TEACHERS INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

(TISSA)

Ministry of Education and Sports

TEACHER ISSUES IN UGANDA:

A DIAGNOSIS FOR A SHARED VISION ON ISSUES AND THE
DESIGNING OF A FEASIBLE, INDIGENOUS AND EFFECTIVE TEACHERS
POLICY

August 2013

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................................4
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 1: NATIONAL CONTEXT AND EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ..............................................7
1.1.

The countrys context ..........................................................................................................7

1.1.2

Geographical Location .................................................................................................7

1.1.3

Population and Demographic characteristics ................................................................8

1.1.4. Political and administrative context ...................................................................................8

1.1.5

Cultural & Social aspects ..............................................................................................9

1.1.6

Economy and National Development.......................................................................... 10

1.2.

The Education System in Uganda ....................................................................................... 13

1.2.1

Structure of Education in Uganda ............................................................................... 14

1.2.2

Education management and Administration .............................................................. 15

1.2.3

Trend in Uganda Education Budget 2000/01- 2010/11 ............................................... 16

1.2.4

Performance of the education system: .......................................................................21

KEY RESULTS FOR CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................ 29

CHAPTER 2: ESTIMATION OF THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS NEEDED ..................................................37
KEY RESULTS CHAPTER 2 .......................................................................................................40
CHAPTER 3: TEACHER TRAINING ......................................................................................................43
3.1. Current Teacher Training System ............................................................................................ 43
3.2 Teachers qualification: levels and needs .................................................................................. 50
3.3 Current teacher/instructor training system outputs versus training needs ............................... 54
3.4. Teacher Training Quality Aspects ............................................................................................ 56
3.4.1 PTCs Grade III Certificate Program Overview ....................................................................56
3.4.2 PTCs teaching staffing issues ........................................................................................... 59
3.4.3. PTCs effectiveness........................................................................................................... 61
KEY RESULTS CHAPTER 3 .......................................................................................................68
CHAPTER 4: RECRUITMENT, DEPLOYMENT, ABSENTEEISM AND ATTRITION ....................................76
4.1. Teacher recruitment .............................................................................................................. 76
4.1.1. The teacher recruitment process ...................................................................................... 76
4.1.2. Systems capacity to recruit teachers: .............................................................................. 79
4.2. Teacher deployment ............................................................................................................. 80
2

4.2.1. State of teacher deployment in primary schools ............................................................... 80

4.2.2. State of teacher deployment in secondary schools ........................................................... 83
4.3. Teacher absenteeism ............................................................................................................ 85
4.4. Teacher attrition.................................................................................................................... 87
KEY RESULTS CHAPTER 4 .......................................................................................................90
CHAPTER 5: TEACHER CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND REMUNERATION .............................................92
5.1. Teacher professional mobility throughout the teaching career ............................................... 92
5.2 Teacher remuneration............................................................................................................. 96
5.2.1 Teaching staff Salary Progression ..................................................................................... 96
5.2.2 Teaching staff remuneration composition ......................................................................... 99
5.3. Teacher pay attractiveness ...................................................................................................100
KEY RESULTS CHAPTER 5 .....................................................................................................106
CHAPTER 6: TEACHERS JOB SATISFACTION AND THE CONTEXT FOR SOCIAL DIALOGUE .................113
6.1.

Keeping Teachers Happy: Job satisfaction among primary school teachers ...................... 113

6.1.1.

The concept of teachers professionals satisfactions and it measuring in Uganda .....113

6.1.2.

Uganda primary teachers overall level of satisfaction ............................................. 115

6.1.3.
Satisfaction of primary teachers with respect to their socio-demographics and
professional characteristics .....................................................................................................116
6.1.4.
6.2.

Sources of teachers satisfaction ............................................................................... 117

Social dialogue in education sector .................................................................................. 122

6.2.1.

Stakeholders in the education sector in Uganda: role, responsibilities and challenges

..123

6.2.2.

Involvement of teacher in the development of educational policies ......................... 124

6.2.3.

Points of convergences or/and divergences between government and teachers ......126

6.2.4.

Improve relationship between teachers and government ......................................... 127

KEY RESULTS CHAPTER 6 .....................................................................................................129

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was conducted by a national team composed of people belonging to various
institutions: Ministry of Education and Sport (MoES), Ministry of Finance, Planning and
Economic Development (MoFPED), Ministry of Public Service (MoPS), Uganda Bureau of
Statistics (UBOS) and Uganda National Teacher Union (UNATU). This team was technically
supported by the POLE DE DAKAR. The activity was co-founded by MoES, UNESCO BREDA,
UNESCO-NAIROBI, POLE DE DAKAR and TASK FORCE ON TEACHERS FOR EFA.
The team thanks:
- The former Minister of Education and Sports, Honourable Geraldine Namirembe
Bitamazire, for launching the activity.
- The current Minister of Education and Sports, Honourable Jessica Alupo, for making sure
that the activity goes up to its end.
- The former Permanent Secretary Mr. Francis Xavier Lubanga for its constant support.
- The Commissioner Teacher/Tutor Instructor Education and Training, Ms. Margaret
Nsereko, for coordinating the study.
- The Secretary General of the UNATCOM, Mr. Augustine Omare Okurut, for his support
throughout the process.
- The Principal of Kibuli Primary Teacher College for his support in the organization of the
workshops.
Composition of the National Team
Name

Organization

Department

Margaret Nsereko
Kintu Joseph
Oburu George
Mirembe Eseza
Alfred Kyaka
Ali Kyakulumbye

MoES
MoES
MoES
MoES
MoES
KyU

TIET
National Curriculum Development Centre
EPPA
Special Needs Education
Government Secondary Schools
Teacher Education

Bakaira Godfrey

KyU

Teacher Education

Betty Ligyalingi

MoFPED

MoFPED

Deus Monday

MoES

IMU

Dorcas Halango

UBOS

UBOS

Enock Bongyeirwe

MoES

Guidance and Counseling

Florence Aguti (RIP)

MoES

TIET

Florence Nabitaka

MoES

CMU

James Mugerwa

MoES

BTVET

James Tweheyo

UNATU

UNATU

Jane Egau Okou

MoES

TIET

Twebaze David

UNATCOM

UNATCOM

Kabunga Ronald

MoES

EPPA
4

Name

Organization

Department

Katusabe Monica
Arinaitwe John Willy
Lwasa Robert
Moses Bateganya

MoES
PAU
MoPS
MoES

Personnel
PAU
MoPS
TIET

Mulindwa Ismael

MoES

Private Schools and Institution

Nankobe Cletus

UNATU

UNATU

Ngobi Alex Kazinga

MoES

EPPA

Patrick Balyogera
Kabwa Beatrice
Rose Agoi
Sammy Odongo

MoES
ESC
UNATCOM
MoES

Directorate of Education Standards

ESC
UNATCOM
Physical Education and Sports

Ssemakula Henry

MOES

Guidance and Counseling

Ssozi Michael

MoES

EPPA

Teopista Birungi

UNATU

UNATU

Composition of the Pole de Dakar team

-

Diane Coury, Education policy Analyst

Borel Foko, Education policy Analyst
Patrick Nkengne, Education policy Analyst
Olivier Pieume, Education policy Analyst

Thanks also go to Ms. Yayoi Segi-Vltchek, Mr. Jean Adotevi and Mr. Edem Adubra from UNESCO
who followed the process from the beginning till the end.

INTRODUCTION
Uganda has embarked on a major transformation with a vision to move from a peasant society to a
modern and prosperous country by 2040. Education is seen as a key factor for the achievement of
this objective. Since 1996, the sector has undergone through various reforms in order to send all the
children to school and make sure that their skills are improving. While implementing these reforms,
one aspect the education system needs to care about is teachers issues. There are many reasons
why a constant focus should be placed on teachers: i) Teacher salary represents 80% of the recurrent
education budget. Therefore, if teacher management is handled properly, then about 80% of the
education resources are used properly. ii) The quality of teachers determines the quality of
education, meaning that a good teacher training is a condition for the development of quality
education iii) Teachers are at the bottom line of the implementation of education reforms; therefore,
the system need to make sure that teachers are aware of the reform and are in position to effectively
implement what is planned. Finally, the number of teachers will have to increase if education
objectives are to be achieved. Therefore, if current teacher issues are not solved, a growing number
of teachers will necessarily fall into a worsening situation.
Education authorities are aware of the necessity to handle teacher issues. A proof for this is the fact
that many studies have been conducted in various aspects to inform decision making. One can
mention repeated studies on teacher absenteeism, the recent EMIS survey on teacher attrition,
issues related to teacher deployment underlined by joint monitoring reports. The major drawback of
these studies is that they analyze teacher issues separately, yet they are connected. For instance, the
expansion of the system requires recruiting more teachers. The number of new teachers needed has
to be coherent with the existing teacher training capacities in the country, with the amount of
resources needed to pay their salary and ensure they have a proper career development, etc.
Consequently, when analyzing teacher issues, there is need to refer to a methodology able to look at
issues in a holistic approach. UNESCO has developed such a tool called Teacher Initiative in SubSaharan Africa (TISSA). Its aim is to analyze teacher issues in an integrated manner.
The TISSA methodology was implemented in Uganda. This report summarizes the findings of the
analysis. It is organized around 6 chapters. Chapter 1 presents the country context, the importance of
education in the development plan and the context in which teacher policy evolve (including the
current performance of the education system). Chapter 2 estimates the number of teachers the
system will have to recruit in the following years if education objectives are to be achieved. Chapter
3 discusses teacher training, with respect to: capacities of the teacher training institutions, cost for
the training of a teacher, efficiency of the teacher training institutions. Chapter 4 deals with teacher
recruitment, teacher deployment, teacher absenteeism and teacher attrition. Chapter 5 looks at
teacher remuneration and opportunities for career development. The last chapter is devoted to what
teachers think about their job. It examines issues related to teacher job satisfaction and the existing
context for social dialogue.
Drawing from evidences, the findings of the analysis help reaching a shared vision of real teacher
issues, which is a preliminary step in the designing of teacher policies aiming at solving these issues.

