Vector1 Notes

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Outline I
Engineering Computing Panel

1
Three Dimensional Coordinate Systems

The Cartesian Coordinate System
Distance and Spheres in Space
Vectors
Component Form
Vector Algebra Operations
Unit Vectors
Position Vectors
Midpoint of a Line Segment
The Dot Product

Angle Between Vectors
Orthogonal Vectors
Dot Product Properties and Vector Projections
The Cross Product

The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space
Properties of the Cross Product
Area of a Parallelogram
Determinant Formula for u v
Torque
Triple Scalar or Box Product
MKMM 1213 Advanced Engineering Mathematics

Vectors and the Geometry of Spaces
Dr. Mohd Fairus Mohd Yasin

mohdfairus@fkm.utm.my
C24-309
Originally prepared by:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abu Hasan
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Vectors & Geometry of Spaces
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Outline II
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Lines and Planes in Space

Lines and Line Segments in Space
Distance from a Point to a Line in Space
Equation for a Plane in Space
Lines of Intersection
Distance from a Point to a Plane
Angles Between Planes
To locate a point in space, we use three

mutually perpendicular coordinate axes,
arranged as in Figure 1.
The axes shown there make a right-handed
coordinate frame.
Looking down on the xy-plane from the
positive direction of the z-axis, positive
angles in the plane are measured
counterclockwise from the positive x-axis
and around the positive z-axis.
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Cylinders
Quadric Surfaces
The Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) of a

point P in space are the values at which the
planes through P perpendicular to the axes
cut the axes.
Bibliography
Figure 1: The Cartesian coordinate

system is right-handed.
Cartesian coordinates for space are also

called rectangular coordinates because the
axes that define them meet at right angles.
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The formula for the distance between two points in 2-D plane extends to points in
3-D space, Figure 3. Hence, the distance between P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is
p
|P1 P2 | = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 + (z2 z1 )2
(1)
The planes in Figure 2 are determined by

the coordinates axes:
the xy-plane (blue), whose standard
equation is z = 0;
the yz-plane (green), whose standard
equation is x = 0; and
the xz-plane (brown), whose standard
equation is y = 0.
and meet at the origin (0, 0, 0), which is

identified by 0 or sometimes the letter O.
The three coordinate planes x = 0, y = 0,
and z = 0 divide space into eight cells
called octants. The octant in which the
point coordinates are all positive is called
the first octant; there is no convention for
numbering the other seven octants.
Figure 2: The planes x = 0, y = 0, and

z = 0 divide space into eight octants.
Figure 3: Distance between P1 and P2 by applying the Pythagorean theorem.
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Vectors
Component Form
Eq. 1 can be used to write equation for a sphere in space, Figure 4. A point P(x, y, z)
lies on the sphere of radius a centered at P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) precisely when |P0 P| = a or
(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 + (z z0 )2 = a2
DEFINITION:
The vector represented by the di
(2)
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Two vectors are equal if they have

the same length and direction, as
shown in Figure 6.
rected line segment AB, Figure 5,

has initial point A and terminal
point B and its length is denoted
by |AB|.
Figure 6: Equal vectors AB = CD = OP = EF.
Figure 5: The directed line segment AB is

called a vector.
Figure 4: Sphere of radius a centred at the point x0 , y0 , z0 ).
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Vectors are used to represent things

that have both magnitude and
direction in the plane or in space.
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Vectors
Vectors
Component Form
Two principal operations involving vectors are vector addition and scalar
multiplication.
DEFINITION:
Let v = PQ; see Figure 7.

