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Figure 7.2 Seepage beneath (a) a concrete dam (b) a sheet pile
Whenever there is seepage (e.g., beneath a concrete dam or a sheet pile), it is often necessary to estimate the
quantity of the seepage, and permeability becomes the main parameter here.
Seepage is the ease at which water flows through the soil and this is possible due to the presence of voids within
the soil particles.
7.1.2 Purposes of Studying Seepage Conditions
The purposes of studying the seepage conditions under or within the structures such as cofferdam cells, sheet
pile walls, concrete dams, earth dams, levees, embankments, slopes, etc. are:
To estimate the rate of flow
To determine seepage force or uplift force
To determine the pore-water pressure distribution for effective stress analysis, etc.
7.2 Two Dimensional Flow - LaPlaces Equation
Two dimensional flow problems may be classified into two types namely,
1. Confined flow; for example, Flow of water through confined soil stratum.
2. Unconfined flow; for example, Flow of water through body of the earth dam.
These problems are to be addressed in geotechnical engineering in order to meet the following objectives
of practical importance;
To calculate quantity of flow (seepage) in case of both confined & unconfined flow
To obtain seepage pressure distribution and uplift pressures (stability analysis)
To verify piping tendencies leading to instability
Preliminaries required for good understanding of this topic include continuity equation, Darcys law of
permeability, and the validity, limitations and assumptions associated with Darcys law.
The analysis of two-dimensional flow through a saturated soil mass involves determination of quantity of
seepage and distribution of seepage pressure and can be done with methods based on Laplace equation.
Laplaces equation governs the flow of a fluid through a porous material. The derivation of Laplaces equation
is based on the following assumptions:
1. Darcys law is valid. (Flow is laminar)
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Vz
x
dx
vx
(vx +
dz
(Vz +
) and (vz +
)dz + (vz +
)dx] = (vx +
)(dz.1) + (vz +
)(dx.1) -----------
(b)
where,
According to the assumption (the soil is saturated and its volume remains constant) that the quantity of water
entering an element is equal to the quantity of water leaving the element in any given time, we have
i.e. Qin = Qout
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i.e.
) (dz.1) + (vz +
+
) (dx.1)
= 0 ------------------------------- (1)
This is the Continuity Equation for two-dimensional flow. This means any change in the velocity in the xdirection must be offset by an equal and opposite change in the z-direction.
According to the assumption that Darcys law is valid for flow through soil medium, we have
where, kx and kz are coefficients of permeability in x and y directions. The minus sign indicates that the head
decreases in the direction of flow.
By substitution of the values of vx and vz in Eq. (1), we get,
kx + = ----------------------------------- (2)
For an isotropic soil medium, k x = kz = k (say)
Then Eq. (2) reduces to the form
+ = 0 ----------------------------- (3)
This is a Second Order Partial Differential Equation called the LaPlaces Equation for Two-dimensional
Flow (in terms of head). It governs the steady state two-dimensional flow of incompressible fluid through an
incompressible porous material. It describes the energy loss associated with flow through a medium and is used
to solve many kinds of flow problems including those involving heat, electricity and seepage.
For three-dimensional flow, the LaPlace equation becomes
= ----------------------- (4)
Sometimes, the LaPlaces equation is represented in terms if velocity potential (), given by
= -kh
therefore,
and
= = -k
= = -k
= 0 (2-D Flow)
+ +
= 0 (3-D Flow)
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LaPlaces equation can be solved if the boundary conditions at the entry and exit are known.When LaPlace
equation (Eq. 3) is solved graphically the equation gives flow net consisting two sets of curves
intersecting at right angles known as flow lines (or stream lines or -lines) and equipotential lines or -lines.
Flow Lines (or Stream Lines or Velocity Lines or -lines) indicate the direction of flow. They represent the
path traced by an individual water particle.
Equipotential Lines (Equal Head Lines or Equal Total Head Lines or -lines) are the lines joining points
where the total potential (head) equal. In other words, they are the loci of points of equal potential (or head). At
all points of equipotential lines, the water would rise to the same level in a piezometric tube indicating the
constant total head along the equipotential line. The water particles travel along the flow lines at right angles to
the equipotential line.
The equipotentials must be spaced so that head drops occur between adjacent equipotentials and equal
volumetric flow occurs between adjacent flow lines.
The space between any two adjacent flow lines is called Flow Channel.
