Report Farhan Hassan IE Plant 2

Summer Internship 2015
Instrumentation Plant 2 - Modifications in the F&G System for the Installation

of New Ammonia Sensors
ENGRO FERTILIZERS LIMITED

August 27, 2015
Authored by: Farhan Hassan
GIKI
Summer Internship 2015

Instrumentation Plant 2 - Modifications in the F&G System for the Installation
of New Ammonia Sensors
Abstract:
Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015
This report covers all the details of the work I completed during my summer internship and Engro Fertilizers. It includes
the basics of Instrumentation and the relevant field work that I got in that field. It also discusses the F&G system and
the modifications that have been made to it for the installation of new Ammonia Sensors. The technology that was being
used at Engro Fertilizers currently has been outdated and the ammonia sensors are being upgraded to a different type
of sensors; Electrochemical toxic gas sensors. This change required a number of modifications which include
modifications in the plot plans, junction box drawings, system wiring drawings, HMI of the F&G system and minor
modifications in the logic. All these modifications have been covered in the report.
Acknowledgements:
It has been a great experience at Engro and I am highly grateful to my group leader, Mr Bilal Afzal, my mentor Mr Afzal
Asad, the entire Instrument Plant 2 team, especially Mr Hassan Iftikhar and Mr Mujtaba Ali Qureshi for guiding me
and providing me a wonderful opportunity to learn. It is because of their support and guidance that I am taking back a
lot of knowledge and a detailed understanding of a number of industrial concepts and work. I would also like to
acknowledge the help and support provided to me by the technicians whom I would frequently visit and escort during
their field jobs, trying my best to gain as much knowledge as possible.
Contents
ABSTRACT: ....................................................................................................................... 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: ....................................................................................................... 2
ABOUT THE COMPANY: ........................................................................................................ 4
WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE: .......................................................................................... 5
A. INSTRUMENTATION ...................................................................................................... 6
1. WHAT IS INSTRUMENTATION? ...................................................................................... 6
2. CONTROL SYSTEM:................................................................................................... 6
3. PROCESS VARIABLES: ................................................................................................ 6
3.1) FLOW ............................................................................................................ 6
3.2) TEMPERATURE ................................................................................................. 7
3.3) LEVEL ............................................................................................................ 8
3.4) PRESSURE ....................................................................................................... 8
4) INSTRUMENTS BEING USED AT ENGRO FERTILIZERS: ............................................................... 8
4.1) FLOW ................................................................................................................ 8
4.2) TEMPERATURE ................................................................................................ 15
4.3) LEVEL ........................................................................................................... 19
4.4) PRESSURE ...................................................................................................... 26
5) CONTROL VALVES: ..................................................................................................... 30
B. THE F&G SYSTEM ....................................................................................................... 32
1. INTRODUCTION TO THE F&G SYSTEM ........................................................................... 32
2. ARCHITECTURE OF THE F&G SYSTEM ............................................................................ 33
3. TOXIC GAS DETECTION SYSTEMS ................................................................................. 34
DIFFERENT AMMONIA GAS SENSING TECHNOLOGIES ................................................................ 35
CATALYTIC BEAD SENSORS: ........................................................................................... 35
3.1 SOLID STATE SENSORS:............................................................................................ 36
3.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSOR: .................................................................................... 37
4. CURRENT TECHNOLOGY BEING USED: ........................................................................... 37
5. PROPOSED TECHNOLOGY ......................................................................................... 37
6. MODIFICATIONS ..................................................................................................... 39
6. 1) PLOT PLANS ....................................................................................................... 40
6.2) JUNCTION BOX WIRING: ........................................................................................ 40
6.3) SYSTEM WIRING ................................................................................................... 41
C. GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 48
6.1) LOOP CYCLE OF OUR CHROMATOGRAPH: ................................................................... 49
6.2) THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY DETECTORS: ...................................................................... 50
6.3) MAXUM II WORKING PRINCIPLE: .............................................................................. 50
D. FIELD WORK AND TROUBLE SHOOTING: ........................................................................... 51
BIBLIOGRAPHY:................................................................................................................. 55
About the Company:

Engro Fertilizer Plant is situated 2 kilometers in south region of Daharki city. Engro produces Engro Urea, Engro
DAP, Engro NP, Engro Zarkhez, Zingro, Zorawar and Engro Envy. Engro Fertilizers is the largest urea producer in
Pakistan.
Engro Fertilizers Limited is a subsidiary of Engro Corporation and a renowned name in Pakistans fertilizer industry.
It is traded on the stock market under the symbol EFERT. Engro holds a vast, nationwide production and marketing
infrastructure and produces leading fertilizer brands optimized for local cultivation needs and demand. Engro is also a
leading importer and seller of Phosphate products, which are marketed extensively across Pakistan as phospatic
fertilizers.
Our extensive market development activities have ensured a sustained pull for our primary and secondary fertilizer
products and sellout productions since launch. Engro Fertilizers Limited enjoys loyal customer base across Pakistan
owing to its trusted fertilizer brands and continual farmer assistance in training and education.
Engro Fertilizers Limited was incorporated in June 2009, following a decision to demerge fertilizer concern from its
parent company Engro Chemical Pakistan Limited. The continual expansions and diversifications in its enterprises
necessitated a broad restructuring in Engro Chemical operations and management. To facilitate better oversight,
Engro Chemical Pakistan was converted into a holding company named Engro Corporation, and its fertilizer business
was subsequently demerged to a newly formed Engro subsidiary Engro Fertilizers Limited.
Engros fertilizer manufacturing facility at Daharki has been experiencing ongoing expansion. This, coupled with
distinct dynamics of highly nuanced fertilizer industry warranted an independent and dedicated business entity and
approach. The demerger of fertilizer concern was approved by High Court of Sind on December 9th, 2009, making it
effective as of January 1st 2010.
Engro is a dynamic company driven by a vision to improve productivity and lifestyle for thousands of farmers across
Pakistan. Engro Fertilizers Limited has earned itself a distinguished name by continually striving to uphold its
tradition and trust of its loyal consumer base.
Engro Fertilizers is poised to become the leading urea manufacturer in the country following major upgrading of its
manufacturing capabilities. ENVEN 1.3a tremendous expansion in Engros urea manufacturing facility went into
production in November 2010 and looks set to end Pakistans near-term urea imports, leading to benefits of an
expanded local urea base and savings in national exchequer.
Work Breakdown Structure:

Week
Objectives
Week 1
Basics of Instrumentation
Week 2
Instrumentation Details & Control Valves

Understanding of the current Ammonia Sensors and the F&G System
Week 3
Modifications in the System Wiring Drawings, Junction Box Drawings and Plot Plans
Understanding of Gas Chromatography
Week 4
Modifications in the HMI, PLC/Logic of the F&G System
Week 5
Finalization of the work, report completion and review
A. Instrumentation
1. What is Instrumentation?
Instrumentation is the use of measuring instruments to monitor and control a process. It is the art and science of
measurement and control of process variables within a production, laboratory, or manufacturing area. The process
variables used in industries are Level, Pressure, Temperature, Humidity, Flow, pH, Force, Speed etc. The practice
uses sensors to measure the output performance of the device being controlled and those measurements can be
used to give feedback to the input actuators that can make corrections toward desired performance. Instruments
attached to a control system may provide signals used to operate solenoids, valves, regulators, circuit breakers, or
relays. These devices control a desired output variable, and provide either remote or automated control
capabilities. These are often referred to as final control elements when controlled remotely or by a control system.
2. Control System:
A control system is a device, or set of devices, that manages, commands, directs or regulates the behavior of other
devices or systems. Industrial control systems are used in industrial production for controlling equipment or
machines.
There are two common classes of control systems, open loop control systems and closed loop control systems. In
open loop control systems output is generated based on inputs. In closed loop control systems current output is
taken into consideration and corrections are made based on feedback. A closed loop system is also called a feedback
control system.
3. Process Variables:
The process variable is a dynamic feature of the process which may change rapidly. Accurate measurement of
process variables is important for the maintenance of accuracy in a process. There are four commonly measured
variables which affect chemical and physical process: pressure, temperature, level and flow.
Flow
Defined as volume per unit of time at specified temperature and pressure conditions, is generally measured by
positive-displacement or rate meters.
Units: kg / hr, litter / min, gallon / min, m3 / hr, Nm3 / hr. (Gases)
Volumetric Flow Rate vs Mass flow Rate:

Mass flow rate is the movement of mass per time. Its unit is mass divided by time - kilogram per second in SI units,
and slug per second or pound per second in US customary units.
Mass flow rate can be calculated from the density of the liquid (or gas), its velocity, and the cross sectional area of
flow.
M= *V*A , where:
M= mass flow rate
= density at a working temperature.
3.1)
V = velocity
A = flow area
The mass flow rate can also be calculated by multiplying the volume flow rate by the density.
Volumetric flow rate can be calculated from the difference in pressure and the density of the liquid. It is the amount
of volume of a fluid passing through a pipe per unit time. The following equation shows how to calculate volumetric
flow rate:
Where:
Q= Volumetric flow rate
P= Pressure
= Density at a working temperature
Square-root characterization
The relationship between flow rate (whether it be volumetric or mass) and differential pressure for any fluidaccelerating flow element is non-linear: a doubling of flow rate will not result in a doubling of differential pressure.
Rather, a doubling of flow rate will result in a quadrupling of differential pressure. Likewise, a tripling of flow rate
results in nine times as much differential pressure developed by the fluid-accelerating flow element. When plotted on
a graph, the relationship between flow rate (Q) and differential pressure (dP) is quadratic, like one-half of a parabola.
Differential pressure developed by a venturi, orifice plate, pitot tube, or any other acceleration-based flow element is
proportional to the square of the flow rate:
To linearize this we use square root characterizers which will give a linear response as the flow rate changes.
3.2)
Temperature
Although temperature fundamentally relates to the kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance (as reflected in
the definition of the absolute, thermodynamic, or Kelvin temperature scale), temperature may be defined in a
less academic fashion as the condition of a body which determines the transfer of heat to or from other bodies,
or even more practically, as the degree of hotness or coldness as referenced to a specific scale of temperature
measurement.
Units: Degree Centigrade, Degree Fahrenheit, Degree Kelvin, Degree Rankine.
3.3)
Level
The height of the water column, liquid and powder etc., at the desired measurement of height between minimum
level points to maximum level point is called level. The measurement principle is, head pressure method.
Units: Meters, mm, cm, percentage.
3.4)
Pressure
It is defined as Force per unit Area. P = F/A

Units : bar, Pascal, kg / cm2, lb / in2.
There are two types of pressures commonly used in industry:
1) Absolute Pressure:
The absolute pressure pabs is the pressure compared with the zero pressure of empty space (i.e. a vacuum).
2) Gauge Pressure:
The gauge (relative) pressure prel is the pressure compared with atmospheric pressure pamb (surrounding air
pressure).
4) Instruments being used at Engro Fertilizers:

4.1) Flow
4.1.1)
Pressure based flow meters
The flow may be caused to accelerate or decelerate and the change in velocity would result in a change in pressure.
This change in pressure would be detected using differential pressure transmitters and the flow rate will be
determined accordingly.
The devices that use the principle of linear acceleration to determine flow rate are as follows:
a) Venturi Tube
b) Orifice Plate
c) Flow Nozzle
The devices that cause deceleration of a fluid and then determine the change in pressure to determine fluid flow
are as follows:
a) Pitot Tube
We may easily force a fluid to accelerate by altering its natural flow path. The difference of pressure generated by
this acceleration will indirectly indicate the rate of acceleration. Since the acceleration we see from a change in
flow path is a direct function of how fast the fluid was originally moving, the acceleration (and therefore the
pressure drop) indirectly indicates fluid flow rate.
b) Annubar
a) Venturi Tube:
A device for measuring the flow of a fluid, consisting of a tube with a short, narrow center section and widened,
tapered ends, so that a fluid flowing through the center section at a higher velocity than through an end section
creates a pressure differential that is a measure of the flow of the fluid.
If the fluid going through the venturi tube is a liquid under relatively low pressure, we may vividly show the
pressure at different points in the tube by means of piezometers, which are transparent tubes allowing us to view
liquid column heights. The greater the height of liquid column in the piezometer, the greater the pressure at that
point in the flowstream.
Conservation of energy at different points in a fluid stream is neatly expressed in Bernoullis Equation as a
constant sum of elevation, pressure, and velocity heads
z1g + v212 + P1 = z2g + v222+ P2
Where,
z = Height of fluid (from a common reference point, usually ground level)

= Mass density of fluid
g = Acceleration of gravity
v = Velocity of fluid
P = Pressure of fluid
b) Orifice Plates
Of all the pressure-based flow elements in existence, the most common is the orifice plate. This is simply a metal
plate with a hole in the middle for fluid to flow through. Orifice plates are typically sandwiched between two
flanges of a pipe joint, allowing for easy installation and removal.
The narrow point formed after fluid passes through orifice is known as vena contracta where the velocity is
maximum and pressure is minimum.
c) Pitot Tube
The Pitot tube, for example, senses pressure as the fluid stagnates (comes to a complete stop) against the open end
of a forward-facing tube. A shortcoming of the classic single-tube Pitot assembly is sensitivity to fluid velocity at
just one point in the pipe, so a more common form of Pitot tube seen in industry is the averaging Pitot tube
consisting of several stagnation holes sensing velocity at multiple points across the width of the flow.
A difference in pressure is created and this difference in pressures is recorded using a differential pressure
transmitter. The difference in pressure is then used to determine the flow rates.
10
d) Annubar
An Annubar is an averaging pitot tube consolidating high and low pressure sensing ports in a single probe
assembly. What appears at first glance to be a single, square-shaped tube inserted into the pipe is actually a doubleported tube with holes on both the upstream and downstream edges.
4.1.2)
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Variable Area Flow Meters
a) Rotameter:
The simplest example of a variable-area flowmeter is the rotameter, which uses a solid object (called a
plummet or float) as a flow indicator, suspended in the midst of a tapered tube. As fluid flows upward through
the tube, a pressure differential develops across the plummet. This pressure differential, acting on the effective
area of the plummet body, develops an upward force (F = PA). If this force exceeds the weight of the
plummet, the plummet moves up. As the plummet moves farther up in the tapered tube, the area between
the plummet and the tube walls (through which the fluid must travel) grows larger. This increased flowing
area allows the fluid to make it past the plummet without having to accelerate as much, thereby developing
less pressure drop across the plummets body. At some point, the flowing area reaches a point where the
pressure-induced force on the plummet body exactly matches the weight of the plummet. This is the point in
the tube where the plummet stops moving, indicating flow rate by it position relative to a scale mounted (or
etched) on the outside of the tube.
4.1.3) Velocity Based Flow Meters:
b) Vortex Flow meter

When a fluid moves with high Reynolds number past a stationary object (a bluff body), there is a tendency
for the fluid to form vortices on either side of the object. Each vortex will form, then detach from the object
and continue to move with the flowing gas or liquid, one side at a time in alternating fashion. If we view these
a) Turbine flow meter

Turbine flowmeters use a free-spinning turbine wheel to measure fluid velocity, much like a miniature
windmill installed in the flow stream. The fundamental design goal of a turbine flowmeter is to make the
turbine element as free-spinning as possible, so no torque will be required to sustain the turbines rotation. If
this goal is achieved, the turbine blades will achieve a rotating (tip) velocity directly proportional to the linear
velocity of the fluid, whether that fluid is a gas or a liquid. Turbine tip velocity is quite easy to sense using a
magnetic sensor, generating a voltage pulse each time one of the ferromagnetic turbine blades passes by.
Traditionally, this sensor is nothing more than a coil of wire in proximity to a stationary magnet, called a
pickup coil or pickoff coil because it picks (senses) the passing of the turbine blades. Magnetic flux through
the coils center increases and decreases as the passing of the steel turbine blades presents a varying reluctance
(resistance to magnetic flux), causing voltage pulses equal in frequency to the number of blades passing by
each second. It is the frequency of this signal that represents fluid velocity, and therefore volumetric flow rate.
12
vortices as crests of a continuous wave, the distance between vortices may be represented by the symbol
customarily reserved for wavelength: the Greek letter lambda (). The proportionality between object width
(d) and vortex street wavelength () is called the Strouhal number (S), approximately equal to 0.17.
S = d
d 0.17
If a differential pressure sensor is installed immediately downstream of the stationary object in such an
orientation that it detects the passing vortices as pressure variations, an alternating signal will be detected. The
frequency of this alternating pressure signal is directly proportional to fluid velocity past the object, since the
wavelength is constant. This follows the classic frequency-velocity-wavelength formula common to all
traveling waves (f = v). Since we know the wavelength will be equal to the bluff bodys width divided by
the Strouhal number (approximately 0.17), we may substitute this into the frequency-velocity-wavelength
formula to solve for fluid velocity (v) in terms of signal frequency (f) and bluff body width (d).
13
c) Magnetic Flow Meter

