AIR CRAFT PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY---UNIT 5

NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING (UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINE

PROCESS)
SYLLABUS:
UNIT- V------------UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING:
Principles (with schematic diagram only) of working and applications of
abrasive jet machining, ultrasonic machining, electric discharge
machining, electro chemical machining, laser beam/electron beam/plasma
arc machining
(AJMUSMEDMECMLBMEBMPAM)
Introduction- Machining (Material Removal Processes):
Machining is an essential process of finishing by which jobs are
produced to the desired dimensions and surface finish by gradually
removing the excess material from the work surface(s).
Machining categories:

Cutting involves single-point or multipoint cutting tools, each with a

clearly defined geometry.
Abrasive processes, such as grinding.

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 Nontraditional machining, utilizing electrical, chemical, and optical

sources of energy.

NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING:
Non-traditional manufacturing processes is defined as a group of
processes that remove excess material by various techniques involving
mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of
these energies (Removes material by chemical dissolution, etching,
melting, evaporation, and hydrodynamic action) but do not use a sharp
cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional manufacturing
processes.
These requirements led to chemical, electrical, laser, and highenergy beams as energy sources for removing material from metallic or
non-metallic workpieces.
Why Nontraditional Machining?
Situations where traditional machining processes are
unsatisfactory or uneconomical:
Workpiece material is too hard, strong, or tough.
Workpiece is too flexible to resist cutting forces or too difficult to
clamp.
Part shape is very complex with internal or external profiles or
small holes.
Requirements for surface finish and tolerances are very high.
Temperature rise or residual stresses are undesirable or
unacceptable.
Traditional vs. Nontraditional
Primary source of energy
Traditional: mechanical.
Nontraditional: electrical, chemical, optical
Primary method of material removal
Traditional: shearing
Nontraditional: does not use shearing
(e.g., abrasive water jet cutting uses erosion)

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1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF UNCONVENTIONAL MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES:
Thus, these non-conventional processes can be classified into various
groups according to the basic requirements which are as follows :
(i) Type of energy required, namely, mechanical, electrical, chemical etc.
(ii) Basic mechanism involved in the processes, like erosion, ionic
dissolution, vaporisation etc.
(iii) Source of immediate energy required for material removal, namely,
hydrostatic pressure, high current density, high voltage, ionised material,
etc.
(iv) Medium for transfer of those energies, like high velocity particles,
electrolyte, electron, hot gases, etc. On the basis of above requirements,
the various processes may be classified as shown in table 1.1.

Mechanical processes: the mechanical energy differs from the action of

the conventional
cutting tool. Examples include ultrasonic machining and jet machining;
Electrochemical processes: based on electrochemical energy to remove
the material.
Examples include electrochemical machining, and electrochemical
deburring and grinding;
Thermal energy processes: use thermal energy generated by the
conversion of electrical
energy to shape or cut the workpiece. Examples include electric discharge
processes,
electron beam machining, laser beam machining, and plasma arc cutting;
Chemical machining: chemicals selectively remove material from portions
of the
workpiece, while other portions of the surface are mask protected.

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Mechanical

Electro
CHEMICAL

THERMO
ELECTRICAL

CHEMICAL

AJM

ECM

EDM

CHM

WJM

ECG

EBM

PCM

AWJM

EJD

LJM

USM

IBM,
PAM(plasma
arc m/g)

Principles of NTM methods:

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General Characteristics of Advanced Machining Processes

Process
parameters
and typical
material
removal rate or
cutting speed

Process

Characteristics

Chemical
machining (CM)

Shallow removal (up to 12 mm)

on large flat or curved surfaces;
blanking of thin sheets; low
tooling and cost; suitable for
low production runs.

0.00250.1
mm/min.

Electrochemical
machining (ECM)

Complex shapes with deep

cavities; highest rate of material
removal among nontraditional
processes; expensive tooling
and equipment; high power
consumption; medium to high
production quantity.