CHAPTER 1: NATIONAL CONTEXT AND EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

This section succinctly presents the principal elements describing the country. Its aim is to provide
information on the countrys situation at first glance. It is organized around two sub-sections: a
description of the national context and the general presentation of the education system that are
both central to teacher issues analyses.

1.1.

The countrys context

1.1.2

Geographical Location

Uganda is located in the Eastern region of Africa and lies mostly between latitudes 4012 to the North
and 10 29 to the South and between longitude 29034 and 35000 to the East. It lies 1,200m above sea
level. Uganda occupies an area of about 241 500 Km2 and is bordered by the Republic of Kenya in the
East, Tanzania and Rwanda in the South, Democratic Republic of Congo in the West and Sudan in the
North. The Southern part of the country includes a substantial portion of Lake Victoria, shared with
Kenya and Tanzania. The country is administratively divided into 112 districts 1 (see figure 1.1), spread
across four geographical regions: Northern, Eastern, Central and Western.
Figure 1.1: Map of Uganda

Source: ugandapicks.com2012.

In 2010, there were 112 districts.

Due to its position across the equator, the country is endowed with a favourable climate2. The country
is mostly plateau with a rim of mountains which makes it more suitable to agriculture. In addition, the
country is well endowed with fertile soils with a wide range of vegetation, from tropical rain forest (in
the South) to the Savannah in the North and Semi-desert vegetation in the North East. It is also well
endowed with national resources which include; oil, gold, copper, cobalt, hydropower, limestone and
salt.
According to the 2011 World Bank report, 24.5% of the population of Uganda fell below the national
poverty line, the average life expectancy was 54.1 years, and adult literacy was 73%.
1.1.3

Population and Demographic characteristics

The population of Uganda is growing at a very high rate (3.3%3). The size of the population during the
last census realized in 2002 was 24.3 million. The Uganda Bureau of Statistics estimated that the
figure had reached 31.7 million in 20104. With a population density of 126 per sq km, about 87% of
the territory is rural and 69% of the population lives on less than $1 US per day.
The population consists of predominantly the young with 0-14 years age group constituting 50% of
the total population, 15-64 year olds making up 48% and the 65 and above year olds representing
only 2% of the total population.
Demographic trends in Uganda have been rapidly changing and this is mainly because of high fertility
rate of about 6.7 children per woman, a relatively high birth rate coupled with declining infant
mortality and low life expectancy. Nearly half of the population is below the age of 15 and the
population structure is expected to remain youthful for the next fifteen years. This demographic
trend therefore, represents several challenges to the future growth, structural transformation as well
as pace of development.
1.1.4. Political and administrative context
Uganda gained independence from Britain on 9 October 1962. The period since then has been
marked by intermittent conflicts under different political leaderships. It was the ascendance of the
broad-based National Resistance Movement (NRM) government to power in 1986 under President
Yoweri Museveni that finally halted political struggles. Unlike his predecessors, Museveni did move
towards a more democratic system as he had promised at the beginning of his interim
administration. A popularly elected Constituent Assembly debated the Odoki Commission
constitutional outline from 1994-1995. On September 22, 1995, the Constituent Assembly adopted a
new constitution, which included strong restrictions on political party activity5.The 1995 Constitution
2

Uganda has tropical climate; generally rainy with two dry seasons (December to February and June to August).
The Eastern, Central and Western regions have heavy rains from March to May and light rains between
September and December. The Northern part has one main rainy season between March and October but with
decreased rainfall intensity.
3
Estimation by Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS).
4
The estimate takes into account the effects of the extreme mortality due to AIDS and malaria.
5
Hostile to Democracy, 1999.

established Uganda as a republic with executive, legislative and judicial branches. The Constitution
provides for a President to head the executive branch, to be elected every five years. Legislative
powers are vested in the Parliament. The Ugandan judiciary consists of Magistrates Courts, High
Courts, Courts of Appeals and the Supreme Court. Democratic presidential elections were held in
1996 in which president Yoweri Museveni was re-elected as the president and has since been in
power in the repeated elections of 2001, 2006, and 2011 which he successfully won.
Uganda has politically recovered and bloomed into a successful democracy despite continued
resistance against the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) in the North. Progress has been achieved in the
areas of proclamation of a people-centred Constitution, periodic election of leaders at all levels,
collective decision making through the decentralised system of governance, rule of law, respect and
protection of human rights, and institutional reforms to strengthen the three arms of government.
The political development in Uganda is an inspiration of hope for other African countries plagued
with military rule and dictatorships. The amity enjoyed in the country has led to sustainable growth
and development in all aspects of development.
1.1.5

Cultural & Social aspects

Uganda is endowed with a rich and diverse cultural heritage that is deeply rooted in the way a
society identifies, organizes, preserves, sustains and expresses itself. Notwithstanding the historical
roots of these communities, in the pre-colonial times, the social, political and economic organization
of these communities revolved around family, clan and or the institution of the traditional leaders.
Ugandans have different beliefs and traditions that are deeply rooted in their cultural and religious
values6.
Ugandan cultural beliefs, traditions, values and myths have continued to play a very vital role in
modelling Ugandan societies, propagating social harmony and development and this has contributed
to the propagation of social harmony and development. These beliefs, traditions and values
sometimes conflict with modern laws. Some of these include; widow inheritance and female genital
cutting. This has led some people to regard culture as retrogressive.
Despite the continued belittling of traditional norms and adaptation of new foreign cultural norms,
many communities continue to attach great value to their culture and endeavor to conserve,
inculcate and sustain it. You will be surprised that these values are also still very ingrained in the way
of life in the urban cities and towns as well; gender issues, traditional family roots and society's 'dos
and don'ts come out strongly as a respect to their Ugandan cultural roots.
At the core of modern day Uganda are the kingdoms of Buganda, Busoga, Bunyoro, Toro, Ankole,
Lango, acholi, Adola, Rwenzururu and the other chiefdoms that still exist alongside the central
government. These still have a very strong influence on the ways of life particularly in protecting,
encouraging and sustaining the norms and traditions of their culture and giving guidance to society.

Ministry Of Gender, Labour And Social Development (2006); The Uganda National Culture Policy, A Culturally Vibrant,
Cohesive And Progressive Nation , P.O Box 7136, Kampala-Uganda
December 2006

The official language is English though Kiswahili is being encouraged in the spirit of East African
Community. Many times therefore, information in indigenous languages to be shared is translated to
English and vice versa.
1.1.6

Economy and National Development

Largely due to improved political stability, Uganda experienced impressive and sustained economic
growth over the last two decades (notwithstanding the northern Uganda conflict). The uninterrupted
growth and focused government policy under the PEAP facilitated significant gains in human
development7. Uganda is on track to attaining several MDGs, and significant progress has been made
in the areas of eradication of extreme poverty, universal primary education, gender equity and
HIV/AIDS8. Uganda has registered a significant reduction in the proportion of the population living
below the poverty line declining from 56% in 1992 to 24.5% in 20109. However, it still remains high
compared to 3.3% in Malaysia and 6% in South Korea and many other countries in Sub-Saharan
Africa and rest of the world which were once at the same level of development with Uganda.
In 2010, Uganda adopted a Five-year National Development Plan (NDP) with the theme: Growth,
Employment and Socio-Economic Transformation for Prosperity. This plan was formulated on the
basis of a broader National Vision for transforming Uganda from a peasant society to a modern and
prosperous country over the next 30 years, by improving significantly specific development
indicators associated with socio-economic transformation. It is expected that after the
implementation of the NDP, the country will graduate to the middle income segment.
According to the National Development Plan (NDP), there is daunting challenge of attaining a
relatively higher per-capita income level in the face of a rapidly rising population. This will require a
massive increase in skilled labour and its redeployment to the production of value added exportoriented goods and services. Skilling and tooling human resource present an opportunity for the
achievement of development goals, such as, the reduction of poverty and improvements in health,
education, housing, gainful employment, gender equality and conservation of the environment.

