surface.
Bursts are internal tears or ruptures, which are a result of some further process on an already
weakened ingot (or billet) because of any of the defects already mentioned. During forging
these defects may occur because the temperature is too low.
Burning can occur when some of the metal constituents, with lower melting points, get
remelted because of significant overheating. This type of defect reduces significantly the
mechanical properties of the component and is an irreparable defect.

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Internal Cracks can occur for a number of reasons: poor design of the die, sudden change
in the rate of heating or cooling, the metal is too cold, the hammer is too light. High
hydrogen content in the ingot, already mentioned, can manifest itself at this stage as
hydrogen flaking.
3.2.3 Defects in Castings:
A casting is formed when the molten metal is poured into a mold and then solidifies. For
most steel components the mold has the final desired shape, and so after casting there are usually
just the finishing operations to manufacture the final product.
Some casting defects have no influence on the service life of the component, but affect
the cosmetic appearance and increase the cost of machining and finishing the component. The
International Committee of Foundry Technical Association has a classification of nearly 100
common casting defects. It is inappropriate to consider all these defects in this article. Here, only
those defects critical to the integrity of the component and relevant to NDT are considered and are
grouped more generally as follows:
Surface Defects can arise for a whole host of reasons, but are mostly associated with the
condition of the mold, and they include shrinkage, cracks, and dross.
Cavities or shrinkage defects are formed when the liquid metal solidifies and contracts.
They often occur in regions where there is a local change in section thickness or acute
angle changes. At these positions, hot spots develop and cannot be fed adequately and lead
to local shrinkage (Figure 2).
Hot Cracking or Tearing are associated with stresses that develop when the contracting and
cooling metal is restrained by the mold or by a thinner section that has already cooled
(Figure 2).
Airlocks may appear as a cavity or several cavities and occur when air is entrapped as the
molten metal is poured into the mold. Airlocks usually appear just below the surface.
Gas Holes are normally discrete defects that arise from the evolution of dissolved gases
from the metal.
Blowholes are gas holes that arise specifically from the mold and not from the metal. These
are also usually close to the surface.
Inclusions, metallic and nonmetallic, can occur from the presence of foreign elements,
products of metal treatment, and sand from the mold.

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Fig 7. Illustrations of: (a) cavities, and (b) hot cracking in castings
3.2.4 Defects in welds
There are numerous welding processes used in industry, and each process produces its
own characteristic defects. This section will focus on defects characteristic of arc welding
processes (i.e. manual metal arc, submerged arc, gas metal arc, gas tungsten arc, and submerged
arc) but will briefly discuss other welding processes (e.g., electron beam, resistance). The specific
defects considered are the main ones that are associated with national NDT standards and are
described as follows:
Cracks are fracture-type defects, which have sharp tips, and a small crack opening
displacement (COD) compared with the length and width. They can be longitudinal (i.e.
along the weld direction) or transverse to the weld (see Defects Introduced in Metals
During Fabrication and Service).
Lack of Side Wall/Root Fusion is when the fusion is incomplete on the wall and root of the
weld preparation, respectively (Figure 3a). This is usually caused by poor electrode
manipulation.
Lack of Penetration is when the weld penetration is less than that specified (Figure 3d).
Porosity (Isolated/Linear/Wormhole/Cluster) represents the different ways that porosity
(see section 2.1) appears in arc welds. The particular type of porosity is consistent with its
shape and distribution (e.g., wormhole porosity is a term for elongated voids with a clear
worm-like shape and texture). Cluster of porosity is a grouping of isolated porosity (Figure
3b).
Linear Inclusions are linearly distributed and can be nonmetallic and metallic. For example,
slag inclusions are a fairly common form of linear inclusion. With each pass of the welding
rod, some slag (or scale) is formed at the surface. If this is not removed, the next pass of
the welding rod will entrap the slag. Typically, for metal inclusions bits of copper or
tungsten drop off the welding electrode into the weld.
Root Undercut is when a groove is melted in the parent metal either side of the weld root
and is not filled by the weld metal (Figure 3e). The integrity of the weld root is extremely
important and in most NDT standards there is a specific method of inspection.

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Excess penetration is when too much weld metal is produced at the root end of the weld.
Misalignment is when two parts of the parent material are not set or aligned properly
before welding. This manifests itself through an unusually wide weld cap. While a
misalignment may not compromise the integrity of the weld, it can interfere with
subsequent inspection (Figure 3c).

