Biodiversity hotspots

south of India, is also a country rich in species

diversity. It has been connected with India
through several past glaciation events by a land
bridge almost 140kn wide[16].

Main article:Fauna of India and Wildlife of India

A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic
region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity
that is under threat from humans. To qualify as
a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of
the hotspot-map, a region must meet two strict
criteria:

How the biodiversity of Western Ghats

originated is a still a puzzle. The region shows
biogeographical affinities to the Malayan region.
More recent phylogeographic studies have
attempted to study the origin of Western Ghats
using molecular approaches.[17] There are also
differences in taxa which are dependent on time
of divergence and geological history.[18] Along
with Sri Lanka, this region also shows some
faunal similarities with the Madagascan region
especially in the reptiles and amphibians.
Examples include the Sibynophis snakes, the
Purple Frog and Sri Lankan lizard genus Nessia
which appears similar to the Madagascan genus
Acontias.[19] Numerous floral links to the
Madagascan region also exist.[20] An alternate
hypothesis that these taxa may have originally
evolved out-of-India has also been suggested.[21]

1. it must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500

species of vascular plants as endemics,
and
2. it has to have lost at least 70% of its
primary vegetation.[14]
Around the world, at least 35 areas qualify
under this definition. These sites support nearly
60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile,
and amphibian species, with a very high share
of endemic species. Four regions that satisfy
these criteria exist in India and are described
below. For a more detailed information about
these
hotspots,
go
to
the
Biodiversityhotspots.org homepage

Biogeographical quirks exist with some taxa of

Malayan origin occurring in Sri Lanka but absent
in the Western Ghats. These include insects
groups such as the zoraptera and plants such as
those of the genus Nepenthes.

The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka

Biodiversity: There are over 6000 vascular

plants belonging to over 2500 genera in this
hotspot, of which over 3000 are endemic. Much
of the world's spices such as black pepper and
cardamom have their origins in the Western
Ghats. The highest concentration of species in
the Western Ghats is believed to be the
Agasthyamalai Hills in the extreme south. The
region also harbors over 450 bird species, about
140 mammalian species, 260 reptiles and 175
amphibians. Over 60% of the reptiles and
amphibians are completely endemic to the
hotspot. Remarkable as this diversity is, it is
severely threatened today. The vegetation in
this hotspot originally extended over 190,000
square kms. Today, its been reduced to just
43,000 sq. km. In Sri Lanka, only 1.5% of the
original forest cover still remains[16].
The Eastern Himalayas

The Lion tailed macaque is a flagship species of

the Western Ghats
About the region: The Western Ghats are a
chain of hills that run along the western edge of
peninsular India. Their proximity to the ocean
and through orographic effect, they receive high
rainfall. These regions have moist deciduous
forest and rain forest. The region shows high
species diversity as well as high levels of
endemism. Nearly 77% of the amphibians and
62% of the reptile species found here are found
nowhere else.[15]. Sri Lanka, which lies to the

There are an estimated 10,000 species of plants

in the Himalayas, of which one-third are
endemic and found nowhere else in the world.
Five
families
Tetracentraceae,
Hamamelidaceae, Circaesteraceae, Butomaceae
and Stachyuraceae - are completely endemic to
this region. Many plant species are found even
in the highest reaches of the Himalayan
mountains. For example, a plant species
Ermania himalayensis was found at an altitude
of 6300 metres in northwestern Himalayas! [27]. A
few threatened endemic bird species such as
the Himalayan Quail, Cheer pheasant, Western
tragopan are found here, alongwith some of
Asia's largest and most endangered birds such
as the Himalayan vulture and White-bellied
heron[27].

The Indian Rhinoceros is one of the 45 species

of globally threatened mammals found in the
Eastern Himalayas.
About the region: The Eastern Himalayas is
the region encompassing Bhutan, northeastern
India, and southern, central, and eastern Nepal.
The region is geologically young and shows high
altitudinal variation. Together, the Himalayan
mountain system is the world's highest, and
home to the world's highest peaks, which
include Mount Everest and K2. To comprehend
the enormous scale of this mountain range,
consider that Aconcagua, in the Andes, at 6962
metres is the highest peak outside Asia,
whereas the Himalayan system includes over
100 mountains exceeding 7200 metres[22]. Some
of the world's major river systems arise in the
Himalayas, and their combined drainage basin
is home to some 3 billion people (almost half of
Earth's population) in 18 countries. The
Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures
of South Asia; many Himalayan peaks are
sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism.

The Saola, a bovine, is one of the world's rarest

mammals. It was discovered in Vietnam only in
1992
The Himalayas are home to over 300 species of
mammals, a dozen of which are endemic.
Mammals like the Golden langur, The Himalayan
tahr, the pygmy hog, Langurs, Asiatic wild dogs,
sloth bears, Gaurs, Muntjac, Sambar, Snow
leopard, Black bear, Blue sheep, Takin, the
Gangetic dolphin, wild water buffalo, swamp
deer call the Himalayan ranged their home. The
only endemic genus in the hotspot is the
Namadapha flying squirrel which is critically
endangered and is described only from a single
specimen from Namdapha National Park[27].

Geologically, the origin of the Himalayas is the

impact of the Indian tectonic plate traveling
northward at 15cm per year to impact the
Eurasian continent, about 40-50 million years
ago. The formation of the Himalayan arc
resulted since the lighter rock of the seabeds of
that time were easily uplifted into mountains.
An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process
is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of
marine limestone.[23]

Indo-Burma
About the region: The Indo-Burma region
encompasses several countries. It is spread out
from Eastern Bangladesh to Malaysia and
includes
North-Eastern
India
south
of
Brahmaputra river, Myanmar, the southern part
of China's Yunnan province, Lao Peoples
Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Vietnam and
Thailand. The Indo-Burma region is spread over
2 million sq. km of tropical Asia. Since this
hotspot is spread over such a large area and
across several major landforms, there is a wide
diversity of climate and habitat patterns in this
region.

Biodiversity: The Eastern Himalayan hotspot

has nearly 163 globally threatened species
including
the
One-horned
Rhinoceros
(Rhinoceros unicornis), the Wild Asian Water
buffalo (Bubalus bubalis (Arnee)) and in all 45
mammals, 50 birds, 17 reptiles, 12 amphibians,
3 invertebrate and 36 plant species [24][25] The
Relict Dragonfly (Epiophlebia laidlawi) is an
endangered species found here with the only
other species in the genus being found in Japan.
The region is also home to the Himalayan Newt
(Tylototriton verrucosus), the only salamander
species found within Indian limits.[26]

Biodiversity: Much of this region is still a

wilderness, but has been deteriorating rapidly in
the past few decades. In recent times, six
species of large mammals have been

discovered
here:
Large-antlered
muntjac,
Annamite
muntjac,
Grey-shanked
douc,
Annamite striped rabbit, Leaf deer, and the
Saola. This region is home to several primate
species such as monkeys , langurs and gibbons
with populations numbering only in the
hundreds. Many of the species, especially some
freshwater turtle species, are endemic. Almost
1,300 bird species exist in this region including
the threatened white-eared night-heron, the
grey-crowned crocias, and the orange-necked
partridge. It is estimated that there are about
13,500 plant species in this hotspot, with over
half of them endemic. Ginger, for example, is
native to this region. [28]

2. Resource mismanagement: Increased

tourism without proper regulation has
led to pollution and environmental
degradation.
Prime
example
are
pilgrimage destinations like Rishikesh
and hill stations like Dehradoon. These
spots, once nestled in the pristine ranges
of the Himalayas, are now dirty
commercial destinations. Places like
Dehradoon are even experiencing a
construction boom so large that illegal
immigrants from Bangladesh are also
flocking there[31]. Religious destinations
in the Himalayas, where devotees flock
in millions now, are also hot destinations
for medicinal plant trade, which has
threatened plant life in the area.

Sundaland

3. Poaching: Large mammals such as the

tiger, rhinoceros and the elephant once
faced the distinct possibility of complete
extinction due to rampant hunting and
poaching.
However,
efforts
by
conservationists since the 1970s has
helped
stabilize
and
grow
these
populations. Still, the trade in tiger hide,
elephant tusks, tiger teeth, rhinoceros
horn remains profitable and rampant [32]
[33]
.

Sundaland is a region in South-East Asia that

covers the western part of the Indo-Malayan
archipelago. It includes Thailand, Malaysia,
Singapore, Brunei and Indonesia. India is
represented by the Nicobar Islands. The
United Nations declared the islands a World
Biosphere Reserve in 2013. The islands have
a rich terrestrial and marine ecosystem that
includes mangroves, coral reefs and sea grass
beds. The marine biodiversity includes several
species such as whales, dolphis, dugong,
turtles, crocodiles, fishes, prawns, lobsters,
corals and sea shells [29]. The primary threat to
this biodiversity comes from over exploitation
of marine resources. In addition, the forests
on the island also need to be protected.

4. Climate change: Although dire IPCC

predictions
of
Himalayan
glaciers
melting by 2035 have been retracted [34],
there is no doubt that several Himalayan
glaciers are melting[35][36]. In the Western
Ghats, studies have shown that the
deciduous and the evergreen forests of
Karnataka are the most at risk [37][38].
Climate change may significantly affect
the temperatures, rainfalls and water
tables in the Western Ghats, according to
an assessment by the Government of
India.

Reasons for biodiversity loss in hotspots

There are four main reasons why species are
being threatened in these biodiversity hotspots

Recent extinctions

1. Habitat destruction: As recently as 30

years ago, most of the regions in these
biodiversity hotspots were inaccessible
and remote. Now, due to better
infrastructure, contact of these areas
with humans has increased. Activities
such as logging of wood, increased
agriculture, increased human habitation
has led to destruction of forests and
pollution of rivers. These factors are
causing species ranges to reduce and
habitats to
become
choppy.
The
government planned to establish habitat
corridors, but these plans have not yet
materialized in most areas. Activities
such as mining, construction of large
dams, highway construction has also
caused
significant
destruction
of
habitats[30].

Illustration of a Himalayan Quail from A. O.

Hume's work. Last seen in 1876
The exploitation of land and forest resources by
humans along with hunting and trapping for
food and sport has led to the extinction of many
species in India in recent times. These species
include mammals such as the Indian / Asiatic
Cheetah, Javan Rhinoceros and Sumatran
Rhinoceros.[39] While some of these large

mammal species are confirmed extinct, there

have been many smaller animal and plant
species whose status is harder to determine.
Many species have not been seen since their
description.

The taxon is restricted now but once it was

widely distributed. The restriction of species in a
pocket is due to physical barrier like deserts
mountain, sea, etc. or change in climate or soil
type etc.

Hubbardia heptaneuron, a species of grass that

grew in the spray zone of the Jog Falls prior to
the construction of the Linganamakki reservoir,
was thought to be extinct but a few were
rediscovered near Kolhapur in Maharashtra.[40]

(c) Epibiotics or Relic, endemics:

The plants belong to fossil groups and are
restricted to few pockets due to favourable
climate, lack of competition e.g., Ginkgo biloba
which is restricted to China but widely spread in
the north temperate zone as a fossil,
Sequoiadendron giganteum is now restricted to
Californian Sierra Nevada.

Some species of birds have gone extinct in

recent times, including the Pink-headed Duck
(Rhodonessa
caryophyllacea)
and
the
Himalayan Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa). A
species of warbler, Acrocephalus orinus, known
earlier from a single specimen collected by
Allan Octavian Hume from near Rampur in
Himachal Pradesh was rediscovered after 139
years in Thailand.[41][42]

Endemics:
Theories

Types,

Characters

According
to
Richardson
(1978)
endemics is intermediate between the two
extremes i.e., plants which are not of recent
origin but have retained a narrow distribution
and he called them Holoendemics. If the local
conditions
induce
reactivation
of
Palaeoendemics evolving new endemic species
after a long gap they are called active
epibiotics.

and

Contents:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Meaning of Endemism
Types of Endemism
Characters of Endemism
Theories of Endemism
Factors of Endemism
Endemic Species in India

The degree of isolation of the area

involved is usually proportional to the
percentage of endemic species in flora. The
degree of isolation is measured either as the
distance from other similar areas or the length
of time that the area has been isolated.

1. Meaning of Endemism:

Endemism represents a unique step in

the process of evolution which could be
perpetuated and sustained only in the locality
concerned depending on the environmental
quality. The importance of habitat is very much
as in most of the cases such localities possess a
number of endemic species distributed in
several taxonomic categories.

Endemism means the confinement of a

particular species, genus, or groups of plants
and animals to a particular area. Taxa occurring
only a single restricted geographical area is
known as endemics, Endemism normally
applied only where there is a considerable
restriction in the area of distribution.
2. Types of Endemism:

In the process of natural selection,

changes
are
there
which
may
be
disadvantageous to the organism to survive in
the present environment and are eliminated but
on the other hand advantageous ones are
retained.

Endemism is basically of following types:

(a) Neo-endemism:

Larger areas usually have a greater proportion

of endemics than smaller areas. If the whole
world is considered as one unit with 100% then
the number of species endemic to the eastern
alps or to western alps added together amount
to 78% of the total number of Alpic endemics.
Stabbins and Major (1965) have given the data
on endemism in California.

A taxon is evolutionarily young and not yet

spread over the new area e.g., Senecia
combrensis.

(b) Palaeo-endemism:

Endemics are sometimes restricted to a

very small area. They are termed as Local
endemics. Endemics arising due to mutation are
called Pseudo
endemics e.g.,
Franklinia
alatamaha; only one plant of this family was
present in 18th century in Alotamaha river in
Georgia.

4. The dispersal propagules are not able to

sustain during migration to other area. It may
be due to physical barriers.

It is now vanished but its progeny is

found in gardens. Amliestic nobilis (Burma),
Picrella trifoliate (West Indies) are already
vanished while only a few plants of Sophora
wightii are found in islet of Louisiade
Archipelago.

There are 2 main theories of Endemism. The

first theory believes that the last survivors of
once flourishing flora which is now declining are
the relics or epibiotics which are endemics.
However, second theory believes that these are
recent and youthful forms in course of gradual
extinction. The theory is also known as Age and
Area hypothesis.

4.Theories of Endemism:

A lot of work is going on Neoendemics.

On the basis of cytotaxonomic studies Favager
and Contandriopoulis (1961) differentiated 3
types of neoendemics.

The first theory is supported by Geographers

e.g., Sequoia semipenirens of the central Valley
of California and Oregon and S. gigantea of
Sierra Nevada which are endemic to their
respective native homes, were extensively
distributed in Cretaceous and Tertiary periods.

(a) Schizoendemics:
Derived from or having given rise to a more
widespread taxon of same chromosome
number.

The supporters of second theory have the

examples of Primula, Impatiens Rhododendron
etc. According to this theory, Area is directly
proportional to its age in the sqale of evolution.

(b) Patroendemics:
Restricted diploids which have given rise to
widespread polyploids.

So, a small area of distribution shows relatively

young in age e.g., Coleus is distributed on the
summit of the dry Ritigala mountains in Sri
Lanka, with two species C. elongatus and C.
barbatus. C. elongatus is endemic and C.
barbatus is widely distributed in tropical Asia
and Africa. Willis believed C. elongatus to be
derived from C. barbatus.

(c) Apoendemics:
Restricted polyploids which have arisen from
widespread diploids.
There is a great confusion in the terms
endemic, rare, relicts etc. All endemics are not
relicts as there are a larger number of
Neoendemics. All endemics are not rare as
some are abundantly present in the particular
locality. All rare plants are not endemics. Some
may occur at several places, with few
representatives.

5. Factors Responsible for Endemism:

Factors responsible for the production of
endemics are Natural crossing among the
closely related plants growing under favourable
conditions and Mutations. If the condition of
isolation is developed the effect become more
pronounced.

3. Characters of Endemics:

Endemism is found in isolated e.g., islands,

isolated areas etc. According the Wulff 85% of
Flora of St. ha^ie, 80% of Hawaii islands and
72% of New Zealand is endemic. Mountains also
have more endemic species as they are isolated
e.g., 70% sp. of Himalayas is endemic. Climate
also is one of the factors e.g., North of Himalaya
is dry plateau of Tibet and South Himalayan
range has alluvial fertile soil.

1. They are localized in distribution because of

their Narrow Ecological Amplitude and are
unable to invade in fresh areas.
2. They lack potentially to migrate because of
saturate genomes.
3. Real endemics never migrate while
Neoendemics have the potential to migrate.

According to Chatterjee the percentage

of endemic species of Dicot plants in India is
more than 50. Maximum endemic plants are
found in the Himalayas and South India. IndoGangetic plains have a very small number of
endemic species.

Caryota urena (Arecaceae),

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae),
Crotolaria juncea (Fabaceae),
Ficus religiosa (Moraceae), and

6. Endemic Species of India:

Seasamum indicum (Pedaliaceae).

Rhododendron (Ericaceae),

The other species belong to families like

Rubiaceae (6 genera), Rosaceae, Asteraceae,
Primulaceae, Acanthaceae etc.

Beaumontia grandiflora (Apocynaceae),

Eleusine coracana (Poaceae),