Real GDP (2011 prices) has steadily increased at an average annual growth rate of 7.6 percent
between 2000/01 and 2010/11 10. Growth, however, is expected to slowdown in 2011/12 to an
unprecedented 3.2 percent as a result of weak demand both domestically and internationally (UBOS,
2012). The global economic crisis has lowered incomes in trading partner states thus slowing demand
for Ugandan products. Locally, the shilling sharply depreciated as inflation hit the roof leading to
reduced demand and purchasing power of incomes thus lowering production and GDP growth.

8
9

UNDP Development Assessment Report,2009

HIV prevalence of 18% in 1992, yet 6.7% in 2012, thanks to government effort to fight HIV/AIDS.

The World Development Report 2011

Apart from FY 2005/06 where high GDP growth rate was recorded (10.8 percent), growth has remained
robust although with a slight decline by the end of the period, reaching 6.7 percent in 2010/11.
10

10

Figure 1.2: GDP in 2011 Prices, and Real GDP Growth Rate, FY 2000/01 - 2010/2011
45,000

12

10.8

35,000

8.5

8.4

Billion Ushs

30,000
6.5

25,000

6.8

10

8.8

7.3
6.3

6.7
5.9

20,000
15,000

10,000

Real GDP Growth rate (%)

40,000

2
5,000
0

0
2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Source: MoFPED and UBOS. 2011 projections. 2011 refers to FY 2010/11. From Table in annex 1.2.

Given this positive outlook, real GDP per capita (in 2011 prices) increased from UShs 807,299 in
2000/01 to Ushs. 1,185,543 in 2010/11 at an average growth rate of 3.9 percent over the period.
In order to finance its outlays, Governments rely on two types of financial resources, including
domestic financial resources and external support through grants and loans. Domestic financial
resources correspond to taxes and non-taxes revenues levied by the State upon its national wealth.
The level of revenues collected depends both on the level of the national wealth, and of the
efficiency in which the State succeed in collecting taxes.
Domestic revenue effort as a proportion of GDP steadily improved between 2000/01 and 2007/08
growing from 10.5 percent to 13.3 percent. This was on account of administrative tax reforms that
enabled the fiscal authorities to reap from the benefits of a robust economy. However with the onset of the global economic crisis a significant reduction in the revenue effort was observed with
revenue to GDP ratio falling to 12.4 percent of GDP in 2009/10. However, with new resources from
the oil industry expected, domestic revenue effort is projected to rise in 2010/11, to 16.4 percent of
GDP. Despite this improvement, domestic revenues to GDP remain lower than the other countries
belonging to the EAC (18.1 percent on average).

11

Table 1.1: Evolution in Total Government Revenue, Expenditure, and Deficit, 2000/01-2010/11
Percentage of GDP
Total Government Revenue
Domestic Revenues
Grants
Grants as % of Total
Revenues
Total Government
Recurrent Expenditures
of which Interests
Development
Expenditures
External
Domestic

20001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011*

18.1

18.0

17.6

20.2

19.3

17.7

18.0

16.3

15.5

14.8

18.7

10.5

11.5

11.5

11.9

11.9

12.7

12.8

13.3

12.6

12.4

7.6

6.6

6.1

8.2

7.3

4.9

5.1

3.0

2.9

2.5

16.4
2.3

42.0

36.3

34.5

40.7

38.1

27.9

28.6

18.5

18.9

16.7

12.2

20.4

23.1

21.4

21.7

20.4

19.5

19.8

18.1

17.2

19.6

23.0

10.9

13.0

12.8

13.6

12.4

12.3

11.5

11.8

10.9

12.3

15.3

1.1
8.5

1.3
8.9

1.4
8.3

1.9
8.0

1.5
7.7

1.4
6.9

1.1
7.1

1.3
5.9

1.2
5.5

1.1
7.1

5.2

4.8

4.6

4.8

4.6

4.1

3.8

2.8

1.5

2.5

3.2

4.2

3.7

3.1

3.1

2.9

3.4

3.0

4.0

4.6

1.1
7.3
2.7
4.6

Deficit including Grants

-2.2

-5.0

-3.8

-1.6

-1.1

-1.9

-1.9

-1.9

-1.7

-4.7

-4.3

Deficit excluding Grants

-9.8

-11.6

-9.8

-9.8

-8.5

-6.8

-7.0

-4.9

-4.6

-7.2

-6.6

Source: MoFPED, * Projections. See Table in annex 1.3 for full table. 2011= FY 2010/11.

External support in the form of grants has witnessed a strong drop over the period. Grants as part of
GDP are steadily decreasing over the decade, to reach 2.3 percent of GDP in 2010/11 from 7.6
percent in the beginning of the decade. This has translated into a decreasing share of grants within
government revenues from 42 percent in 2000/01 to 12.2 percent in 2010/11. Yet, this also
highlights less dependency vis--vis external funding to finance its current spending.
These movements have resulted in the stabilization of Government resources over the period,
although the end of the period was marked by a slight deterioration of global resources mobilization,
offset by the improvement in 2010/11 at 18.7 percent of GDP.
At the same time, government spending has been growing marginally, notably over 2000/01-2008/09
following the fiscal consolidation strategy that was adopted in 2003/04 whose objective was to
mitigate the Dutch disease11 effects that the large donor inflows in support of the poverty
reduction strategy were bound to cause. The strategy involved efforts to enhance domestic revenue
mobilization matched by deliberate slowdown in the growth of fiscal spending. However, since FY
2008/09, expenditures to GDP have increased from 17.2 percent to 23 percent of GDP in 2010/11.12.

11

The Dutch disease is the apparent relationship between the increase in exploitation of natural resources and a
decline in the manufacturing sector. The mechanism is that an increase in revenues from natural resources (or
inflows of foreign aid) will make a given nation's currency stronger compared to that of other nations (manifest
in an exchange rate), resulting in the nation's other exports becoming more expensive for other countries to buy,
making the manufacturing sector less competitive (Wikipedia).
12
In 2010/11 recurrent expenditures accounted for 66.4 percent of total expenditures against 53.5 percent in
2000/01. Share of staff costs has remained quite stable over 2000/01-2008/09 at around 38 percent of recurrent
costs, before registering a huge drop in 2009/10 and 2010/11 (28 percent), offset by rising spending in non-salary
non-interest recurrent spending to 65 percent; interest payment averaged 10.5 percent of recurrent spending over
the decade, and accounted for 7 percent of recurrent expenditures in 2010/11; its lowest level over the decade In
2007, Uganda benefited from the MDRI (Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative) which allowed its stock of debt to
decrease to 23% of GDP in 2007 from a high 72% in 2006. This level is been stable since (WB data).
Contractions have been relatively harsher among development spending; partly linked to a withdrawal of
external support.

12

Consequently, the fiscal deficit has been reduced from 9.8 percent to 4.6 percent over 2000/012008/09 but increased after to reach 6.6 percent of GDP in 2010/11.
In 2010, Uganda adopted a Five-year National Development Plan (NDP) with the theme: Growth,
Employment and Socio-Economic Transformation for Prosperity. This plan was formulated on the
basis of a broader National Vision for transforming Uganda from a peasant society to a modern and
prosperous country over the next 30 years, by improving specific development indicators associated
with socio-economic transformation. It is expected that after the implementation of the NDP, the
country will graduate to a middle income segment.

1.2.

The Education System in Uganda

Education is seen as a key factor for the achievement of the NDP objectives. Ugandas education
policies stem from the Government White Paper on Education (1992) and the Education Sector
Strategic Plan (ESSP) 2004. The White Paper on Education is seen as the foundation of the countrys
structure13, policy and programming in education. Though some of its tenets have been revised, the
White Paper continues to guide the sector in its promotion of: citizenship; moral, ethical and spiritual
values; scientific, technical, and cultural knowledge, skills and attitudes; literacy to equip individuals
with basic knowledge; and overall to enable Ugandans to contribute towards the building of a selfsustaining national economy. The ten years Education Sector Strategic Plan was elaborated in 2004
with the aim to help the Ministry of Education and Sports fulfil its mission, which is to support,
guide, coordinate, regulate and promote quality education and sports to all persons in Uganda for
national integration, individual and national development;. The ESSP was revised in 2007; the
decision to re-cost and update the strategic plan was prompted by the addition of six objectives to
Ugandas education policy agenda:
1. Bringing the ESSP into full conformance with EFA FTI goals (the ESSP 2004-2015 had been
designed to fit within financial constraints).
2. Improving the quality of primary education through introduction of local language instruction
and a simplified thematic curriculum (USE/UPPET policy).
3. Ensuring that all pupils successfully completing Primary 7 have access to either academic
secondary education or BTVET.
4. Strengthening science and technology education by providing science laboratories, ICT
laboratory rooms, and well-stocked libraries to secondary schools.
5. Increasing participation in tertiary education in order to ensure that Uganda meets its needs
for high-level work force.
6. Increasing the attractiveness of the teaching profession through the introduction of a
scheme of service that creates a career ladder for teachers and school administrators and
differentiates salaries in recognition of career status.

13

See the 1992 Government White Paper on Education structure in annexxx.

13

As seen from the sixth objective, teacher career development is specifically targeted by the revised
ESSP14. Throughout the document, one can see many actions planned in favour of teachers (for
instance: improve the provision of instructional materials to strengthen the training and in-service
support to teachers, supply housing for teachers in rural areas). In order to inform the decisions to be
taken relatively to the achievement of these objectives, there is need to conduct a global assessment
of teacher issues.
1.2.1

Structure of Education in Uganda

Ugandas current structure of formal education was inherited from the colonial government. It
provides for four levels of education; starting with (i) an initial non-compulsory pre-primary phase of
the early childhood development (ii) 7 years of primary education for 6-12 year-olds (iii) 4 years the
lower secondary for 13-16 year-olds (leading to the Uganda Certificate of Education (UCE) award)
followed by 2 years of Advanced secondary education (leading to the Ugandan Advanced
Certification of Education (UACE) award), (iv) tertiary and university education. Ugandas education
structure starting from Pre-primary education to higher education is summarized in the table
below15. Note that up to now, pre-primary is provided only by private schools to children of 3 to 516
years old, and mostly in urban areas. The government is planning to fund pre-primary education in
the coming years though a lot has been invested into its policy formulation and monitoring with
support from various stakeholders such as UNICEF, UNESCO among others. The learning Framework
has been developed under the supervision of the MoES through the Basic Education Department.

14

ESSP (2004-2015) is directly linked to broader national policies as Uganda Vision 2025 and the Poverty Eradication Action
Plan (PEAP 1997), and government international such as Education for All (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs).
15
16

See the career guidance chart in annex xx

Baby class (3 years old), middle class (4 years old) and top class (5 years old).

14

Table 1.2: Structure of the Formal Uganda Education System

Education level
Pre- Primary
Primary Education

Cycle
3 Years
7 Years

Award
Primary Leaving Examination
(PLE)

Lower Secondary
(Ordinary Level)

4 Years

Uganda Certificate of
Education (UCE)

Technical Institutes

3 Years

Certificate

Upper Secondary
(Advanced Level)

2 Years

Uganda Advanced Certificate

of Education (UACE)

Primary Teachers
College

2 Years

Certificate

Uganda College of
Commerce
National Teachers
College
Uganda Technical
College
University

2/3 Years

Diploma

1. University

2 Years

Diploma

1. University

2 Years

Diploma

1. University

3/5 Years

Diploma/Degree

Progress opportunities
1. Primary Education
1. Lower Secondary (O Level)
2. Technical school
3. Community polytechnics
1. Upper Secondary (A Level)
2. Primary Teachers College
3. Technical/Vocational
Institutions
4. Farm Institutes
5. Health Institutions
6.Other Departmental Training
Institutions
1. Technical Colleges
2. Universities
1. University
2.Uganda College Of Commerce
3. National Teachers College
4. Uganda Technical College
5. Other Training Institutions
1. National Teachers College

1. Post Graduate Studies

Source: Ministry of Education and Sports Source: Annual School Census 2011
Non formal education offers modularized program of 3 to 6 months for everybody who wants to acquire vocational and
technical skills based on CBET (Competence Based Education and Training).

1.2.2

Education management and Administration

Following the decentralization process of the civil service (1998), management and provision of basic
education was largely put in the hands of the Local governments (LGs). This resulted into increased
flexibility in education management and administration in Uganda. It also enhanced transparency &
accountability in addition to allowing local administrators to be creative in seeking solutions to
problems that are unique to their own localities. The Local governments (LGs) on the other hand are
tasked with implementing Universal Primary Education (UPE), supervising the disbursement of UPE
capitation grants, and ensuring successful management and administration of basic education in the

15

district.The Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) only remains responsible for policy formulation
and maintenance of standards through teacher training, curriculum development and examinations.
In terms of leadership, the overall responsibility of the education sector lies under the leadership of a
Cabinet Minister for Education. The Cabinet Minister is assisted by 3 State Ministers who are
responsible for Primary, Higher and Physical Education and Sports. These are mainly political heads
that are mandated with the task of seeing that government goals and aspirations in education are
achieved. They do not engage in the day-to-day administrative affairs of the sector, they act as
opinion leaders. The overall administration of the day-to-day affairs of the sector lies in the hands of
the Permanent Secretary (PS), who is the Chief accounting officer.
The MoES has ten technical departments headed by Commissioners. The departments include; (i)
Pre-primary and Primary Education; (ii) Secondary Education-Government (iii) Private Schools and
Institutions (iv) Business, Technical and Vocational Education; (v) Higher Education; (vi) Special Needs
and Inclusive Education (vii) Career Guidance and Counseling ; (viii) Teacher /Tutor Instruction
Education and Training; (ix) Education Planning and Policy Analysis; and (x) Physical education and
sports.
There are support sections operating under the leadership of the Under Secretary Finance and
Administration, who reports directly to the Permanent Secretary. These include: Accounts,
Procurement, Personnel and Administration. In addition, there are also semi-autonomous
institutions under the Ministry, these include: National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC),
Uganda National Examinations Board (UNEB), Uganda Business Technical Examination Board
(UBTEB), National Council for Higher Education (NCHE), Directorate of Education Standards (DES),
Directorate of Industrial Training (DIT), National Council of Sport (NCS), Education Service
Commission (ESC), National Health Service Training Colleges, and public Universities.
All Commissioners, except the one for the Education Planning and Policy Analysis department
(EPPAD), are supervised by and answerable to the Directors of Education. The Directors of Education,
the Under Secretary and the Commissioner of Education Planning, report to the Permanent Secretary
who is the accounting officer and overall supervisor of the education sector.
1.2.3

Trend in Uganda Education Budget 2000/01- 2010/11

The public financing of the education sector show mitigated results. Indeed, while spending devoted
to education have increased in real terms over 2003/4-2010/11, from USh. 968 to USh.1 283 billion,
it has deteriorated as a share of GDP to reach 3.3 percent (against 4.2 percent in 2003/04), a level
below the one observed in other low income countries (LICs, countries with a GDP per capita below
USD 800) which invest on average 3.9 percent of their GDP into education.
As far as recurrent education spending is concerned, the situation is not favorable and is even
deteriorating. While recurrent spending on education has increased in real terms over 2003/042010/11, in proportion to government recurrent expenditures (excluding debt services), it has
decreased over 2003/04-2010/11 to reach a low 19 percent in 2010/11, against 27 percent in
2003/04. This former level is below the level found in other LICs in the region, which allocate 22
16

percent on average of their recurrent expenditures to education, and the FTI benchmark of 20
percent. Data for 2011/12 also shows even a drop in recurrent expenditures in real terms. Efforts are
to be deployed by the Government to revert this trend if not to jeopardize the development of its
education system, both in quality and quantity, which could ultimately affect the building of its
human capital and hamper future economic development.

Table 1.3: Evolution in Education Expenditures, Outturns, FY 2003/2004-2010/11

Total Education Expenditure

(Current UShs. Billion)
Recurrent
Development

2003/04*

2007/08

2008/09

2009/10

2010/11

582

773

896

1 093

1 283

120%

12%

445

681

756

889

1 071

141%

13%

54%

6%

138

Domestic
Donors (1)
Share of recurrent in total education
budget
Share of donor financing in dev
education budget
Total Education Expenditure (UShs
Billion, 2011 Price)
Recurrent
Development
Domestic
Donors
Education Expenditure as % of
GDP
Education Recurrent Expenditure as
a % of GDP
Education Recurrent Expenditure as
a % of Recurrent Gov. Expenditure
(excl interest)
Education Recurrent Expenditure as
a % of Government Domestic
Revenue (w/o Grants)

92

140

204

212

Growth Rate
2003/04-2010/11
Period
Annual

77

56

66

94

111

44%

5%

60

37

74

110

101

67%

8%

76,4%

88,1%

84,3%

81,3%

83,5%

43,9%

39,7%

52,8%

53,7%

47,5%

968

1 018

1 030

1 146

1 283

33%

739

896

868

933

1 071

45%

5%

229

122

161

214

212

-7%

-1%

128

73

100

76

48

99

85

115

4%

111

-13%

-2%

101

0%

0%

4,2%

3,2%

3,0%

3,1%

3,3%

3,2%

2,8%

2,5%

2,5%

2,7%

27,2%

26,5%

25,8%

22,7%

19,4%

26,6%

21,0%

20,0%

20,6%

16,7%

Source: MoES, MoFPED. * Releases. Authors computations.

Development budget has shown volatile evolutions. Yet, development spending remains strongly
supported by donors whose contribution amounted to an average of 49.5 percent of the total
education development budget over 2007/08-2010/11.
The intra-allocation of recurrent public resources has witnessed some changes over 2003/4-2010/11.
While the primary sector still enjoys the highest share of resources (54 percent), the sub-sector has
witnessed an important drop in its public financing compared to 2003/04 where it absorbed 61
percent of the total recurrent budget. At the same time, the share allocated to secondary education
has strongly increased, from 18 to 30 percent, while the one devoted to BTVET has remained stable
over 2003/04-2010/11, around 3.4 percent. As far as the tertiary sector is concerned, its share has
remained stable at around 11.4 percent of the budget over the period, although the decrease was
observed in 2010/11, to 10 percent.

17

Teacher Education (mainly PTCs and NTCs) is the only sub-sector which has witnessed a cut in its
budget (by a third in real terms), and in 2010/11 was absorbing 2.5 percent of the recurrent budget.
Non formal education, with 0.5 percent of the recurrent budget in 2010/11 is still poorly publicly
funded.
Table 1.4: Distribution of Recurrent Expenditure, by Education Level, 2003/04-2010/11
Percent

Primary
Secondary
Teacher education
BTVET
Tertiary
Literacy
Total
Total (Billion Ushs. 2011 price)

2003/04*

2007/08

2008/09

2009/10

20010/11

60.9%
17.8%
5.7%
3.5%
11.4%
0.7%
100.0%
739

58.3%
21.5%
3.7%
3.5%
12.3%
0.7%
100.0%
896

53.8%
27.7%
3.3%
3.3%
11.2%
0.7%
100.0%
868

49.7%
32.4%
2.3%
3.1%
11.9%
0.7%
100.0%
932

53.8%
29.8%
2.5%
3.4%
10.0%
0.5%
100.0%
1 071

Variation
Real Term
(2003/042010/11)
28%
143%
-37%
41%
28%
5%
45%

Source: MoES financial database. * Releases. Authors computations from table in annex 1.4.

To better assess how Uganda is doing, comparisons with other countries is paramount. Also to better
contextualize this comparison; it is worthwhile taking into account the differences across countries in
achieving universal primary education. We refer the reader to Figure 1.2 below. It shows the
relationship between the Primary Completion Rate (PCR) (calibrated for 6 grades for comparative
purposes) and the share of primary education in education expenditure (calibrated to 6 grades as
well) (Figure on the left), as well as relationship between the Primary Completion Rate (PCR)
(calibrated for 6 grades for comparative purposes) and the share of secondary education in
education expenditure (calibrated to 6 grades as well) (Figure on the right). Countries that are closer
towards achieving universal completion should be allocated a bigger proportion of their education
expenditures to post-primary levels; the demand for secondary and higher education being higher in
those countries than in countries still far from universal primary completion. In the same vein, we
would expect countries still facing challenges with universal primary education (UPE) to prioritize
finances to the primary sector; achieving this goal being the first priority. While globally, countries
less advanced toward UPE put on average a higher share of their spending into primary education
and a lower share on secondary, there are a lot of disparities. Uganda is found among countries that
put relatively more efforts towards their primary and secondary education. As post-primary demand
has tended to expand over the years as more students were enrolling in primary schools and
completing it, the system seems to have responded positively with increased resources to
adequately cater for these newcomers. This was allowed by maintaining the share of tertiary budget
low (between 10 and 11.5 percent), at a level that is much lower than what is found on average in
other LICs in the region, which on average invest 18.6 percent of their recurrent budget to tertiary.
The reliance on public-private partnership has been effective in allowing shifting most of the costs on
students, a population known to be part of the better-off families.

18

Figure 1.3: Primary Completion Rate and Expenditure Priority for Primary and Secondary
Education, 2011 or LAY
Percent
50
Niger

45
Adjusted Secondary Rec. Budget
(%)

Adjusted Prim Rec. Budget (%)

70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20

40

Gui. B.

Chad

Togo
Gambia
Sierra

Liberia

25
20

CAR

30

15

Zambia

Niger

10
30

40

50

Comoros

Mali
Gambia
Malawi
Uganda
Liberia
Burundi TogoSierra
Leone
Chad
Senegal
Tanz
Rwanda

35

Senegal TogoLeone
Uganda
CAR Burundi Benin
Malawi
Tanz
Rwanda
Guinea
Comoros
Malawi
Mali

Gui. B.

Benin
Guinea

Zambia

60 70 80 90 100 110
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Adjusted PCR (%)
Adjusted PCR (%)
Source : Table 1.3 ; other countries Ple de Dakar/UNESCO BREDA database. Primary completion rate (PCR)
adjusted to 6 years of primary school.

The analysis of unit costs (cost per student) provides some additional insights. Indeed, although the
country still invests a high share of its recurrent budget to primary, the cost per pupil is quite low
when compared to others countries, at UShs 80,312 or 0.07 percent of GDP per capita, a level lower
by 30 percent from the average level found in other LICs. On the contrary Uganda is investing
relatively more on its secondary school students (Ushs. 544,533 per student or 0.46 times GDP p.c.)
with a secondary school student Ugandan costing 1.5 times more than the average secondary
student in our sample of LICs. Training a primary teacher is twice as costly as training a lower
secondary school teacher (respectively one and 0.5 times GDP p.c.). The differences in these costs
call for more analysis to better understand what drives PTCs and NTCs costs, how efficiently teachers
are used and the existence of economies of scales that strongly affect unit cost levels17.

Table 1.5: Recurrent Public Spending per Student, by Education Level, 2010/11
Amount
(Bn Ushs.)

Enrollment

Cost per
Pupil/Student(Ushs)

% GDP p.c.

Ratio Uganda/
Average LICs

Primary
576.0
7,171,690
80,312
0.07
0.71
Secondary
319.0
585,798
544,553
0.46
1.46
PTC
21.6
17,500 *
1,233,076
1.04
Na
NTC
3.9
6,500 *
605,380
0.51
Na
Source: MoES financial database, EMIS 2010. Other countries, Pole de Dakar UNESCO BREDA database.
Transfers to private schools are removed from this computation. * Estimation. Na= not available.

This is not to say that Uganda is overinvesting in secondary education while under investing in
primary. Resources need to be channeled to post-primary levels in order to ensure a smooth
17

The difficulty to get accurate data on PTCs and NTCs functioning and finance issues prevented us from conducting an indepth analysis of PTCs and NTCs unit costs.

19

development of the sector. The increase in allocation toward BTVET observed in 2011/12 is also
positive. The major issue for the Government is to restore its global budget allocation to education
sector levels close to 4 percent of their GDP to allow resources to better match current expansion
needs of the system while ensuring quality is not hampered. Indeed, as Table 1.5 below shows, a big
chunk of the primary recurrent budget is absorbed by teacher wages (85 percent), leaving little
resources for teaching or learning materials or other inputs crucial for quality. In other sub-sectors,
the non-teacher allocation is more balanced offering more financial leeway for schools to operate:
transfers to schools (apart from teachers paid by the payroll) account between 47 percent (teacher
training education) to 64 percent (BTVET) of total recurrent budget in 2010/11, while at secondary
level it absorbs half the recurrent budget (52 percent).

Table 1.6: Distribution of Recurrent Expenditure, by Education Level and Type of Expenditure,
2010/11
Percent

Primary
Secondary
Teacher
Education
BTVET
Tertiary

Teacher
Wage

School
Functioning

Central
Administration

Exam
Fees

Social
Spending

85.3%
43.0%

10.7%
52.1%

3.2%
2.3%

0.8%
2.4%

0.1%
0.0%

Transfers
to Private
Sector
0.0%
0.2%

Total

Spending other
than Teacher
Wages
100.0%
14.7%
100.0%
57.0%

50.9%

47.2%

1.8%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

100.0%

49.1%

30.6%

63.7%
90.5%

5.7%
6.9%

0.0%
0.0%

0.0%
0.5%

0.0%
2.1%

100.0%
100.0%

69.4%
Na

Source: MoES financial database. Authors computation. Na : not available.

Compared to other countries in the region, Uganda tends to allocate relatively more of its primary
recurrent resources to teacher wage than other countries (85 percent against 69 percent
respectively). In this regard, any increase in education budget could be partly channeled to primary
non-salary items. At secondary level, the share of teacher wage has decreased 18 to a level below the
one observed in 2008 in other SSA countries. For BTVET, while the share of teacher wages has
increased, the 2010/111 level still remains lower (31 percent) than the one observed in other SSA in
2008 (38 percent).

18

The decrease in real secondary wages observed since 2005 (see Chapter 5) could provide an explanation of the drop of the
share of teacher wages within secondary budget.

20

Figure 1.4: Share of Teacher Wage in Total Recurrent Budget, by Education Level, in Uganda and
SSA
Percent
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

85%

86%
71%

69%

56%
43%

Primary
Source: Table 1.5. SSA 2008 UIS, 2011.

1.2.4

Uganda 2010/11
Uganda 2007/08
SSA 2008*

38%
31%
22%

Secondary

BTVET

Performance of the education system:

The Ugandan education system experienced major changes in 1997. During that year, the
government adopted the Universal Primary Education (UPE) programme which abolished all tuition
fees and all parents and teachers association charges for primary education. Right after the number
of children enrolled in primary school increased from 2.9 million in 1997 to over 6.9 million in 2001.
In 2010, the system accommodated more than 8 million primary school pupils.
The government reacted to this sudden increase in education demand by adopting a set of policies to
ensure a smooth development of the system. They consisted in: building and renovation of schools,
procurement of instructional materials, implementation of school feeding programme, training,
hiring and retaining teachers, fight against absenteeism, hard to reach hard to say strategy,
curriculum reforms and decentralization. All these interventions have yet to materialize into fully
satisfactory enrolment and retention rates.

1.2.4.1 School coverage: universal access to school, low level of completion

Figures on enrolment rates are produced using data collected by the Education Management and
Information System (EMIS), under the statistic section of the MoES. It still faces difficulties in
collecting data on private institutions. In pre-primary for instance, ECD centres are all private and
only one third of them provide information on pupils enrolment. In primary (respectively secondary),
this figure is about 80% of private schools (respectively 67% of private schools). Table 1.7 presents
the evolution of enrolment and enrolment rate over the period 2000-2010.

21

Table 1.7: Enrolment and Gross Enrolment Rate (GER) over the period 2000-2010
Statistical abstract 2000

Pre-primary (b)
Primary
Secondary (S1-S6)

Statistical abstract 2010

GER

Government

Private

GER

56 367

498 644

14,7%

498 644

14,7%

1 148 208 128,3%

7 171 690

1 202 958 128,1%

1 515 060

132,8%

953 642

36,4%

216 292

302 639

13,0%

585 798

639 894

28,3%

GER

(a)

Private

5 351 099

Private

(a)

Government

(a) Adjusted taking into account schools not captured in the statistical abstract. The adjustment was based on the
hypothesis that private schools which were not captured by EMIS have approximately the same size as other private
schools.
(b) All pre-primary schools are private. In 2010, EMIS ran a census of the ECD centres and therefore was able to capture
each pre-primary pupil.

The number of students has increased in all sub-sectors over the period 2000-2010.
While about 56 367 pupils were reported in pre-primary school in 2000, the figure in 2010
was 498 644 corresponding to a gross enrolment rate of 15%. The government intends to
increase its involvement in this sub-sector. Actions related to this are already being
undertaken, for instance the development of a curriculum and standards for ECD.
The number of pupils enrolled in primary has increased from 6.5 million in 2000 to 8.4 million
in 2010. The gross enrolment rate in 2010 was equal to 133% 19, corresponding to a 5 point
increase from its value in 2000. The main supplier is the government, the share of students in
private schools being less than 15%.
Secondary level has also witnessed a significant increase of the number of students, from
about 518 900 students in 2000 to almost 1.5 million in 2010.The gross enrolment rate in
secondary (excluding BTVET)was equal to 36% in 2010. At this level, the major supplier is the
private schools as it records more than 50% of the students.
Although the GER gives an indication of school participation, it is distorted by repetition, which
makes it an imperfect measure of schooling coverage. It is more an average measure of schooling
coverage than a true reflection of the pattern of a cohort of children through their schooling careers.
In order to allow a more refined analysis of schooling patterns that addresses access and retention
issues, we need to refer to the transversal schooling profile. It is a series of ratios that shows, for
each grade, the ratio between the new entrants in that grade and the total population that has the
age to be in that grade. Figure 1.5 presents the schooling profile in Uganda in 2010.

19

As this figure is greater than 100%, one can conclude that the system accommodates more children than the
number expected into primary.

22

Figure 1.5: Transversal schooling profile, 2010

180%
160%

158%

140%
120%
100%
80%

63%

60%

42%

40%

30%

20%

11% 10%

0%
P1

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

S1

S2

S3

S4

S5

S6

Source: Computation by authors using EMIS/MoES and UBOS data

The schooling profile shows that in P1, the ratio of new entrants to the population of 6 years old (also
called the Gross Intake Ratio) is equal to 158%. It means that the number of children who start
primary education is greater than the number of those expected, following that many children
entering P1 are under and over aged. As shown in Figure 1.1 in the annex, only a quarter of children
had the required age at entry (namely 6 years).Most of the new entrants are over-age, some entering
school after their 10thbirthday .The Uganda National Household Survey conducted in 2009-10
identified three major reasons why some children have never attended school: i) age: in 29% of the
cases, children are considered as too young to go to school, ii) willingness: in 28% of the cases,
parents are reluctant to send their children to school, iii) economical: in about 16% of the cases, the
cost of education is considered as too expensive.
In another version of the schooling profile where it is possible to track a generation of children who
reached the various grades (known as the probabilistic profile, see annex 1.5), show that access to
primary education is universal, with 98 percent children of a generation accessing P1.
The schooling profile also shows that as long as one evolves in the grades, many children quit school.
At the end of primary, the ratio between the new entrants in P7 and the population of 12 years old
(also called Primary Completion Rate), is equal to 63%. Comparing to the primary intake rate, this
figure shows that a child who starts P1 has only 40% chance to reach P720. There is need to improve
the efficiency of the system so as to bring all those who enter P1 to complete P7.
The Primary Completion Rate is the indicator frequently used to assess countries progress toward the
goal of universal primary education as stated during the Education for All Forum adopted in Dakar in
20

This indicator is also called primary survival rate.

23

2000: Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and
those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to, and complete, free and compulsory primary
education of good quality. Progress in Uganda can be compared to progress in 12 low income
countries (see figure 1.6). The duration of primary education in these countries is equal to 6 years.
Therefore, the access rate to grade 6 in Uganda was used for comparison.
Figure 1.6: Primary Completion Rate in selected low income countries, 2010
90%
80%

72%

70%
60%
51%

55%

59%

59%

62%

63%

74%

75%

76%

77%

79%

64%

50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

Source: EMIS/MoES; other countries = Ple de Dakar/UNESCO BREDA database

The comparison of the performance of Uganda in terms of progress towards UPE goal shows that
Uganda is rather at the middle, with an access rate to grade 6 of 72%. Values range between 79
percent in Cameroun and 51 % in Burundi.
In 2007, the government of Uganda introduced the Universal Secondary Education / Universal Post
Primary Education and Training programme (USE/UPPET); the objective was to increase access to
quality secondary education for pupils completing P7. This means those who can continue with their
studies, can opt either for lower secondary or registering in vocational and technical institutions.
Graphic xx shows that 67% of those completing P7 have registered into lower secondary21. The
remaining 33% went for vocational education or have quit school.
The Gross Intake Rate in S1 is equal to 42% whereas the completion rate in S4 is equal to 30%. The
chances to complete the cycle for those who start S1 are greater than in primary (71% as compared
to 40%). Very few students attend upper secondary. The Gross Intake Rate in S5 is equal to 11%,
21

Figures on secondary refer to enrolments in lower secondary and upper secondary. Enrolment in BTVET subsector was not captured.

24

whereas the completion rate is equal to 10%. The chances for a new entrant in S5 to reach S6 are
equal to 91%, which highlight good retention conditions.

1.2.4.2

Education systems efficiency: poor in primary, better in secondary

The resources allocated to the education system are to be used to train the children from the
beginning up to the end of a cycle. These resources are scarce and need to be used efficiently. It is
demonstrated that the completion of at least a primary cycle is a minimum required to literate
students for all their life. Therefore, resources spent on students who start P1 but never reach P7 can
be considered as wastage. In the same vein, the completion of primary education required 7 school
years; a student who repeats once (respectively twice) must spend 8 years (respectively 9 years)
before completing primary. When a student who reaches P7 has repeated, any additional school year
above the 7 years is considered as an over use of resources that could have been avoided. Dropout
and repetition then constitute factors of inefficiency. Taking into account the level of dropout and
repetition in a system, an index of system efficiency called internal efficiency coefficient can be
computed (see annex 1.6for the methodology). The index is comprised between 0 and 1. The higher
the value of the index, the more efficient the system is; on the contrary, the lower the value of the
index, the less efficient the system is. Table 1.8 presents the internal efficiency coefficient in
government schools for three subs-sectors.
Table 1.8: Internal efficiency coefficient in three sub-sectors, government schools, 2010
Sub-cycle

Internal Efficiency Coefficient

(public schools)

Primary

0.43

Lower secondary

0.86

Upper secondary
0.87
Source: Computation by authors using EMIS UBOS data

In government primary schools, the internal efficiency coefficient is equal to 0.43; this means that
more than half of the resources (57%) devoted by the government to primary schools are used
inefficiently (are wasted). This is partly due to repetition (EMIS data shows that, despite the no
repetition policy, in 2010, 10% of students in primary were repeaters). Indeed, it is estimated that if
there were no dropouts in the system, the internal efficiency coefficient would have been equal to
0.88 instead of 0.43. This suggests that fighting against dropout is a key condition to the
improvement of the systems internal efficiency.
At secondary level (lower and upper), the use of resources in government schools is more efficient;
the internal efficiency coefficient is equal to 0.86, meaning that only 14% of the resources are
wasted. At this level, dropout is low and the repetition rate is equal to 2.6%.

25

1.2.4.3

Quality of education: a major issue for the system

Beyond access to school and systems efficiency, it is important for stakeholders to know whether
students who achieve a sub-cycle have acquired the knowledge expected. Regular students
assessments are conducted in order to provide this information. At national level, the Uganda
National Examinations Board (UNEB) conducts each year a National Assessment of Progress in
Education (NAPE). The aim of NAPE is among others, to determine the level of pupils achievement in
numeracy and literacy. At the international level, Uganda has participated in the Southern and
Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ). SACMEQ is a program that
assesses students achievement after 6 years of education (P6).
- NAPE 2011 shows that the quality of education is low
NAPE 2011 has targeted students from P3, P6 and S2. As shown in table 1.9, apart from numeracy in
P3 and English language in S2, the majority of students are rated not proficient in the subjects
evaluated. The issue is also generalized around the country; indeed, in 60 districts, more than half of
the students are rated not proficient.
Table 1.9: percentage of students who are not proficient in given subjects
Subjects

P3

P6

Subjects

S2

Numeracy

37%

54%

Mathematics

62%

Literacy in English

52%

59%

English language

34%

Oral reading

54%

Biology

80%

- SACMEQ confirms the low level of education quality

The last SACMEQ assessment conducted in Uganda in 2007 revealed that 71% of pupils enrolled in P6
dont achieve the minimum expected level in Reading. The picture is worse in numeracy where 94%
of pupils dont achieve the minimum level expected. When comparing results to other countries (see
table 1.10), it appears that the level of students achievement in Uganda is rather low. Ugandan
pupils in P6 have scored a mean of 479 in reading, and 482 in mathematics. Uganda is ranked 11 out
of 15 countries.

26

Table 1.10: SACMEQ III Results, 2007

Reading

Mathematics

Mean Score

S.E.

Mean Score

S.E.

Tanzania

577,8

3,40

552,7

3,51

Seychelles

575,1

3,10

550,7

2,45

Mauritius

573,5

4,92

623,3

5,83

Swaziland

549,4

2,98

540,8

2,39

Kenya

543,1

4,92

557,0

3,98

Zanzibar

536,8

3,11

489,9

2,35

Botswana

534,6

4,57

520,5

3,51

Zimbabwe

507,7

5,65

519,8

4,98

Namibia

496,9

2,99

471,0

2,51

South Africa

494,9

4,55

494,8

3,81

Uganda

478,7

3,46

481,9

2,92

Mozambique

476,0

2,82

483,8

2,29

Lesotho

467,9

2,86

476,9

2,61

Zambia

434,4

3,37

435,2

2,45

Malawi

433,5

2,63

447,0

2,89

Source: Kenneth Ross, Demus Makuwa et al., 2010

These results confirm the fact that, in general, most of the students dont reach the level of
achievement expected according to the grade where they are enrolled. The quality of education is
therefore an issue the education system must tackle. In fact, given its current performance, the
system will have to deal with other challenges.

1.2.4.4 Population growth as a major challenge to come

Ugandas population is growing at a fast rate (annual average growth of 3.3%). From 31.8 million in
2010, it is estimated that the size of the population will reach 53.6 million in 2025. For the education
system, this demographic pressure is problematic because the system which is already showing a low
performance will have to accommodate 20.6 million aged 6-18 (i.e. the population targeted by the
UPE and the USE/UPPET policies) in 2025. Currently, the system enrols 10.2 million aged 6-18; this
implies that it needs to double its current intake capacity if UPE and USE/UPPET objectives are to be
achieve in 2025 (see table 1.11).

27

Table 1.11: evolution of the school age population

2010

2015

2020

2025

31 784 320

37 906 700

45 056 717

53 645 446

3-5 years old

3 651 770

4 441 890

5 092 124

6 013 077

6-12 years old

6 538 950

8 317 330

10 588 112

13 473 293

13-16 years old

2 966 970

3 539 910

4 396 614

5 352 059

17-18 years old

Total 6-18 years old

1 368 310
10 874 230

1 526 320
13 383 560

1 611 902
16 596 627

1 749 507
20 574 859

34,2%

35,3%

36,8%

38,4%

Total Population

Total 6-18 years old (%)

Source: Projections up to 2017 by UBOS and projections from 2018 to 2025 by authors.

The expansion of the system goes along with the planning of building and renovation of
infrastructures (schools, classroom, etc.), schools supply (books, desk, etc.), teachers recruitment
and teachers management. As this report focuses on teacher issues, the next chapter deals with the
number of teachers the system will have to recruit in the coming years.

28

KEY RESULTS FOR CHAPTER 1

GENERAL CONTEXT OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

Uganda has enjoyed relatively strong economic growth over the last decade. Since 2001,
real GDP has grown at 7.4 percent on average per year. GDP per capita has also grown, at an
average real rate of 3.9 percent per year, reaching Ugx 1.2 million in 2011.
Although the general macroeconomic outlook has improved, the government still faces
challenges in terms of revenue generation. Domestic revenues, despite an improvement
over 2001-11, remain low (16.4 percent of GDP in 2011, compared to an average of 18.1
percent for other EAC countries). Meanwhile, external support in the form of grants has
decreased from 7.6 percent of GDP in 2001 to 2.3 percent in 2011.
Education spending, although increasing in real terms, has deteriorated as a share of GDP. The
education spending has grown from Ugx.968 billion in 2004 to USh.1 283 billion in 2011. However,
as a share of GDP, it has decreased from 4.2 percent to 3.3 during the same period; a level below

the one observed in other low income countries (LIC) which invest on average 3.9 percent of
their GDP into education.
The share of public recurrent expenditure devoted to education has also decreased. From
27 percent in 2004, it has sunk to 19 percent in 2011; this is also below the LIC average (22
percent) hence questioning the priority the government places on education.
Primary education absorbs the highest share of resources (54 percent in 2011), despite an
important decrease since 2004 that has mainly benefited secondary education, whose share has
risen from 18 percent to 30 percent of the total recurrent budget. The shares devoted to BTVET and
higher education have remained stable, at around 3.4 percent and 11.4 percent respectively,
whereas that of teacher education has halved to 2.5 percent. Non formal education is still funded at
0.5 percent of the recurrent budget in 2011.
Non-teacher salary expenditure for primary is low by regional standards, representing 15 percent
of the primary budget. This is much lower than both the LIC average of 31 percent and the FTI
benchmark of 33 percent. This highlights the fact that very little resources are available for education
inputs that improve students learning conditions. In other subsectors, non-teacher allocation is
more balanced, ranging from 47 percent for teacher training and education to 52 percent for
secondary and 64 percent for BTVET.

29

Restoring the education sector budget allocation to levels close to 4 percent of GDP should be a
major goal for the government, to allow resources to better match the current expansion needs of
the system while ensuring quality is not hampered.
Access to primary education is universal. Since the introduction of the UPE programme, the number
of children enrolled in primary has increased from 2.9 million in 1997 to over 6.9 million in 2001 and
is currently over 8 million pupils. Nowadays, almost 98% of a given generation access P1.
However, a considerable share of students is over age. Half of new entrants in P1 are aged over six
years. Late entrance on this scale implies that a majority of pupils are overage throughout their
school careers, which increases the probability of dropout, due to rising opportunity costs of
education with age. In the Ugandan education system 37 percent of a generation never reaches P7.
The primary completion rate is low, affecting access rates for the subsequent cycles. Although
almost every child enrolls in P1, only 63 percent of a generation reaches P7. Just 49 percent enter
lower secondary and ultimately, only 10 percent reach S6.
Efficiency in the use of resources devoted to primary is undermined by high repetition and dropout
rates. Although the implementation of the no repetition policy has helped reduce the share of
repeaters from 16 percent in 2006 to 11 percent in 2010, its current level is still high. It is estimated
that 57 percent of resources devoted to primary education are inefficiently spent on repetition and
dropout. At the secondary level, the picture is comparatively better: only 13 percent of spending is
inefficient, thanks to the very low repetition (3.2 percent).
The quality of education is an issue. Various assessments of student achievements at national and
international levels have concluded that many students do not acquire the minimum knowledge
expected for their grade. For instance, 59 percent of P6 students are not proficient in English literacy
and 54 percent are not proficient in numeracy.
Demographic pressure is a major challenge to the achievement of Education for All. The issue lies in
the fact that the education system, as poorly performing as it is, will have to accommodate 20.6
million children aged 6 to 18 years by 2025. This implies doubling the current intake capacity.