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4. Methodology
NDT is a testing without destroying the elements or components used in testing. In modern world,
structures are subjected to high pressure and high load conditions. The main purpose of Non
Destructive Testing (NDT) is to make sure that the structure, component, material or element
doesnt fail within the pre-determined time.
Non Destructive Testing (NDT) is also used to check the quality of raw material
before processing the part and is used until the final inspection of product.
Apart from all the above mentioned uses, Non Destructive Testing (NDT) for condition
monitoring, energy level monitoring, residual life assessment.
There are four main criteria for Non Destructive Testing (NDT) techniques
Type of Material
Type of Defect
Size of Defect
Location of Defect
4.2 Common Non Destructive Testing (NDT) Methods
4.2.1 Volumetric Examination Method
Ultrasonic Testing-UT
In this method sound waves of high frequency are used to detect the changes in the properties of
materials. It is used to determine the thickness of metallic and non-metallic materials whose only
one side is accessible.
Radiography Testing-RT
In this method the source of radiation is an X-Ray device or Radioactive Isotope. X-rays are passed
through the material and are captured on film just like in a simple X-ray. Digital Devices are also
used to capture X-Rays. After the film is processed an image is obtained which shows Variation
in density. The density change depicts the imperfections.

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Fig. 8: Non Destructive Evaluation (NDE) Principles

4.2.2 Surface Examination Method
Visual Inspection-VT
It is the oldest method. A component is scanned using high power lens or Cameras to determine
the Surface condition of that component.
Liquid Penetrant-LP
In this method visible or fluorescent dye solutions are used to coat the test object. The dye in excess
is removed. Penetrant is made to flow out of the imperfections. With the naked eyes, the change
in color between the penetrant and developer is used. In case the imperfection is not visible with
the naked eyes, ultraviolet lamp is used to see the imperfections.
Magnetic Particle-MP
Magnetic particle is a fast and easy method used in iron and steel materials for the detection of
surface irregularities. Magnetic flux lines and magnetic particles are used to detect the defects in
components. Wherever the magnetic flux lines changes, discontinuity is located.

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Fig 9: Magnetic Particle Inspection Method

Eddy Current-EC
It is a non-contact method. In eddy current testing, induced magnetic flux is responsible for the
generation of electric current in conductive materials. Imperfections cause the change in properties
of material and change the induced magnetic field. When detected, these changes indicate the
imperfections in test material.
4.2.3 Integrity Examination Method
Leak Testing-LT
Pressure gauges, Soap bubble test, electronic listening devices, Liquid and gas penetrant are used
to detect the leak. In pressure Vessels, pipelines and other pressure retaining components, several
other technologies are used to detect the leak.
Acoustic Emission Testing-AET
Emission is defined as during stressing a solid material the imperfections grows and if short bursts
of acoustic energy are emitted by material, these are known as Emissions. Special Receivers are
used in ultrasonic testing to detect the acoustic emissions. The source of emission is evaluated by
studying the intensity, rate and other characteristics of emitted ray. Triangular technique is used
to locate the defect.
4.2.4 Condition Monitoring Method
Thermography-Infrared Testing-IR
The thermal profile of any item, building or machine is generated using thermography in graphic
form so that a working temperature assessment is derived. The difference in the component
temperature is identified by doing this.

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Vibration Analysis-VA
Vibration noise is produced by the rotary machines. The condition of the machine is estimate by
monitoring the frequency, amplitude etc. of the vibrations. The vibrations cause some parts of
machine to crack or rapture.