V: 525 dc; A:
1.58 A/mm2;
2.512 mm/min,
depending on
current density.

Electrochemical
grinding (ECG)

Cutting off and sharpening hard

materials, such as tungstencarbide tools; also used as a
honing process; higher removal
rate than grinding.

A: 13 A/mm2;
Typically 25
mm3/s per 1000
A.

Electricaldischarge
machining (EDM)

Shaping and cutting complex

parts made of hard materials;
some surface damage may
result; also used as a grinding
and cutting process; expensive
tooling and equipment.

V: 50380; A:
0.1500; Typically
300 mm3/min.

Wire EDM

Contour cutting of flat or curved

surfaces; expensive equipment.

Varies with
material and
thickness.

Laser-beam
machining (LBM)

Cutting and holemaking on thin

materials; heat-affected zone;
does not require a vacuum;
expensive equipment;
consumes much energy.

0.507.5 m/min.

Electron-beam

Cutting and holemaking on thin

12 mm3/min.

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machining (EBM)

materials; very small holes and

slots; heat-affected zone;
requires a vacuum; expensive
equipment.

Water-jet
machining (WJM)

Cutting all types of nonmetallic

materials to 25 mm and greater
in thickness; suitable for
contour cutting of flexible
materials; no thermal damage;
noisy.

Varies
considerably with
material.

Abrasive waterjet machining

(AWJM)

Single or multilayer cutting of

metallic and nonmetallic
materials.

Up to 7.5 m/min.

Abrasive-jet
machining (AJM)

Cutting, slotting, deburring,

deflashing, etching, and
cleaning of metallic and
nonmetallic materials; manually
controlled; tends to round off
sharp edges; hazardous.

Varies
considerably with
material.

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A.Mechanical Energy machining processes:

A1.ABRASIVE JET MACHINING(AJM)
Introduction-principle:
It is the material removal process where the material is removed or
machined by the impact erosion(mechanical abrasion action) of the high
velocity stream of air or gas and abrasive mixtrue, which is focused on to
the work piece.

In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to

impinge on the work material at a high velocity. The jet of abrasive
particles is carried by carrier gas or air. The high velocity stream of
abrasive is generated by converting the pressure energy of the carrier gas
or air to its kinetic energy and hence high velocity jet. The nozzle directs
the abrasive jet in a controlled manner onto the work material, so that the
distance between the nozzle and the work piece and the impingement
angle can be set desirably. The high velocity abrasive particles remove the
material by micro-cutting action as well as brittle fracture of the work
material. Fig. schematically shows the material removal process.

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In AJM, generally, the abrasive particles of around 50 m grit size

would impinge on the work material at velocity of 200 m/s from a nozzle
of I.D. of 0.5 mm with a stand off distance of around 2 mm. The kinetic
energy of the abrasive particles would be sufficient to provide material
removal due to brittle fracture of the work piece or even micro cutting by
the abrasives.

Equipment :

In AJM, air is compressed in an air compressor and compressed air

at a pressure of around 5 bar is used as the carrier gas as shown in Fig.
9.1.4.
Fig. 9.1.4 also shows the other major parts of the AJM system.
Gases like CO2, N2 can also be used as carrier gas which may directly be
issued from a gas cylinder. Generally oxygen is not used as a carrier gas.
The carrier gas is first passed through a pressure regulator to obtain the
desired working pressure. The gas is then passed through an air dryer to
remove any residual water vapour. To remove any oil vapour or particulate
contaminant the same is passed through a series of filters. Then the
carrier gas enters a closed chamber known as the mixing chamber. The
abrasive particles enter the chamber from a hopper through a metallic
sieve. The sieve is constantly vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker. The
mass flow rate of abrasive (15 gm/min) entering the chamber depends on
the amplitude of vibration of the sieve and its frequency. The abrasive
particles are then carried by the carrier gas to the machining chamber via
an electro-magnetic on-off valve. The machining enclosure is essential to
contain the abrasive and machined particles in a safe and eco-friendly
manner. The machining is carried out as high velocity (200 m/s) abrasive

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particles are issued from the nozzle onto a work piece traversing under
the jet.
Charecterstics:
Material removal

Typical cutting speeds vary between

25 -125 mm/min

Dimensional Tolerances
Typical range 2 - 5 m
Surface Finish

Typical Ra values vary from 0.3 - 2.3

m

Process Parameters and Machining Characteristics.