Consider water flowing through a pipe, with a magnetic field passing perpendicularly through the pipe. The
direction of liquid flow cuts perpendicularly through the lines of magnetic flux, generating a voltage along an
axis perpendicular to both. Metal electrodes opposite each other in the pipe wall intercept this voltage, making
it readable to an electronic circuit. A voltage induced by the linear motion of a conductor through a magnetic
field is called motional EMF, the magnitude of which is predicted by the following formula (assuming perfect
perpendicularity between the direction of velocity, the orientation of the magnetic flux lines, and the axis of
voltage measurement):
E = Blv Where,
E = Motional EMF (volts)
B = Magnetic flux density (Tesla)
l = Length of conductor passing through the magnetic field (meters)
v = Velocity of conductor (meters per second)
Assuming a fixed magnetic field strength (constant B) and an electrode spacing equal to the fixed diameter of
the pipe (constant l = d), the only variable capable of influencing the magnitude of induced voltage is velocity
(v). In our example, v is not the velocity of a wire segment, but rather the average velocity of the liquid
flowstream (v). Since we see that this voltage will be proportional to average fluid velocity, it must also be
proportional to volumetric flow rate, since volumetric flow rate is also proportional to average fluid
velocity40. Thus, what we have here is a type of flowmeter based on electromagnetic induction.
d) Ultrasonic Flow Meter

Ultrasonic flowmeters measure fluid velocity by passing high-frequency sound waves along the fluid flow path.
Fluid motion influences the propagation of these sound waves, which may then be measured to infer fluid
velocity. Two major sub-types of ultrasonic flowmeters exist: Doppler and transit-time. Both types of
ultrasonic flowmeter work by transmitting a high-frequency sound wave into the fluid stream (the incident
pulse) and analyzing the received pulse.
The mathematical relationship between fluid velocity (v) and the Doppler frequency shift (df) is as follows,
for fluid velocities much less than the speed of sound through that fluid (v << c):
df = 2vf cos c
df = Doppler frequency shift

v = Velocity of fluid (actually, of the particle reflecting the sound wave)
f = Frequency of incident sound wave
= Angle between transducer and pipe centerlines
c = Speed of sound in the process fluid
4.1.4) True Mass Flow Meters

a) Coriolis Flow meter:
Coriolis flowmeter works by shaking one or more tubes carrying the flowing fluid, then precisely measuring the
frequency and phase of that shaking. The back-and-forth shaking is driven by an electromagnetic coil, powered by an
electronic amplifier circuit to shake the tube(s) at their mechanical resonant frequency. Since this frequency depends
on the mass of each tube, and the mass of the tubes depends on the density of the fluid filling the fixed volume of the
tubes, the resonant frequency becomes an inverse indication of fluid density63, whether or not fluid is flowing through
Where,
14
the tubes. As fluid begins to move through the tubes, the inertia of the moving fluid adds another dimension to the
tubes motion: the tubes begin to undulate, twisting slightly instead of just shaking back and forth. This twisting motion
is directly proportional to the mass flow rate, and is internally measured by comparing the phase shift () between
motion at one point on the tube versus another point on the tube: the greater the undulation, the greater the phase shift
between these two points vibrations.
In order to reduce the amount of vibration generated by a Coriolis flowmeter, and more importantly to reduce the
effect any external vibrations may have on the flowmeter, two identical Utubes are built next to each other and shaken
in complementary fashion (always moving in opposite directions). Tube twist is measured as relative motion from one
tube to the next, not as motion between the tube and the stationary housing of the flowmeter. This (ideally) eliminates
the effect of any common-mode vibrations on the inferred flow measurement.
4.2)
Temperature
The most commonly used temperature measuring instrument at the plant is the RTD followed by thermocouples
which are located at places where temperature is very high. Bimetallic strip based temperature sensors are also
placed at some places.
15
4.2.1) Bi-metal temperature sensors

Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will expand with increased temperature
depends on the size of the sample, the material it is made of, and the amount of temperature rise. The following
formula relates linear expansion to temperature change.
l = l0(1 + dT)
Where,
l = Length of material after heating
l0 = Original length of material
= Coefficient of linear expansion
dT = Change in temperature
One way to amplify the motion resulting from thermal expansion is to bond two strips of dissimilar metals
together, such as copper and iron. If we were to take two equally-sized strips of copper and iron, lay them side-
by-side, and then heat both of them to a higher temperature, we would see the copper strip lengthen slightly more
than the iron strip. If we bond these two strips of metal together, this differential growth will result in a bending
motion greatly exceeding the linear expansion. This device is called a bi-metal strip.
4.2.2) Resistance Temperature Detector:

RTDs are devices made of pure metal wire (usually platinum or copper) which always increase in resistance with
increasing temperature. The major difference between thermistors and RTDs is linearity: thermistors are highly
sensitive and nonlinear, whereas RTDs are relatively insensitive but very linear.
Waters melting/freezing point is the standard reference temperature for most RTDs. Here are some typical values
of for common metals( is the Temperature coefficient of resistance).
Nickel = 0.00672 /C
Tungsten = 0.0045 /C
Silver = 0.0041 /C
Gold = 0.0040 /C
Platinum = 0.00392 /C
Copper = 0.0038 /C
The most commonly used RTD at Engro is Pt100.
Two Wire RTDs:
Wire resistance adds to the sensing elements resistance to create a larger total circuit resistance which will be
interpreted by the receiving instrument (ohmmeter) as a falsely high temperature reading, assuming a positive
temperature coefficient of resistance for the sensing element.
The following schematic diagrams show the relative effects of 2 ohms total wire resistance on a thermistor
circuit and on an RTD circuit.
16
Clearly, wire resistance is more problematic for low-resistance RTDs than for high-resistance thermistors. In
the RTD circuit, wire resistance counts for 1.96% of the total circuit resistance. In the thermistor circuit, the
same 2 ohms of wire resistance counts for only 0.004% of the total circuit resistance. The thermistors huge
reference resistance value swamps2 the wire resistance to the point that the latter becomes insignificant by
comparison.
Three Wire RTD

A compromise between two-wire and four-wire RTD connections is the three-wire connection, which looks
like this:
In a three-wire RTD circuit, voltmeter A measures the voltage dropped across the RTD plus the voltage
dropped across the bottom current-carrying wire. Voltmeter B measures just the voltage dropped across the
top current-carrying wire. Assuming both current-carrying wires will have (very nearly) the same resistance,
subtracting the indication of voltmeter B from the indication given by voltmeter A yields the voltage
dropped across the RTD:
VRTD = Vmeter(A) Vmeter(B)
17
RTD resistance is calculated from the RTD voltage and the known current source value using Ohms Law. If
the resistances of the two current-carrying wires are precisely identical (and this includes the electrical
resistance of any connections within those current-carrying paths, such as terminal blocks), the calculated
RTD voltage will be the same as the true RTD voltage, and no wire-resistance error will appear. If, however,
one of those current-carrying wires happens to exhibit more resistance than the other, the calculated RTD
voltage will not be the same as the actual RTD voltage, and a measurement error will result.
Four Wire RTD

