JUDY ANN RUADIL

CET-E4D

CONCRETE
Concrete is a synthetic construction material made by mixing cement, fine aggregate (usually
sand), coarse aggregate (usually gravel or crushed stone), and water in the proper proportions.
The product is not concrete unless all four of these ingredients are present.
CONSTITUENTS OF CONCRETE
The fine and coarse aggregates in a concrete mix are the inert, or inactive, ingredients. Cement
and water are the active ingredients. The inert ingredients and the cement are first thoroughly
mixed together. As soon as the water is added, a chemical reaction begins between the water and
the cement. The reaction, called hydration, causes the concrete to harden. This is an important
point. The hardening process occurs through hydration of the cement by the water, not by drying
out of the mix. Instead of being dried out, concrete must be kept as moist as possible during the
initial hydration process. Drying out causes a drop in water content below that required for
satisfactory hydration of the cement. The fact that the hardening process does not result from
drying out is clearly shown by the fact that concrete hardens just as well underwater as it does in
air.
CONCRETE AS BUILDING MATERIAL
Concrete may be cast into bricks, blocks, and other relatively small building units, which are
used in concrete construction. Concrete has a great variety of applications because it meets
structural demands and lends itself to architectural treatment. All important building elements,
foundations, columns, walls, slabs, and roofs are made from concrete. Other concrete
applications are in roads, runways, bridges, and dams.
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
The compressive strength of concrete (meaning its ability to resist compression) is very high, but
its tensile strength (ability to resist stretching, bending, or twisting) is relatively low.
Consequently, concrete which must resist a good deal of stretching, bending, or twistingsuch
as concrete in beams, girders, walls, columns, and the likemust be reinforced with steel.
Concrete that must resist only compression may not require reinforcement. As you will learn
later, the most important factor controlling the strength of concrete is the water-cement ratio, or
the proportion of water to cement in the mix.
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
The durability of concrete refers to the extent to which the material is capable of resisting
deterioration caused by exposure to service conditions. Concrete is also strong and fireproof.

Ordinary structural concrete that is to be exposed to the elements must be watertight and
weather-resistant. Concrete that is subject to wear, such as floor slabs and pavements, must be
capable of resisting abrasion.
The major factor that controls the durability of concrete is its strength. The stronger the concrete,
the more durable it is. As we just mentioned, the chief factor controlling the strength of concrete
is the water-cement ratio. However, the character, size, and grading (distribution of particle sizes
between the largest permissible coarse and the smallest permissible fine) of the aggregate also
have important effects on both strength and durability.
WATERTIGHTNESS OF CONCRETE
The ideal concrete mix is one with just enough water required for complete hydration of the
cement. However, this results in a mix too stiff to pour in forms. A mix fluid enough to be poured
in forms always contains a certain amount of water over and above that which will combine with
the cement. This water eventually evaporates, leaving voids, or pores, in the concrete.
Penetration of the concrete by water is still impossible if these voids are not inter-connected.
They may be interconnected, however, as a result of slight sinking of solid particles in the mix
during the hardening period. As these particles sink, they leave water-tilled channels that become
voids when the water evaporates. The larger and more numerous these voids are, the more the
watertightness of the concrete is impaired. The size and number of the voids vary directly with
the amount of water used in excess of the amount required to hydrate the cement. To keep the
concrete as watertight as possible, you must not use more water than the minimum amount
required to attain the necessary degree of workability.

CEMENT
Cement, in general, adhesive substances of all kinds, but, in a narrower sense, the binding
materials used in building and civil engineering construction. Cements of this kind are finely
ground powders that, when mixed with water, set to a hard mass. Setting and hardening result
from hydration, which is a chemical combination of the cement compounds with water that
yields submicroscopic crystals or a gel-like material with a high surface area. Because of their
hydrating properties, constructional cements, which will even set and harden under water, are
often called hydraulic cements. The most important of these is portland cement.
Portland cement consists essentially of compounds of lime (calcium oxide, CaO) mixed
with silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2) and alumina (aluminum oxide, Al2O3). The lime is obtained
from a calcareous (lime-containing) raw material, and the other oxides are derived from an
argillaceous (clayey) material. Additional raw materials such as silica sand, iron oxide (Fe2O3),
and bauxitecontaining hydrated aluminum, Al(OH)3may be used in smaller quantities to get
the desired composition.
The commonest calcareous raw materials are limestone and chalk, but others, such as coral or
shell deposits, also are used. Clays, shales, slates, and estuarine muds are the common
argillaceous raw materials. Marl, a compact calcareous clay, andcement rock contain both the

calcareous and argillaceous components in proportions that sometimes approximate cement

compositions. Another raw material is blast-furnace slag, which consists mainly of lime, silica,
and alumina and is mixed with a calcareous material of high lime content. Kaolin, a white clay
that contains little iron oxide, is used as the argillaceous component for white portland cement.
Industrial wastes, such as fly ash and calcium carbonate from chemical manufacture, are other
possible raw materials, but their use is small compared with that of the natural materials.
The magnesia (magnesium oxide, MgO) content of raw materials must be low because the
permissible limit in portland cement is 4 to 5 percent. Other impurities in raw materials that must
be strictly limited are fluorine compounds, phosphates, metal oxides and sulfides, and excessive
alkalies.
Another essential raw material is gypsum, some 5 percent of which is added to the burned
cement clinker during grinding to control the setting time of the cement. Portland cement also
can be made in a combined process with sulfuric acid using calcium sulfate or anhydrite in place
of calcium carbonate. The sulfur dioxide produced in the flue gases on burning is converted to
sulfuric acid by normal processes.

SAND
Sand is a loose, fragmented, naturally-occurring material consisting of very small particles of
decomposed rocks, corals, or shells. Sand is used to provide bulk, strength, and other properties
to construction materials like asphalt and concrete. It is also used as a decorative material in
landscaping. Specific types of sand are used in the manufacture of glass and as a molding
material for metal casting. Other sand is used as an abrasive in sandblasting and to make
sandpaper.
Raw Materials
The most common sand is composed of particles of quartz and feldspar. Quartz sand particles are
colorless or slightly pink, while feldspar sand has a pink or amber color. Black sands, such as
those found in Hawaii, are composed of particles of obsidian formed by volcanic activity. Other
black sands include materials such as magnetite and homblende. Coral sands are white or gray,
and sands composed of broken shell fragments are usually light brown. The white sands on the
Gulf of Mexico are made of smooth particles of limestone known as oolite, derived from the
Greek word meaning egg stone. The white sands of White Sands, New Mexico, are made of
gypsum crystals. Ordinarily, gypsum is dissolved by rain water, but the area around White Sands
is so arid that the crystals survive to form undulating dunes.
Quartz sands, which are high in silica content, are used to make glass. When quartz sands are
crushed they produce particles with sharp, angular edges that are sometimes used to make
sandpaper for smoothing wood. Some quartz sand is found in the form of sandstone. Sandstone
is a sedimentary, rock-like material formed under pressure and composed of sand particles held

together by a cementing material such as calcium carbonate. A few sandstones are composed of
almost pure quartz particles and are the source of the silicon used to make semiconductor silicon
chips for microprocessors.
Molding sands, or foundry sands, are used for metal casting. They are composed of about 80%92% silica, up to 15% alumina, and 2% iron oxide. The alumina content gives the molding sand
the proper binding properties required to hold the shape of the mold cavity.
Sand that is scooped up from the bank of a river and is not washed or sorted in any way is known
as bank-run sand. It is used in general construction and landscaping.
The definition of the size of sand particles varies, but in general sand contains particles
measuring about 0.0025-0.08 in (0.063-2.0 mm) in diameter. Particles smaller than this are
classified as silt. Larger particles are either granules or gravel, depending on their size. In the
construction business, all aggregate materials with particles smaller than 0.25 in (6.4 mm) are
classified as fine aggregates. This includes sand. Materials with particles from 0.25 in (6.4 mm)
up to about 6.0 in (15.2 cm) are classified as coarse aggregates.
Sand has a density of 2,600-3,100 lb per cubic yard (1,538-1,842 kg per cubic meter). The
trapped water content between the sand particles can cause the density to vary substantially.

Gravel
Coarse aggregate shall consist of naturally occurring materials such as gravel, or resulting from
the crushing of parent rock, to include natural rock, slags, expanded clays and shales (lightweight
aggregates) and other approved inert materials with similar characteristics, having hard, strong,
durable particles, conforming to the specific requirements of this Section. Coarse aggregate for
use in nonstructural concrete applications or hot bituminous mixtures may also consist of
reclaimed Portland cement concrete meeting the requirements of 901-5. Washing of this material
will not be required if the requirements of 901-1.2 for maximum percent of material passing the
No. 200 sieve can be met without washing. Materials substantially retained on the No. 4 sieve,
shall be classified as coarse aggregate.
Gravel shall be composed of naturally occurring quartz, free from deleterious coatings of any
kind. The minimum dry-rodded weight AASHTO T 19 shall be 95 lb/ft3 . Crushed gravel shall
consist of a minimum of 85%, by weight, of the material retained on the No. 4 sieve, having at
least three fractured.

OYSTER
The word oyster is used as a common name for a number of different families of
saltwater clams, bivalve molluscs that live in marine orbrackish habitats. In some species the
valves are highly calcified, and many are somewhat irregular in shape. Many, but not all, oysters
are in the superfamily Ostreoidea.
Some kinds of oysters are commonly consumed by humans, cooked or raw, the latter being
a delicacy. Some kinds of pearl oysters are harvested for the pearl produced within

the mantle. Windowpane oysters are harvested for their translucent shells, which are used to
make various kinds of decorative objects.

Water/cement ratio
Three simple ingredients can be blended and proportioned numerous ways to make concrete:

aggregate
cement
water

In concrete, the single most significant influence on most or all of the properties is the amount of
water used in the mix.
In concrete mix design, the ratio of the amount of water to the amount of cement used (both by
weight) is called the water to cement ratio (w/c). These two ingredients are responsible for
binding everything together.
The water to cement ratio largely determines the strength and durability of the concrete when it
is cured properly. The w/c ratio refers to the ratio of the weights of water and cement used in the
concrete mix. A w/c ratio of 0.4 means that for every 100 lbs of cement used in the concrete, 40
lbs of water is added.
Typical w/c ratios are as follows:

Normal for ordinary concrete (sidewalks and driveways): 0.6 to 0.7

Specified if a higher quality concrete is desired: 0.4

The practical range of the w/c ratio is from about 0.3 to over 0.8.

A ratio of 0.3 is very stiff (unless superplasticizers are used).

A ratio of 0.8 makes a wet and fairly weak concrete.

Typical compressive strengths when concrete is properly cured are:

0.4 w/c ratio > 5600 psi

0.8 w/c ratio > 2000 psi.

SIEVE ANALYSIS

For the characterization of bulk goods of different forms and sizes, the knowledge of their
particle size distributions is essential. The particle size distribution, i.e. the number of particles of
different sizes, is responsible for important physical and chemical properties such as solubility,
flowability and surface reaction. In many industries such as food, pharmaceutics and chemistry
traditional sieve analysis is the standard for production and quality control of powders and
granules. Advantages of the sieve analysis include easy handling, low investment costs, precise
and reproducible results in a comparably short time and the possibility to separate the particle
size fractions. Therefore, this method is an accepted alternative to analysis methods using laser
light or image processing.
To guarantee a high degree of reproducibility and reliability, sieve shakers and accessories have
to fulfill the requirements of national and international standards. This means that test sieves,
sieve shakers and all other measurement instruments (e.g. scales) which are used for the
characterization of particle distributions have to be calibrated and subjected to test agent
monitoring as part of the quality management system. Apart from that, it is absolutely necessary
to carry out the sample preparation with great care. Only then is it possible to achieve sieving
results which allow a reliable characterization of a product.

CONCRETE SLUMP TEST

Concrete slump test is to determine the workability or consistency of concrete mix prepared at
the laboratory or the construction site during the progress of the work. Concrete slump test is
carried out from batch to batch to check the uniform quality of concrete during construction.
The slump test is the most simple workability test for concrete, involves low cost and provides
immediate results. Due to this fact, it has been widely used for workability tests since 1922. The
slump is carried out as per procedures mentioned in ASTM C143 in the United States, IS: 1199
1959 in India and EN 12350-2 in Europe.
Generally concrete slump value is used to find the workability, which indicates water-cement
ratio, but there are various factors including properties of materials, mixing methods, dosage,
admixtures etc. also affect the concrete slump value

COMPRESSIVE TEST FOR CONCRETE

4.1 Care must be exercised in the interpretation of the significance of compressive strength
determinations by this test method since strength is not a fundamental or intrinsic property of
concrete made from given materials. Values obtained will depend on the size and shape of the
specimen, batching, mixing procedures, the methods of sampling, molding, and fabrication and
the age, temperature, and moisture conditions during curing.
4.2 This test method is used to determine compressive strength of cylindrical specimens prepared
and cured in accordance with Practices C31/C31M, C192/C192M, C617/C617M,
and C1231/C1231M and Test Methods C42/C42M and C873/C873M.

4.3 The results of this test method are used as a basis for quality control of concrete
proportioning, mixing, and placing operations; determination of compliance with specifications;
control for evaluating effectiveness of admixtures; and similar uses.
4.4 The individual who tests concrete cylinders for acceptance testing shall meet the concrete
laboratory technician requirements of Practice C1077, including an examination requiring
performance demonstration that is evaluated by an independent examiner.
NOTE 1: Certification equivalent to the minimum guidelines for ACI Concrete Laboratory
Technician, Level I or ACI Concrete Strength Testing Technician will satisfy this requirement.