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5. CASE STUDY
Case Study1: An Investigation of Non Destructive Testing of Pressure Vessel
Magnetic particle testing:
As the Pressure vessel was fabricated from a ferromagnetic material and hence
Magnetic Particle Testing could be employed. Dry and fluorescent continuous magnetic particle
testing was carried out. It was used to detect the surface and subsurface defects in the weld region.
Current was passed through as in a straight conductor which created a circular magnetic field.
Magnetization of the component was accomplished by making the component, a part of the
electrical circuit by means of a hand yoke. Direct current (DC) was used to detect subsurface as
well as surface defects. This type of magnetization was carried out over the entire weld region of
the fabricated Pressure vessel. This magnetization was limited to the spacing between the legs of
the magnetic yoke. The yoke used was of SIMS, Hyderabad make. The current used was half wave
direct current (HWDC) with amperage of 800 Amps. Since the material being a soft material,
continuous method was employed. The Dry Continuous method is very sensitive and will give
indications of very fine defects.
The depth of magnetization is around 6mm. There was no need for demagnetization
as the component was of soft material which loses its magnetic field once supply is switched off.
Very high sensitiveness are possible with wet particle inspection, particularly where a fluorescent
powder is used and inspection is made under Ultra-Violet light. The detecting medium was
Magnoflux of ITWS India Ltd make, fluorescent powder in Wet Magnetic Particle Testing and
Automag of NDT consumables for Dry Visible Powder Magnetic Particle Testing. The various
accessories used were Black Lamp 100W, Magnetic Hand Yoke and ferromagnetic particle
powder as mentioned above.
Ultrasonic testing:
This technique is applied to detect both surface and sub-surface (internal) defects.
Ultrasonic sound waves of frequency 4 MHz for 00 probe and 700 were used. A 40 SAE Couplant
Oil was employed as coupling agent between the transducer crystal and the metal so as to decrease
the reflection of waves at the metal crystal interface. An Ultrasonic beam being transmitted
through a metal will be totally reflected at the far surface of the material, a metal / air interface. It
will be also be wholly or partially reflected by any internal surface, namely cracks or laminations,
porosity and non-metallic inclusions, subject to the limitation that the size of the object is not less
than one wavelength. In the ultrasonic test equipment the signals were displayed on the screen of
a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRT). The equipment used was Modsonic Einstein TFT-II digital
CRT of Modsonic Equipment manufacturer, Ahmedabad make.Both angle and normal probes
were used. The probes used were 00 probe of 10 PI - NM make and 700 of 8 x 9 mm size probe
of PI make. Reflection technique was employed in which access to only one surface was required.
A radial defect in a cylindrical member is not generally detectable using normal probe
inspection, as the defect will be parallel to the ultrasonic beam, in these circumstances the use of
an angle probe reflection technique will clearly show the presence of defects. In many cases the
fact that a defect is present does not necessarily mean that a component must be thrown out.
20

Defects may be tolerated provided that they do not exceed a certain acceptable size.
One of the benefits of Ultrasonic Testing is that defect size can be accurately determined. In order
to be able to determine defect size accurately, the oscilloscope must be calibrated and this is done
with the aid of test pieces containing artificial defects of certain specific sizes.
As far as the reference blocks are concerned a 20 mm Side Drilled Holes amplitude
block was used. Area amplitude blocks are made from material with the same acoustic properties
as that of the test component.
Artificial flaws of different sizes are machined to the same depth in the reference
block. For calibration purpose IIW (International Institute of Welding) steel calibration blocks
were used for the calibration of both angle beam and direct beam probes prior to contact inspection
of component. The Scanning was done 49db for 00 probes and 56db for 700 probes.

Figure 10: Projects Test Block

Figure 11: DAC Triangle

Figure 12: Calibration Echoes

21

Figure 13: Graph showing Acceptable and reject able area for the component
Tan = S.D / d (S.D = Surface Distance)
Sin = S.D / B.P
B.P = Beam Path
Cos = d / B.P
Table 1: Dimensions of testing

t/4
t/2
3t/4

Depth
d1=5
d2=10
d3=15

S.D
13.73
27.47
41.21

B.P
14.70
29.41
44.11

RESULTS AND SUMMERY

In the region of Long seam weld and circumferential seam weld few undercuts, porosity, porus
along with hair line crack has been observed.

Figure 14: Inspection showing defects viz; porosity

Figure 15: Hair line crack observed under ultraviolet lamp

No significant indications were found on the circumferential seam weld at two parting plane, one
each on left and right side when magnetic particle test was employed. Also Ultrasonic Inspection
22

established that the welding done was under acceptable limits and no further machining process is
required like grinding.

Figure 16: Inspection at Circumferential Seam Weld

Figure 17: Inspection at Flange weld

Magnetic particle testing could not be applied to its fullest at varying cross sections as the current
selection was difficult. If high current was used then it would permanently magnetize the
component and interfere with other accessories in vicinity. Ultrasonic testing could not be
performed to its fullest at different contours.