If v is a two-dimensional vector in the
plane equal to the vector with initial
point at the origin and terminal point
(v1 , v2 ), then the component form of v
is
A scalar is simply a real number. Scalars can be positive, negative, or zero and are
used to scale a vector by multiplication.
v = hv1 , v2 i
Figure 7: A vector v = PQ in standard

position has its initial point at the origin.
If v is a three-dimensional vector in the

space equal to the vector with initial
point at the origin and terminal point
(v1 , v2 , v3 ), then the component form
of v is
Note: The only vector with length 0 is the zero vector

0 = h0, 0i or 0 = h0, 0, 0i. This vector is also the only
DEFINITION:
Let u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i be vectors with k a scalar
Addition
u + v = hu1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , u3 + v3 i
Scalar multiplication
vector with no specific direction.
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i
ku = hku1 , ku2 , ku3 i
The magnitude or length of vector v = PQ is the non-negative number:

q
p
|v| = v21 + v22 + v23 = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 + (z2 z1 )2
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Vectors
Vectors
Figure 9 displays a geometric

interpretation of the product ku of
the scalar k and vector u. If k > 0,
then ku has the same direction as u;
if k < 0, then the direction of ku is
opposite to that of u.
Figure 8: Vector addition (a) geometric interpretation, (b) the parallelogram law.
In Figure 8(a) the initial point

of one vector is placed at the
terminal point of the other.
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Comparing the lengths of u and ku,

we see that
p
|ku| = (ku1 )2 + (ku2 )2 + (ku3 )2
q
= k2 (u21 + u22 + u23 )
q
= k u21 + u22 + u23
The length of ku is the absolute value

of the scalar k times the length of u.
Figure 9: Scalar multiples of u.
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= |k||u|
The parallelogram law of vector addition is

shown in Figure 8(b) where the sum, called
the resultant vector, is the diagonal of the
parallelogram.
In engineering, forces, velocities and accelerations add vectorially, e.g. the force
acting on a particle subject to two gravitational forces is obtained by adding the
two force vectors.
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The vector (1)u = u has the same

length as u but points in the opposite
direction.
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Vectors
Vectors
Properties of Vector Operations
Let u, v, w be vectors and a, b be scalars.
If u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i,

then
u+v =v+u
u v = hu1 v1 , u2 v2 , u3 v3 i
Note that (u v) + v = u, so adding
the vector (u v) to v gives u, see
Figure 10(a).
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
u+0=u
u + (u) = 0
0u = 0
1u = u
a(bu) = (ab)u
a(u + v) = au + av
(a + b)u = au + bu
Figure 10(b) shows the difference

u v as the sum u + (v).
When three or more space vectors lie in the same plane, we say they are coplanar
vectors. For example, the vectors u, v, and u + v are always coplanar.
Figure 10: (a) The vector u v, when added

to v, gives u. (b) u v = u + (v).
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Vectors
Vectors
Unit Vectors
Midpoint of a Line Segment
A vector v of length 1 is called a unit

vector. The standard unit vectors are
i = h1, 0, 0i , j = h0, 1, 0i , k = h0, 0, 1i
In component form, the vector from

P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ), in
Figure 11, is
Vector v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i can be written

as a combination of standard unit
vectors:
P1 P2 = (x2 x1 )i + (y2 y1 )j
+ (z2 z1 )k
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i
The midpoint of a line segment are

found by averaging.
The midpoint M of the line segment
joining points P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is the point
x + x y + y z + z
1
2
1
2
1
2
,
,
2
2
2
OM = OP1 + 12 (P1 P2 )
+ v3 h0, 0, 1i
Figure 13: The coordinates of the midpoint are

the averages of the coordinates of P1 and P2 .
= OP1 + 12 (OP2 OP1 )
= v1 i + v2 j + v3 k
where v1 , v2 and v3 are the i-, j- and

k-component of v, respectively.
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Observe in Figure 13 that
= hv1 , 0, 0i + h0, v2 , 0i + h0, 0, v3 i

= v1 h1, 0, 0i + v2 h0, 1, 0i
v/|v| is a unit vector in the direction

of v, called the direction of the
nonzero vector v.
Figure 11: The vector from P1 to P2 .
= 12 (OP2 + OP1 )
y1 + y2
z1 + z2
x1 + x2
i+
j+
k
=
2
2
2
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Vectors
The Dot Product
Midpoint of a Line Segment: Centroid of a triangle
Example: Consider a triangle ABC

where a, b, c are the position vectors
of A, B, C, respectively. The centroid,
G, of this triangle is the point of
intersection of its medians, i.e. G is
the point which divides CD in the
ratio 2 : 1, D being the midpoint of
AB.
How does one calculate the angle

