Introduction to

Compression

Section 1: The Nature of Gases

Overview
In this section, you will learn about the specific variables that force gases to behave in
a predictable fashion. These variables include:

Pressure.
Temperature.
Volume.
Density and specific gravity.

Pressure
All gases are made of tiny particles
called molecules. Because
molecules move in all directions,
gas pressure is exerted in all
directions. As the molecules
move, gas molecules exert a force
on everything they touch. This
force is called pressure.
Pressure is the amount of force
exerted on 1 unit of area. It is
usually measured in pounds per
square inch, or PSI. Pressure is
also measured in thousands of
pascals (kPa). A pascal (Pa) is the
amount of pressure equal to the
force of one newton (N) acting
uniformly over an area of one
square meter.

At 1 PSI (7 kPa), gas acting on a 3 square inch (0.002 square meter) surface exerts a
total force of 3, or 1 x 3 pounds. In newtons, this would be 14 newtons, or 7 x 0.002 x
1,000. The total force of compressed gas is the PSI times the number of square inches
the gas is acting on, or:

PSI is the most common measure of pressure in the United States. Your facility may
use kPa or other units of measurement.
Gas pressure is caused by the _______ of gas
molecules.
Heat.
Size.
Motion.

Answer

It is the movement of the

gas molecules that exerts
force (pressure) in all
directions. Heating gas
molecules makes them
move faster, which
increases pressure.

Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure
exerted by the air around us.
The weight of a 1-square-inch column of air
that extends to the top of the atmosphere is
about 14.7 pounds at sea level. Likewise, a
1-square-centimeter similar column of air
weighs about 100 grams. Atmospheric
pressure is equal to about 101 kilopascals
(kPa).

Where is atmospheric pressure highest?

At the top of a mountain.
At the bottom of the ocean.

At higher levels, there is

less air above, so the
atmosphere exerts less
pressure.

Answer

Atmospheric pressure is different at different

points on the earth's surface, depending on the
elevation. Atmospheric pressure decreases as
elevation rises above sea level.
Atmospheric pressure is normally measured with
a barometer. A barometer measures pressure by
indicating how atmospheric pressure will raise a
column of liquid mercury. At sea level,
atmospheric pressure will raise a column of
mercury 29.9 inches (760 mm).

A pressure of 29.9 inches (760 mm) of mercury is

approximately equal to a pressure of:
14.7 PSI (101 kPa).
100 PSI (689 kPa).
0 PSI (0 kPa).

Answer

The chemical symbol for

mercury is Hg. The
abbreviation inHg stands for
inches of mercury, and
mmHg stands for
millimeters of mercury. On
a barometer, 29.9 inHg
(759.5 mmHg) is the
average pressure of the
atmosphere at sea level.
This value is often rounded
to 30 inHg (760 mmHg).

Gauge Pressure
Most pressure gauges show pressures either above or below atmospheric
pressure. This is known as gauge pressure. Gauge pressure is measured in pounds
per square inch gauge (PSIG) or kilopascal gauge (kPag).
Pressures that are less than atmospheric pressure are measured with a vacuum gauge
or with a mercury manometer. A vacuum gauge is calibrated to read from 0 to 14.7
PSI (101 kPa) vacuum, or from 0 to 29.9 inHg (760 mmHg) vacuum, or both. On a
pressure gauge, 0 indicates normal atmospheric pressure.

Any pressure below _______ is a partial vacuum.

0 PSIG (0 kPag).
29.4 PSIG (202 kPag).

Answer

Any process vacuum is less

than a total vacuum. In a
complete vacuum, a
vacuum-pressure
(compound) gauge reads
14.7 PSI (101 kPa)
vacuum. This means the
gauge is indicating the
pressure is 14.7 (101 kPa)
less than the pressure of
the atmosphere.

Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. It is measured in PSIA
(kPaa), or pounds per square inch absolute (kilopascal absolute). If a pressure gauge
at sea level reads 100 PSIG (689 kPag), the absolute pressure is 100 PSI plus 14.7 PSI
(689 kPa plus 101 kPa), or 114.7 PSIA (790 kPaa). At sea level:

0 PSIG (kPag) is:

0 PSIA (0 kPaa).
14.7 PSIA (101 kPaa).

0 PSIG + 14.7 = 14.7.

Likewise, 0 kPag + 101 =
101.

Answer

20 PSIG (138 kPag) is:

20 PSIA (138 kPaa).
34.7 PSIA (239 kPaa).

20 PSIG + 14.7 = 34.7

PSIA. Likewise, 138 kPag +
101 = 239 kPag.

Answer

To change PSIG (kPag) to PSIA (kPaa), you must add

the pressure of the atmosphere in your area to the
gauge reading.
For example, if the atmospheric pressure in a
mountainous area is 13.9 PSIA (96 kPaa), a gauge
reading of 10 PSIG (69 kPag) indicates an absolute
pressure of 10 PSI (69 kPa) + _______.
13.9 PSI (96 kPa).
14.7 PSI (101 kPa).

The total pressure would be

10 + 13.9 = 23.9 PSIA, or
69 + 96 = 165 kPaa.

Answer

Pressures are sometimes expressed in units of atmospheres instead of PSIA (kPaa). A

pressure of 14.7 PSIA (101 kPaa) = 1 atmosphere.
A pressure of 147 PSIA (1,010 kPaa) is a pressure of
_______ atmospheres.

Answer

147 14.7 = 10, or

1,010 101 = 10.

A pressure of 5 atmospheres is:

73.5 PSIA (505 kPaa).
2.94 PSIA (20.2 kPaa).

14.7 x 5 = 73.5, or 101 x 5

= 505.