23

Case Study 2: Defect Signal Analysis For Non Destructive Testing Assessment
Material
The material use in this experiment is DF3 carbon steel pipe weld coating. The content
of carbon may range from more than 0.015% to 3%. The mixtures of small amount of carbon
change the mechanical properties of steel. The composite metal and carbon steel produce carbon
steel with high mechanical strength, hardness and other valuable mechanical properties such as
the conductivity and the permeability of the material. The work piece was carbon steel pipe weld
coating containing a weld and artificial defect. The cracks in the weld pool are horizontal affected
zone (HAZ), centre line and transverse crack which are varying in depths. Figure-3 shows the
carbon steel pipe weld coating and defect schematic.

(a)

(b)
Figure-18. a) Carbon steel pipe welds coating b) Artficial defect schematic.
Method
Based on the flow chart in Figure-4, the inspection start by setting parameter eddy
current instrument. The frequency and bridge probe setting is set to 100 kHz and 0.5 second. Phase
and filter ratio eddy current testing for this inspection is set to 90 degrees and 50/300.For
calibration setting, the probe must cross on slot 1.0 mm in the calibration reference block. Move
the weld probe to the right and to the left through the slot 1.0 mm. Set the phase angle 90 o and the
signal deflection to the 80% - 100% FSH (full screen height).

24

Figure-19. Steps involved in defect inspection.

Eddy current set Phase 3 can inspect the defect utilizing positive scan and negative
scan. The distinguishment between the positive and negative scan method is a way of
positioning the probe when making defect inspection. Figure-5 shows how to utilize positive
scan and negative scan technique in defect inspection.

Figure-20. Positive and negative scan technique.

For complete coverage and comprehensive defect inspection using eddy current in
metal weld area, the probe must be scanned over the weld area with managed movement.
Probeto-surface orientation must be maintained as probe wobble can affect defect signal
interpretation. The experimental setup is shown in Figure-6. Inspections were carried out on
defect types of HAZ, transverse and centre line.

25

Figure-21. Experimental setup for carbon steel pipe weld coating defect inspection using eddy
current testing.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the following, some of the obtained results are presented. Defect measurement of
HAZ, centre line and transverse crack were performed using positive and negative scanning. The
material used is carbon steel pipe weld coating. Gain for eddy current setting is 46 dB. Signal
amplitude and phase angle are recorded in different eddy current frequency. Table-2 shows the
signal phase angle for positive scan. The degree of the phase on three types of defects is decreased
when decreasing the frequency.
Table-2. Signal phase angle for positive scan.
Frequency (kHz)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

HAZ
0
4
96
00
05
16
20
25
40
60

Centre Line
90
92
94
100
106
120
124
135
150
166

Transverse
90
92
96
99
106
117
122
130
143
162

Signal amplitude is very consequential for the process of quantifying the depth of
cracks in eddy current testing. The signal amplitude will compare with the signal amplitude during
the calibration process for getting authentic value of crack depth on the work piece to be quantified.
Signal amplitude values for the type of HAZ, transverse and centre line shows the inversely
proportional to the frequency eddy current used during the scanning. This denotes a low frequency

26

below 100 kHz is not suitable for making quantifications of carbon steel pipe weld coating. Signal
amplitude for positive scan eddy current technique is shown in Table-3.

Table-3 Signal amplitude for positive scan.

Frequency
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

HAZ
7
9
5
2
0

Centre Line
34
28
18
14
11
7
4
3
2
1

Transverse
31
24
17
15
9
6
5
4
2
1

In eddy current testing factors that affect signal quality as lift off and conductivity
materials to be tested should be considered. This is to ascertain that the results obtained are precise.
Signal for scan test utilizing positive methods shown in Figure-7. The experiment is carried out by
utilizing a frequency between 10 kHz to 100 kHz.

Figure-22. Positive scan signal.

In order to retrieve valid comparison of each type scanning method, experimental tests
have been executed on carbon steel pipe weld coating with a similar parameter setting in both
method scan. Phase angle measurement for negative scan eddy current technique is shown in
Table-4.
27

Table-4. Signal phase angle for negative scan.

Frequency (kHz)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

HAZ
270
273
275
281
288
295
305
315
320
345

Centre Line
270
274
276
280
286
296
307
314
319
342

Transverse
270
275
276
281
285
296
305
312
318
343

Phase angle signal for negative scan method is inversely proportional to the frequency
utilized. The optimum phase angle for negative testing is 270 degrees at 100 % FSH. This
demonstrates the utilization of the appropriate frequency is important in quantifying the defect
utilizing eddy current testing. The signal amplitude of the negative scan method decreases
proportionally with decrease the frequency eddy current test utilized for HAZ, transverse and
centre line defect. Optimum signal is the signal amplitude most proximate to the signal amplitude
obtained during the calibration process. Optimum amplitude in negative scan for HAZ defect is
25 mm. Signal amplitude for negative scan eddy current technique is shown in Table-5.
Table-5 Signal amplitude for negative scan.