between two vectors directly from
their components?
Figure 14: The position vector of the centroid

of a triangle.
Hence
2OD + OC
OG =
3
and
OD =
a+b
2
Example: If a force F is applied to a

particle moving along a path, we
often need to know the magnitude of
the force in the direction of motion.
If v is parallel to the tangent line to
the path at the point where F is
applied, then we want the magnitude
of F in the direction of v. Figure 15
shows that the scalar quantity we
seek is the length |F| cos , where is
the angle between the two vectors F
and v.
Figure 15: The magnitude of the force F in the

direction of vector v is the length F cos of the
projection of F onto v.
Therefore
OG = 13 (a + b + c)
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The Dot Product
The Dot Product
When two nonzero vectors u and v

are placed so their initial points
coincide, they form an angle of
measure 0 , see Figure 16.
Theorem 1:
Angle Between Two Vectors
The angle between two nonzero
vectors u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i is given by
= cos1
Figure 16: The angle between u and v.
u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
|u||v|
Proof of Theorem 1:
Applying the law of cosines to the
triangle in Figure 17,
|w|2 = |u|2 + |v|2 2|u||v| cos
DEFINITION:
The dot product u v (u dot v) of
vectors u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i is the scalar
we find that
2|u||v| cos = |u|2 + |v|2 |w|2
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uv
|u||v|
Therefore
2|u||v| cos = . . .
|u||v| cos = . . .
cos = . . .
Since 0 , we have
= cos1 . . .
|u|2 =
q
2
u21 + u22 + u23
= u21 + u22 + u33
|v|2 =
2
q
v21 + v22 + v23
= v21 + v22 + v33
and
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|w|2 = . . .
Hence,
Because w = u v, component form

of w is hu1 v1 , u2 v2 , u3 v3 i. So
u v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
= cos1
|u|2 + |v|2 |w|2 = . . .
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Figure 17: The parallelogram law of addition

of vectors gives w = u v.
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The angle between two nonzero
The Dot Product
The Dot Product
Orthogonal Vectors
Two nonzero vectors u and v are

perpendicular if the angle between
them is /2. For such vectors, we
have u v = 0 because cos /2 = 0.
The converse is also true. If u and v

are nonzero vectors with
u v = |u||v| cos = 0, then cos = 0
and = cos1 0 = /2.
The following dot product properties hold, if u, v, w are vectors and c is scalar:
uv=vu
Property 1
(cu) v = u (cv) = c(u w)

u (v + w) = u v + u w
Property 2
Property 3
(u u) = |u|2
0u =0
DEFINITION:
Vectors u and v are orthogonal if u v = 0.
Property 4
Property 5
Proof of Property 1
u v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 = v1 u1 + v2 u2 + v3 u3
= vu
Proof of Property 3
u (v + w)
= hu1 , u2 , u3 i hv1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , v3 + w3 i
= u1 (v1 + w1 ) + u2 (v2 + w2 ) + u3 (v3 + w3 )
= u1 v1 + u1 w1 + u2 v2 + u2 w2 + u2 v3 + u3 w3
= (u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 ) + (u1 w1 + u2 w2 + u3 w3 )
= uv+uw
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The Dot Product
The Dot Product
The vector projection of u = PQ onto
a nonzero vector v = PS, is vector PR,

determined by dropping a
perpendicular from Q to line PS, see
Figure 18.
The notation for the vector projection

of u onto v is
projv u
If u represents a force, then projv u
represents the effective force in the
direction of v, see Figure 19.
If the angle between u and v is

acute, projv u has length |u| cos and
direction v/|v|, see Figure 20.
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In both cases the vector projection of

u onto v is the vector
projv u = (|u| cos )
If the angle between u and v is

obtuse, cos < 0 and projv u has
length |u| cos and direction
v/|v|.
v
|v|
uv
|v|
v
|v|
uv
|v|2
The scalar component of u in the

direction of v is the scalar
Figure 18: The parallelogram law of

addition of vectors gives w = u v.
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Figure 19: The parallelogram law of addition