Commonly employed to make precise resistance measurements for scientific experiments in laboratory
conditions, the four-wire technique uses four wires to connect the resistance under test (in this case, the RTD)
to the measuring instrument, which consists of a voltmeter and a precision current source. Two wires carry
excitation current to the RTD from the current source while the other two wires merely sense voltage
drop across the RTD resistor element and carry that voltage signal to the voltmeter. RTD resistance is
calculated using Ohms Law: taking the measured voltage displayed by the voltmeter and dividing that figure
by the regulated current value of the current source.
Wire resistances are completely inconsequential in this circuit. The two excitation wires carrying current to the
RTD will drop some voltage along their length, but this voltage drop is only seen by the current source and not
the voltmeter. The two sense wires connecting the voltmeter to the RTD also possess resistance, but they drop
negligible voltage because the voltmeter draws so little current through them3. Thus, the resistances of the currentcarrying wires are of no effect because the voltmeter never senses their voltage drops, and the resistances of the
voltmeters sensing wires are of no effect because they carry practically zero current.
4.2.3) Thermocouples
Thermocouples, generate their own electric potential. In some ways, this makes thermocouple systems simpler
because the device receiving the thermocouples signal does not have to supply electric power to the thermocouple.
It also makes thermocouple systems potentially safer than RTDs in applications where explosive compounds may
exist in the atmosphere, because the power levels generated by a thermocouple tend to be less than the power
levels dissipated by an RTD. The self-powering nature of thermocouples also means they do not suffer from the
same self-heating effect as RTDs.
Though typically not as accurate as RTDs, thermocouples are more rugged, have greater temperature
measurement spans, and are easier to manufacture in different physical forms.
Type
Positive wire
Negative Wire
Plug
Temp Range
Copper
Constantan
Blue
-300 700 F
Iron
Constantan
Black
32 1400 F
Chromel
Constantan
Violet
32 1600 F
When two dissimilar metal wires are joined together at one end, a voltage is produced at the other end that is
approximately proportional to temperature. That is to say, the junction of two different metals behaves like a
temperature-sensitive battery. This form of electrical temperature sensor is called a thermocouple.
18
Chromel
Alumel
Yellow
32 2300 F
Nicrosil
Nisil
Orange
32 2300 F
Pt 90% - Rh 10%
Platinum
Green
32 2700 F
Pt 70% - Rh 30%
Pt 94% - Rh 6%
Grey
32 3380 F
At the other end of the thermocouple, we have a choice of tip styles. For maximum sensitivity and fastest response,
the dissimilar-metal junction may be unsheathed (bare). This design, however, makes the thermocouple more fragile.
Sheathed tips are typical for industrial applications, available in either grounded or ungrounded forms.
4.3)
Level
a) Level Gauge:
The level gauge, or sightglass is to liquid level measurement as manometers are to pressure measurement: a very
simple and effective technology for direct visual indication of process level. In its simplest form, a level gauge is
nothing more than a clear tube through which process liquid may be seen.
19
b) Float
A device that rides on the surface of the fluid or solid within the storage vessel. The float itself must be of
substantially lesser density than the substance of interest, and it must not corrode or otherwise react with the
substance.
If the liquid inside the vessel is subject to turbulence, guide wires may be necessary to keep the float cable in a
vertical orientation.
c) Use of hydrostatic Pressure to determine level

A vertical column of fluid exerts a pressure due to the columns weight. The relationship between column height
and fluid pressure at the bottom of the column is constant for any particular fluid (density) regardless of vessel
width or shape.
This principle makes it possible to infer the height of liquid in a vessel by measuring the pressure generated at the
bottom.
P = gh P = h
Where,
P = Hydrostatic pressure
= Mass density of fluid in kilograms per cubic meter (metric) or slugs per cubic foot (British)
g = Acceleration of gravity
=Weight density of fluid in newtons per cubic meter (metric) or pounds per cubic foot (British)
h = Height of vertical fluid column above point of pressure measurement
d) Bubbler Systems
A purge gas is slowly introduced into a dip tube submerged in the process liquid, so that no more than a few
bubbles per second of gas emerge from the tubes end. Gas pressure inside all points of the tubing system will (very
nearly) equal the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid at the tubes submerged end. Any pressure-measuring device
tapped anywhere along the length of this tubing system will sense this pressure and be able to infer the depth of
the liquid in the process vessel without having to directly contact the process liquid.
A process liquid so corrosive that non-metallic vessels are required to hold it would preclude direct contact with
a metal pressure gauge or pressure transmitter, but would be easily measured with a bubbler system provided the
dip tube were made out of plastic, ceramic, or some other material immune to corrosion. A process liquid so laden
with solids that it plugs up any non-flowing port would preclude pressure measurement via a sample port and
impulse line, but would be easily measured by a bubbler system where the dip tube is continuously purged with
clean gas. Level measurement applications where direct contact with the pressure sensor would render access to
that sensor inconvenient or even impossible are made much more practical by using a bubbler system, where the
By attaching a differential pressure transmitter at the bottom surface of a tank with its high pressure side connected
with the bottom of the tank and low pressure side vented, we can measure the difference in pressure. This
difference in pressure can then be used to calculate the level of the liquid.
20
pressure sensor may be located anywhere along the dip tubes length and therefore easily located where
maintenance personnel can access it.
Excessive purge gas flow through the tube will result in additional pressure caused by frictional pressure drop along
the tubes length, causing the pressure-sensing instrument to falsely register high. A key detail of any practical
bubble tube system, therefore, is some means to monitor and control gas flow through the tube. A common
construction uses either a rotameter or a sightfeed bubbler to monitor purge gas flow rate, with a needle valve to
restrict that flow.
e) Compensated Leg System:

The capabilities of a differential pressure transmitter make this a simple task. All we need to do is connect a second
impulse line (called a compensating leg), from the Low port of the transmitter to the top of the vessel, so the
Low side of the transmitter experiences nothing but the gas pressure enclosed by the vessel, while the High
side experiences the sum of gas and hydrostatic pressures. Since a differential pressure transmitter responds only
to differences in pressure between High and Low sides, it will naturally subtract the gas pressure (Pgas) to yield
a measurement based solely on hydrostatic pressure (h).
21
When dealing with gases that tend to condensate in the compensated leg, we cannot connect the impulse line directly
with the tank that holds the gases. This will cause a problem and add hydrostatic pressure once the gas condenses in the
impulse line. The solution to this problem is wet leg system.
An accessory commonly used with non-sealed (non-capillary) wet leg systems is a seal pot. This is a chamber at the
top of the wet leg joining the wet leg line with the impulse line to the upper connection point on the process vessel.
This seal pot maintains a small volume of liquid in it to allow for occasional liquid loss during transmitter maintenance
procedures without greatly affecting the height of the liquid column in the wet leg.
We may ensure a constant density of wet leg liquid by intentionally filling that leg with a liquid known to be denser
than the densest condensed vapor inside the vessel.
f) Tank Expert Systems
An alternative to using a compensating leg to subtract gas pressure inside an enclosed vessel is to simply use a
second pressure transmitter and electronically subtract the two pressures in a computing device.
If we add a third pressure transmitter to this system, located a known distance (x) above the bottom transmitter,
we have all the pieces necessary for what is called a tank expert system. These systems are used on large storage
tanks operating at or near atmospheric pressure, and have the ability to measure infer liquid height, liquid density,
total liquid volume, and total liquid mass stored in the tank.
This approach enjoys the distinct advantage of avoiding a potentially wet compensating leg, but suffers the
disadvantages of extra cost and greater error due to the potential calibration drift of two transmitters rather than
just one. Such a system is also impractical in applications where the gas pressure is substantial compared to the
hydrostatic (elevation head) pressure.
22
g) Displacer
The displacer itself is usually a sealed metal tube, weighted sufficiently so it cannot float in the process liquid. It
hangs within a pipe called a cage connected to the process vessel through two block valves and nozzles. These
two pipe connections ensure the liquid level inside the cage matches the liquid level inside the process vessel,
much like a sightglass.
If liquid level inside the process vessel rises, the liquid level inside the cage rises to match. This will submerge
more of the displacers volume, causing a buoyant force to be exerted upward on the displacer. Remember that
that displacer is too heavy to float, so it does not bob on the surface of the liquid nor does it rise the same
amount as the liquids level rather, it hangs in place inside the cage, becoming lighter14 as the buoyant force
increases. The weight-sensing mechanism detects this buoyant force when it sees the displacer becoming
lighter, interpreting the decreased (apparent) weight as an increase in liquid level. The displacers apparent
weight reaches a minimum when it is fully submerged, when the process liquid has reached the 100% point
inside the cage.
It should be noted that static pressure inside the vessel will have negligible effect on a displacer instruments
accuracy. The only factor that matters is the density of the process fluid, since buoyant force is directly
proportional to fluid density (F = V )
23
h) Ultrasonic Level Measurement