Frequency(kHz)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

HAZ
23
21
20
13
12
10
8
5
2
1

Centre Line
33
27
18
14
12
7
6
5
3
1

28

Transverse
31
25
16
14
9
5
4
3
2
1

The optimum signal for a negative scan method should be in the 270 degree phase angle. For HAZ
defect scanning the result show frequency at 100 kHz has signaled at 270 degree and signal
amplitude most proximate to calibration signal. This shows the frequency of 100 kHz is the most
optimal for negative scan eddy current method in carbon steel pipe weld inspection. Signal for
scan test utilizing negative methods shown in Figure-8.

Figure-23. Positive scan defect signal for centre line crack.

Selection the optimum gain in eddy current instrument setting is paramount in crack
inspection utilizing eddy current method. The optimum value of the gain can provide a defect
signal with clear characteristic which is consequential in defect sizing. Figure-9 shows the defect
signal for centre line cracks utilizing frequency 100 kHz to10 kHz and a gain of 40 dB, 42 dB and
44 dB. For positive scan method, the difference in phase angle signal defect for centre line
commences at a frequency of 50 kHz. Signal phase angle incremented by increase the gain from
40 dB to 44 dB.

Figure-24. Negative scan defect signal for centre line crack

29

Characteristics of the defect signal for negative scan method shows homogeneous
attributes with the positive scan method. Phase angle defect signal difference commences at 50
kHz. This shows that the selection of the appropriate gain is consequential for the defect signal
analysis in defect inspection using eddy current testing. Base on result in positive and negative
scanning, similar results were obtained on the other type of crack, confirming the capability of the
both scan techniques to quantify the measurement value of the defect depth. Some considerations
can be made:
The different frequency in eddy current testing affect the signal amplitude and phase angle of
the output signal.
For carbon steel pipe weld coating 100 kHz is the most suitable frequency for defect
measurement.
Phase angle and amplitude signal of eddy current for HAZ, centre line and transverse crack
measurement are inverse proportional to the frequency use in the inspection
SUMMERY:
In this paper a characteristic of the eddy current signal for HAZ, transverse and center
line crack is investigated. The suitable frequency for optimum eddy current defect inspection is
distinguished. Tests carried out in experimental environment have shown the suitability of positive
and negative scan method in various types of defect measurement.

30

6. Summery
Non Destructive testing (NDT) techniques have these common features:
Some degree of disassembly is used in many cases of machines or structures.
Thickness measurement would be an exception.
Real Time monitoring is not offered by any of the techniques.
Operator skill is required for the interpretation of results.
Operator must have access to equipment to perform tests.
Defects which occur as discontinuities at the surface will be indicates by the bleeding out of the
penetrant.
1.
However, localized surface imperfection, suction may occur from machining marks or
surface conditions may produce similar indications, whichever not relevant to the detection of
defects.
2.
Any indication which is suspected to be non-relevant is to be considered relevant till it is
proved otherwise.
3.
Relevant indications are those which result from mech. Discontinuities linear indications
are those indications in which the length is more than 3 times rounded indications are those
indications which are circular or elliptical with the length less than three times the width.
CASE STUDY 1: An investigation of Non Destructive Testing of Pressure Vessel.
CASE STUDY 2: Defect Signal Analysis for Non Destructive Testing Assessment.

31

7. REFERENCES

[1]. Crack propagation in flat panels stiffened by bonded pads, International Journal of Fatigue,
Volume 68, November 2014, Pages 1-9
[2]. Slow crack growth, its modeling and crack-layer approach: A review, International Journal
of Engineering Science, Volume 83, October 2014, Pages 6-41
[3]. Predicting crack growth in specimens with overloads and cold-worked holes with residual
stresses, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Volume 127, September 2014, Pages 252-266
[4]. Molecular dynamic simulation of fatigue crack propagation in bcc iron under cyclic loading,
International Journal of Fatigue, Volume 68, November 2014, Pages 253-259
[5]. Applying the crack-layer concept to modeling of slow crack growth in polythene,
International Journal of Engineering Science, Volume 83, October 2014, Pages 42-56

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