The space enclosed between two adjacent flow lines and two successive equipotential lines is called a Field.
The loss of head between the two successive equipotential lines is called the Potential Drop. In other words, the
difference between two adjacent equipotential lines is called equipotential drop.
For convenience, usually the equipotential lines are so constructed that the drop between any two successive
equipotential lines is constant. If Nd is the numbers of drops and total head causing the flow is h then, the value
of each drop h is given by
h = ---------------------------------- (A)
Relation Between Flow or Stream Function () and Velocity Potential Function ()(Flow Net Solution for
Two-dimensional Flow)
Flow or Stream Function () is a scalar function of the coordinates x and z such that its partial derivatives
satisfy the following equations:
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= and
= ----------------- (1)
and
. +
from Eqn.(1),
d = -vz dx + vx dz -----------(2)
m1 = () =
------------- (4)
Velocity Potential Function () is a scalar function of x and z such that its partial derivatives satisfy the
following equations:
= and
= ----------------- (5)
d = . +
m2 = () = --------------(8)
m1 x m2 = () x () = ( ) x ( ) = - 1
Therefore, at any point (x,z) in a flow field, the streamline or flow line or -line is normal(orthogonal) to the
equipotential line or -line.
Since,
So,
or,
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= and
=
2
2
= ;
= and
and
or,
Therefore,
2
2
=0
Thus the stream or flow function () also satisfies the LaPlace equation.
In del operator notation, the LaPlaces equation can be expressed as
=
7.3 Flow Nets
7.3.1. What is a Flow Net?
A flow net is 2-D diagram of equipotentials (lines of equal head) and flow lines. They are built from field
observations and/or theoretical constraints.
A flow net is a graphical solution to the equations of steady groundwater flow. A flow net consists of two sets
of lines which must always be orthogonal (perpendicular to each other): flow lines, which show the direction of
groundwater flow, and equipotential (lines of constant head), which show the distribution of potential energy.
Flow nets are usually constructed through trial-and-error sketching.
A flow net is a graphical representation of a flow field (Solution of LaPlace equation) and comprises a
family of flow lines and equipotential lines. Flow lines and equipotential lines together constitute a flow net.
The solution of LaPlace equation requires knowledge of the boundary conditions. Geotechnical problems
have complex boundary conditions for which it is difficult to obtain a closed form solution.
Approximate methods such as graphical methods and numerical methods are often employed. Flow net
technique is a graphical method, which satisfies LaPlace equation.
The concept of the flow net is based on LaPlaces equation of continuity, which governs the steady flow
condition for a given point in the soil mass.
7.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Flow Nets
Advantages
Simple
Easy to do; gives quick understanding of flow regime
Examines aquifer at much larger scale than core, slug or pumping tests
Can give as accurate a result as the simple conceptualization allows and data justifies
Disadvantages
Assumptions are very constraining
Especially
Steady State
More or less homogeneous domain
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13. The ratio of the length and width ()of each field is constant. The ratio is generally taken as unity for
convenience. In other words, the flow net consists of approximate squares.
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7.3.5 Flow Net by Graphical Method (Guidelines for Drawing Flow Nets)
This method of flow net construction is most commonly used method. The graphical method of flow net
construction involves sketching by trial and error. It was first given by Forchheimer (1917). The hydraulic
boundary conditions are examined and keeping in mind the properties if flow net initial sketching is done and by
trial and error the flow net is improved to make it acceptable for practical applications. For beginners, Arthur
Casagrande (1937) has given the following excellent hints to construct the flow nets.
1. Well-constructed flow nets should be studied and effort should be made to retain the salient features in mind.
2. Draw to a convenient scale the cross sections of the structure, water elevations, and soil deposit profiles.
3. Establish boundary conditions that is, Identify impermeable and permeable boundaries. The soil and
impermeable boundary interfaces are flow lines. The soil and permeable boundary interfaces are
equipotential lines.
4. Draw one or two flow lines and equipotential lines near the boundaries. Sketch intermediate flow lines
and equipotential lines by smooth curves adhering to right-angle intersections such that area between a
pair of flow lines and a pair of equipotential lines is approximately a curvilinear square grid.
5. About four or five flow channels (space enclosed between two flow lines) are sufficient for the first trial, as
too many flow channels will distract attention from essential features.
6. The appearance of the entire flow net should be watched and not that of a part of it. Small details can be
adjusted after the entire flow net has been roughly drawn.
7. After initial sketching, the flow net should be observed as a whole while adjusting the finer details.
8. All transitions should be made smooth being either roughly elliptical or parabolic in shape.
9. But for a few exceptional fields, all fields should be approximate squares.
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10. Where flow direction is a straight line, flow lines are equal distance apart and parallel. Also, the
flow net in confined areas between parallel boundaries usually consists of flow lines and equipotential
lines that are elliptical in shape and symmetrical.
11. Try to avoid making sharp transition between straight and curved sections of flow and equipotential lines.
Transitions must be gradual and smooth. Continue sketching until a problem develops.
12. Successive trials will result in a reasonably consistent flow net. In most cases, 3 to 8 flow lines are usually
sufficient. Depending on the number of flow lines selected, the number of equipotential lines will
automatically be fixed by geometry and grid layout.
13. The flow lines and equipotential lines should be orthogonal and form approximate squares.
14. The size of the square in a flow channel should change gradually from the upstream to the downstream.
7.3.6 Typical Illustrations of Flow Net
Following illustrations, Fig. 7.5, Fig. 7.6 ,Fig. 7.7 and Fig. 7.8 demonstrate the typical flow nets drawn for
different kinds of seepage problems pertaining to flow beneath hydraulic structures like, dam, sheet pile,
dam with sheet pile as heel cutoff wall and dam with sheet pile as toe cutoff wall respectively.
Fig. 7.5: Typical flow net for the flow beneath the dam without any cutoff wall
[Lambe & R.V.Whitman (1979)]
Fig. 7.6: Typical flow net for the flow around a sheet pile wall
Fig. 7.7: Typical flow net for the flow beneath the dam with heel cutoff wall [Lambe & R.V. Whitman
(1979)]
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Figure 7.8: Typical flow net for the flow beneath the dam with toe cutoff wall [Lambe & R.V. Whitman
(1979)]
Fig. 7.9
Fig. 7.10
Fig. 7.11
7.3.6 Applications of Flow Nets
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Let us consider the field marked in Fig. 7.12, which illustrates a portion of a flow net. (Let l and b denote the
length and breadth of the field. (l=b=1)
If q = rate of discharge through each flow channel (between two adjacent streamlines)
h = head drop per field = (i.e. Head loss between two adjacent equipotential lines)
( 1) = .
q = kH
Thus the quantity of seepage across total width L of soil medium beneath thus the dam is given by
This equation is used to find the discharge through an isotropic soil for which k x = ky =k.
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determined as under:
hP = H n x h =H n x
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j=
If the seepage direction is downwards, then the resultant seepage stresses are in the same direction as the
gravitational effective stresses.
z = .z + i.z.w = .z + j.z
In case of upwards seepage, they are in opposite direction and
z = .z - i.z.w = .z - j.z
(g) Piping Effects (Effect of Seepage on Structures)
Foundation failures due to 'piping' are quite common. Piping is a phenomenon by which the soil on the
downstream sides of some hydraulic structures get lifted up due to excess pressure of water. The pressure that is
exerted on the soil due to the seepage of water is called the seepage force or pressure.The action of water
passing through or under an embankment dam and carrying some of the finer material with it to the surface at
the downstream face. The progressive removal of soil particles from a mass by percolating water leads to the
development of channels.
When the upward hydraulic gradient approaches unity, boiling condition can occur leading to erosion in soil and
piping. Piping begins near the downstream (d/s) toe but may lengthen progressively towards the upstream (u/s)
side as the seeping water gradually washes away more and more soil particles, leaving voids or pipes in the soil.
Piping may work its way backwards along the base of the dam or along a bedding plane in the soil strata where
the resistance is minimum. If piping is not stopped, it may result in a catastrophic collapse of the structure. Since
the consequences of a failure are extremely devastating, no chances can be taken and hence a very conservative
design is made. The hydraulic gradient at exit, called the exit gradient, is equal to h/l. The exit gradient must
never come close to the critical hydraulic gradient. In fact, a factor of safety of at least 6 is recommended for
safety against piping. Exit gradient can be to a considerable extent by providing vertical cut off walls at the d/s
end of the base of the dam.
There is another kind of piping failure caused by heave which can be expected to occur on the d/s side of a
hydraulic structure when the upward acting forces of seepage exceed the d/s forces due to the submerged weight
of soil. The calculation of the factor of safety with the piping by heave is illustrated in the following equation.
The FOS can be increased by placing a graded filter over the soil prism which is affected. The new FOS will
then be given by the equation
FOS =
Where,
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Soils can be eroded by flowing water. Erosion can occur underground, beneath the hydraulic structures, if
there are cavities, cracks in rock, or high exit gradient induced instability at toe of the dam, such that
soil particles can be washed into them and transported away by high velocity seeping water. This type
of underground erosion progresses and creates an open path for flow of water; it is called piping.
Preventing piping is a prime consideration in the design of safe dams. Briefly the processes associated
with initiation of piping in dams are as follows,
Upward seepage at the toe of the dam on the downstream side causes local instability of soil in that
region leading erosion.
A process of gradual erosion and undermining of the dam may begin, this type of failure known as piping, has
been a common cause for the total failure of earth dams.
The initiation of piping starts when exit hydraulic gradient of upward flow is close to critical hydraulic gradient
Factor of safety against piping is defined as,
FS =
Where iexit is the maximum exit gradient and i critical is the critical hydraulic gradient. The maximum exit
gradient can be determined from the flow net. A factor of safety of 3 to 4 is considered adequate for the safe
performance of the structure against piping failure.
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lexit = average length of smallest exit field (which will be adjacent to structure)
Maximum Exit Gradient: Dams and Sheet Pile Walls
The maximum exit gradient for the cases of both dams and sheet pile walls can be determined from the
flow net. The maximum exit gradient is given by
iexit =
Fig. 7.15 Computation of maximum exit gradient for sheet pile wall
Maximum Exit Gradient: Sheet pile walls
Maximum exit gradient Sheet pile walls can be computed alternatively as explained below. A theoretical
solution for the determination of the maximum exit gradient for a single row of sheet pile structures is available
and is of the form.
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Consider a case of water flowing under a hydraulic head x through a soil column of height H as shown
in the Fig.
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through that point. If this equipotential line meets the pheratic surface (top flow line) at point B, the vertical
distance between points A and B gives the pressure head, because the pheratic surface itself is subject only to
atmospheric pressure.
7.4 Unconfined Flow
In the confined flow, the flow space is completely defined by the boundary conditions and the flow itself is
limited to this space. For such a problem, drawing of flow net is not very difficult. The flow net shown in Fig.
7.17 is an example of a well-drawn flow net for confined flow. The flow under sheet piles, concrete or masonry
dams are the examples of confined flow.
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water in the pond will affect the pheratic surface. In Fig. 7.18(c), the location of the pheratic surface will depend
on the rate at which water is pumped from the wells. Changes in the pumping rate will change the flow net
itself.
The process of creating flow nets for unconfined flow starts by estimating the location of the pheratic surface.
Once the pheratic surface is located, all the boundaries of the flow region are defined and the solution proceeds
as with the case for confined flow.
7.5 Seepage in Anisotropic Soil Condition
Most of the man-made deposits are anisotropic. The coefficient of permeability in all directions may not be
equal. In general, the soil has maximum permeability in the direction of stratification and a minimum value in
the direction normal to the stratification i.e. khorizontal > kvertical.
Let kx is the permeability in the x-direction and kz is the permeability in the z-direction.
For anisotropic soil, kx kz (usually kx > kz
=0
--------- (1)
From Darcys Law, vx = -kx.ix = -kx and vz = -kz.iz = -kz --------- (2)
Now, from (1) and (2), we get,
or,
kx + =
+ =
-------------------------- (3)
It is not a LaPlaces equation, so, flow net cannot be obtained directly as in the case of isotropic medium. Eq.(3)
can be transformed into the Laplacian form by making the following substitution,
xr = x so that =
and 2 =
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Design of Filters
In order to avoid failures of hydraulic structures due to piping effects, many remedial measures are
available. Some of these remedial measures that are usually adopted in practice are shown in Fig. They
include providing impervious blanket on the upstream and gravel filter at the toe as shown for the case of an
earth dam (Fig.).
Main objectives of these measures are preventing buildup of high seepage pressure and migration of eroded soil
particles.
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Soils and aggregates are always composed of ranges of particle sizes, and if pore spaces in filters are small
enough to hold the 85 per cent size (D85) of the protected soil in place, the finer particles will also be held in
place as shown in Fig.
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