Ecological Succession

Ecological succession is the observed process of change in the species

structure of an ecological community over time. The time scale can be
decades (for example, after a wildfire), or even millions of years after a
mass extinction.
The community begins with relatively few pioneering plants and animals
and develops through increasing complexity until it becomes stable or
self-perpetuating as a climax community. The engine of succession, the
cause of ecosystem change, is the impact of established species upon
their own environments. A consequence of living is the sometimes subtle
and sometimes overt alteration of one's own environment.
It is a phenomenon or process by which an ecological community
undergoes more or less orderly and predictable changes following a
disturbance or the initial colonization of a new habitat. Succession may be
initiated either by formation of new, unoccupied habitat, such as from a
lava flow or a severe landslide, or by some form of disturbance of a
community, such as from a fire, severe wind throw, or logging. Succession
that begins in new habitats, uninfluenced by pre-existing communities is
called primary succession, whereas succession that follows disruption of a
pre-existing community is called secondary succession.
Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology. The study
of succession remains at the core of ecological science. Ecological
1

succession was first documented in the Indiana Dunes of Northwest

Indiana which led to efforts to preserve the Indiana Dunes. Exhibits on
ecological succession are displayed in the Hour Glass, a museum in Ogden
Dunes.

Causes Of Succession:
A number of causes induce together the process of succession.
Some important causes may be outlined as below:
(i) Climatic Causes:
The climatic causes include temperature, rainfall, light intensity, gaseous
composition, wind etc.
(ii) Biotic Causes:
In a community, there is competition amongst different members for their
existence. In such a process, some of the members are not found suitable
and thus are gradually replaced by new ones.
(iii) Ecesis Causes:
The soil condition is also changing by the process of invasion, migration,
competition and reaction of the Population.
(iv) Stabilising Causes:
Succession is taking place in order to attain the climax stage.

Characteristics:
Ecological succession has the following characteristics:
(1) It results from modification of the physical environment of the
community.
(2) It is an orderly process of community development.
(3) It involves changes in species structure and it increases diversity of
species.
(4) Nutrient variation determines the settlement of new community.
(5) Succession cumulates in a stabilized ecosystem.

Types
Two different types of succession, primary and secondary, have been
distinguished.

It is characterised as initial stage of development of an ecosystem which

begins with the creation of a community on such a location which was
previously unoccupied by living organism. E.g., Formation of certain type
of forests of dried lava.
In any of the basic environments (fresh water, marine, terrestrial), one
type of succession is primary succession, which starts in a given area
where the conditions of life are not favourable in the beginning. The first
3

group of organisms establishing the known as the pioneers, primary

community or primary colonisers, e.g., succession in sand on exposed
rock surfaces etc.
In the primary succession-taking place on the exposed rock surface,
usually, lichens their appearance first. Lichens followed by the mosses
start the initial stage of succession, lichens and mosses change the
physical environment so that the new species of autotrophs a in the area
and establish themselves. Consequently, heterotrophs also arrive in the
area. In way succession continues in the area, finally leading to the
establishment of a stable community in the particular ecosystem.

Primary Succession

It is characterised as a stage of re establishment of an ecosystem which

existed earlier but was destroyed due to some natural calamities like fire,
flood, etc. Such re establishment occurs due to the presence of seeds and
organic matte of biological community in soil. E.g., Vegetation grows once
again which was destroyed due to flood
It starts from previously built-up substrata with already exists living
matter. This type of succession starts in a given area where the conditions
of life favourable because of the fact that the area was occupied earlier by
well-developed community e.g., succession in an abandoned crop field.
Such successions are comparatively more rapid
The development stages of ecological succession are called stages.
Organisms (usually plants), which start the initial stage of succession, are
called pioneers.
The pioneers established themselves in the given area, reproduce and
survive in the area. Gradually, the physical environment this changed
environment enables new species to arrive in the give area and establish
themselves in the area. Depending on the types of autotrophs in
heterotrophs (animals) also arrive in the area. In this way, the succession
continues in the one community following the other.

The culminating stage in the succession is the establishment of a stable

community in the area, and this is known as the climax community. Thus,
the final stage of ecological succession is the formation of the climax
community. The chain of stag from the pioneers to the climax community
is called the sere.
In the abandoned crop-field, the weeds (autotrophs) are pioneers. The
weeds modify physical environment so that more and more herbs invade
the area in course of time. Later the shrubs enter the area and finally the
trees and establish themselves forming the climax community

Secondary Succession

Hydrarch: Plant succession starting on relatively shallow water, such as

ponds and lakes, and culminating in a mature forest.
Four stages of hydrarch succession:
1. Submersed aquatic plants in the deeper water.
2. Emergent cattails and bulrushes rooted in the mud of shallow water.
3. Willow thickets along the banks of distant shoreline.
4. Conifer forest in drier well drained soil above the willow thickets.
A pristine pond in the alpine Sierra Nevada. Grasses and sedges are now
encroaching on the pond. In time, depending on local geological and
climatological conditions, this pond may gradually turn into a meadow.

Hydrarch Succession

10

The process begins with establishment of a few pioneer species which are
replaced or reduced in abundance by species of increasing complexity.
The diversity increases until the ecosystem as a whole gets stabilized with
the establishment of climax community. The establishment of pioneer
species at a bare site causes changes in soil structure and nutrient
content. Changes in physical environment soon follow the first step.
New species of plants replace the existing plants due to the change of
physical factors and soil structure. These in turn alter the existing
conditions paving way for newer species to get established. These
changes are often accompanied by the introduction of animal species into
the area.
The cyclic process ends after reaching a stabilized community called as
climax community. The ecosystem is fully balanced at this stage until they
get disturbed by any other external factors.
Disturbances eventually destroy the existing climax community and the
process of succession starts anew.

11

Stages of Succession

12

An ecosystem undergoes many intermediate stages of succession. These

changes form a continuum between the two endpoints, with the actual
stages being merely a fixed glance at the never-ending progression of
plants and animals. The emergence of the climax state of succession may
occur more quickly in some ecosystems, and likely never occur in other
biomes that experience routine disturbances. Examples of quickly forming
climax communities are the short-grass and long-grass prairies of the
Great Plains of the United States.

13

Intermediate Stage

14

The processes of ecological succession are

1. Nudation. It is the development of a bare site uninhabited by any
organisms. The process is usually caused by disturbances. These factors
can be either topographic (soil erosion, wind action etc); climatic (hails,
storm, glaciations, fire etc.); or biotic (human activities). The area thus
formed can sustain only autotrophic organisms which can utilize inorganic
substrates. The environmental conditions are set up for the inhabitation of
new species. For example, secretion of acidic substances by lichen species
helps in break down of rocks into soil.

2. Invasion or migration. The process of invasion or migration helps

the arrival of seeds, spores or other reproductive propagules for
establishment of species. Invasive species are non native organisms which
can spread widely in a community. These are usually threatening the
normal ecosystem and causative agents for community disturbance.
However, in succession process, they help to alter the soil texture and
function. R-selected species are often the first colonizers due to their high
reproductive rates and better dispersal mechanisms.

3. Ecesis. This is the initial establishment of plant community. This is

dependent on the soil structure. The stage is also called as 'colonization'.
In this stage, the early colonizing species proliferate abundantly through
germination, growth, and reproduction. Ecesis is due to allogenic
mechanisms alone. This is the stage at which the pioneer species survive
the dispersal mechanisms. The different pioneer species can have
15

different maturation rates which allow this process to be longer and

gradually allowing replacement of some species by others. The process
also makes the soil structure suitable for those species whose seeds were
present in the existing ecosystem but were unable to germinate for lack of
suitable community support.

4. Aggregation is the increase in population of the species which has

become established in the area. The shrubs replace the small herbs in
most successions. This also proves as a source of food for future
inhabitants.

5. Competition. Once the few initial species have become established

the intra as well as interspecific competition among the species starts.
This stage is called competition. The competition is usually for resources
such as food, water etc. Competition is found in both plants as well as
animal species. The process leads to sharing of resources (resource
partitioning) or competitive exclusion.

6. Reaction. The environmental conditions get modified by the action

of species occupying the habitat. These changes subsequently trigger the
displacement and replacement of one species by another. The existing
community will be unable to support itself due to the harsh conditions.
The major underlying mechanism is autogenic succession in which the
plants themselves alter the environmental conditions. Early colonizers
usually facilitate the way for establishment of mature species.

7. Stabilization is the process by which the climax community gets

established. A climax community is mature, self sustaining, stable and is
the final stage of succession. The physical and chemical conditions are
16

altered and stabilized to such levels that it supports the entire community.
The climax communities are best adapted to the regions of succession
and

the

community

structure

is likely

to

continue

until

another

disturbance steps in. This represents a steady state of ecological

equilibrium with specific composition, structure and energy flow.
The process of secondary succession is much faster due to the availability
of enriched soil and other factors. The only limiting factor in such
succession is the disturbance. The process is essentially the same as
primary except for the absence of some of the typical stages. Eventually
both will result in the establishment of stable communities which are
made up mostly of K-selected species.

17

Nudation Process

18

Early seral stages are highly productive but require large inputs of
nutrients and also tend to lose nutrients. Biomass increases, but there is
low productivity and fluctuations in biomass are common. These seral
stages are dominated by "weedy" or "r-adapted" species which reproduce
quickly, but often die young. Most of their energy goes into reproduction.
There are relatively few species in early seral stages.
Climax seral stages are much more complex, with many species. They
create a favorable environment for many species. Biomass does not
fluctuate, and decomposition rates are roughly equivalent to new
production.

Nutrients

are

cycled

efficiently,

and

rarely

leave

the

ecosystem. Individual organisms are longer-lived, since they invest more

resources in themselves and less in producing offspring.
Locally, a recently cleared field is an example of an early seral stage. It is
colonized by grasses and other plants that produce many seeds, such as
many annuals. These plants may live only one year, set seed, then die.
The organisms in the field will not be able to cycle all of the nutrients, and
many nutrients will run off with rainfall. On the other hand, the climax
forest is characterized by trees, which are long-lived. There are many
species, and each provides living space and food resources for other
plants and a host of animals. Decomposing materials are recycled; few
escape though the waters of the forest streams.

19

General Trends in
Succession

20

Search engine google.com

1.

21

22

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I cannot thank divine providence enough for the infallible genius
my Biology Teacher Dr. Chandra Jyotsna for letting me have her
ruthless efficiency, prodigal.
Knowledge and proverbial wisdom I revere her with an adulation
that runs to fanaticism. I would like to record my special thanks to Dr.
Bharti Swami, Principal, Vidhyashwam International School,
Jodhpur for providing various facilities in the department.
It gives me immense pleasure to express my grateful tanks to
Mr. Peter, Lab Assistant and Sarkar ji, Lab Boy, for extending
material assistance.
I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to my parents and
friends for all their care love and concern.

Pooja Yadav
XII B

23

CONTENTS
S.
No.
1.
2.

Contents
Introduction

Page
No
1

3.

Causes of succession 2
And Characterstics
Primary succession
3

4.

Secondary succession

5.

Hydrarch succession

6.

Stages of succession

10

7.

Intermediate stages

12

8.

The processes

14

9.

General
trends
succession
Bibliography

10.

24

in 18
20