of vectors gives w = u v.
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Figure 20: The length of projv u is (a)

|u| cos if is acute, and (b) |u| cos if
is obtuse.
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|u||v| cos
|v|
uv
v
=
=u
|v|
|v|
|u| cos =
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The Dot Product
The Dot Product
Work
Examples
Example 1:
Find the angle in the triangle ABC
determined by the vertices A = (0, 0),
B = (3, 5), and C = (5, 2) (Figure 22).
A constant force of magnitude F

moving an object through a distance
d is W = Fd. This formula holds only
if the force is directed along the line
of motion.
If a force F moving an object through
a displacement D = PQ has some

other direction, the work is
performed by the component of F in
the direction of D. If is the angle
between F and D, Figure 21, then
Work = (|F| cos )|D|
=FD
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Figure 21: The work done by a constant force

F during a displacement D.
DEFINITION:
The work done by a constant force
F acting through a displacement
Figure 22: Example 1.
Example 2:
Find the angle between u = i 2j 2k
and v = 6i + 3j + 2k.
Example 3:
Find the vector projection of
u = 6i + 3j + 2k onto v = i 2j 2k,
and the scalar component of u in the
direction of v.
Example 4:
Determine if the following pairs of vector
are orthogonal:
(a) u = h3, 2i and v = h4, 6i,
(b) u = 3i 2j + k and v = 2j + 4k.
D = PQ is
W =FD
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The Cross Product
The Cross Product
The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space
Properties of the Cross Product
A plane is determined using two

nonzero vectors, u and v, in space
which are not be parallel. A unit
vector n perpendicular to the plane is
selected by the right-hand rule, see
Figure 23.
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Nonzero vectors u and v are parallel if and only if u v = 0.
In studying lines in plane, when we

want to describe how a line was
tilting, we used the notions of slope
and angle of inclination.
In studying lines in space, we want to
describe how a plane is tilting. This
is done by multiplying two vectors in
the plane together to get a third
vector perpendicular to the plane.
The direction of this third vector is
the inclination of the plane.
Let u, v, w be vectors and r, s be scalars.

P1:
P2:
P3:
P4:
Figure 23: The construction of u v.
P5:
P6:
DEFINITION:
The cross product u v (u cross
v) is the vector
(ru) (sv) = (rs)(u v)
u (v + w) = u v + u w
v u = (u v)
(v + w) u = v u + w u
0v =0
u (v w) = (u w)v (u v)w
Figure 24: The construction of v u;

the unit vector we choose is the
negative, n, of the one we choose in
forming u v.
Applying the definition and P3 to calculate cross products of i, j, and k, we find
u v = (|u||v| sin )n
i j = (j i) = k
j k = (k j) = i
The cross product is a vector!
k i = (i k) = j
ii=jj=kk=0
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The Cross Product
The Cross Product
Area of a Parallelogram
Determinant Formula for u v
Suppose that
Because n is a unit vector, the

magnitude of u v is
u = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k
v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k
The distributive laws and the rules for multiplying i, j, and k tell us that
|u v| = |u||v|| sin ||n| = |u||v| sin

This is the area of the parallelogram
determined by u and v, see
Figure 25, |u| being the base of the
parallelogram and |v|| sin | the
height.
and
u v = (u1 i + u2 j + u3 k) (v1 i + v2 j + v3 k)
= u1 v1 i i + u1 v2 i j + u1 v3 i k
+ u2 v1 j i + u2 v2 j j + u2 v3 j k
+ u3 v1 k i + u3 v2 k j + u3 v3 k k
= (u2 v3 u3 v2 )i (u1 v3 u3 v1 )j (u1 v2 u2 v1 )k
Figure 25: Area of a parallelogram.
The component terms in the last line are terms in the expansion of a determinant
and, hence, we could calculate the cross product as a determinant
u v = u1
v1
j
u2
v2
k
u3
v3
For ease in calculating the cross product using determinants, we usually write
vectors in the form v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k rather than as ordered triples v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i.
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The Cross Product
The Cross Product
Torque
We turn a bolt by applying a force F