Ultrasonic level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter (located at some high point) to the
surface of a process material located farther below using reflected sound waves. The frequency of these waves
extend beyond the range of human hearing, which is why they are called ultrasonic. The time-of-flight for a
sound pulse indicates this distance, and is interpreted by the transmitter electronics as process level. These
transmitters may output a signal corresponding either to the fullness of the vessel (fillage) or the amount of
empty space remaining at the top of a vessel (ullage). Ullage is the natural mode of measurement for this sort of
level instrument, because the sound waves time-of-flight is a direct function of how much empty space exists
between the liquid surface and the top of the vessel. Total tank height will always be the sum of fillage and ullage,
though. If the ultrasonic level transmitter is programmed with the vessels total height, it may calculate fillage via
simple subtraction
i)
Capacitive Level Sensor
Fillage = Total height Ullage
24
Capacitive level instruments measure electrical capacitance of a conductive rod inserted vertically into a process
vessel. As process level increases, capacitance increases between the rod and the vessel walls, causing the
instrument to output a greater signal.
The basic principle behind capacitive level instruments is the capacitance equation:
C =Ad
Where,
C = Capacitance
= Permittivity of dielectric (insulating) material between plates
A = Overlapping area of plates
d = Distance separating plates
The amount of capacitance exhibited between a metal rod inserted into the vessel and the metal walls of that
vessel will vary only with changes in permittivity (), area (A), or distance (d). Since A is constant (the interior
surface area of the vessel is fixed, as is the area of the rod once installed), only changes in or d can affect the
probes capacitance.
Capacitive level probes come in two basic varieties: one for conductive liquids and one for nonconductive
liquids. If the liquid in the vessel is conductive, it cannot be used as the dielectric (insulating) medium of a
capacitor. Consequently, capacitive level probes designed for conductive liquids are coated with plastic or some
other dielectric substance, so the metal probe forms one plate of the capacitor and the conductive liquid forms
the other.
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j) Radioactive Level Sensor

Certain types of nuclear radiation easily penetrates the walls of industrial vessels, but is attenuated by traveling
through the bulk of material stored within those vessels. By placing a radioactive source on one side of the vessel
and measuring the radiation reaching the other side of the vessel, an approximate indication of level within that
vessel may be obtained. Other types of radiation are scattered by process material in vessels, which means the
level of process material may be sensed by sending radiation into the vessel through one wall and measuring
back-scattered radiation returning through the same wall.
4.4)
Pressure
In many ways, pressure is the primary variable for a wide range of process measurements. Many types of
industrial measurements are actually inferred from pressure, such as:
Flow (measuring the pressure dropped across a restriction)
Liquid level (measuring the pressure created by a vertical liquid column)
Liquid density (measuring the pressure difference across a fixed-height liquid column)
Weight (hydraulic load cell)
4.4.1) Manometer:
A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer : a fluid-filled tube where an applied gas
pressure causes the fluid height to shift proportionately. This is why pressure is often measured in units of liquid
height (e.g. inches of water, inches of mercury). A manometer is fundamentally an instrument of differential
pressure measurement, indicating the difference between two pressures by a shift in liquid column height.
26
1) Mechanical Pressure Elements:

1) Bellows:
Bellows resemble an accordion constructed from metal instead of fabric. Increasing pressure inside a bellows unit
causes it to elongate.
4.4.2) Diaphragms:
A diaphragm is nothing more than a thin disk of material which bows outward under the influence of a fluid
pressure. Many diaphragms are constructed from metal, which gives them spring-like qualities. Some diaphragms
are intentionally constructed out of materials with little strength, such that there is negligible spring effect. These
are called slack diaphragms, and they are used in conjunction with external mechanisms (e.g. springs) producing
the necessary restraining force to prevent damage from applied pressure.
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4.4.3) Bourdon Tube:

Bourdon tubes are made of spring-like metal alloys bent into a circular shape. Under the influence of internal
pressure, a bourdon tube tries to straighten out into its original shape before being bent at the time of
manufacture. Most pressure gauges use a bourdon tube as their pressure-sensing element. Most pressure
transmitters use a diaphragm as their pressure-sensing element. Bourdon tubes may be made in spiral or helical
forms for greater motion (and therefore greater gauge resolution).
4.4.4) Electronic Pressure Elements:
b) Differential Capacitance Sensors

Another common electrical pressure sensor design works on the principle of differential capacitance. In this design,
the sensing element is a taut metal diaphragm located equidistant between two stationary metal surfaces, comprising
three plates for a complementary pair of capacitors. An electrically insulating fill fluid transfers motion from the
isolating diaphragms to the sensing diaphragm, and also doubles as an effective dielectric for the two capacitors. Any
difference of pressure across the cell causes the diaphragm to flex in the direction of least pressure. The sensing
diaphragm is a precision-manufactured spring element, meaning that its displacement is a predictable function of
applied force. The applied force in this case can only be a function of differential pressure acting against the surface
area of the diaphragm in accordance with the standard force-pressure-area equation F = PA. In this case, we have two
forces caused by two fluid pressures working against each other, so our force-pressure-area equation may be
rewritten to describe resultant force as a function of differential pressure (P1 P2) and diaphragm area: F = (P1
P2)A. Since diaphragm area is constant, and force is predictably related to diaphragm displacement, all we need now
in order to infer differential pressure is to accurately measure displacement of the diaphragm.
a) Piezoresistive Strain Guage:

Piezoresistive means pressure-sensitive resistance, or a resistance that changes value with applied pressure. In
order to be practical, a strain gauge must be glued (bonded) on to a larger specimen capable of withstanding an
applied force (stress). As the test specimen is stretched or compressed by the application of force, the conductors
of the strain gauge are similarly deformed. Electrical resistance of any conductor is proportional to the ratio of
length over cross-sectional area (R l A), which means that tensile deformation (stretching) will increase
electrical resistance by simultaneously increasing length and decreasing cross-sectional area while compressive
deformation (squishing) will decrease electrical resistance by simultaneously decreasing length and increasing
cross-sectional area.
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c) Differential Pressure Transmitter

Differential pressure transmitters constructed for industrial measurement applications typically consist of a strong
(forged metal) body housing the sensing element(s), topped by a compartment housing the mechanical and/or
electronic components necessary to translate the sensed pressure into a standard instrumentation signal (e.g. 3-15
PSI, 4-20 mA, digital fieldbus codes).
The H and L labels on a DP transmitters ports do not imply magnitude of input pressures; i.e. it is not as though
the H ports pressure must be greater than the L ports pressure. These symbols merely represent the different
effects on the output signal resulting from pressure applied to each port. An increasing pressure applied to the high
port of a DP transmitter will drive the output signal to a greater level (up), while an increasing pressure applied to
the low port of a DP transmitter will drive the output signal to a lesser level (down).
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5) Control Valves:
Control valves are comprised of two major parts: the valve body, which contains all the mechanical components
necessary to influence fluid flow; and the valve actuator, which provides the mechanical power necessary to move the
components within the valve body. Often times, the major difference between an on/off control valve and a
throttling control valve is the type of actuator applied to the valve1: on/off actuators need only position a valve
mechanism two one of two extreme positions (fully open or fully closed). Throttling actuators must be able to
accurately position a valve mechanism anywhere between those extremes.
Within a control valve body, the specific components performing the work of throttling (or completely shutting off)
of fluid flow are collectively referred to as the valve trim. For each major type of control valve, there are usually
many variations of trim design. The choice of valve type, and of specific trim for any type of valve, is a decision
dictated by the type of fluid being controlled, the nature of the control action (on/off versus throttling), the process
conditions (expected flow rate, temperature, pressures, etc.), and economics.
30
1) Sliding Stem Valves

