DRQ

3(a) With reference to the table, explain why tropical rainforests have some of the
worlds most luxuriant vegetation and yet some of the worlds least fertile soils. [6]
Tropic forests such as tropical moist broadleaf forests found in humid tropics usually receive high
rainfall, averaging more than 2500mm throughout the year (e.g. Congolian forests) together with
high temperatures (>20C). Despite their infertile soils, such forests has more kinds of trees in the
world as shown by Table 1, a majority of soil in humid tropics is acidic and infertile, despite being
generally well-vegetated.. This can be explained by nutrient cycling in the tropical rainforest
ecosystem (Fig 1.) which is largely affected by its high annual temperature and rainfall.

Macronutrients such as oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen are required in large quantities and
are circulated and re-used frequently. Trace elements or micronutrients are required only in small
doses. Nutrients are taken in by plants and built into new organic matter. When animals consume
plants, they take up the nutrients. Eventually, nutrients return to the soils when plants and animals
die and are broken down by decomposers. Nutrient cycles involve the interaction between soil and
atmosphere and involve food chains. Factors affecting the store of nutrients and their transfers are
the amount and type of weathering, overland flow and soil erosion, eluviation, annual rainfall and
rate of decomposition.
In humid tropical rainforests, the input of nutrients from weathering and precipitation is high due to
the warm and wet conditions all year-round. Most nutrients are taken up by and held in biomass
(vegetation) due to the continual growing season. This allows for lush foliage within tropical
rainforests as well as infertile soils.
Decalcification is a form of laterisation and is a common process in moist humid tropics as the large
amount of surplus soil water from high rainfall moves down to groundwater zone, with the water
movement leaching alkaline calcium carbonate from soil. As soils lose calcium and eluviation occurs
at the lower horizons, where leached nutrients form a layer. Hence, soils become acidic and largely
infertile due to relatively small stores of nutrients in soils.
Breakdown of nutrients is rapid due to the abundance of decomposers such as bacteria, processing
organic matter rapidly before they are quickly taken up by living plants. There is little surface runoff
due to interception by expansive vegetation as well as high infiltration capacity of the thick regolith.
Therefore, nutrients at the soil surface are rarely washed away by overland flows despite prolonged
and heavy rainfall and most are absorbed by plants.

3(b) Using examples that you have learnt, examine the effects of human activities on
tropical soils. [8]
Human activities such as deforestation and farming have detrimental effects on tropical soils.
Deforestation causes nutrient cycling disruption, leading to soil laterisation and accelerated soil
erosion.
Removal of forests greatly reduces interception of rainfall by vegetation as well as protection from
rainsplash effect. The former increases amount of rainfall that reaches the ground and the latter
causes soil to be more compacted, decreasing infiltration capacity hence allowing for increased
runoff and stream discharge. As high intensity rain as in the humid tropics falls in large quantities for
prolonged periods, bare soils are easily eroded, reducing the once thick regolith to thin soils.
Nutrients in topsoils are also washed away by overland flows, causing soils to be infertile.
Accelerated soil erosion as well as the heavy tropical rainfall pattern in humid tropics results in
almost immediate soil erosion due to rainsplash erosion and the development of rills and gullies
along forested bare slopes. Hence, deforestation increases erodibility of soils.
Deforestation especially on slopes decreases shear strength as plant roots provide a strong
interlocking network to hold unconsolidated soil materials together, as well as remove excess
moisture in soil. Additionally, greater amounts of water are able to infiltrate soil layers at planes of
weaknesses, triggering slope failures and hence slumps. Deforestation reduces shear strength whilst
increasing shear stress, thereby causing greater frequency of mass movement and hence soil loss
occurs, resulting in thinner soils.
Soil laterisation also occurs frequents in tropical environment especially during the dry season, which
is especially common in the tropical savannah region (Aw) where there is a distinct dry season.
Laterisation depletes soils of their soluble substances such as silica rich and alkaline components and
enriches soils with insoluble substances such as hydrated aluminium and iron oxides. This makes top
soil highly infertile as nutrient rich soil is washed away as part of overland flow or eluviated deep into
the soil profile. This promotes the development and expansion of desert-like conditions in such an
environment.

Deforestation is often followed by urban use such as farming. Compaction by machinery and
animals trampling the soil increases surface runoff and erosion. Additionally, subsistence farming
methods such as slash-and-burn as conducted in Indonesian forests to grow oil palm is extremely
unsustainable. These methods deplete soil nutrients rapidly within the span of 3-4 years and farmers
move due to diminishing yields, resulting in more clearance and therefore more soil degradation.
Soils are also rapidly depleted of nutrients as biomass, especially in the humid tropics, tend to hold
most of the nutrients due to continuous growth. Deforestation halts the nutrient cycle as nutrients
are not returned to the soil through decaying organic matter, hence soils become extremely infertile.
The infertile soils are often treated with chemical fertilizers as well as herbicides and pesticides
which damage or alter the soil composition. Moreover, the exposed soil is subjected to runoff from
fertilisers and pesticides. Actions such as plowing kills decomposers such as earthworms that
increase the rate of chemical weathering, helping to thicken soils.

On the other hand, human activities such as reforestation, the deliberate planting of trees can
improve soil conditions. Although reforestation has the opposite effect of deforestation, deforestation
is occurring at an exceedingly rapid pace and NASA predicts that if current deforestation levels
continue, tropical forests would disappear completely in less than a century. Reforestation levels in
the tropics are lagging far behind and most likely would not be able to reverse the soil degradation
that has occurred over the past centuries.