14.7 PSIA (101 kPaa).

Answer

Temperature

Gas temperature is usually measured in

degrees Fahrenheit ( F), or degrees Celsius( C). Temperature is caused by the
motion of molecules. As molecules move, their motion generates heat. The higher the
temperature, the faster the movement.
Absolute zero is a point where there is absolutely no heat. At absolute zero, molecules
do not move. Since molecules still move at 0 F (-18 C), 0 F (-18 C) cannot be the
same as absolute zero.
Compare the Fahrenheit and Rankine (absolute) temperatures. Fahrenheit is
abbreviated F, and Rankine is abbreviated R or abs.
Absolute zero (0 R) is -460 F. Both the Rankine degree and the Fahrenheit degree

measure the same amount of temperature increase, but the temperature in Rankine is
always 460 more than the temperature in Fahrenheit. Conversions between F and
R can be made using addition and subtraction.
Compare the Celsius and Kelvin temperatures. Celsius is abbreviated C, and Kelvin is
abbreviated K. Absolute zero in Kelvin (0 K), is -273 C. Both Celsius and Kelvin
measure the same amount of temperature increase, but the temperature in Kelvin is
always 273 more than the temperature in Celsius. Conversions between C and K
can be also be made using addition and subtraction.
To convert F to R, add _______ to the
Fahrenheit reading.

Answer

To convert R to F,
subtract 460 from the
Rankine
reading. Temperatures
given in Fahrenheit are
always 460 higher when
they are converted to
Rankine.

To convert C to K, add _______ to the Celsius

reading.

Answer

To convert K to C,
subtract 273 from
the Kelvin
reading. Temperatures
given in Celsius are always
273 higher when they are
converted to Kelvin.

Volume
The volume of a substance is the space it occupies.
The volume of this cube is 1 cubic foot (cubic meter). It
is filled with gas, and the gas occupies all the space in the
cube. So, the volume of gas in the cube is 1 cubic foot
(cubic meter).

Both of these cylinders hold 10 cubic feet (cubic

meters) of the same gas at 60 F (15.6
C). Pressure is higher in cylinder B. Which cylinder
holds more pounds (newtons) of gas?

Cylinder A.
Cylinder B.

Answer

Since gases are so

compressible, more
molecules can fit into the
same amount of space (in
this case, 10 cubic feet /
cubic meters) if more
pressure is applied.

Volume and Temperature

Pressure and temperature are required to
calculate gas volume. This drawing shows
a section of pipeline. The shaded portion
represents one cubic foot (cubic meter).

At 100 F (38 C), there are _______ gas molecules

in each cubic foot (cubic meter).
Fewer.
More.

In an open container, gas

expands when it is heated.

Answer

A reduction in temperature decreases the distance

between molecules, and the amount of gas in each
cubic foot (cubic meter):
Increases.
Decreases.

The closer the molecules

are together, the more they
can fit in the same amount
of space.

Answer

Standard conditions for the measurement of gas volume is 14.7 PSIA (101 kPaa) and
60 F (15.6 C). SCF means standard cubic feet, and SCF is the volume a gas will
occupy if it is measured at a standard pressure of 14.7 PSIA and 60 F. Likewise, SCM
means standard cubic meters, and SCM is the volume a gas will occupy if it is
measured at a standard pressure of 101 kPaa and 15.6 C.
At atmospheric pressure, a cubic foot (cubic meter)
of gas contains less than one SCF (SCM) if the
temperature is _______ than 60 F (15.6 C).
More.
Less.

Usually, it is not possible to

10

Answer

measure gas under

standard conditions. Gas
must be measured under
actual conditions of
temperature and pressure,
whatever those conditions
happen to be. Gas is
metered under actual
conditions, but for
accounting and engineering
purposes, gas volume is
calculated in units of SCF
(SCM). In measuring gas
for conversion to standard
volume, the pressure and
temperature must be
specified.

Units of Measurement

There are different ways to measure gas. M is

the Roman numeral for one thousand. 1 MCF of gas = 1,000 CF of gas. 1 MCM of gas
= 1,000 CM of gas.
The abbreviation SCF (SCM) means the gas was measured under standard conditions of
temperature and pressure.
50 MCF / E3M3 of gas is:
50 cubic feet / cubic meters.
500 cubic feet / cubic meters.
5,000 cubic feet / cubic meters.

1 MCF = 1,000 cubic feet,

so 50 MCF is equal to
50,000 cubic feet. 1 E3M3 =
1,000 cubic meters, so 50
E3M3 is equal to 50,000

11

50,000 cubic feet / cubic meters.

cubic meters.

Answer

5 MMCF / MCM is __________ of gas.

5 cubic feet / cubic meters.
5,000 cubic feet / cubic meters.
50,000 cubic feet / cubic meters.
5,000,000 cubic feet / cubic meters.

MM is the abbreviation for

million (1,000 x 1,000). In
metric terms, "M" is the
abbreviation for million, or
E6.

Answer

20 M2CF / 20 M2CM is _______ of gas.

2,000 cubic feet / cubic meters.
200,000 cubic feet / cubic meters.

This could also be written as

20 MMCF / MCM, or E6M3.

2,000,000 cubic feet / cubic meters.

20,000,000 cubic feet / cubic meters.

Answer

Density and Specific Gravity

The density of a gas is its weight per unit of volume. Density can be measured in
pounds per cubic foot or kilograms per cubic meter.
Specific gravity of a gas is the weight of a volume of gas compared under standard
conditions with the weight of the same volume of dry air. Specific gravity compares
gas density with the density of air under standard conditions.
At the same temperatures and pressures, different gases have different densities and
specific gravities. All gas molecules are not exactly alike in size and
structure. Because of these differences, all gases do not behave alike. Many gases
deviate slightly from the behavior defined in the gas laws. This deviation is frequently
small and affects compressor operations only slightly.

12

The specific gravity of air is 1.0. If a gas is heavier

than air, its specific gravity is more than 1.0.
A gas that is lighter than air has a specific gravity
that is _______ than 1.0.
Less.
More.

Answer

A gas with a lower specific

gravity than air will rise to
the top of an enclosed area,
and a gas with a higher
specific gravity than air will
accumulate near the
ground.

Section 2: The Gas Laws and Variables

Overview
The main variables that influence gas behavior include pressure, volume, and
temperature. The gas laws describe gas behavior in predictable terms involving these

13

variables.

Gas pressure is caused by

molecular motion. When molecules strike the walls of a closed container, they exert
pressure. The faster the molecules move, the higher the pressure.
Pressure is force exerted on a unit of area. When the number of gas molecules striking
a given area increases, the pressure of the gas increases. Heat also causes gas
molecules to move faster.
In applying the gas laws, pressure and temperature must be expressed in absolute
units. Pressure must be expressed in PSIA or kilopascals absolute (kPaa),
and Fahrenheit temperature must be converted to R (or
absolute.) Likewise, Celsius temperatures must be converted to Kelvin Scale.
Remember these rules:

To
To
To
To

convert
convert
convert
convert

PSIG to PSIA, add 14.7 PSI to the gauge reading.

kPag to kPaa, add 101 kPa to the gauge reading.
F to R ( absolute), add 460 to the Fahrenheit reading.
C to K, add 273 to the Celsius reading.

14

Boyle's Law
A basic law of gas behavior is based on the
reasoning of Robert Boyle. He discovered
that gas pressure is due entirely to the
heat motion of molecules. Boyle reasoned
that gas pressure is not caused by
gas density or weight, but by a
relationship between pressure and
volume.
Boyles Law states that a change
in absolute pressure of gas is inversely
proportional to a change in volume.

Forcing a gas to occupy a smaller volume _______

the pressure of the gas.
Decreases.
Increases.

Answer

Forcing the gas into a

smaller space causes the
gas to exert more pressure
per square unit on the
vessel it has been
compressed into.

15

According to Boyle's Law, if volume is doubled, the

absolute pressure is:
Doubled.
Halved.

Answer

If the volume is halved, the

absolute pressure is
doubled. For example,
assume that the temperature
remains constant and the
volume is halved. The gas
molecules will exert twice as

much pressure on the wall of

the cylinder.

Exercise: Boyle's Law

Remember, to use Boyles Law, you must convert all pressure measurements to
absolute units.

Then, use the formula for Boyle's Law:

The new pressure is:

16

40 PSIA (276 kPaa).

10 PSIA (69 kPaa).

Answer

The new pressure is:

7.65 PSIG (53 kPag).
22.35 PSIG (154 kPag).

Answer

17

Charles' Law
When the temperature of a gas
increases, the molecules move faster. If
this happens in a constant volume
container, the pressure of the gas
increases.
Charles Law states that if temperature
increases while pressure remains the
same, the volume of gas increases
in direct proportion to the increase in
absolute temperature. For example, if
absolute temperature doubles, the
volume doubles, if pressure remains the
same.

Charles' Law Example

According to Charles' Law, if a cube is
completely elastic, the volume can be
doubled by heat alone. To double the
cube's volume, double the absolute
temperature of the gas in the
cube. Assuming a rigid cube that cannot
expand, doubling the absolute
temperature will double the absolute
pressure of gas in the cube.

18

A telescopic gas holder is an example of how

Charles' Law works. It is a constant pressure
container. As temperature changes, the
telescopic gas holder maintains a constant
pressure by raising or lowering the telescoping
sections to accommodate the changes in
volume.
If the hot sun heats the gas in a telescopic
holder, the volume increases while the pressure
remains the same. If cold rain or snow falls on
the telescopic gas holder, the gas volume
decreases.

Exercise: Charles' Law

Remember, you must convert to absolute temperature and absolute pressure to
solve gas equations.

If the pressure does not change, the volume of gas

in the balloon:
Increases.
Decreases.
Stays the same.

Heat causes the molecules

of a gas to move farther
apart. If pressure does not
change, the gas will
occupy more space, and
the balloon will expand.

Answer

19

The new volume is:

800 CF (24 CM).
200 CF (6 CM).

Answer

If the gas is in a constant pressure holder, its volume

must have _______ with the increased temperature.
Decreased.
Increased.

70 F is 530 R and 80 F is
540 R. Likewise, 21 C is
294 K and 27 C is 300 K.

Answer

Suppose that 2,000 CF (57 CM) of gas at 80 F (27

C) is cooled to 40 F (4 C), while the pressure
remains the same. The new volume is:
1,851.9 CF (52.6 CM).
2,160 CF (61.2 CM).

Answer

20

The General Gas Law

Boyles Law works for ideal gases when temperature remains constant. Charles Law
works for ideal gases when pressure remains constant. To compensate for changing
conditions, Boyle's Law and Charles' Law combine to create the General Gas Law of gas
behavior. With reference to the volume of a gas, this law states that:

The General Gas Law expresses the relationship between pressure (P), volume (V), and
temperature (T), by this equation:

If you multiply the original pressure and volume of a gas and divide by its temperature,
you have a constant number. Then, any new changes in pressure, volume, or
temperature, when multiplied and divided in the equation PV/T, must result in the same
constant number. Because the product or total value of this fraction must always be
the same for a given gas, you can find the exact amount of change in one of these
variables, if you know the other two variables.
The value of the constant number PV/T is sometimes called the gas constant R. It is
different for different gases. The value of R is a property of gases, so you must always
compare the same gas or mixture of gases to calculate the PV/T changes. The gas laws
state that for any gas or mixture of gases, the value of PV/T will always be the same.
If pressure falls without a change in volume, then:
The temperature has also fallen.
The temperature has increased.

Answer

To calculate the new

temperature, multiply the
ratio of the absolute
pressure change by the old
temperature. This will give
the absolute temperature.

21

If pressure in a fixed volume storage sphere is

dangerously high, reduce the pressure by:
Venting the gas to the atmosphere.
Cooling the sphere.

Answer

Venting the gas to the

atmosphere is wasteful and
presents a safety
hazard. When pressure is too
high, use the gas laws to
calculate the exact amount of
temperature decrease that will
bring the pressure within the
rating of the sphere. If the
sphere requires more cooling
than is available, you can vent
the gas into another vessel.

Review
In this section, you learned about the gas laws that predict gas behavior. You learned
that these laws only apply when conditions are ideal. Under some conditions, gases
may behave in a slightly different manner than predicted by the gas laws.
The three laws include:

The equation for the General Gas Law is:

22

Section 3: The Nature of Compression

Overview
In this section, you will learn about factors that influence compressor
operations. These factors include:

Ratio of compression.
Heat of compression.
Intercooling.

Ratio of Compression
23

A compressor is a machine that works to increase gas pressure. The compressor takes
in gas at one pressure (suction pressure), and then discharges it at a higher pressure
(discharge pressure). The difference between the suction pressure and the discharge
pressure represents the work done by the compressor.
The ratio of compression (R) is the ratio of the absolute discharge pressure to the
absolute suction pressure. If the compressor doubles absolute gas pressure, R is 2. If
the compressor triples absolute gas pressure, R is 3.
R is calculated by dividing the absolute discharge pressure by the absolute suction
pressure:

Because compression always increases gas pressure, R is always greater than 1.

If suction pressure is 20 PSIA (138 kPaa) and
discharge pressure is 50 PSIA (345 kPaa), R is:
50

/20 (345/138).

20

/50 (138/345).

R is the ratio of absolute

discharge pressure to
absolute suction pressure.

Answer

Exercise: Ratio of Compression

If a compressor takes in gas at atmospheric pressure
and discharges it at 45 PSIG (310 kPag), suction
pressure is approximately 14.7 PSIA (101 kPaa).
Discharge pressure is approximately:
59.7 PSIA (411 kPaa).
45 PSIA (310 kPaa).

PSIA = PSIG + 14.7

= 45 + 14.7
In metric terms:

Answer
kPaa = kPag + 101
= 310 + 101

24

To calculate the R for this compressor, use:

59.7

45

/14.7 (411/101).

/14.7 (310/101).

59.7

/14.7 = 4.06

59.7

/45 (411/310).

In metric terms:

14.7

/59.7 (101/411).

411

/101 = 4.06

Answer

If a compressor takes in gas at 13 PSIA, or 1.7 PSI vacuum (90 kPaa, or 11 kPa
vacuum) and discharges the gas at 14.7 PSIA (101 kPaa), the R is 14.7/13 or
approximately 1.13 (101/90 or approximately 1.12).
Multiplying the absolute suction pressure times R gives the absolute discharge pressure
of the gas being compressed.
If suction pressure is 14.7 PSIA (101 kPaa) and R is
2.5, absolute discharge pressure is approximately:
5.88 PSIA (40.4 kPaa).
36.75 PSIA (252.5 kPaa).

Answer

2.5 = D/14.7
Discharge = 36.75. This is
equivalent to approximately
22.05 PSIG.
In metric terms:
2.5 = D/101
Discharge = 252.5
kPaa. This is equivalent to
approximately 151.5 kPag.

If suction pressure is 15 PSIA (103 kPaa) and

discharge pressure is 45 PSIA (310 kPaa), the ratio
of compression is:

R=
Answer

45

/15

In metric terms:

25

R=

310/103.

R can usually be reduced by _______ suction

pressure.
Increasing.
Decreasing.

Answer

The Heat of Compression

A compressor forces gas molecules closer together. It also increases the speed of the
molecules and increases gas temperature. The amount of temperature increase
depends on the nature of the gas, the suction temperature, and the amount of
compression. Compression is predictable. With the same gas:

Increasing R increases the temperature of the gas.

With the same R, discharge temperature increases as suction temperature
increases.
With the same suction temperature, discharge temperature increases as R
increases.
Discharge temperature depends on both the R and the suction temperature.

For example, suppose two compressors with the same suction are suctioning
methane. Each compressor operates at an R of 3, but with different pressures.
The amount of temperature increase caused by these
two compressors is:
The same.
Different.

Answer

For identical gases under

the same suction
temperature, the amount
(or temperature increase)
depends only on the ratio
(R).

For the same gas at the same suction temperature, the amount of temperature
increase in compression depends only on the ratio (R). Compared with heavy gases,
light gases have a greater temperature increase for the same ratio of
compression. Light hydrocarbon gases (and hydrogen) tend to show more heat of
compression than heavier ones.
For example, methane is lighter than ethane, so methane experiences a greater rise in

26

temperature during compression.

Air also shows more heat of compression than hydrocarbon gases. For the same
suction pressure and R, the temperature increase is greater when air is being
compressed. The amount of heat added (the discharge temperature), depends on:

Suction temperature.
Ratio (R).
The type of gas.

Air heats up _______ than hydrocarbon gases

through the same R and from the same suction
temperature.
More.
Less.

Answer

For the same compression

ratio, heavier hydrocarbon
gases do not heat up as
much as light
hydrocarbon gases.

N Factor Chart
Gases may have different
specific gravities ("n"). The
N Factor Chart shows the
series of curves for various
average compressor
temperatures.

27

A hydrocarbon gas with a specific gravity of 0.8 and

an average compressor temperature of 150 F (66
C) has an N value of:
6.2.
1.2.
5.7.
0.12.

The curves on the N Factor

Chart show a pattern. As
the specific gravity
increases, the N value
decreases.

Answer

28

Compression and Temperature Increase

Examine the relationship between compression and temperature.

The curves show a pattern. Lower suction temperatures result in lower discharge
temperatures. These calculations are based on natural gas. If the gas is air, final
temperatures for the same suction temperature and compression gas should not go
above the specified limits. Final temperature can be reduced by:

29

Decreasing R.
Cooling the gas before it enters the compressor.
Cooling the compressor.

If discharge temperatures are excessive, it might be necessary to reduce R and cool

the suction gas. The R can be decreased by reducing the discharge pressure or by
increasing the suction pressure, or both.
For an R of 4, an N of 1.21 and a suction
temperature of 80 F (27 C), the discharge
temperature will be:
200 F (93 C).
150 F (66 C).
80 F (27 C).
275 F (135 C).

Answer

Follow the dotted lines on

the chart starting with an R
of 4. Moving to the right,
stop at the curved line (N
value = 1.21), and follow it
straight downward to a
suction temperature of 80
F (27 C). Reading across
to the left, the discharge
temperature is 275 F
(135 C).

Discharge temperature can be reduced by:

(Choose all that apply.)
Reducing R.
Decreasing suction temperature.
Increasing suction temperature.
Increasing R.

Answer

The discharge temperature

of a compressor depends
on suction
temperature, compression
ratio, and gas
composition. A lower
suction temperature and a
lower R indicate a lower
discharge temperature.

30

Intercooling
This diagram represents a
multi-stage compression unit.
The gas is being compressed in
two stages. The discharge from
the first compressor is passed
through a cooler before it
reaches the second stage
compressor. Intercooling is
used to reduce the temperature
of the gas before it goes
through the second stage
compressor.

In most cases, multi-staging with intercooling is used

when R is 3.0 or more, to reduce the _______ of the
gas.
Temperature.
PSIA (kPaa).

Compression increases the

temperature of the gas.

Suction pressure.
Discharge pressure.

Answer

In some cases where R is less than 3.0, compressors are multi-staged without
intercooling to reduce the load on each compressor. Without intercooling, multi-staging
does not reduce final discharge temperature. If the gas is allowed to enter each stage
at its existing temperature, the overall total temperature rise is the same as singlestage compression. When R is 3.0 or more, it is necessary to use two or more stages
with intercooling.

31

When the compression R is above 3, gas is usually

compressed by multi-staged units. In these units,
intercooling:
(Choose all that apply.)
Increases temperature.
Reduces temperature.
Reduces volume.

When the temperature

decreases, the volume also
decreases.

Increases volume.

Answer

Section 4:

Factors Affecting Compression

Overview
In this section of the program, you will learn about factors affecting

32

compression. These factors include:

Suction cooling.
Capacity and rate.
Horsepower.

Suction Cooling
When temperature is lowered and pressure remains
the same, the volume of gas decreases.
For example, if a balloon is filled with gas at
atmospheric pressure, then cooled, it will
shrink. When gas is cooled, it becomes denser.
More standard cubic feet (cubic meters) are
compressed for the same actual cubic feet (cubic
meters) when the gas is cooled. One reason
for intercooling is to reduce the final temperature of
the gas. But, a more important reason is to shrink
the volume of the gas before it reaches
the compressor's second stage.
About 1% of horsepower is saved for every 5 F
(2.8 C) absorbed at the intercooler. Multi-staging
with intercooling reduces the _______ required for a
given compression.
Temperature.
Horsepower.
Volume.
All of the above.

Answer

Suction cooling decreases the final temperature of the gas and permits more gas to be
processed for the same power input.
Suction cooling can be used to _______ the power
required to maintain a constant flow rate in SCF
(SCM) per hour or day.
Decrease.

Cooling the gas reduces the

33

Increase.

amount of horsepower
needed for compression.

Answer

If R and suction pressure remain the same, lowering

the suction temperature increases the standard
volume of gas processed and _______ the discharge
temperature.
Increases.
Decreases.

Answer

Capacity and Rate

Capacity is the speed of compression. Rate

is the volume of flow per unit of time and is measured in cubic feet (cubic meters) per
minute, per hour, or per day. The flow rate of gas is the number of cubic feet (cubic
meters) that flow through (or are handled by) a compressor in a certain period of time.
Abbreviations are used for both volume and time. For example, using the Roman
numeral M for one thousand, a rate of 650,000 cubic feet per day is abbreviated 650
MCF/day.
If the volume of this gas is in standard cubic feet, the abbreviation is 650 MSCF/day. In
metric units, "M" stands for million, and one thousand volume units is written as E3M3.

34

1 million standard cubic feet (cubic meters) per day

is abbreviated:
1 MMCF/day (1 MMCM/day).
1 M2CD/F (1 M2CM/F).
1 MCF/day (1 MCM/day).
1 MMSCF/day (1 MSCM/day).

1 million standard cubic feet

(cubic meters) per day
could also be abbreviated 1
M2SCF/day (1 MSCM/day).

Answer

Rate can also be expressed in cubic feet (cubic meters) per minute, or CF/min
(CM/min). For example, a rate of 65 cubic feet (cubic meters) per minute is
abbreviated 65 CF/min (65 CM/min).
A capacity of 100 SCF/min (100 SCM/min) means
the compressor is taking in and discharging _______
SCF (SCM) of gas every minute.

Answer

Suppose a compressor has a rated capacity of 60

SCF/min (60 SCM/min). At standard conditions (an
intake pressure of 14.7 PSIA / 101 kPaa and a
suction temperature of 60o F / 15.6o C), the
compressor will compress 60 cubic feet (60 CM) of
gas per minute.
Compressors are often rated in terms of cubic feet or
cubic meters per minute (CF/min or CM/min). An air
compressor handles 100 CF/min (100 CM/min). Its
daily rate is:
144 MCF/day (144 E3M3/day).
6,000 MCF/day (6,000 E3M3/day).

Answer

100 x 60 minutes = 6,000

minutes
6,000 minutes x 24 hours =
144,000 minutes, or 144
MCF/day (E3M3/day)

35

When a rate such as 100 SCF/min (SCM/min) is

used, the volume has been corrected to a
temperature of 60o F (15.6o C) and a pressure of:
0 PSIA (0 kPaa).
100 PSIA (689 kPaa).
60 PSIA (414 kPaa).
14.7 PSIA (101 kPaa).

Standard temperature and

pressure for gases is always
60 F (15.6o C) and 14.7
PSIA (101 kPaa).

Answer

Horsepower
The basic unit of measuring work in compressor systems is the foot-pound. One footpound is the work done in lifting 1 pound of weight the distance of 1 foot. Work can
also be measured in joules (J). One joule is equal to one newton-meter (Nm), which is
force in newtons times distance in meters. To lift a 10-pound weight (44.5 newtons) a
distance of 1 foot (0.3 meters) requires 10 foot-pounds (13.4 Nm, or 13.4 joules) of
work.
Work is force times distance. Lifting a 60-pound
(267 newton) weight 3 feet (0.9 meters) off the floor
requires _______ of work.
20 foot-pounds (296.7 joules).
180 foot-pounds (240.3 joules).

60 x 3 = 180 foot-pounds
of work. In metric, 267 x
0.9 = 240.3 joules.

Answer

Horsepower is the time rate of doing work, or a measure of foot-pounds (joules) of

work done per unit of time. 1 horsepower (HP) is 33,000 foot-pounds (44,760 J) of
work done in 1 minute.
For example, if 99,000 foot-pounds (134,280 J) of
work is done in one minute, the horsepower is
_______.

Answer

99,000 33,000 = 3. In
metric, 134,280 44,760 =
3.

36

Exercise: Horsepower
HP can be determined by knowing
the foot-pounds (joules) of work
done and the time taken to do
it. As the amount of foot-pounds
(joules) per unit of time
increases, the HP required
increases. When more time is
consumed in doing work, the HP
required
decreases. This table lists other
units of energy and power.

Table of Power and Work Factors

1 Horsepower

746 watts

1 Horsepower

33,000 foot-pounds per

minute

1 Horsepower

42.41 BTU per minute

1 Horsepower

44,760 joules per

minute

1 BTU

778 foot-pounds

1 BTU

0.2930 watt hours

1 BTU

1,000 watts

1 Kilowatt

1,055 joules

1 Kilowatt

1.34 horsepower

1 Kilowatt

44,236 foot-pounds per

minute

1 Kilowatt

56.87 BTU per minute

1 kilowatt

60,000 joules per

minute

Electric power is measured in:

Horsepower.
Kilowatts.
BTU.

Answer

1 HP is equal to ______ watts.

Answer

37

1 kilowatt is equal to 1,000 watts and _______ HP.

Answer

Suppose two compressors operate on the same gas

from the same suction conditions at equal flow
rates. Unit A compresses through an R of 2, and
Unit B compresses through an R of 3. Which
compressor does more work?
Unit A.
Unit B.

The higher the R, the more

work is being done by the
compressor.

Answer

The work done by a compressor depends on the rate of flow through the compressor,
and on the ratio (R) of compression, the suction temperature, and the kind of gas being
compressed. On a constant-speed unit, HP loading can be adjusted by changing R.
Intercooling reduces the actual volume of the gas as
it enters the second stage of the compressor and
permits handling the gas with _______ HP.
More.
Less.

Reducing the horsepower

needed means that the
compressor runs more
efficiently.

Answer

38

Glossary
Absolute Pressure
Total pressure, equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure; measured in Pounds per
Square Inch, Absolute (PSIA) or Kilopascals Absolute (kPaa). To convert gauge pressure to
absolute pressure, add atmospheric pressure (approximately 14.7 PSI or 101.3 kPa at sea level) to
the gauge pressure reading.

Absolute Temperature Scales

Temperature expressed as Rankine or Kelvin. To convert Fahrenheit to Rankine, add 460 to the
Fahrenheit reading. To convert Celsius to Kelvin, add 273 to the Celsius reading.

Absolute Zero
The lowest possible temperature; the point where all molecular motion ceases and there is no
heat; or at which an ideal gas, kept at a constant volume, would exert no pressure.

Air-In-Stream Analyzer
Type of analyzer that is used to detect light hydrocarbon gases in the air.

Asphyxiation
Suffocation.

Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure caused by the weight of the atmosphere. Normally 14.7 PSIA (101.3 kPaa) at sea level.
Atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude increases (above sea level), and increases as altitude
decreases (below sea level). Also known as barometric pressure.

Atom
The smallest particle of an element that retains all the properties of the element.

Barometer
Instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Barometric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure expressed on a barometer.

39

Boiling Point
The temperature at which a substance boils, or when the liquid is converted into vapor. The boiling
point of a substance increases if pressure is raised and decreases if pressure is lowered. The
corresponding term for mixtures that exhibit a boiling range is "bubble point."
Boiling Range
The range of temperature where a given product or process stream boils, from initial to final boiling
temperature. Usually determined at atmospheric pressure and by a standardized distillation test,
over which boiling or distillation of a liquid proceeds. Only a pure substance has one definite boiling
temperature at a given pressure. Mixtures of pure substances, such as petroleum products, exhibit a
boiling range.
Boyles Law
Principle based on the idea that a change in absolute pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to a
change in volume when kept at a constant temperature:

Butane
A hydrocarbon fraction; at ordinary atmospheric conditions butane is a gas which is easily liquefied.
Calibration
The act of checking or adjusting (by comparison with a standard) the accuracy of a measuring
instrument; the determination of the true value of the spaces in any graduated instrument.
Capacity of Compression
Refers to the speed of compression.
Celsius Scale
Temperature scale on which the freezing point of water registers 0 and the boiling point registers
100. Temperatures are expressed in C.
Charles Law
Principle based on the idea that the volume of a gas at a constant pressure varies directly with the
absolute temperature.

40

Combustion
Chemical reaction between a fuel and oxygen that releases energy; a process that converts
chemical energy to thermal energy.
Compression
The process of reducing volume by pushing together, increasing density and pressure.
Compression Ratio (R)
An index of the work done by a compressor; the ratio of the absolute discharge pressure to the
absolute suction pressure.
Compressor
Rotating equipment used to increase gas pressure and move a process gas. The compressor takes
in gas at one pressure (suction pressure), and discharges it at a higher pressure (discharge
pressure). Compressor types include centrifugal or reciprocating.
Condensate
Liquid formed as a result of cooling or compressing a vapor. Also refers to the light hydrocarbon
liquid formed when hydrocarbon vapor is cooled. Condensed steam is also referred to as
condensate.
Condensation
The process by which gas or vapor changes to a liquid.
Contraction
Decreasing in size or volume.
Density
Mass of a substance per unit of volume, or the heaviness of a substance.
Dewpoint
The temperature where a vapor begins to condense. A drop in temperature below the dewpoint will
cause the vapor to condense into droplets or fog. The dewpoint temperature of a vapor decreases if
the pressure is lowered, and increases if the pressure is raised.

41

Direct Relationship
The relationship between two variables; when one variable changes in one direction, the other
variable changes in the same direction.
Energy
The capacity to do work or cause heat to flow.
Evaporation
The process of molecules leaving a liquid in vapor form. Also called vaporization.
Expansion
Increasing in size or volume.
Explosive Limits
Calculated values of the range considered dangerous for the percentage of hydrocarbon vapors in
air. Hydrocarbon/air samples falling within that range indicate an explosive mixture.
Explosive Mixture
A combination of a hydrocarbon vapor with air which will explode if ignited.
Fahrenheit Scale
Temperature scale where the boiling point of water registers 212 and the freezing point registers
32. Temperatures are expressed in F.
Flammable Range
A range of fuel concentration that must be present for a fuel to burn. Below the lower limit, there is
not enough fuel to burn; above the upper limit, the fuel has displaced too much oxygen to burn.
Flash Point
Temperature that will produce just enough vapor to cause a momentary flash when ignited but will
not sustain a continuous burn.
Flow
Fluid movement from one place to another caused by pressure differences.
Fluid
Any substance that flows and has no definite shape.
Foot-Pound
The basic unit of horsepower; a unit of work equal to the work done by lifting a mass of one pound a
vertical distance of one foot.

42

Force
Energy applied in any direction, measured in pounds or newtons. Force tends to produce or prevent
motion.
Freezing Point
Temperature where a substance will solidify if energy is withdrawn, or melt if energy is added.
Friction
The force that resists motion between bodies in contact with one another.
Fuel
Any combustible matter that is burned to generate thermal energy.
Gas
State of matter where molecules are in random and chaotic motion. Gases always assume the
shape of their containers and are compressible. In contrast with a vapor, the term gas is used for
substances that are in the gaseous state at ambient conditions.
Gasoline
Light petroleum fraction with an approximate boiling range between 100 F - 400 F (38 - 204 C),
obtained by distillation, cracking, polymerization, and other processes.
Gauge Pressure
The pressure above atmospheric pressure; the difference between the total or absolute pressure at
the point of measurement and atmospheric pressure. Most pressure gauges read gauge pressure,
not absolute pressure. Measured in Pounds per Square Inch, Gauge (PSIG) or Kilopascals Gauge
(kPag). To convert gauge pressure to absolute pressure, add 14.7 to the PSI measurement or 101.3
to the kPa measurement.
General Gas Law
Law which states that gas volume changes in direct ratio to changes in absolute temperature, and
that gas volume changes in an inverse ratio to changes in absolute pressure.

43

Heat
Form of energy. Measure of the kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance.
Heat of Compression
Temperature increase resulting from compressor operation.
Horsepower
The time rate of doing work, or a measure of foot-pounds (kilogram-force per meter) of work done
per unit of time. 1 horsepower (HP) is 33,000 foot-pounds (75 kilograms-force per meter) of work
done in 1 minute.
Hydrocarbon
Compound containing only hydrogen and carbon. The simplest hydrocarbons are gases at ordinary
temperatures; but with increasing molecular weight, they change to a liquid form and, finally, to the
solid state. They form the principal constituents of petroleum:

Paraffin: A type of hydrocarbon with single bonds (saturated) that are usually waxy and
can have high pour points.
Olefin: An open chain, unsaturated hydrocarbon, with at least one carbon-carbon double
bond.
Naphthene: A saturated hydrocarbon with a cyclic molecular structure, such as cyclopropane, cyclo-butane, cyclo-pentane.
Aromatic: The benzene series of hydrocarbons; they are cyclic, with alternating single and
double bonds.

Hydrogen
The lightest of all elements and one of the basic components (along with carbon) of hydrocarbon
compounds.
Hydrogen Sulfide
Compound of hydrogen and sulfur (H2S); a colorless, flammable, poisonous gas. It has a distinct
odor of rotten eggs, however it can quickly deaden the sense of smell. Also called sulfurated
hydrogen.
Ideal Gas
A gas whose behavior does not deviate from calculations derived from the general gas laws.
Inches of Mercury (inHg)
A unit of pressure, using the pressure required to support a column of mercury one inch high as a
standard. Metric equivalent is millimeters of mercury (mmHg), the pressure required to support a
column of mercury one millimeter high.
Intercooling
The process of cooling a gas before it goes through another compression stage.

44

Inverse Relationship
Describes the relationship between two variables; when one variable changes in one direction, the
other variable changes in the opposite direction.
Joule (J)
A unit of work or energy, equal to the force of one newton moving an object a distance of one meter.
One joule per second equals one watt. As a unit of energy, it is the amount of energy required to
raise the temperature of one kilogram of water 1 C.
Kelvin Scale
Temperature scale used for absolute measurements. Temperatures are expressed using "K" and
have the same degree increments as the Celsius scale.
Light Fractions
The hydrocarbon components of crude oil with small molecules, low boiling points, and high vapor
pressures.
Liquid
State of matter which assumes the shape of its container. Liquids have no definite shape and are
not compressible.
M
Abbreviation for 1,000.
Manometer
An instrument used to measure pressure in liquids and gases; a pressure gauge or vacuum gauge.
Mass
The amount of matter contained in an object.
Matter
Any substance that occupies space. Composed of single elements or combinations of elements.
Melting Point
Temperature where a substance will freeze if energy is withdrawn, or melt if energy is added.
Methane
Gas, consisting of carbon and hydrogen (CH4). The major component of natural gas. One of the
alkane or paraffin series of gases.

45

MM
2

Abbreviation for 1,000,000. Can also be written M .

Molecule
The smallest particle of a substance that retains the properties of the substance and is composed of
one or more atoms.
MSA Explosimeter
An instrument used to measure the concentration of combustible gases in the air. Readings are
expressed as a percentage of the lower explosive limit.
Natural Gas
Naturally occurring gas, consisting primarily of methane.
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) Required
Absolute suction pressure needed for the pump after the vapor pressure and any suction lift have
been subtracted from the positive head.
Newton (N)
A unit of force, equal to the force required to accelerate one kilogram one meter per second
squared.
Pascal (Pa)
A measurement of pressure equal to the pressure of the force of one newton (N), acting equally over
an area of one square meter. 1,000 pascals equals 1 kilopascal (1 kPa).
Petroleum
Term encompassing the whole spectrum of hydrocarbons, including gaseous, liquid, and solid.
Phase
A state of matter that changes in response to variations in heat and pressure.
Phase Change
A change in the distance between molecules, resulting in a change from one state of matter to
another.
Pounds per Square Inch (PSI)
A measurement of pressure calculated as force (in pounds force) divided by area (in square inches).
In metric units, pressure is measured in kilopascals (kPa), or force (newtons) per unit of area (one
square meter).

46

Pounds per Square Inch Absolute (PSIA)

An absolute measure of pressure. Air pressure at sea level is 14.7 PSIA. To convert a gauge
pressure reading to PSIA, add 14.7 to the gauge pressure.
Pounds per Square Inch Gauge (PSIG)
An actual measure of pressure indicated on a unit pressure gauge.
Pressure
Energy that is exerted in all directions, and is measured in terms of force per unit of area: pounds
per square inch or newtons per square meter.
Propane
One of the alkane or paraffin series of hydrocarbons, (C3H8) that is the primary constituent of LPG.
Pump
Equipment used to transfer liquids by increasing the pressure on the liquid.
Rankine Scale
Temperature scale based on the absolute scale. Expressed in R and uses the same degree
increments as the Fahrenheit scale.
Rate of Compression
Refers to the volume of flow per unit of time and is usually measured in cubic feet or cubic meters
per minute, hour, or day.
Rate of Flow
The calculation of fluid volume per unit of time.
Ratio
A relation between two quantities expressed as the quotient of one divided by the other.
Ratio of Compression
The ratio of the absolute discharge pressure to the absolute suction pressure.

Real Gas
Actual gas found in nature. Deviates from theoretical values of an ideal gas when changes in
temperature, volume and pressure are introduced.

47

Refinery
A process facility for manufacturing finished or semi-finished products from crude oil.
Solid
Substances that have a definite shape and do not flow freely.
Specific Gravity
Ratio of a substance's density compared to the density of a standard substance. For liquids and
solids, the standard is water. For gases, the standard is air or hydrogen.
Standard Conditions
60 F (15.6 C) at atmospheric pressure, 14.7 PSIA (101.3 kPaa).
Stream
Fluid entering or leaving a process unit.
Suction
The upstream or feed side of a pump or compressor. Also, the act of drawing a fluid into a pump or
compressor.
Suction Cooling
Decreasing the final gas temperature, to permit more gas to be processed for the same power input.
Telescoping Gas Holder
Gas-holding tank with telescoping sides that raise and lower to adjust volume. Usually done to
maintain constant pressure in response to temperature changes.
Temperature
An indication of the average thermal/internal energy in a substance. Temperature is often reported
in degrees Fahrenheit ( F) or degrees Celsius ( C).
Terminal Velocity
The maximum acceleration that is reached when the air resistance exactly balances an object's
weight, and velocity is no longer increasing.
Thermal Expansion
The tendency of molecules to move farther apart when they are heated.
Thermometer
An instrument used to measure temperature.

48

Turbine
An engine that produces energy from a fast-moving stream of steam, water, gas, or air.
Vacuum
Pressure below atmospheric pressure; negative pressure.
Vapor
The gaseous state of a substance that is liquid or solid under ordinary conditions.
Vapor Pressure
The pressure exerted by a liquids vapor when the liquid and vapor are at equilibrium. A measure of
a liquid's tendency to vaporize at a given temperature. The vapor pressure of a substance
increases with temperature.
Vaporize
To convert into vapor by applying heat.
Vent
An opening for a gas or liquid to escape, or for pressure relief.
Vessel
Closed container for holding gas and liquid under pressure or vacuum. It may be used for storage
(for example, butane drum, reflux drum). Process vessels will permit volume fluctuations, settling of
mixed stocks, release of vapors, or reactions (such as treaters or reactors).
Volatile Material
Any material which tends to vaporize at ambient temperatures.
Volatility
A measure of how easy it is for a substance to vaporize. Factor affecting flammability.
Volume
The amount of 3-dimensional space occupied by a substance.

49