A sliding-stem valve body is one where the moving parts slide with a linear motion.
a) Globe Valves
Globe valves restrict the flow of fluid by altering the distance between a movable plug and a stationary seat (in
some cases, a pair of plugs and matching seats). Fluid flows through a hole in the center of the seat, and is more or
less restricted by the plugs proximity to that hole. The globe valve design is one of the most popular sliding-stem
valve designs used in throttling service.
b) Gate Valves:
Gate valves work by inserting a dam (gate) into the path of the flow to restrict it, in a manner similar to the action
of a sliding door. Gate valves are more often used for on/off control than for throttling. Opening and closing
operations are slow. Due to the high friction their use is not recommend in often required openings.
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c) Diaphragm Valves:
Diaphragm valves use a flexible sheet pressed close to the edge of a solid dam to narrow the flow path for fluid.
Their operation is not unlike controlling the flow of water through a flexible hose by pinching the hose. These
valves are well suited for flows containing solid particulate matter such as slurries, although precise throttling may
be difficult to achieve due to the elasticity of the diaphragm.
2) Rotary Stem Valves

A different strategy for controlling the flow of fluid is to insert a rotary element into the flow path. Rotary valves
rely on the rotation of a shaft to actuate the trim. An important advantage of rotary control valves over slidingstem designs such as the globe valve and diaphragm valve is a virtually obstruction-less path for fluid when the valve
is wide-open
a) Ball valves
In the ball valve design, a spherical ball with a passageway cut through the center rotates to allow fluid more or
less access to the passageway. When the passageway is parallel to the direction of fluid motion, the valve is wide
open; when the passageway is aligned perpendicular to the direction of fluid motion, the valve is fully shut (closed).
b) Butterfly valves
Butterfly valves are quite simple to understand: the butterfly element is a disk that rotates perpendicular to the
path of fluid flow. When parallel to the axis of flow, the disk presents minimal obstruction; when perpendicular
to the axis, the disk completely blocks any flow. Fluid-tight shutoff is difficult to obtain in the classic butterfly
design unless the seating area is lined with a soft (elastic) material.
c) Disk Valves
Disk valves (often referred to as eccentric disk valves, or as high-performance butterfly valves) are a variation on
the butterfly design intended to improve seat shut-off. The disks center is offset from the shaft centerline, causing
it to approach the seat with a cam action that results in high seating pressure. Thus, tight shut-off of flow is
possible even when using metal seats and disks.
B. The F&G System

1. Introduction to the F&G System
The plant is operating under the presence of toxic gases which can be very harmful in case the concentration of these
gases exceeds a specific value of 25ppm. Therefore, the plant requires a continuous check on the level of concentration
of these gases and has a dedicated Fire and Gas system which works primarily to serve this purpose. The system is
responsible to trigger visual and audible alarms in case the concentration level of these gases rises above the normal
conditions.
The plant has gas detectors installed at several places which are used for the detection of combustible gases such as
Hydrogen and Toxic gases such as Ammonia and Carbon Monoxide. Carbon Monoxide detectors are present in analyzer
shelter only. The adjustable set points for ammonia gas are 25ppm and 35 ppm. The gas alarms will be responsible to
trigger alarms at high concentration of ammonia in the pant area whereas in buildings, these sensors would also cut off
the HVAC supply in case the concentration exceeds 35ppm.
The plant has its own Fire and Gas system for the detection of fire or toxic gases. Since the project focuses on the toxic
gas (ammonia in our case) system, I will be covering the gas system in detail.
32
The toxic gas detectors for Ammonia are located at three locations in the plant area at plant 2. These include Ammonia
Unit, Urea Unit and Ammonia Storage. These gas detectors are also present in HVAC and Battery Room for CCR, SR1, SS-1 and SS-2.
All the buildings on this site are installed with building fire and gas panel each with its own display located at a prominent
position in the building. A Master Building Fire and Gas panel is installed in the central control room. The gas sensors
installed on the buildings air inlet are connected to the local MFGP or BFGP. The building BFGPs are interfaced with
the HVAC of the respective buildings and are capable of initiating HVAC shutdown based on a 2 out of 2(2oo2) logic.
2. Architecture of the F&G System
The following figure shows the architecture of the F&G system.
33
3. Toxic Gas Detection Systems
34
The toxic gas present at the plant is Ammonia gas. Ammonia gas has a number of hazards that can be caused due to this
gas at different levels of concentration. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a 15
min exposure limit for gaseous ammonia of 35 ppm by volume in the environmental air and an 8 hour exposure limit
of 25 ppm by volume. Following chart shows the drawbacks at different levels of this gas:
35ppm
50-150ppm
Eye Irritation
Upper Respiratory Tract Irritation
Eyes, throat and skin irritation

Mucus development and Rapid Coughing
Subsequent disruption of oxygen uptake by Haemoglobin

Lower lung inflamation
>150ppm Pulmonary edema
>500ppm
Scars lung tissue

Death in a relatively short time
Immediate Death
>5000ppm
To monitor the level of ammonia gas, the plant has ammonia sensors spread out all over Plant 2 in order to ensure
health and safety at the plant. The gas system was designed by Snamprogetti and the company had installed 112
Ammonia Gas sensors at the plant.
Different Ammonia Gas Sensing Technologies
Catalytic Bead Sensors:
35
Combustible gas mixtures will not burn until they reach an ignition temperature. However, in the presence of certain
chemical media, the gas will start to burn or ignite at lower temperatures. This phenomenon is known as a catalytic
combustion. Most metal oxides and their compounds have these catalytic properties. Platinum, palladium, and thorium
compounds are also excellent catalysts for combustion. This kind of gas sensor is made on the basis of the catalytic
principle, and therefore is called the catalytic gas sensor.
The basis of working of a catalytic bead sensor is a wheatstone bridge that has a platinum wireconnected as part of the
circuit. The characteristic of a platinumwire is that its thermal conductivity changes due to a change in temperature.
The bridge is initially balanced with a reference bead and an active bead. The active bead is covered with a catalyst such
as Magnesium Oxide. Magnesium oxide in the presence of a toxic gas such as ammonia, raises the temperature of the
platinum wire rapidly, putting the Wheatstone bridge in an unbalanced mode. This change is detected and the change
in resistance is measured. This helps us determine te amount of Ammonia gas in the atmosphere.
3.1 Solid State Sensors:

A solid-state sensor consists of one or more metaloxides from the transition metals, such as tin oxide, aluminum oxide,
etc. These metal oxides are prepared and processed into a paste which is used to form a bead-type sensor. Alternatively,
thick or thin film-chip sensors are made when the metal oxides are vacuum deposited onto a silica chip, in a fashion
similar to making semiconductors.
A heating element is used to regulate the sensor temperature, since the finished sensors exhibit different gas response
characteristics at different temperature ranges. This heating element can be a platinum or platinum alloy wire, a resistive
metal oxide, or a thin layer of deposited platinum. The sensor is then processed at a specific high temperature which
determines the specific characteristics of the finished sensor.
In the presence of gas, the metal oxide causes the gas to dissociate into charged ions or complexes which results in the
transfer of electrons. The built-in heater, which heats the metal oxide material to an operational temperature range
that is optimal for the gas to be detected, is regulated and controlled by a specific circuit.
A pair of biased electrodes are imbedded into the metal oxide to measure its conductivity change. The changes in the
conductivity of the sensor resulting from the interaction with the gas molecules is measured as a signal. Typically, a
solid-state sensor produces a very strong signal, especially at high gas concentrations.
36
3.2 Electrochemical Sensor:

Electrochemical sensors operate by reacting with the gas of interest and producing an electrical signal proportional to
the gas concentration. A typical electrochemical sensor consists of a sensing electrode (or working electrode), and a
counter electrode separated by a thin layer of electrolyte. Gas that comes in contact with the sensorfirst passes through
a small capillary-type opening and then diffuses through a hydrophobic barrier, and eventually reaches the electrode
surface. This approach is adopted to allow the proper amount of gas to react at the sensing electrode to produce a
sufficient electrical signal while preventing the electrolyte from leaking out of the sensor.
The gas that diffuses through the barrier reacts at the surface of the sensing electrode involving either an oxidation or
reduction mechanism. These reactions are catalyzed by the electrode materials specifically developed for the gas of
interest.
With a resistor connected across the electrodes, a current proportional to the gas concentration flows between the
anode and the cathode. The current can be measured to determine the gas concentration.
4. Current technology being used :
Currently the plant has 112 Ammonia Gas sensors of the Solid State Sensor Type. The sensors are produced by the
company Net Safety Monitoring Inc. under the name of Millennium II. These sensors were functional for the first
few months and after that most of them failed. There were two issues that were encountered due to these sensors.
37
1) They generated alarms very frequently and sometimes even false alarms were triggered. The result was that
the workers started to ignore these alarms and stopped making necessary arrangements due to the triggering
of the alarms.
2) The sensors went out of order in a much shorter period of time than expected and have been nonfunctional
for the past few years.
Moreover, the vendor, Net Safety, has discontinued the production of these sensors due to their rejection and criticism
worldwide and hence the need for replacement of these sensors has become inevitable.
5. Proposed Technology
The proposed technology by the team working on this project is the Electrochemical Sensor type which has proven to
yield more reliable results.
A thorough study was carried out in the decision of selecting the sensor type. A comparative study from different
Fertilizer Industries located in the country showed that most of the companies are using Electrochemical Sensors due
to their increased reliability and better results.
Moreover, after the comparative study, it was found out that the neighboring fertilizer companies were using a much
fewer number of sensors for the gas detection compared to Engro Fertilizers. The figure below shows the number of
sensors being used by different industries.
Number of Sensors
13
20
112
Number of Sensors
Pak American
Fatima Fertilizers
FFC
Engro
After a thorough study of the major locations and the specification sheets from the vendor of the plant, Snamprogetti,
it was found out that a great number of sensors were installed at a locations where there was cance of just minor
leakages. The plot plans of the plant were reviewed and the locations of these sensors were then modified keeping in
view the leakage points and the wind direction in order to substantially cut down the number of these sensors.
The study conducted brought down the number of sensors from 112 to 36. The pie chart given below shows the
distribution of the proposed sensors at different locations of the plant.
Thus a study was conducted by the process and instrument engineers, namely Mr Safi, Mr Afzal Asad, Mr Bilal Afzal
and Mr Hassan Iftikhar in order to verify whether the plant needed to carry on with this high number of detectors or
not.
38
AMMONIA DETECTORS
Buildings, 8
Ammonia Storage,
8
Ammonia Unit, 9
Urea Unit, 11
The next step was to determine the vendor that was to be selected for the Electrochemical Sensor. This required a
further study of different vendors and their products. A number of options were taken into considerations. These
included Net Safetys Millennium I sensors, Drager Sensor and Sensidyne Electrochemical Sensors.
Two of these were ordered so that tests could be performed on these sensors and the better one would be selected
for installation at the plant. Engro ordered Drager and Sensidyne Electrochemical Sensors.
Both the sensors were installed in locations with high concentration of Ammonia Gas and the results were analyzed.
After a certain period, it was finalized that the company would order Drager Sensors for the project. Following table
shows the comparison of the two sensors:
39
Drager
Sensidyne
Mentioned Sensor lifespan
2 years
2 years
Test results of sensor life
Sensor deteriorated slowly
Sensor deteriorated relatively faster
Calibration period
6 months
2-3 months
Response time
Relatively fast
Relatively slow
6. Modifications
The proposed plan required a number of modifications. These modifications included changes in the plot plans, system
wiring drawings, junction box drawings, HMI and PLC logic.
I have been an active member of the team working on this project and have delivered as much as I could during this
short period of time that I have been here for. During my internship I made the following contributions to the project:
1) I visited all the sites for the proposed sensor locations and helped the team in identifying the
locations that were not finalized. Examples are the locations 10-GE-1005, 30-GE-0308 and 30GE-0306.
2) I took along Mr. Hamid to determine the cable lengths of the remote sensors we have planned
to retain and whether the cable lengths will be adequate enough to be used by the new
sensors. Later on this was verified again with Mr. Hassan and Mr. Safi.
3) I edited the plot plans for Urea Unit and deleted the sensors from the diagram that were to be
discontinued.
4) I modified the junction box wiring diagrams of Ammonia and Urea.
5) The junction box wiring diagram for Ammonia Storage was not available. I collected data and
made a new junction box wiring diagram for the proposed sensors for Ammonia Storage.
6) I edited the System Wiring Diagrams of Ammonia Unit, Urea Unit and Ammonia Storage site.
7) I assisted Mr. Hassan in finalizing the Spec of the project and worked alongside him
throughout the project.
8) Apart from that I took an understanding of the Ladder Logic of the F&G System and had been
all set to make the necessary changes. Unfortunately, the project awaits approval and I had
been guided not to make the changes until the project is approved, therefore, those changes
are yet to be made. I will be available anytime and can make the changes in ladder logic and
email them if told to do so.
9) Conducted gas concentration tests on the new sensor.
6. 1) Plot Plans
A plot plan is a drawing that shows all the different units, machines, sensors etc. in a diagram of a specific location. It
shows a scaled version of the actual positions where each of these things are located.
My task was to figure out the different ammonia sensors in these diagrams, verify their positions on plant and finally
modify the drawing according to the requirement of the proposed locations of these sensors.
The modified plot plans are added at the end of this report.
A junction box wiring diagram shows how different wires coming from different units located on the plant are
connected with a junction box. A multiple wire cable then leads all these wires from the junction box to the desired
point.
My task was to figure out the junction box wires that were to be retained and delete the rest from the junction wiring
diagrams. Moreover, I was also supposed to design a junction box wiring diagram for Ammonia Storage since it was
not available.
6.2) Junction Box Wiring :
40
A sample junction box wiring diagram for the ammonia storage plant is shown below.
41
6.3) System Wiring

A system wiring diagram shows how different wires are connected to a PLC.
6.4) HMI and PLC modifications

The human machine interface (HMI) was to be updated and some of the sensors had to be removed and few were to
be relocated. This task was done on Factory Talk View Studio V6.0. The HMI tags and the sensors were modified and
the current HMI was updated. The updated HMI was saved under the name Engro_260815 and then Factory Talk
My task was to modify a number of wiring diagrams and retain only those wires that were proposed in the plan. A
sample of modified system wiring drawing is shown below:
42
View Site client was used to make a running software that will be put to use once the project is implemented by
Engro Fertilizers. The HMI runs on the F&G computer in the CCR. Following are a few pictures of the old and the
updated HMI:
HMI Old:
43
44
HMI New:
45
46
As you can see, the number of sensors on the modified HMI has greatly reduced. Few of them have also been
relocated.
PLC Logic:
PLC logic was modified and the sensors that were not to be used further, their tags were not deleted. A minimum
vale was forced into these sensors outputs so that no alarms get triggered. The plc logic for the ammonia detectors in
field is such that it just causes the triggering of audible and visual alarms. It also lights up an indication on the
respective panel on the mimic panel, located in CCR, in case any alarm is triggered due to the sensor.
The buildings work on a 2oo2 logic and if both the sensors, located in the air inlet, detect a high level of ammonia, it
causes the tripping of the HVAC and causes the closure of the air inlet.
47
The most common type of chromatography used in continuous process analysis is the gas chromatograph (abbreviated
GC), so named because the mobile phase is a gas (or a vapor) rather than a liquid. In a GC, the sample to be analyzed
is injected at the head of a very long and very narrow tube packed with solid and/or liquid material. This long and
narrow tube (called the column) is designed to impede the passage of the sample molecules. A continuous flow of
carrier gas washes the sample compounds down the length of the column, allowing them to separate over time
according to how they interact with the stationary phase packed inside the column. A simplified schematic of a process
GC shows how it functions.
C. Gas Chromatography
48
The sample valve periodically injects a very precise quantity of sample into the entrance of the column tube and then
shuts off to allow the constant-flow carrier gas to wash this sample through the length of the column tube. Each
component of the sample travels through the column at different rates, exiting the column at different times. All the
detector needs to do is be able to tell the difference between pure carrier gas and carrier gas mixed with anything else.
The sample comprises of gases of different atomic masses and the retention time of the gases varies accordingly. For
this purpose the chromatograph needs to know which gas it should expect at what time. The result is then compared
with graphs provided by vendor and gases are determined accordingly.
In our gas chromatograph i.e Maxum II, the detectors that are being used are thermal conductivity detectors.
6.1) Loop Cycle of our Chromatograph:
49
The figure above shows how the Gas Chromatograph works. During the loading position, sample gas enters the sample
loop and vents out. During this period, the sample loop gets completely filled with the sample gas.
Next up is the loading position. During the loading position, the carrier gas enters the sample loop and moves the
sample gas present in the loop along with it.
This gas is driven by the carrier gas along the column and finally passes through the detector and vents out.
6.2) Thermal Conductivity Detectors:

Thermal conductivity detectors work on the principle of heat transfer by convection (gas cooling). Here, the
assumption is that sample compounds will have different thermal properties than the carrier gas. Recall the dependence
of a thermal mass flowmeters calibration on the specific heat value of the gas being measured. This dependence upon
specific heat meant that we needed to know the specific heat value of the gas whose flow we intend to measure, or else
the flowmeters calibration would be in jeopardy. Here, in the context of chromatograph detectors, we exploit the
impact specific heat value has on thermal convection, using this principle to detect compositional change for a constantflow gas rate. The temperature change of a heated RTD or thermistor caused by exposure to a gas mixture with changing
specific heat value indicates when a new sample component exits the chromatograph column.
6.3) Maxum II Working Principle :

The working principle of Maxum II is same as the working principle of any gas chromatograph as discussed above.
However, some of the features specific to Maxum II are given below:
Parallel Chromatography:
The chromatograph has columns which run in parallel and are active all at the same time. This helps us in
reducing retention time and these can also serve the purpose of providing redundant results to us. The cycle
time for our chromatograph is 192 sec.
Multiple TCDs:
The chromatograph has 4 TCDs which can be used to detect different gases at a time.
A simplified diagram of a TCD is shown here, with pure carrier gas cooling two of the self-heated thermal sensors and
sample gas (mixed with carrier gas, coming off the end of the column) cooling the other two self-heated sensors.
Differences in thermal conductivity between gases exiting the column versus pure carrier gas will cause the bridge
circuit to unbalance, generating a voltage signal at the output of the operational amplifier circuit:
50
D. Field Work and Trouble Shooting :

Problem: Vibration Probe of MU 201
One of the proximity sensors connected with the motor MU 201 was not functioning properly and constantly
giving a zero reading of vibration
Bentley Nevada 3500 system used to monitor vibrations
Solution:
The probe points were swapped, x was swapped with y and monitored
It was then identified that the problem lied in the probe and not in the proximity sensor
The probe was not properly fixed at the joint and carbon had deposited at the joint
Outcome:
The joint was cleaned and the sensors started giving correct readings.
Ammonia Storage area: Identification of locations for sensors
Took a hot water permit from Mr. Zain to take pictures

Went to ammonia storage unit
Located different Ammonia Sensors at the area
Located the Junction box affiliated with their wires
Checked different connections of the wires and took pictures of them
Highlights:
Instrument cable wire of 30 GE 0308 is enough and can be used for the new sensor
51
A plate is to be welded on a beam b/w 30 GE 0308 and 30 GE 0309 (pictures have been taken)
30 GE 0307 is located b/w two pumps and thus a new sensor is to be placed on the very location (see fig
below)
52
Problem: BOG A Timer Setting
Allen Bradley PLC timer of ammonia storage unit was previously set at 24 hrs since the compressor was
tripping but the process department needed it to be continuously running
The standard timer setting was 2 mins and we had to go and revert the timer setting from 24 hrs to 2 mins
Issue faced:
The PLC was placed into program mode which switched over the controller from A to B and the compressor
tripped.
It took us approximately 3 hours to make the required change in logic so that the tripping issue was resolved
Once the timer setting for compressor B was fixed, we spent a lot of time in configuring the swapping issue
and settings of compressor A
Learning Outcomes:
Never place a PLC in program mode, it puts the PLC into failsafe condition and causes problems
The remote mode of PLC is capable of programming as well as running the PLC
Before connecting with a PLC, make sure that the IP address of the laptop is having the same address as that
of the PLC, however the last 3 digits should not match those of the PLC. E.g if plc address is 192.168.10.100,
our IP address should be 192.168.10.xxx where xxx can be any value but 100
Objective:
53
The drager sensor located at ammonia plant 11 GE 1040 was to be tested using 50ppm NH3 and air gas
samples
Equipment used:
1) 50 ppm NH3 gas cylinder
2) Air sample cylinder
3) Magnetic key
4) Air tube
5) Appx 80 ppm NH3 sample in gas balloon
Results:
The NH3 samples results werent yielded correctly
50ppm NH3 was shown a conc of 26ppm
80 ppm NH3 was shown a conc of 41ppm
The life of the sensor remaining was still 94%
The temperature reading was initially at 24 deg but changed to 30 deg
Possible cause of incorrect re adings:
The sensor is out of calibration
Problem:
Area: Analyzer Shelter
Machine: Gas Chromatogram
The problem was with the gas chromatogram. Issue was that the chromatogram was not reading some of the gases
and was not displaying their data
Possible Issue:
The gas sample might not be having those gases
Proposed solutions by Irfan Sahab:
Solution 1:
Replace the gas cylinder with another sample gas which might be having those gases
Did this solve the issue?
Nope.
Solution 2:
Increase flow rates and vary the temperature settings for the chromatogram to see if any changes are observed
Nope
Solution 3:
Regenerate the column by heating it in the oven and passing an inert gas in the backward direction
Problem: Level switch was not functioning properly

Solution:
The level switch was a displacer type and it was unassembled to figure out the problem
The gaskets had been damaged/rusted due to high pressure and steam
Learning outcomes:
Do not use iron gaskets in the instruments which are prone to high pressure and steam, use copper gaskets
instead
Learnt the functionality of the displacer type level switch
Yes! The chromatogram was then able to detect the gases it wasnt detecting previously. CO was absent in the
input stream so a gas cylinder containing CO was connected with the chromatogram and the results were observed.
CO was then found at the location it was supposed to be present in the graph hence the problem was solved.
54
Bibliography:
1) ftp://ftp.feq.ufu.br/Luis/Books/EBooks/Safety/PROCESS_INDUSTRIAL_INSTRUMENTS_AND_CO
NTROLS_HANDBOOK/25821_04a.pdf
2) http://www.pc-education.mcmaster.ca/Instrumentation/go_inst.htm
3) Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation, Tony R. Kuphaldt, Version 2.09
4) Control Valve Handbook, 4th edition, Fisher
5) Drger Polytron 8000 Instruction Manual
6) Maxum Edition II Instruction Manual, Siemens
7) ROSEMOUNT LEVEL INSTRUMENTATION, Emerson
55

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Summer Internship 2015

Instrumentation Plant 2 - Modifications in the F&G System for the Installation

ENGRO FERTILIZERS LIMITED

Summer Internship 2015

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

About the Company:

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Work Breakdown Structure:

Instrumentation Details & Control Valves

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Understanding of Gas Chromatography

Modifications in the HMI, PLC/Logic of the F&G System

Finalization of the work, report completion and review

Volumetric Flow Rate vs Mass flow Rate:

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

It is defined as Force per unit Area. P = F/A

4) Instruments being used at Engro Fertilizers:

Pressure based flow meters

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

z = Height of fluid (from a common reference point, usually ground level)

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Variable Area Flow Meters

4.1.3) Velocity Based Flow Meters:

b) Vortex Flow meter

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

a) Turbine flow meter

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

c) Magnetic Flow Meter

d) Ultrasonic Flow Meter

df = Doppler frequency shift

4.1.4) True Mass Flow Meters

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

4.2.1) Bi-metal temperature sensors

4.2.2) Resistance Temperature Detector:

Two Wire RTDs:

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Three Wire RTD

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

VRTD = Vmeter(A) Vmeter(B)

Four Wire RTD

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

c) Use of hydrostatic Pressure to determine level

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

e) Compensated Leg System:

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

h) Ultrasonic Level Measurement

Capacitive Level Sensor

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

Fillage = Total height Ullage

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

j) Radioactive Level Sensor

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

1) Mechanical Pressure Elements:

Summer Internship 2015 | 8/27/2015

4.4.3) Bourdon Tube:

4.4.4) Electronic Pressure Elements: