Maintaining a balance

1. Most organisms are active in a limited temperature

range
Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their
chemical composition and use a specific model to describe
their specificity on substrates
Molecules: Consist of atoms
Enzymes: Break the molecule bonds, but need energy to do so ACTIVATION ENERGY
(required to start chemical reaction)
The role of enzymes in metabolism
o Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions occurring in organisms
o Enzymes are biological catalysts for all processes going on inside cells.
o They are able to be used over and over again
o They increase the rate of chemical reactions at lower temps and decrease the
activation energy needed for metabolic reactions to occur
Chemical composition of enzymes
o enzymes are made up of proteins
o i.e. long chains of Amino Acids
o When enzymes denature the cross linkage bonds are broken, protein loses its
normal shape and becomes inactive
o The substrate is the molecules which the enzyme acts upon
enzyme specificity on substrates
o The Chemical on which an enzyme acts is called a substrate
o The active site of the enzyme fits the substrate like a lock and key
o They are highly specific in their actions; this means that each enzyme acts on
one substrate only

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Models to explain specificity:
o The Lock and key model states that the substrate fits exactly into the active
site of the enzyme like a key fits a lock. Assumes the enzyme has a rigid and
unchanging shape
PRODUCTS
Substrate
Bonds In Substrate Are Weakened

Active Site

ENZYME

ENZYME-SUBSTRATE

ENZYME

o The induced fit model states that the binding of the substrate to the enzyme
induces a temporary change in the shape of the enzyme. The new shape of
the enzyme better accommodates the shape of the substrate and a reaction
occurs

Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a

substance

The substance that makes a solution acidic is hydrogen ions

pH is a measure of the alkalinity or the acidity of a substance
pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions per litre of solution
The pH scale
o 0-14
o pH of 7 is neutral (pure distilled water)
o above 7 is alkaline (Basic)
o below 7 is acidic

Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal

environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency
A constant internal environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency because
enzymes only work efficiently within certain ranges
Enzymes are essential for proper metabolic function in an organism

Maintaining a balance
Enzyme efficiency is affected greatly by certain factors including:
o Temperature
o pH
Can be referenced in investigation #1
o Substrate concentration
Enzymes work best within a limited range under optimal conditions
Therefore, a constant and stable internal environment is needed so that enzymes will
always be working at an optimal rate, and thus metabolism will be at optimum
efficiency
pH
Specific example

Rennin
catalase

Enzyme Activity

45

0 2
Acidic

Basic

pH

Enzyme activity increases with increases in temperature, until the optimal

temperature. Too far above the optimal temperature, the enzyme will denature
Specific example
Human Body

Rate of Reaction

37

95

Temperature (0C)

The rate of enzyme activity increases as substrate concentration increases, until the
active sites become fully occupied
Maximum Velocity
Reaction Velocity

Substrate Concentration

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If an enzymes temperature, pH or substrate concentration is altered too much, the

enzyme will denature (change shape beyond repair)

Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms

maintain a relatively stable internal environment
Homeostasis: A process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal
environment
Consists of two stages:
1. Detecting changes from the stable state
2. Counteracting changes from the stable state
Feedback mechanisms: By which homeostasis is maintained negative feedback to the
control centre causes the system to correct the deviations and counteract the change
Negative feedback occurs when the response to the change in the stable state is to bring it
back towards the norm (stable state)
Cold slows down the reaction
Hot denatures: body produces more perspiration and dilation in blood vessels to
regulate body temp

Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:

Detecting changes from the stable state
Counteracting changes from the stable state

Detecting changes:
A sensor detects a change in a specific variable from the desired stable level
Receptors detect stimuli: organisms then react to the change
There are two types of receptors:
o Disturbance receptors: usually in the skin, detect changes caused by the
external environment
o Misalignment receptors: detect changes from the bodys stable state
o Examples of external stimuli: light, day length, sound, temperature
o Examples of internal stimuli: levels of CO2, Oxygen levels, water, wastes etc.
Counteracting changes:

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An effector receives the message that the undesirable change must be counteracted and
the variable is stored to the desired level

EFFECTORS bring about responses to stimuli

Effectors can either be muscles or glands
Muscles bring about a change by movement
Glands bring about a change by secreting chemical substances

Body

tissueHypothalamus in the brain- Blood Vessels- body temp

i.e. For regulating body temp

Mammals (when cold) - Nerves- brain- nervous system-muscles-shiver (muscles contract to
produce excess energy which increases body temp)

Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and

responding to environmental changes
ROLE: The nervous system works to regulate and maintain an animals internal
environment (homeostasis) and respond to the external environment
The nervous system is made up of two parts:
CNS Central Nervous System:
o Consists of the brain and spinal chord
o Acts as a control centre for all the bodily functions
PNS Peripheral Nervous System:
o A branching system of nerves that transmits messages from the central
nervous system and back
o Receptors-specialised cells which detect stimulus
o Sensory nerves-carry messages from receptor to CNS
o Motor nerves-Carry messages from CNS to the effector
o Effectors-muscles or glands
The nervous system works with another system called the endocrine system
Endocrine system: This system produces hormones in response to certain stimuli

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Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is
found compared with the narrow limits for individual species
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the environment
Aquatic organisms
o Are found in water with temperatures between:
-2oC to 40oC
Terrestrial organisms
o Air temperatures between:
-60oC and 60oC
Bacteria
o Found at the extremes of earth temperatures between:
-100oC and 110oC
Individual organisms often maintain a narrow temperature range to ensure that their core
body temperature does not fall outside their physiological requirements

Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and

endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient
temperature and explain how these responses assist
temperature regulation
ENDOTHERM: an organism whose body heat is generated from internal sources

e.g Australias Red Kangaroo

o Lives in Australias arid region
Shelters in shade during heat of the day to avoid overheating in direct

sunlight
Slight colored fur, that reflects sunlight therefore reducing heat

absorption
Has a thick network of blood vessels in skin in forearms which it licks

in times of heat stress to provide an evaporative cooling effect

Has a thick layer of fur that insulates it from heat of the day and the
cool of the night
Panting
Shivering

E.g. The Bilby

o Lives in Australias arid
region

ENDOTHERM
Body Temperature
ECTOTHERM

Environmental temperature

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Large ears that allow heat to escape from blood vessels close to the

surface
Are nocturnal and shelter in relatively cool deep burrows during the

day
They have a thick layer of fur, which insulates them from the cool of
the day and the heat of the night

ECTOTHERM: an organism whose body temperature is governed by external sources

e.g. the Red bellied black snake

o Basks in sun after cool nights to increase body temperature
o To maximize surface area of the body it flattens its body
o It moves in and out of shade during the day to regulate body temperature
e.g. Thorny devil
o Has a flattened body which allows it to absorb maximum heat when basking in
the sun
o The thick scaly skin helps to insulate the body from hot and cold conditions
o It burrows into the sand during extreme heat where the temperatures are lower

Identify some responses of plants to temperature change

Plants respond to change by altering their growth rate

In extreme hot or cold, plants can die, but leave behind dormant seeds
Vernalisation: some plants need exposure to cold conditions before they can flower
Boab trees shed their leaves in summer, thus reducing the surface area through which

heat can be absorbed

Some plants have needle-like leaves, reducing surface area
Example Eucalypts
o hang leaves vertically, which reduces he surface area of the leaf exposed to
direct sunlight
o leaves with reflective surfaces-reflect radiation from the sun
o Thick, waxy cuticles to absorb heat loss

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(PRACTICAL) Identify data sources, plan, chose equipment or
resources and perform a firsthand investigation to test the
effect of:
Writing a scientific report

Title
Aim
Hypothesis
Equipment
Method, including:
o Variables
Independent variable
Dependant variable
Controlled variables
o Steps
o Diagrams
o Last steps includes repetition
Results, including:
o Graph
o Table
Discussion:
o Design flaws
o Explain/discuss result
o Reference sources
Conclusion
o Link to hypothesis
o How it was done
o What was found
o How it relates to the real world
Validity
Variables

Reliability
Repetition

Is it a fair test

Same results achieved

Range of variables
Measuring dependant
variable

Independent variable: The variable you do not alter. e.g. heat

Dependant variable: Depends on independent. e.g. clotting of milk

Accuracy
Apparatus

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Controlled variables: The variables you control. e.g. apparatus, i.e. pipettes

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Increased temperature
Background information
Temperature affects the rate of which molecules collide with each other
Increase in temperature results in an increase reaction rate between chemicals
Increase in temperature can also result in denatured enzymes (enzyme changes shape)
Rennin enzyme in stomach, helps to solidify milk
Hypothesis
That the enzyme rennin has an optimum temperature range at 37oC
Aim

To test the affect of temperature on the activity of the enzyme rennin

Materials
Rennin solution
Milk
8 test tubes (test tube rack)
Pipettes
Stopwatch
Measuring cylinder
Ice
Thermometer
Method
Safety considerations
Wear leather gloves to reduce/prevent burns from water
Wear goggles to avoid hot water contact
Control group
The single test tube in each temperature group with no added rennin
Variables held constant
The temperature in each water bath ice, 25oC, 37oC and 80oC
Amount of rennin/milk added
Pipette not contaminated
Methodology
1. Each test tube was numbered 1-8
2. 3mLs of milk was added to each test tube
3. Test tubes 1 and 2 were placed in ice water
4. The test tubes were left to sit for three minutes until the milk had adjusted to the
temperature of the water baths
5. Three drops of rennin were added to one of the test tubes using the pipette.
6. The other test tube was left without rennin as a control

Maintaining a balance
7. The stopwatch began timing and each test tube was observed in 30 second intervals
by tilting the test tube slightly to see whether the milk had began solidifying (it is
completely solid when the milk does not move)
8. The time taken for each test tube to solidify was recorded
9. Test tubes 3 and 4 were placed in room temperature
10. Steps 4 to 8 were repeated
11. Test tubes 5 and 6 were placed in the water bath, with temperature 37oC
12. Steps 4 to 8 were repeated
13. Test tubes 7 and 8 were placed in the water bath, with temperature 80oC
14. Steps 4 to 8 were repeated
Results (Graph and Table)
Affect of temperature on rennin activity

_1_
Time

25

37

80

Results of different temperatures affecting rennin activity

Temp of
water bath
(oC)
0
25
37

Test tube number

1234567-

control (no rennin)

Treatment (rennin added)
control (no rennin)
Treatment (rennin added)
Control (no rennin)
Treatment (rennin added)
Control (no rennin)

Average time taken for

milk to solidify
(seconds)
900+
900+
900+
595
900+
217
900+

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80

8- Treatment (rennin added)

900+

Discussion
In this experiment, there were some sources of error, with the most notably varied chemical
amounts. As the person using the pipette did not look directly as eye level, some of the test
tubes could have slightly more or less rennin in them.
In terms of validity, the variables were controlled well mostly, apart from some
inconsistencies in the amount of rennin and milk provided with the pipette.
The method was valid, in that there were two of each test tube type (controlled and
treated) in each group. The experiment was also completed twice, so results have a greater
degree of accuracy also.
The reliability of the experiment is also good because the experiment was repeated
twice, thus making the averages more accurate. However it should be noted that the ice and
the 80oC baths should have been timed longer than 15 mins (900 seconds) to actually see if
the clotting would occur. The experiment could also have been repeated more, especially to
add reliability to the 37oC optimal temperature group for rennin
Conclusion
From the results, it can be seen that the temperatures outside rennins optimal temperature
will affect it so it does not perform as well as it would at an optimal temperature of 37oC.
In the results, it took on average 595 seconds for the rennin to clot the milk at 25oC,
which can be compared to the optimal temperature at 37oC, where the time taken for the
clotting to be complete was only 217 seconds on average. The ice bath and the 80oC took
longer than 900 seconds, and the experiment was concluded at that point. These results
showed that the ranges where the rennin was most active and where the enzyme was
effectively de-natured.

Maintaining a balance

Change in pH
Background information
Enzymes have a specific pH for optimum function
If they go outside their optimum pH levels, the proteins will change shape and the
enzyme will become de-natured
The optimum pH of each enzyme depends on the environment it catalyses reactions
in.
Catalyse enzyme in every somatic cell. Cells produce Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as
a product of respiration, which is toxic to cells. This must be broken down. Catalyse
breaks down the H2O2 to oxygen and water
Hypothesis
That the enzyme catalyst has a specific pH range in which it optimally performs
Aim

To test the affect of pH on the activity of the enzyme catalyst

Materials
Ruler with mm markings
Ground potato (catalyse)
HCl (hydrochloric acid)
H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)
Na OH (sodium hydroxide)
12 test tubes
Pipette
Test tube rack
Distilled water
Method
Safety considerations
Possibility of acid burns and spillages- eye goggles and possibly gloves
Control group
The test tubes in each group with no added catalase
Variables held constant
Amounts of H2O2, water, HCl and NaOH added
Pipette contamination
Ruler used
The pH of each group
Methodology
1. The 12 test tubes were labelled 1-12 and put into the test tube rack

Maintaining a balance
2. 5mL of hydrogen peroxide was added to each test tube
3. In tubes 1-4, 5mL of HCl was added, tubes 5-8 had 5mL of Na OH added to them and
tubes 9-12 had 5mL of distilled water added
4. 2 drops of the catalase was added to the tubes 1-4 using a pipette
5. The level of the bubbles which rose up in the test tubes were recorded
6. Steps 4 and 5 were repeated for tubes 5-12
7. The process was repeated
Results (graph and table)
Affect of pH on catalyse activity

Height
Of bubbles
(enzyme
Activity)

Acidic (-6)

Neutral
pH variations

(7)

Basic (8+)

Results of different pH affecting catalyse activity

Bubble height
(Avg)

9.0
Na OH + H2O2
13

Discussion:
Design flaws
Explain/discuss results
Reference sources
Conclusion:
Link to hypothesis (supported)
How it was done
What was found
How it relates to the real world

4.5
HCl + H2O2
11

6.8
Distilled water+ H2O2
18.5

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Change in substrate concentrations on the activity of

named enzymes
Background information
Catalase is an enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
Different amounts of the substrate (H2O2) will determine and indicate the enzymes
full capacity to react with the substrate.
The catalysts activity varies with the substrate concentration (or any enzyme) since
the more substrate there is to an enzyme, the rate of reaction will increase then remain
constant since all the active sites of the enzyme are being used
Hypothesis
That increased substrate concentration will increase an enzymes rate of reaction
Aim

To test the effect of increased substrate concentration (hydrogen peroxide) on the

enzyme catalase

Materials
fresh potato (catalase)
Ruler with mm reading
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
5 test tubes
test tube rack
Pipette
Cork Borer
Glass rod
Marker pen
Distilled water
Method
Safety considerations
H2O2 was used so therefore eye goggles should be worn
Also rubber gloves were an option to prevent burning
Control group
The two test tubes with only distilled water and no H2O2 no reaction was
expected and none occurred
Variables held constant
Amount of potato added to each test tube
Temperature at which the experiment occurred
Volume of H2O2
Size of test tube

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Dependant variables
o Amount of oxygen produced- how high the bubbles rose
Independent variables
o H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)

Possible improvements/limitations
Repetition
The volume was not entirely accurate
The size of the potato was not entirely accurate
Validity (if it is fair or not)
Validity
Several pH levels
Control
Same material
Different pipettes for H2O2
Methodology
1. The 5 test tubes were labelled 1-5 and put in the test tube rack
2. In tube 1, 10mLs of distilled water was added using a pipette
3. In tube 2, 7.5mLs of distilled water and 2.5mLs of H2O2 was added using 2 pipettes
4. In tube 3, 5mls of distilled water and 5mLs of H2O2 was added using 2 pipettes
5. In tube 4, 2.5mLs of distilled water and 7.5mLs of H2O2 was added using 2 pipettes
6. In tube 5, 10mLs of H2O2 was added using a pipette
7. The contents of each test tube were mixed together using the glass rod, rinsing it in
distilled water after each test tube was mixed
8. Five cylinders of potato were cut at 8mm diameter and 30mm long using the cork
borer
9. One length of potato was placed into each test tube and the liquid level was recorded
using a marker pen
10. After five minutes, the height of the bubbles of oxygen which formed over the
contents of the tubes was marked out using the marker pen
11. The height of the bubbles was subtracted from the height of the original liquid (this is
the data recording)
12. The data was recorded on a table
13. The experiment was repeated
Affect of substrate on catalyse activity

Results (graph and table)

*The active sites were fully

occupied
Height
Of
Throth
(enzyme

activity)

Substrate concentration (percentage)

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Results of
affecting

different pH
enzyme activity

Test tube #
mL H2O2

1
0

2
2.5

3
5

4
7.5

5
10

mL distilled
water
Avg. height
of throth
after 5 mins
(mm)

10

7.5

2.5

12

14.6

23.5

22.3

Discussion
Sources of error which arose in the experiment included that of inconsistent chemical
amounts and therefore ratios. This could have been improved by measuring the chemicals at
eye level, improving validity. Furthermore, more care should have been taken with the
pipette, as it may have been contaminated by dipping into the chemicals below, altering the
results
The potato lengths could have been more accurate, as the knife and ruler was not the
most precise method of cutting them to length.
A good area of the experiment was that the potatoes were all dropped into the
cylinders at the same time, thus increasing validity.
In terms of reliability, the experiment could have been made more reliable through
repetition.
Conclusion
As seen in the results, the increasing amounts of H2O2 eventuated in greater O2
reaction from the catalyst. This shows that increased concentration of a substrate to an
enzyme will increase its activity.

Maintaining a balance
(PRACTICAL) Gather, process and analyse information from
secondary sources and use available evidence to develop a
model of a feedback mechanism

Homeostasis involves the detection of the change in the environment and the response
to that change
The mechanism that brings about this change is called FEEDBACK
In feedback systems, the response alters the stimulus
In living organisms, the feedback system has three parts:
o Receptors: a type of sensor that constantly monitors the internal environment
o Control centre: Receives information from the receptors and determines the
response
o Effecter: Restores the set value. Keeps the environment stable
An example of a feedback system would be the control of body temperature
There are two types of temperature receptors in the body:
o Disturbance detectors: These receptors detect changes in the skin temperature,
caused by external conditions
o Misalignment detectors: These receptors monitor the temperature of the blood

as it circulates
The receptors send their information to the control centre
Temperature control responses:

Keeping warm
Shiver to generate heat
Hair muscles erect; insulation

Keeping cool
Sweating; evaporation looses heat
Blood vessels dilate; increased blood supply,

Increase appetite
Blood vessels constrict; less blood flow, less

more heat loss

Hair muscles relax; less insulation
Decrease in metabolism

heat loss
Increase in metabolism

Less exercise

(PRACTICAL) Analyse information from secondary sources to

describe adaptations and responses that have occurred in
Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation
Adaptation/response

How it assists in temperature Australian examples

Migration

regulation
Animals move to avoid

Sharp-tailed sandpiper

Hibernation

temperature extremes
Some animals remain in a

Bogong moths

Maintaining a balance
sheltered spot, their
metabolism slows, body
Nocturnal

temperature drops
Animals are active at night to

Hopping mice

escape high temperatures

Controlling exposure

during the day

Ectotherms expose

Brown snake

smaller/larger surface area to

the sun to control radiation
Endotherms may huddle
Control of blood flow to the

together to keep warm

More blood flowing to the

skin and extremities

surface allows heat loss by

Humans

radiation or less blood

Metabolic activity

flowing reduces heat loss

In cold conditions keeps the

Humans

body warm. In hot conditions

Evaporation

it may be reduced
As moisture evaporates, heat

The grey kangaroo

is lost from the body, e.g.

sweating, panting, kangaroos
lick their forearms and as the
spit evaporates, it cools the
skin

2. Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and

gasses in a fluid medium
Identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried
in mammalian blood:
The mammalian circulatory system has 4 main functions:
1. Transport the major function of the circulatory system is to transport water, gasses,
nutrients and wastes
2. Blood clotting This complex mechanism repairs damage to blood vessels and seals
wounds to prevent loss of blood

Maintaining a balance
3. Defence against disease white blood cells help to fight infection in the body.
Antibiotics provide immunity against further attack
4. Temperature regulation The flow of blood distributes heat around the body.
Control of the amount of blood passing close to the skin helps control heat loss from
the body
Composition of the blood

Plasma
o 55% of the volume of the blood
o Sticky, straw coloured and slightly salty
o Transports nutrients
o 90% water
o Carries wastes e.g. Urea
Blood cells
o Red blood cells are 45% of blood volume
Also called erythrocytes
The shape is bi-concave discs, thinner at centre than at edges
Contains the pigment haemoglobin
Function is to transport respiratory gasses; mainly oxygen
Only live for three months; have no nuclei
5-6 million per millilitre of blood
Produced in bone marrow
o White blood cells are 0.1% of blood volume
Also called leucocytes
Can change shape
Function is to defend against disease and help immune systems
They have a nuclei
Produced in the lymph nodes and glands
Platelets
o 0.1% of blood volume
o Function is to aid in the clotting of blood and inflammation
o Fragments of old cells
o The smallest blood cell
o No nucleus
o Made in the bone marrow
Lymph and Interstitial fluid
o Lymph is blood without red blood cells, platelets and large plasma proteins
o Interstitial fluid is the fluid that runs between the body cells

ACRONYM COWSLN

Carbon dioxide

Produced as a waste product of respiration in body cells

After entering the blood stream, it may:
o 23% of blood is carried by haemoglobin

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o 7% dissolves in blood plasma

o 70% is converted into bicarbonate ions inside red blood cells
The bicarbonate then diffuses into the blood plasma for transport
Excess CO2 must be removed as it will dissociate into hydrogen carbonate ions that
will decrease the pH and effect enzyme function

Water

Water is the solvent of plasma

Makes up 60% of the blood volume

Salts

Transported by dissolving in the plasma

e.g. sodium , potassium and magnesium ect.

Lipids

Digested lipids are changed into triglycerides (this happens in the lining of the small

intestine)
This is released into the lymph and eventually passed into the veins

Nitrogenous wastes

Wastes such as ammonia are changed into urea

Urea is transported to the plasma where it is dissolved

Other products of digestion

Includes amino acids, sugars, glycerol and vitamins

They are mainly water soluble and transported in the plasma

Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin

Structure of haemoglobin
o A globular protein found in the red blood cells
o Gobule- shaped protein containing 4 polypeptide sub-units
o 4 polypeptide chains:
1. 2 identical alpha chains
2. 2 identical beta chains
Haemoglobin disassociates with oxygen at a lower pH (acidic)
o Living tissues produce carbon dioxide which when combined with water
makes the water more acidic
Haemoglobin disassociates with oxygen at higher temperatures
o Metabolic heat is generated by active tissues

O
O

Hmg

Maintaining a balance

o The increased release of oxygen by haemoglobin at the higher temperatures of

these tissues endures adequate oxygen for metabolic activity (exercise)

Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in

relation to their function

Longitudinal diagram of a
vein

Vessel

Structure

Function

Artery-

Thick Elastic Walls

Carry blood away from heart

Larger arteries have to carry blood under
pressure and to maintain that pressure
have a thick layer of elastic tissue

Thick insulated rubber

piping- thick, yet
elastic walls, leaving
smaller centre

Vein-

Thinner elastic
layer than arteries
Hose- hard inelastic
wall, yet larger area
for blood to move
through

Capillar
y

Valves
Very thin wallsoften one cell thick

The thinner walls (in comparison to

arteries) allow contracting muscles around
the veins to move blood along.
Because there is inadequate pressure to
maintain blood flow the valves stop
backflow
The sites for exchange of materials
between blood and tissues
Thin walls allow for efficient Movement
between these materials

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Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of
the blood as it moves around the body and identify tissues
in which these changes occur
Pulmonary circuit
o Blood flows from heart to lungs and then back to the heart
o Blood is under lower pressure than the systemic circuit
o The rate of blood flow is faster
o Very little body fluid is formed
o The blood contains high levels of CO2 and low oxygen levels
Systemic circuit
o Blood flows from the heart to the body (except the lungs) and returns back to
the heart
o Blood is under high pressure due to contractions of the left ventricle of the
heart, but pressure gradually decreases
o Pressure forces some fluid from the blood out to become body fluids
Kidneys
o Blood loses urea and has the compostition of water and salt balanced
Intestines
o Blood collects the products of digestion
o Levels of glucose, lipids and amino acids rise
Liver
o Regulates the level of glucose in blood
o Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and is stored
o Converts excess amino acids to urea
Tissue
Lungs
Body
Tissues
Small
Intestine
Large
Intestine
Liver
Kidney

Change in Blood
Increase in Oxygen, Decrease in Carbon Dioxide
Decrease in Oxygen, Increase in Carbon Dioxide
Increase in amino acids and glucose
Water salts and vitamins increase
Glucose levels are regulated and can increase or decrease
Decrease in Urea Water and salts

Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why
removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential
CAUSE AND EFFECT
All living cells need oxygen for respiration
o Respiration the process by which cells obtain energy
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy(ATP)

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CO2 is a waste product of respiration
If left in cells, it dissolves into the surrounding water creating carbon dioxide
o This lowers the pH of the cell, making it more acidic and therefore affecting
the enzyme activity

Describe the current theories about processes responsible

for the movement of materials through plants in xylem and
phloem tissues

What Is
transported
In what direction
are the
substances
transported
Is energy
required by the
plant
What are the
distinctive
characteristics of
the tissue
Main Processes

Xylem

XYLEM
Water and dissolved minerals
From roots to leaves, only in
upwards direction
No- Passive.
The suns energy causes
evaporation of water from
the leaves
Dead cells- often reinforced
with secondary thickening

Transpiration pull
Cohesion and adhesion
Root pressure- minor

PHLOEM
Sugars (Sucrose) and
products of photosynthesis
Any direction, from where
sugar is produced to where
energy is needed
Yes- energy required to
move materials against
concentration gradient
Living cells
Sieve tube elements
Companion cells to provide
energy and keep sieve
tubes alive
Pressure- Flow mechanism,
translocation

Maintaining a balance

Transpiration pull
o Evaporation of water from the leaves through the stomates initiates the pull of
the TRANSPIRATION STREAM. Water is then drawn up the xylem tubes to

replace this loss (from roots to leaves)

Cohesion
o force of attraction between H2O
o Water molecules tend to bind together, forming a continuous column in the
xylem, which replaces any loss
Adhesion
o force of attraction between H2O and other substances
o Water molecules stick to the sides of the xylem tubes (cellulose walls)

Phloem

Theory #1 The Source-to-Sink

Glucose is made at the source (generally the leaves) and converted into sucrose (2

glucose molecules)
Sucrose and other mineral nutrients are moved into the companion cells and then

loaded into phloem sieve tubes of the leaves

As sucrose enters the phloem the concentration of phloem sap increases. This causes

the entry of water by osmosis from the surrounding cells

Water pressure is lower in the sink and therefore, this results in the water and

dissolved solutes to flow towards a SINK

A sink is a region of the plant where sugars and other nutrients are actively being
removed from the phloem. As sucrose moves out of the phloem sap and into
surrounding cells (with energy), water flows out of them. This reduces the pressure in
the sieve cells at the sink region (less sugar) and the water moves back to the phloem

Perform a firsthand investigation to demonstrate the effect

of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water

Blowing through a straw into the water

o High technology read the levels of water pH as the carbon dioxide from our
breath was dissolved into the water

Maintaining a balance
Perform a firsthand investigation using the light microscope
and prepared slides to gather information to estimate the
size of the red and white blood cells and draw scaled
diagrams of each

Red blood cell = 7-9 um (micro metres)

White blood cells = 10-12 um
1 millimetre = 1000 micrometres
Field of view was 1.51.6 mm
Repetition x5

Analyse information from secondary sources to identify

current technologies that allow measurement of oxygen
saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood and
describe and explain the conditions under which these
technologies are used:

Technolo

How it Works

gy
Pulse

Measures O2

oximeter

Device like a peg sits on the

The Conditions It Is Used

Used to measure the % of

haemoglobin oxygen

finger and measures the

saturation of the blood in

transmission of light

patients undergoing any

through tissues

procedure that requires

anaesthesia or sedation or

Measures the amount of

those whose breathing or

oxygen in arterial blood

circulation is abnormal

There is a large difference

between red light absorbed
by haemoglobin compared
Arterial
blood gas
(ABG)
analysis

to oxyhaemoglobin
Measures O2 and CO2

Uses electrochemical
methods
Measures partial pressure (or
the concentration) of O2

Used when there are signs of

dangerously low oxygen or
high carbon dioxide levels
Helps for diagnosing as well
as monitoring patients

Maintaining a balance

and CO2 in the blood

Measures saturation of

Helpful for monitoring

patients under anaesthesia, in

oxygen (which is the

intensive care, in accident or

amount of oxygen

emergency facilities and for

combined to haemoglobin

premature babies

compared to the maximum)

e.g., a patient in a coma can

Measures levels of

have their blood gases

bicarbonate and pH (which

regularly monitored

show CO2 levels)

This analysis evaluates how
effectively the lungs are
delivering oxygen and
removing carbon dioxide

Used in blood donation and artificial blood

CSU HSC Biology

Type of technology

Description

Picture

Condition

Maintaining a balance

Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the

products extracted from donated blood and discuss the uses
of these products

Pink blood: well oxygenated

Bluish blood: Seriously un-oxygenated

Whole blood is rarely given to patients

Usually only certain products of the blood are given
Blood donors are screened for health
Most donated blood is broken down and classified into the products listed below so
precise replacements can take placeo Red blood cells:
Used to increase the amount of oxygen that can be carried to the

bodys tissues
Given to anaemic patients, or people whose bone marrow do not make

enough red blood cells

o Platelets:
Used to make the blood clot
Given to patients undergoing chemotherapy, when their blood does not
make enough platelets
o Plasma:
The liquid portion of the blood

Maintaining a balance
Given to people with clotting disorders
Also used to adjust the osmotic pressure of the blood
o White blood cells:
Infection fighting compound of the blood
Very rarely given, but are used when the cell count is very low, mainly
due to antibiotics
o Immunoglobins:
Also called gamma globulins, immune serum or antibodies
Infection fighting parts of the blood plasma
Given to people with difficulties in fighting infections. e.g. AIDS
sufferers

Analyse and present information from secondary sources to

report on progress in the production of artificial blood and
use available evidence to propose reasons why such
research is needed

Problems of using real blood:

o Shortage of real blood
o Has to be cross-matched, because if you receive the wrong blood type, it
could be fatal
o Has to be free of infectious agents. Only blood that is free of bacteria and
infectious agents (such as HIV) can be used. Testing the blood is costly
o It has a short shelf-life. Because red blood cells only survive for three months,

the blood has a short life-span

Proposed replacements for blood:
o Perflurochemicals:
Synthetic and inert
Cheap to produce
Can dissolve 50 times more oxygen
No risk of infections- free of biological materials
BUT- Must be combined with other materials to mix in with the blood
stream (e.g. lecithin)
o Haemoglobin based oxygen carriers (HBOCs)
Made from haemoglobin extracted from red blood cells
Haemoglobin is not contained in membrane- cross matching

unnecessary
Can be stored for a long time

Maintaining a balance

BUT- Haemoglobin tends to oxidise to a different form, break down,

and can no longer carry oxygen

o Dextrose Solution:
Made up of 4% glucose solution in a fluid with equal salinity to blood
Only used to restore blood pressure after accidents, and doesnt supply

oxygen to tissues
USEFUL FOR:
o Emergencies
o Disasters
o War
o Quick fixtures of problems and countries who dont have such services

Chose equipment or resources to perform a firsthand

investigation to gather data to draw transverse and
longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissues

Maintaining a balance
3. Plants and animals regulate the concentration of
gasses, water and waste products of metabolism in cells
and in interstitial fluid
Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be
maintained within a narrow range for optimal function

Water makes up around 70-90% of living things. It is essential for life

Water is the solvent of all metabolic reactions in living cells
All chemical reactions in the body occur in a watery medium
RECALL:
o Isotonic: Concentration of solutes outside the cell is the same as inside the
cell. No overall movement of water
o Hypertonic: Concentration of solutes is greater outside the cell than inside the
cell. Water tends to move out of the cell
o Hypotonic: Concentration of solutes is greater inside the cell than outside.

Water tends to move inside the cell.

Living cells work best in an isotonic environment
Any changes in the concentrations of solutes will result in a change in the levels of

water in cells
This usually results in death
For this reason, it is highly critical for the concentration of water to be kept constant:
to ensure the proper functioning of living cells

Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued

metabolic activity
The two main wastes produced by the body are:
o Carbon dioxide
o Nitrogenous wastes
They are the by-products of the break-down of proteins and nucleic acids toxic to
cells and must be removed quickly
When proteins and amino acids break down, a nitrogenous waste called ammonia is
produced
Carbon dioxide
o Can lower pH when not removed and this reduces the ability of enzymes to
work efficiently
Nitrogenous wastes
o Are produced through the breakdown of excess protein (amino acids) in the
liver
o Solutions of ammonia are highly alkaline

Maintaining a balance
o If not removed, the pH of cells rises to such high levels that the enzymes can
no longer function and the metabolic rate ceases
Waste products of terrestrial and aquatic animals
Animal
AQUATIC
ORGANISMS

Fish

TERRESTRIAL Mammals
ORGANISMS

Waste
produced
Ammonia

Urea

Birds

Uric acid

Reptiles

Ammonia
or uric acid

Insects

Uric acid
crystals

Explanation
Secrete ammonia directly into the water
Save energy by not having to convert it into a safe
molecule
Humans are not surrounded by water and must
store their waste for a period of time
Urea has a much lower toxicity than ammonia and
is soluble and can be excreted in a soluble form
It does not require as much energy to produce as
uric acid
Because birds produce eggs they must produce a
waste that is virtually non-toxic so that it can sit in
the egg for a long period of time
Uric acid requires a lot of energy but stay as a solid
mass in the egg until hatching
Adult birds also produce uric acid which is almost
insoluble in water and can be excreted as a paste,
conserving water
Aquatic reptiles produce ammonia for the same
reasons as fish
Terrestrial reptiles produce uric acid for the same
reason as birds
This preserves water- even less water than the paste
excreted by birds and reptiles

Identify the role of kidneys in the excretory system of fish

and mammals
Kidney: Major organ which is responsible for stabilising the internal environment of an
animal

FISH:

Maintaining a balance
o Used to regulate water and salt concentration in the
body
o The excretion of nitrogenous wastes (ammonia)

occurs across the gills

Freshwater:
o There is a higher concentration of solutes in the
body than in the surrounding water, water therefore
diffuses into the body
o The kidneys produce large amounts of very dilute
urine in a continuous stream(ammonia)
o The kidneys also actively absorb salts as there are very few in the absorbed

water
o Ammonia Dilute (out of the gills)
Saltwater:
o There is a high concentration of salts in the surrounding water, Water therefore
diffuses out of the body
o Concentrated urea
o The fish continually drink the saltwater
o The water is retained by the kidney and the salts actively secreted. Very little

urine is produced. Some urea produced

MAMMALS:
o The kidney of mammals regulate salt and water concentrations and also
excrete urea

Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are

inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes in
some organisms
Diffusion: The movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration
Osmosis: (a type of diffusion) the movement of water from a high concentration to a low
concentration across a semi-permeable membrane.
Active transport: The movement of materials from low to high concentration, because it is
against the concentration gradient, it requires energy.
BOTH ARE FORMS OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT

Diffusion is:
o too slow to remove wastes quickly enough

Maintaining a balance
o Non-selective (i.e. it will remove wastes as well as things which are needed,

e.g. glucose).
Osmosis would cause the water to leave the blood due to the high salt content in the

kidney tubules.
To speed up the process, the kidney filters all the small dissolved molecules from the
blood into the kidney tubules and then selectively re-absorbs (using active transport)
the molecules the body needs back into the blood e.g. glucose

Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate

these to processes occurring in the mammalian kidney
Both used in regulating body fluid composition

Active transport uses energy to transport substances across a membrane it would

normally not be able to cross due to a diffusion gradient or its own properties
Passive transport is the movement of substances across a membrane without energy

expenditure
The functional unit of the kidney is called the nephron, as seen below

Maintaining a balance

Three processes occur in the nephrons(kidneys):

o Filtration: Within the Bowmans capsule is the glomerulus, a dense clump of
capillaries. The blood pressure here is so high that fluid and substance from
the blood are forced into the Bowmans capsule, and form a liquid called the
glomerular filtrate (passive filtration). It contains:
Substances the body can re-use: glucose, water, amino acids etc.
Wastes: urea and poisons (proteins and blood cells not filtered)
o Re-absorption: The useful substances that the body can use of the glomerular
filtrate are re-absorbed into the capillaries surrounding the nephron. e.g.
vitamins, amino acids and hormones. This is active transport and requires
energy. Some other substances passively enter the blood e.g. water (90% by
osmosis), sodium and salts.
This occurs in the proximal and distal tubules and in the loop of henle
o Secretion: This is the process where the body actively transports substances
from the blood into the nephron.

Maintaining a balance

Occurs in both the proximal and distal parts of the tubule.

This is active transport. Ureter contains water, minerals, urea and bile

pigments
Glomerular filtrate
o Blood pressure forced small molecules from the glomerulus into the

glomerular capsule (water, glucose, salts, amino acids, urea and creatine)
Bowmans capsule
o High blood pressure due to difference in efferent and afferent arterioles makes

blood filtrate into cavity of capsule

o All is filtered into bowmans capsule excluding blood cells and protein
Proximal tubule
o Bicarbonate ions are re-absorbed into the blood, hydrogen ions are secreted
out. This maintains the pH of the blood
o Drugs, such as aspirin, penicillin and poisons are secreted out of the blood
o Regulation of salts occurs here. Sodium ions are actively re-absorbed and

chlorine ions follow passively. Potassium ions are also re-absorbed

The loop of henle
o Has a descending and ascending loop
o Glomerular filtrate flows deep into the medullar in descending limbs
o In the descending loop, it is permeable to water, not salt
Water passes out of the nephron via osmosis
o In the ascending loop, the walls are permeable to salt, but not water
Salt passively passes out in the bottom, thin-walled section, but this is
actively passed out in the top, thick-walled section
The distal tubule
o Selective re-absorption of sodium ions and potassium ions occurs here again,
(ions exchanged between the filtrate and blood), to regulate the pH of the

blood and the concentration of salts

The collecting duct/tubule
o This is the end of the nephron, and connects to the ureters.
o Plays an important role in osmoregulation
o The walls are permeable to water only and water is transported out

accordingly to the needs of the body

Water content of blood too high ADH isnt secreted, aquaporings are broken down

and the collecting duct becomes less permeable to water

Water content of blood too low The pituitary gland secretes ADH, producing

channels of aquaporings which makes the collecting duct permeable to water

Final filtrate is called urine drains into renal pelvis and down ureter to bladder

Maintaining a balance
Explain how the process of filtration and re-absorption in the
mammalian nephron regulate body fluid composition

The nephron is a regulatory unit; it absorbs or secretes substances in order to maintain

homeostasis
This regulation maintains the constant composition of body fluids
Main functioning can be divided into three main steps:

Blood at the top of the nephron

o is under high pressure
o The following are forced through the glomerulus (capillaries) into the
bowmans capsule
Urea
Salt
Water
o The fluid (Filtrate) does not contain any blood cells because they are too big.
In the Proximal convoluted Tubules
Ions- chloride, phosphate, sodium
Glucose
Amino acids
o Are actively absorbed
o Because of the ion concentration in blood some water follows by diffusion
In the Descending loop of Henle
o Water diffuses into the blood
For this to occur the salt concentration of the blood must be high
this is achieved in the ascending loop of henle
The Ascending loop of henle
o Is impermeable to water- no water can leave this part
o When your tissues become dehydrated
Salt concentration increases
Blood volume decreases
Pressure decreases
o This stimulates production of the hormone ALDOSTRONE
From the adrenal gland just above the kidney
o This stimulates the ascending loop of henle to reabsorb sodium
The salt levels of the tissues and capillaries surrounding the loop of
henle will become higher
Causing water to diffuse out of the filtrate
The collecting tubule
o The tube drops down into the medulla near the ascending loop
o The fluids are high in salt and
o Gained water leaves by osmosis

Maintaining a balance
o For water to leave collecting tubule the walls of the duct must be permeable
The degree of permeability is controlled by the hormone ADH

Outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (antidiuretic hormone) in the regulation of water and salt levels
in blood
ADH (anti-diuretic hormone):

Also called vasopressin

Controls the re-absorption of water by adjusting the permeability of the collecting

ducts and the distal tubes

It is made in the hypothalamus in the brain, but stored in the pituitary gland
Receptors in the hypothalamus monitor the concentration of the blood:
o High Salt Concentration: ADH levels increased, collecting ducts and distal
tubules become more permeable to water, more water reabsorbed,
concentration returns to normal. (Concentrated urine)
o Low Salt Concentration: ADH levels decreased, collecting ducts and distal
tubules less permeable, less water absorbed, concentration returns to stable

state. (Dilute urine)

ADH does not control the levels of salt in the blood. It only controls the
concentration of salt through water retention.

Aldosterone:

Produced and released by the adrenal glands, which sit above the kidneys
Control the amount of salt in the blood by regulating the re-absorption of salt in the
nephrons
Stimulates the ascending loop of henle to actively re-absorb sodium
High salt levels:
o High blood volume and blood pressure due to water diffusing in
o Levels of aldosterone decreased.
o Less salt reabsorbed, less water diffusing in
o Salt level decreased, blood volume and pressure decreases
Low Salt Levels:
o Low blood volume and blood pressure due to water diffusing out.
o Levels of aldosterone increased.
o More salt reabsorbed, more water diffusing in
o Salt levels increase, blood volume and pressure increase

Maintaining a balance

Negative Feedback-

NORMAL

Water is absorbed by osmosis

Blood Volume DECREASES, Blood presure DECREASES

Sodium activly absorbed

Adrenal gland releases

No
rm

Water moves
into blood

Low levels of water

in blood

Collecting Duct becomes More

Permiable to water

Hypothalamus Stimulates
pertuitary to release ADH

Maintaining a balance

Hormone replacement therapy

Those people who do not secrete aldosterone use hormone replacement therapy
Occurs in those with Addisons disease, who cannot secrete aldosterone
A replacement hormone Fludrocortisones is used to treat the condition but careful
monitoring must occur to avoid fluid retention and high blood pressure. e.g.
J.F.Kennedy

Renal dialysis compared to the function of the kidney

Renal dialysis uses gravity to introduce dialysis fluid into their abdomen through a

catheter, then it disconnects and is able to circulate

Water and wastes diffuse from the organs into dialysis fluid that surrounds them. The
used fluid now containing wastes is allowed to run out of the abdomen into an empty
drainage bag

Kidney Function
A Natural Body process
Performed by two fist sized organs
Removes waste continuously
Varies output automatically

Wastes are removed by both diffusion

and active transport
Hormones play a part

Dialysis
An artificial process for replaced or
damaged Kidneys
Performed by a machine and a number
of computers and other equipment
Performed intermittently under hospital
conditions (2-3 times a week for
several hours)
Concentration of substances in blood
dialysis fluid monitored by computers
so that most wastes are removed
during treatment
Wastes removed by diffusion
Hormones not involved

Maintaining a balance
Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and
physiological functions in response to variations in the
environment and discuss its importance to estuarine
organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations
Enantiostasis is the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to
variations in the environment

In estuarine environments, the salt concentration is constantly fluctuating, therefore

organisms living in these environments must have mechanisms to maintain

appropriate salt concentrations

Many estuarine animals use behavioural adaptations. Some burrow into the sand or

mud where the salinity changes are less pronounced than in the water
Others like bivalve molluscs remain closed during tidal periods
Plants are unable to avoid the salt fluctuations so they must have mechanisms to
achieve this. The grey mangrove Avicennia marina does this in two ways:
1 Exclude salt- It has special tissue, in the roots and lower stem that are like
2

barriers to the uptake of salt

Secrete salt- It is able to concentrate and secrete salt through special glands on

the underside of their leaves

Other plants such as old-man salt bush, which is native of arid Australia, can tolerate
high slat levels. It can do this by accumulating and tolerating high salt levels in tissues

Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian

plants that assist in minimising water loss
Banksia Serrata

The upper leaf surface has a thick waxy cuticle. This reduces any transpiration

through the upper leaf surface

Sunken stomata covered by microscopic hairs on the lower leaf surface. This creates
a moist micro-climate around the stomata, reducing the water loss caused by drier air

Hakea Teretifolia

Cylindrical leaves. This reduces the surface area exposed to transpiration

Thick waxy cuticle
Sunken stomata

Maintaining a balance
Perform a firsthand investigation of the structure of the
mammalian kidney by dissection, use of a model or visual
resource and identify the regions involved in the excretion
of waste products