The process parameters are listed below:
Abrasive
Material Al2O3 / SiC / glass beads
Shape irregular / spherical
Size 10 ~ 50 m
Mass flow rate 2 ~ 20 gm/min
Carrier gas
Composition Air, CO2, N2
Density Air ~ 1.3 kg/m3
Velocity 500 ~ 700 m/s
Pressure 2 ~ 10 bar
Flow rate 5 ~ 30 lpm
Abrasive Jet
Velocity 100 ~ 300 m/s
Mixing ratio mass flow ratio of abrasive to gas
[Mabr/Mgas]

Nozzle

Stand-off distance 0.5 ~ 5 mm

Impingement Angle 600 ~ 900
Material WC / sapphire
Diameter (Internal) 0.2 ~ 0.8 mm
Life 10 ~ 300 hours

Applications

Good for materials that cannot stand high temperatures

For drilling holes of intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials

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Abrasive Jet Machining is used for deburring, etching, and cleaning

of hard and brittle metals, alloys, and nonmetallic materials (e.g.,
germanium, silicon, glass, ceramics, and mica).

2.3.5 Advantages and limitations of AJM

Advantages
_ Because AJM is a cool machining process, it is best suited for machining
brittle and heat sensitive materials like glass, quartz, sapphire, and
ceramics.
_ The process is used for machining superalloys and refractory materials.
_ It is not reactive with any workpiece material.
_ No tool changes are required.
_ Intricate parts of sharp corners can be machined.
_ The machined materials do not experience hardening.
_ No initial hole is required for starting the operation as required by wire
EDM.
_ Material utilization is high.
Limitations:
MRR is rather low (around ~ 15 mm3/min for machining
glass)
Abrasive particles tend to get embedded particularly if the
work material is ductile
Tapering occurs due to flaring of the jet
Suitable dust-collecting systems should be provided.
Soft materials cant be machined by the process.
Silica dust may be a health hazard.
Expensive process
Flaring can become large
Not suitable for mass production because of high
maintenance requirements

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A2.Ultrasonic Machining (USM):

Ultrasonic machining, also known as ultrasonic impact grinding, is
the use of ultrasonically-induced vibrations delivered to a tool. When
combined with an abrasive slurry, ultrasonic machining allows the tool to
create accurate cavities of virtually any shape in hard, brittle materials.
(ultrasonic machining process begins with converting a highfrequency electrical signal into an oscillatory mechanical motion. This
motion is acoustically transmitted through a metal tool holder and cutting
tool assembly.)
This machining process is nonthermal, nonchemical, and nonelectrical.
It does not change the metallurgical, chemical or physical properties of
the workpiece.

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In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an

ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25 kHz) with an amplitude of around 15 50
m over the workpiece. Generally the tool is pressed downward with a
feed force, F. Between the tool and workpiece, the machining zone is
flooded with hard abrasive particles generally in the form of water based
slurry.
As the tool vibrates over the workpiece, the abrasive particles act as
the indenters and indent both the work material and the tool. The
abrasive particles, as they indent, the work material, would remove the
same, particularly if the work material is brittle, due to crack initiation,
propagation and brittle fracture of the material.
Hence, USM is mainly used for machining brittle materials {which
are poor conductors of electricity and thus cannot be processed by
Electrochemical and Electro-discharge machining (ECM and ED)}.
Abrasive slurry consists of a mixture of liquid (water is the most
common but oils or glycerol are also used) and 20% to 60% of abrasives
with typical grit sizes of 100 to 800.
The common types of abrasive materials are boron carbide, silicon
carbide, diamond, and corundum (Al2O3).
Process Parameters and their Effects.

Amplitude of vibration (ao) 15 50 m

Frequency of vibration (f) 19 25 kHz
Feed force (F) related to tool dimensions
Feed pressure (p)
Abrasive size(abrasive grit diameter, dg) 15 m 150 m
Abrasive material Al2O3 , SiC , B4C , Boronsilicarbide , Diamond

Capability
With fine abrasives, tolerance of 0.0125 mm or better can be held.
Ra varies between 0.2 1.6 m.
Machine:

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Schematic view of an Ultrasonic Machine

The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar to a drill
press.
However, it has additional features to carry out USM of brittle work
material. The workpiece is mounted on a vice, which can be located at the
desired position under the tool using a 2 axis table. The table can further
be lowered or raised to accommodate work of different thickness. The
typical elements of an USM are (Fig. 9.2.7)
Slurry delivery and return system
Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the tool
during machining
The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration
The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the
vibration to the required amplitude of 15 50 m and
accommodates the tool at its tip.
Applications :
Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys,
semiconductors, glass,
ceramics, carbides, precious stones,hardened
steels etc.
Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and
surface impressions.
Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies.

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Advantages:
precise machining of brittle materials;
makes tiny holes (0.3mm);
does not produce electric, thermal, chemical damage because it
removes material mechanically.
Limitations
Low MRR
Tool wears fast in USM.
Low depth of hole
Quiz Test
1. Which of the following material is not generally machined by USM
(i) Copper
(ii) Glass
(iii) Silicon
(iv) Germanium
2. Tool in USM is generally made of
(i) Glass
(ii) Ceramic
(iii) Carbides
(iv) Steel
3. Increasing volume concentration of abrasive in slurry would affect MRR
in the following manner
(i) increase MRR
(ii) decrease MRR
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(iii) would not change MRR

(iv) initially decrease and then increase MRR
4. USM can be classified as the following type of non-traditional machining
process
(i) electrical
(ii) optical
(iii) mechanical
(iv) chemical
Answers to the Quiz
1 (a)
2 (d)
3 (a)
4 (c)

B.THERMAL ENERGY MACHINING PROCESSES

B1. Electric discharge machining
In electric discharge processes, the work material is removed by a
series of sparks that cause localized melting and evaporation of the
material on the work surface.
The two main processes in this category are
a. electric discharge machining, and
b. wire electric discharge machining.
These processes can be used only on electrically conducting work
materials.
B1a.ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)/ SPARK EROSION
MACHINING
Principle of operation
EDM is a thermal erosion process whereby material is melted and
vaporized from an electrically conducive workpiece immersed in a
dielectric fluid with a series of spark discharges between the tool
electrode and the workpiece connected to power supply.
[Workpiece material is melted and removed by the heat from high density
electrical discharges]
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Equipment :
EDM machine has the following major modules
Dielectric reservoir, pump and circulation system
Power generator and control unit (Power suppliesPulsed DC-10
to 1000 amps)
Working tank with work holding device
The tool holder
The servo system to feed the tool
Dielectric fluidThe dielectric fluid
1) acts as an insulator until the potential is sufficiently high,
2) acts as a flushing medium for the removal of the chips.
3) provides a cooling medium.
hydrocarbon oils, Kerosene & De-ionized Water are most common
Dielectric Fluids
Electrode materialThe followings are the different electrode materials which are used
commonly in the industry:
Graphite
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 Electrolytic oxygen free copper

Tellurium copper 99% Cu + 0.5% tellurium
Brass
Work Materials:
Any conductive materials

Process Mechanism:
1. A shaped tool (cathode) and workpiece (anode) are connected to DC
supply and placed in a dielectric fluid.
2. When the applied voltage is high enough, a localized breakdown of
the dielectric occurs and sparks are generated across the gap
between tool and w/p.

3. These sparks have very high current density and causes the
formation of a plasma channel, vaporizing part of the tool and w/p.

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4. The vaporisation produces a high-pressure bubble that expands

rapidly, ejecting a small amount of material and leaving a small
crater on the surface.
5. The momentary local plasma column temperature ranges from
10,000 to 40,000 OC
Process Characteristics:

Surface finish:
High frequency spark and low I, V,C gives best surface finish.
Economically achievable avg. surface roughness is 0.4 m.
Accuracy:
Sharp corner cannot be achieved
Taper effect disturbs the machining accuracy
Usual tolerance value 0.03 to 0.05 mm.
Application of EDM:
The EDM process has the ability to machine hard, difficult-to-machine
materials.
Parts with complex, precise and irregular shapes for forging, press tools,
extrusion dies,
difficult internal shapes for aerospace and medical applications can be
made by EDM process.
Die cavities, small diameter deep holes, turbine blades and various
intricate shapes
Some of the shapes made by EDM process are shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 3: Difficult internal parts made by EDM process

Advantages of EDM
The main advantages of DM are:
I. By this process, materials of any hardness can be machined;
II.
No burrs are left in machined surface;
III.
One of the main advantages of this process is that thin and
fragile/brittle componentscan be machined without distortion;
IV.
Complex internal shapes can be machined
V.
High accuracy
VI. Surface quality
VII.
Any conductive materials
VIII.
Stress-Free and Burr-Free Cutting
IX. Suitable for mold making
X.
Suitable to machine difficult to cut or complex 3d shapes
Limitations of EDM
The main limitations of this process are:
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I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.

This process can only be employed in electrically conductive

materials;
Material removal rate is low and the process overall is slow
compared to conventional
machining processes
High specific energy consumption
Unwanted erosion and over cutting of material can occur
Difficult to produce sharp corner due to electrode wear
Risk of fume and skin irritation hazard to operator
Rough surface finish when at high rates of material removal.

B1b.Wire Electric Discharge Machining

Wire Electric Discharge Machining (Wire EDM) is a special form of
EDM that uses a small diameter wire as the electrode to cut a narrow
kerf(slot) in the work. Wire EDM is illustrated in the figure:

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The workpiece is fed continuously and slowly past the wire in order
to achieve the desired cutting path. Numerical control is used to control
the work-part motions during cutting. As it cuts, the wire is continuously
advanced between a supply spool and a take-up spool to present a fresh
electrode of constant diameter to the work. This helps to maintain a
constant kerf width during cutting. As in EDM, wire EDM must be carried
out in the presence of a dielectric. This is applied by nozzles directed at
the tool-work interface as in the figure, or the workpart is submerged in a
dielectric bath.
Wire
Usually made of brass, copper, or tungsten
Range in diameter from 0.08 to 0.30 mm depending on required kerf
width
Travels at a constant velocity ranging from 6-360 in/min
This process is well suited to production of dies for sheet
metalworking, cams, etc. Since the kerf is so narrow, it is often possible to
fabricate punch and die in a single cut, as illustrated in the figure:

High-Energy-Beam Machining
Laser-Beam Machining (LBM)
Electron-Beam Machining (EBM)
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 Focused Ion-Beam Machining(IBM)

B2.LaserBeam Machining (LBM)
Mechanism of material removal:
Laser beam machining uses the light energy(high energy laser
beam) from a laser to
Remove workpiece material (metallic and non-metallic) by Melting and
vaporization of due
to thermal effect of impingement of high energy laser beam .

Physical processes occurring during LBM

lasers types
Depending on the lasing medium lasers are classified as solid state
and gas laser.
Solid-state lasers are commonly of the following type
Ruby which is a chromium alumina alloy having a wavelength of
0.7 m
Nd-YAG laser having a wavelength of 1.06 m
The generally used gas lasers are
Helium Neon
Argon
CO2 etc.
Working of a solid-state laser:
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(a)

Schematic illustration of the laser-beam machining process. (b)

and (c) Examples of holes produced in nonmetallic parts by LBM.

Laser beam produced by pumping action through the flash lamp,

when the circuit is operating with high voltage(5kv-25kv) switching supply.
The light produced by the laser has significantly less power than a normal
white light, but it can be highly focused, thus delivering a significantly
higher light intensity and respectively temperature in a very localized
area.
As laser interacts with the material, the energy of the photon is
absorbed by the work material leading to rapid substantial rise in local
temperature. This in turn results in melting and vaporisation of the work
material and finally material removal.
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Charecterstics:
Smooth, clean cuts
Faster process
Decreased heat affected zone
Important physical parameters in LBM
Reflectivity
Thermal conductivity of workpiece surface
Specific heat and latent heats of melting and evaporation
The lower these quantities, the more efficient the process.
The cutting depth t: t = P / vd
P is the power input, v is the cutting speed, and d is the laser-beam-spot
diameter.
MRR
Cutting speed can be as high as 4 m/min.
Typical material removal rate is 5 mm3/min.
Dimensional Tolerance
Typical ranges from 0.015 - 0.125 mm Surface Finish
Ra varies between 0.4 6.3 m.
Applications:
Lasers are being used for a variety of industrial applications,
including heat treatment, welding, and measurement, as well as a number
of cutting operations such as drilling, slitting, slotting, and marking
operations. Drilling small-diameter holes is possible, down to 0.025 mm.

Multiple holes in very thin and thick materials

Non-standard shaped holes and slots
Prototype parts
Trimming, scribing and engraving of hard materials
Small diameter lubrication holes

Limitations
High initial capital cost
High maintenance cost
Not very efficient process
Localized thermal stresses, heat affected zones, recast layer and
thermal distribution in thin parts
Difficulty of material processing depends on how close materials
boiling and melting points are
Hole wall geometry can be irregular

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B3.ELCTRON BEAM MACHINING

Similar to LBM except laser beam is replaced by high velocity

electrons.
Electron beam machining uses a high-velocity stream of electrons
focused on the workpiece surface to remove material by melting
and vaporization.

A schematic of the EBM process is illustrated in the figure:

The setup of electron beam machining process.

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An electron beam gun generates a continuous stream of electrons

that are focused through an electromagnetic lens on the work surface.
The electrons are accelerated with voltages of approx. 150,000 V to
create velocities over 200,000 km/s. The lens is capable of reducing the
area of the beam to a diameter as small as 0.025 mm.
On impinging the surface, the kinetic energy of the electrons is
converted into thermal energy of extremely high density, which vaporizes
the material in a very localized area.
(The kinetic energy of the high velocity electrons is converted to heat
energy as the electrons strike the work material. Due to high power
density instant melting and vaporisation starts)
EBM must be carried out in a vacuum chamber to eliminate collision
of the electrons with gas molecules.

Electron beam in vaccume

air

Electron beam in ambient

EBM Characteristics

Mechanics of material removal melting, vaporization

Medium vacuum
Tool beam of electrons moving at very high velocity
Maximum MRR = 10 mm3/min

Voltages range from 50-200kV

Electron speeds range from 50-80% the speed of light
Specific power consumption = 450 W/mm3/min
Critical parameters accelerating voltage, beam diameter, work
speed, melting temperature
Materials application all materials
Shape application drilling fine holes, cutting contours in sheets,
cutting narrow slots

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Advantages :
Electron beam machining is used for a variety of high-precision
cutting applications on any known material.
Applications include drilling of extremely small diameter holes, down
to 0.05 mm diameter, drilling of holes with very high depth-todiameter ratios, more than 100:1, and cutting of slots that are only
about 0.025 mm wide.
Besides machining, other applications of the technology include
heat treating and welding.
Limitations:
The process is generally limited to thin parts in the range from 0.2
to 6 mm thick.
very high specific energy consumption, necessity of vacuum,
expensive machine

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B4.Plasma Beam Machining

Introduction
When the temperature of a gas is raised to about 2000C, the gas
molecules become dissociated into separate atoms. At higher
temperatures, 30,000C, these atoms become ionized. The gas in this
stage is termed plasma.
Machining systems
In plasma machining a continuous arc is generated between a hot
tungsten cathode and the water-cooled copper anode. A gas is introduced
around the cathode and flows through the anode. The temperature, in the
narrow orifice around the cathode, reaches 28,000C, which is enough to
produce a high-temperature plasma arc. Under these conditions, the
metal being machined is very rapidly melted and vaporized. The stream of
ionized gases flushes away the machining debris as a fine spray creating
flow lines on the machined surface. The general characteristics of PBM are
shown in Table.

The removal rates by this method are substantially higher than

those of conventional single-point turning operation.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Plasma machining systems are divided into

plasma arc,
plasma jet,
shielded plasma,
air plasma.

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Plasma arc.

As shown in Fig. 5.49, the arc is struck from the rear electrode of the
plasma torch to the conductive workpiece causing temperatures as high
as 33,300C. The double arcing effect between the nozzle and the
workpiece damages the electrode and the workpiece. High heat transfer
rates are found to occur during plasma arc due to the transfer of all the
anode heat to the workpiece. Owing to the greater efficiency ofplasma arc
systems, they are often used for machining metals. Plasma arc
does not depend on a chemical reaction between the gas and the work
metal. Because the temperature is high, the process is suitable for any
electrically conductive material including those that are resistant to oxyfuel gas cutting.
Plasma jet.

In this system, shown in Fig. 5.50, the nontransferred arc is operated

within the torch itself. Only ionized gas (plasma) is emitted as a jet
causing temperature as high as 16,600C. Since the torch itself is the
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anode, a large part of the anode heat is extracted by the cooling water
and is not effectively used in the material removal process. Nonconductive
materials that are difficult to machine, by conventional methods, are often
successfully tackled by the plasma jet system.
Gas-shielded plasma.
When machining different materials such as aluminum, stainless
steel, and mild steel, assisting gases may have to be used in order to
produce cuts of acceptable quality. In such a case an outer shield of gas, is
added, around the nozzle, to reduce the effect of the atmosphere on the
machining gas (nitrogen or argon). The shielding gas depends on the
metal being machined. For stainless steel, aluminum and other nonferrous
metals, hydrogen is often used as a shielding gas. Carbon dioxide is
popular for ferrous and nonferrous metals. For mild steels, air or oxygen
may be also used.
Water-shielded plasma.

As shown in Fig. 5.51, nitrogen is used for machining while the

shield gas is replaced by water. Water forms a radial jacket around the
plasma torch. The cooling effect of water is reported to reduce the width
of the cutting zone and improve the quality of cut.
Air plasma.

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Compressed air is used as the machining gas instead of nitrogen or

argon (Fig. 5.52). When air is subjected to the high temperature of the
electric arc, it breaks down into its constituent gases. Since the oxygen, in
the resulting plasma, is very reactive especially with ferrous metals,
machining rates are raised by 25 percent. The main drawback of this
method is the heavily oxidized surface, which is frequently obtained in
case of stainless steel and aluminum. Because tungsten is reactive with
oxygen, hafnium copper (HfCu) or hafniumzirconium (HfZr) alloys also
replace tungsten electrodes. However, the life of these electrodes
becomes shorter. Electrically conductive materials such as stainless and
chrome nickel alloy steels, aluminum, and copper can be machined by air
plasma. Since air is used for machining and shielding purposes, the
machining cost is about half that of gas- or watershielded plasma. When a
gas mixture of 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen
is used, the machining rate of mild steel is increased by about 25 percent.
Applications
1. PAM is an attractive turning method for difficult-to-machine materials
by conventional methods. In this regard, cutting speeds of 2 m/min and a
feed rate of 5 mm per revolution produced a surface
finish of 0.5 mm Rt. The depth of cut can be controlled through the
machining power or surface speed.
2. Computer numerical controlled PBM is used for profile cutting of metals
that are difficult to tackle by oxyacetylene gas technique such as stainless
steel and aluminum. A large number of parts can also be produced from
one large sheet thus eliminating shearing operations.
3. A plasma arc can cut tubes of wall thickness of up to 50 mm. In this
case no deburring is required before tube welding.
Advantages:
Requires no complicated chemical analysis or maintenance
_ Uses no harmful chlorinated fluorocarbons, solvents, or acid cleaning
chemicals
_ Operates cleanly, often eliminating the need for vapor degreasing,
solvent wiping, ultrasonic cleaning, and grit blasting
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_ Requires no worker exposure to harmful chemicals

_ Needs less energy to operate
Disadvantages
_ The large power supplies needed (220 kW) are required to cut through
12-mm-thick mild steel plate at 2.5 m/min.
_ The process also produces heat that could spoil the workpiece and
produce toxic fumes.

Electrochemical Machining[ECM]
Principle Of Operation:
During Electrochemical Machining, a direct current with high density
and low voltage is passed between a work piece (the anode) and a preshaped tool (the cathode). At the anodic work piece surface, metal is
dissolved into metallic ions by the depleting reaction, and thus the tool
shape is copied into the work piece.

Operation:

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In ECM, a dc voltage (10-25 v) is applied across the gap between a

pre-shaped cathode tool and an anode workpiece. The workpiece is
dissolved by an electrochemical reaction to the shape of the tool.

Equipment:
Tool:Generally made of brass, copper, bronze or stainless steel.
The shaped tool is either solid or tubular.
The electrolyte is a highly conductive inorganic fluid.
Electrolyte salt solutions like sodium chloride or sodium nitrate mixed in
water.

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Process parameters:
Power DC supply of 5-25 V.
The electrolyte flows at high speed (10-60 m/s) through the gap
(0.1-0.6 mm) to dissipate heat and wash away the dissolved metal.
The material removal rate by ECM is given by:
MRR = C Ih
where, MRR=mm3/min, I=current in amperes,
h=current efficiency, which typically ranges from 90-100%,
C is a material constant

ECM Applications:
Generally used to machine complex cavities and shapes in high
strength materials, esp. in aerospace industry for mass production of
turbine blades, Turbine Nozzles.

1. Die sinking irregular shapes and contours for forging dies, plastic
molds, and other tools.
2. Multiple hole drilling many holes can be drilled simultaneously with
ECM
3. Holes that are not round, since rotating drill is not used in ECM
4. Deburring

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Figure: Typical parts made by electrochemical machining.

(a) Turbine blade made of a nickel alloy, 360 HB; note the shape
of the electrode on the right. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-steel rollerbearing cage.
(c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.
Advantages:

There is no wear in the tool because there is no contact between the

tool and the workpiece.
Machining is done at low voltages, compared to other processes,
with high metal removal rates.
Very small dimensions up to 0.05 mm can be controlled.
The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical
stress
Complicated profiles can be machined easily in a single operation.
Because of the low temperature developed, no thermal damage
occurs to the workpiece structure.
Hard conductive materials can be machined.
The surface finish can be maintained at 0.1 to 1.25 m Ra.
Because of its high capital cost, ECM is only suitable for mass
production work.
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Labor requirements are low.

Disadvantages
A huge amount of energy is consumed (about 100 times that
required for turning or drilling steel).
Metal removal rates are slow compared with conventional methods.
ECM can only be applied to electrically conductive workpiece
materials.
There are difficulties in safely removing and disposing of the
explosive hydrogen gas generated during machining.
The workpiece needs to be cleaned and oiled immediately after
machining.
There are difficulties with handling and containing the electrolyte,
which may attack the equipment.
It is not easy to duplicate the shape of the tool electrode in the
workpiece with a high degree of accuracy because of the side
machining effect.
The process cant produce sharp internal or external edges.
The pumping of high-pressure electrolyte into the narrow machining
gap gives rise to large forces acting on the tool and the workpiece.

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