to a wrench to produce a torque that
causes the bolt to rotate and point in
the direction of the axis of the bolt
according to the right-hand rule, see
Figure 26.
The number we use to measure the
torques magnitude is the product of
the length of the lever arm r and the
scalar component of F perpendicular
to r, i.e.
Magnitude of torque vector
= |r||F| sin
= |r F|
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The product (u v) w is called the

triple scalar product of u, v, and w
(in that order!!), whose absolute
value
|(u v) w| = |u v||w|| cos |
is the volume of the parallelepiped
(parallelogram-sided box)
determined by u, v, and w, see
Figure 27.
Figure 26: The torque vector.
If we let n be a unit vector along the

axis of the bolt in the direction of the
torque, then a complete description
of the torque vector is r F, or
|u v| is the area of the base

parallelogram.
|w|| cos | is the height of the
parallelepiped.
Figure 27: Volume of a parallelepiped.
Because of the geometry shown in

Figure 27, (u v) w is also called
the box product of u, v, and w.
Torque vector = (|r||F| sin )n
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The Cross Product
The Cross Product
Examples
The triple scalar product can be evaluated as a determinant:
u
u
u3
u3
(u v) w = 2
i 1
v2 v3
v1 v3
u
u
u3
w2 1
= w1 2
v2 v3
v1
u1 u2 u3
v2
v3
= v1
w1 w2 w3
j + u1
v1
u3
+ w3
v3
Example 1:
Find a vector perpendicular to the plane
of P(1, 1, 0), Q(2, 1, 1), and
R(1, 1, 2) (Figure 28).

u2
k w
v2
u1 u2
v1 v2
Example 3:
Find a unit vector perpendicular to the
plane of P(1, 1, 0), Q(2, 1, 1), and
R(1, 1, 2).
Example 4:
Find the volume of the box
(parallelepiped) determined by
u = i + 2j k, v = 2i + 3k, and
w = 7j 4k.
Hence
u1
(u v) w = v1
w1
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u2
v2
w2
u3
v3
w3
(3)
Example 2:
Find the area of the triangle with vertices
P(1, 1, 0), Q(2, 1, 1), and R(1, 1, 2)
(Figure 28).
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Figure 28: Examples 1 & 2.
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This section shows how to use scalar

and vector products to write
equations for lines, line segments,
and planes in space.
In a plane, a line is determined by a
point and the slope of the line.
In space, a line is determined by a
point and a vector giving the lines
direction.
Suppose that L is a line in space

passing through a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0
parallel to a vector
Then L is a set of points P(x, y, z) for

which
Thus,
(x x0 )i + (y y0 )j + (z z0 )k = t(v1 i + v2 j + v3 k)
and re-written as
v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k
P0 P
The expanded form of P0 P = tv is
is parallel to v, Figure 29.
xi + yj + zk = (x0 i + y0 j + z0 k) + t(v1 i + v2 j + v3 k)
Vector equation for a line L through P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) parallel to v is
r(t) = r0 + tv,
P0 P = tv
for some scalar parameter t. The
value of t depends on the location of
the point P along the line, and the
domain of t is (, ).
< t <
Equating corresponding components of the two sides of Eq. (5) yields parametric
equations for a line L through P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) parallel to v
x = x0 + tv1 , y = y0 + tv2 , z = z0 + tv3 ,
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(5)
where r is the position vector of a point P(x, y, z) on L, r0 is the position vector of

P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
Figure 29: A line in space.

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(4)
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< t <
(6)
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Distance from a Point to a Line in Space
Example 1:
Find parametric equations for the line
through (2, 0, 4) parallel to
v = 2i + 4j 2k (Figure 30).
Example 3:
Parametrize the line segment joining the
points P(3, 2, 3) and Q(1, 1, 4)
(Figure 31).
Example 5:
Find the distance from the point
S(1, 1, 5) to the line
L : x = 1 + t, y = 3 t, z = 2t.
Figure 32: Distance from S to the line through
P parallel to v.
Example 2:
Find parametric equations for the line
through P(3, 2, 3) and Q(1, 1, 4).
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Example 4:
A helicopter is to fly directly from a
helipad at the origin in the direction of
the point (1, 1, 1) at a speed of 60 m/s.
What is the position of the helicopter after
10 s?
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In the notation of Figure 32, distance

from a point S to a line through P
parallel to v is
PS v
d=
|v|
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(7)
Vector Equation:
Component Equation:
Suppose that plane M passes through a

point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and is normal to the
nonzero vector n = Ai + Bj + Ck. Then M is
the set of all points P(x, y, z) for which P0P
is orthogonal to n (Figure 33). Thus, the dot
product n P0 P = 0.
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The plane through P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) normal to n = Ai + Bj + Ck has
A plane in space is determined by knowing a

point on the plane and its tilt or orientation.
This tilt is defined by specifying a vector
that is perpendicular or normal to the plane.
Component Equation Simplified:
n P0 P = 0
A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ) + C(z z0 ) = 0
Ax + By + Cz = D
where D = Ax0 + By0 + Cz0

Figure 33: The standard equation for a
plane in space is defined in terms of a
vector normal to the plane: a point P
lies in the plane through P0 normal to
Example 7:
Find an equation for the plane through A(0, 0, 1), B(2, 0, 0), and C(0, 3, 0).
n if and only if n P0 P = 0.
Example 6:
Find an equation for the plane through P0 (3, 0, 7) perpendicular to
n = 5i + 5j k.
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Just as lines are parallel if and only if they have the same direction, two planes are
parallel if and only if their normals are parallel, or
n1 = kn2
Example 10:
Find the point where the line
for some scalar k. Two planes that are not parallel intersect in a line.
Example 8:
Find a vector parallel to the line of
intersection of the planes
3x 6y 2z = 15 and 2x + y 2z = 5,
see Figure 34.
Example 9:
Find parametric equations for the line in
which the planes 3x 6y 2z = 15 and
2x + y 2z = 5 intersect.
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Sometimes we want to know where a line and a plane intersect. For example, if we
are looking at a flat plate and a line segment passes through it, we may be
interested in knowing what portion of the line segment is hidden from our view by
the plate. This application is used in computer graphics.
x=
8
+ 2t,
3
y = 2t,
intersects the plane 3x + 2y + 6z = 6.

Example 10a: Hidden lines in computer graphics
Your eye is at (4, 0, 0). You are looking at a triangular plate whose vertices are at
(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), and (2, 2, 2). The line segment from (1, 0, 0) to (0, 2, 2) passes
through the plate. What portion of the line segment is hidden from your view by
the plate?
(Hint: This is an exercise in finding intersections of lines and planes.)
Figure 34: How line of intersection of

two planes is related to the planes
normal vectors.
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Distance from a Point to a Plane
Angles Between Planes
If P is a point on a plane with normal n,

then the distance from any point S to
the plane is the length of the vector
where n = Ai + Bj + Ck is normal to the

plane.
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The angle between two intersecting

planes is defined to be the acute angle
between their normal vectors, see
Figure 36.
projection of PS onto n. That is, the

distance from S to the plane is
d = PS
|n|
z=1+t
Example 12:
Find the angle between the planes
3x 6y 2z = 15 and 2x + y 2z = 5.
Figure 35: The distance from S to the plane
Figure 36: The angle between two planes is

obtained from the angle between their
normals.
is the length of the vector projection of PS

onto n.
Example 11:
Find the distance from S(1, 1, 3) to the
plane 3x + 2y + 6z = 6, see Figure 35.
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Cylinders
Cylinders
Quadric surfaces are surfaces defined by second-degree equations in x, y, and z.

Spheres are quadric surfaces, but there are also other quadric surfaces of equal
interest which will be covered later.
A cylinder is a surface that is
generated by moving a straight line
along a given planar curve while
holding the line parallel to a given
fixed line. The curve is called a
generating curve for the cylinder
(Figure 37).
In solid geometry, where cylinder
means circular cylinder, the
generating curves are circles, but
now we allow generating curves of
any kind.
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Example 1:
Find an equation for the cylinder
made by the lines parallel to the
z-axis that pass through the parabola
y = x2 , z = 0 (Figure 38).
Figure 38: Every point of the cylinder here has

coordinates of the form (x0 , x02 , z).
Figure 37: A cylinder and generating curve.
As Example 1 suggests, any curve f (x, y) = c in xy-plane defines a cylinder parallel

to z-axis whose equation is also f (x, y) = c, e.g. equation x2 + y2 = 1 defines
circular cylinder made by lines parallel to z-axis that pass through circle
x2 + y2 = 1 in xy-plane.
Similarly, any curve g(x, z) = c in xz-plane defines a cylinder parallel to y-axis
whose space equation is also g(x, z) = c. Any curve h(y, z) = c defines a cylinder
parallel to x-axis whose space equation is also h(y, z) = c.
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Quadric Surfaces
Quadric Surfaces: ellipsoid
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We start by studying simple quadric surfaces given by the equation

Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 + Dz = E
where A, B, C, D, and E are constants.
We shall look at some basic quadric surfaces from this equation which include
ellipsoids (spheres are special cases of ellipsoids),
paraboloids,
elliptical cones, and
hyperboloids.
Figure 39: The ellipsoid.
Example 2: The ellipsoid

y2
z2
x2
+ 2 + 2 =1
2
a
b
c
shown Figure 39 cuts the coordinate axes at (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0), and (0, 0, c). It
lies within the rectangular box defined by the inequalities |x| a, |y| b and
|z| c. The surface is symmetric with respect to each of the coordinate planes
because each variable in the defining equation is squared.
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Quadric Surfaces: ellipsoid
Quadric Surfaces: elliptical paraboloid & cone
The curves in which the three coordinate planes cut the surface are ellipses. For
example,
x2
y2
+ 2 = 1 when z = 0.
2
a
b
The curve cut from the surface by the plane z = z0 , |z0 | < c, is the ellipse
x2
y2
+ 2
= 1 when z = 0.
a2 (1 z0 /c)2
b (1 z0 /c)2
If any two of the semiaxes a, b, and c are equal, the surface is an ellipsoid of
revolution. If all three are equal, the surface is a sphere.
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Figure 40: The elliptical paraboloid.

Figure 41: The elliptical cone.
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Quadric Surfaces: hyperbolic paraboloid
Quadric Surfaces: hyperbolic paraboloid
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If the surface is cut by a plane z = z0 > 0, the cross-section is a hyperbola,

y2
x2
z0
2 =
b2
a
c
with its focal axis parallel to the y-axis and its vertices on the parabola in Equation
(1).
Figure 42: The hyperbolic paraboloid.
Example 3: The hyperbolic paraboloid

y2
x2
z
2 = , c>0
2
b
a
c
shown Figure 42, has symmetry with respect to the planes x = 0 and y = 0. The
cross-sections in these planes are:
c
c
(a) x = 0 : the parabola z = 2 y2 ,
(b) y = 0 : the parabola z = 2 x2 .
b
a
The parabola in the plane x = 0 opens upward from the origin.
The parabola in the plane y = 0 opens downward.
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Quadric Surfaces: hyperboloid of one sheet
Quadric Surfaces: hyperboloid of two sheets
Figure 43: The hyperboloid of one sheet.
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Figure 44: The hyperboloid of two sheets.
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Bibliography
1
P ETER V. ON EIL (2012): Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 7ed,

ISBN-13: 978-1-111-42741-2, Cengage Learning
D ANIELA F LEISCH (2012): A Students Guide to Vectors and Tensors,

ISBN: 978-0-521-17190-8, Cambridge University Press
E RWIN K REYSZIG (2011): Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10ed,

ISBN: 978-0-470-45836-5, John Wiley & Sons
A LAN J EFFREY (2002): Advanced Engineering Mathematics,

ISBN: 0-12-382592-X, Harcourt/Academic Press
G LYNN JAMES ET AL . (2011): Advanced Modern Engineering Mathematics, 4ed,

ISBN: 978-0-273-71923-6, Pearson Education
L. B RIGGS ET AL . (2013): Calculus for Scientists and Engineers: Early Transcendentals,

ISBN-13: 978-0-321-78537-4, Pearson Education
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