30

Annex 1.1: The existing structure of the education system

Legend:
Bus. educ=
Cert. =
C
=
H.Sec =
NCBS=
NTCs =
PLE
=
Priv. =
Tech =
Tech/Voc=
UJTC =
UCE
=
1

Business education
Certificate
1
Technical college
Higher secondary
National College of Business Studies
National Teachers Colleges
Primary Leaving Examinations
Private
Technical
Technical / Vocational
Uganda Junior Technicians Certificate
Uganda Certificate of Education
3

Primary school

PLE

UCCs

Bus. educ (priv.)

2

UTCs

UJTC

Tech. schools

Tech. inst
App. tra/
employment

App. tra/
employment
UJTC

Training
abroad

UCE

Gen. Sec. (O level)

UACE

University

A level
NTCs

School leavers
1

PTC (GR.III)
Employment

Department
training

Department
training
Employment

Source: Government White Paper on Education, 1992

31

Annex1.2Trend in Major Macroeconomic Indicators, 2000/01-2011/12

GDP (Current, UGS billion) (1)

GDP Deflator (base 2011) (1)
Inflation (annual growth rate, %)
GDP (Constant, UGS billion - base 2011)

Growth
Annual
Rate
Growth
2000/01Rate
2010/11
279,3%
14,3%

2000/01 20001/02 20002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06

2006/07

2007/08

2008/09

2009/10

2010/11

2011/12

10 296

10 907

12 438

13 972

16 026

18 172

21 212

24 497

30 101

34 908

39 051

49 087

55

53

57

60

65

66

72

76

87

95

100

122

82,8%

6,2%

44,9%

3,8%

107,5%

7,6%

4,5

-2,0

5,7

5,0

8,0

6,6

6,8

7,3

14,2

9,4

6,5

18 818

20 421

21 743

23 223

24 692

27 356

29 646

32 240

34 578

36 604

39 051

40 300

8,5

6,5

6,8

6,3

10,8

8,4

8,8

7,3

5,9

6,7

3,2

Real GDP Growth (annual growth rate, %)

GDP structure (%) (3)
Agriculture

27,9

23,3

24,5

23,8

25,1

24,1

22,3

21,4

23,1

23,6

22,7

-15,2%

-1,8%

Industry

21,2

22,8

22,7

22,9

23,5

22,8

25,2

25,8

24,7

24,9

25,3

17,4%

1,8%

1,6%

0,2%

31,8%

2,8%

Services
Exchange rate (UGS - USD, period average) (2)
Population (Million)

(1)

44,8

47,5

46,6

47,4

45,4

47,2

47,0

46,9

46,4

45,5

46,2

1 763

1 755

1 883

1 935

1 738

1 825

1 778

1 696

1 905

2 030

2 323

2 569

26,741

31,784

32,94

34,13

23,31

24,067

25,089

25,859

27,629

28,581

29,562

30,661

41,3%

3,5%

441 714

453 185

495 762

540 328 599 286 657 727

742 167

828 680

981 734

1 098 302 1 185 543 1 438 194

168,4%

10,4%

GDP per Capita (Constant price, UGS - Base 2011) 807 299

848 498

866 625

898 056 923 385 990 107 1 037 262 1 090 593 1 127 765 1 151 647 1 185 543 1 180 736

46,9%

3,9%

483

460

11,4%

1,1%

GDP per Capita (Current price, UGS)

GDP per Capita (Constant price, USD - Base 2011)

458

464

531

542

583

643

592

567

510

460

Source: (1) UBOS, (2) IMF, (3) World Bank database, * Projections.

32

Annex1.3: Evolution in Total Government Revenue and Expenditure and Deficit, Outturns, 2000/01-2010/11*

Billion Ushs.

Nominal values
Revenue and grants
Domestic revenue
Grants
Programme
Project grant
Government expenditures (incl. net
lending)
Recurrent expenditures
Wage and salaries
Non salary, non-interest
Interest
Development expenditures
External
Domestic
Net lending
Domestic arrears
Deficit - Including grants
Deficit - Excluding grants
Source: MoPED, UBOS,* Projections.

2000/01

2001/02

2002/03

2003/04

2004/05

1868
1083
784
365
419

1968
1254
715
364
351

2190
1434
756
456
300

2817
1669
1147
814
334

3092
1915
1177

2097
1122
434
574
113
872
537
335
-26
130
-229
-1014

2515
1420
541
735
143
975
520
455
5
115
-547
-1261

2658
1587
612
800
174
1030
570
460
-13
54
-469
-1225

3033
1899
683
954
262
1116
676
439
-28
47
-217
-1364

3275
1987

817
360

774
975
238
1229
735
494
-8
66
-183
-1360

2005/06

2006/07

2007/08

2008/09

2009/10

2010/11*

3211
2314
898
484
413

3810
2722
1088
733
355

3985
3247
738
475
263

4671
3787
885
531
354

5183
4320
863
467
396

7292
6402
890
515
375

3549
2232
867
1117
248
1256
737
519
-29
91
-337
-1235

4208
2440
986
1220
234
1516
802
714
101
151
-398
-1486

4439
2881
1106
1466
309
1437
690
747
-163
284
-454
-1192

5175
3292
1184
1750
358
1657
450
1207
-57
283
-504
-1388

6831
4307
1308
2614
385
2478
887
1591
-37
82
-1649
-2512

8972
5958
1659
3875
424
2851
1042
1809
-30
194
-1680
-2570

33

Annex1.4: Distribution of Recurrent Education Sending, Outturn, by Level, 2003/04-2011/12

Billion USh
2003/04*

2007/08

2008/09

2009/10

20010/11

2011/12

441,7
287,7
20,3
27,5
106,0
6,1
889,3

576,0
319,5
26,3
36,5
107,3
5,5
1 071,0

627,6
331,8
29,9
60,1
136,1
5,6
1 191,1

463,2
301,7
21,3
28,8
111,1
6,4
932,5

576,0
319,5
26,3
36,5
107,3
5,5
1 071,0

515,3
272,4
24,5
49,3
111,7
4,6
977,9

Current
Primary
270,8
397,2
406,7
Secondary
79,1
146,3
209,3
Teacher Education
25,3
24,9
25,2
BTVET
15,6
23,7
24,7
Tertiary
50,5
83,8
84,7
Literacy
3,2
4,9
5,3
Total
444,5
680,8
756,0
Constant (2011 prices)
Primary
450,1
522,8
467,2
Secondary
131,5
192,6
240,4
Teacher Education
42,1
32,7
29,0
BTVET
26,0
31,3
28,4
Tertiary
83,9
110,2
97,3
Literacy
5,3
6,4
6,1
Total
738,8
896,0
868,4
Source! MoES financial dadabase, * Releases. Authorscomputations,

Annex1.4 : Age distribution of new entrants in P1

New entrants in P1

30%
24%

25%

25%
20%

20%
15%
12%
10%

10%

6%
5%
2%

1%

11

12+

0%
5

10

Source: Computed by authors using UNHS 2009-10 data

34

Annex1.5: Schooling profile of a given generation

An alternative way of analysing school coverage is to look at the share of a given generation that
achieve each grade. Such information can be computed using any household survey where the
following question is asked: what is the highest level of education achieved? One can note that
here, the emphasis is not put on when the person achieved the grade, but rather on the fact of
attending that grade, no matter at which age. The UNHS 2009/10 allows running this analysis. Graph
xx presents the results.

Figure 1.5: Probabilist Schooling profile of a given generation

100%

98%

95%

93%

90%

Male

88%
81%

80%

72%
70%

61%

60%

49%
44%

50%

36%

40%

30%
30%

20%
18%

20%
10%
0%
P1

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

S1

S2

S3

S4

S5

S6

Source: Computation by authors using UNHS 2009/10.

In a given generation, almost all the children (98%) attend P1. Some may attend that grade at 6 years
old as it is expected, but others will wait until 11 to 13 years old before starting P1. The remaining 2%
represent the share of those who will never go to school in a given generation.
Along the grades, the share of the generation going to school decreases and reaches 61% at P7. It
means that 39% of a given generation will never complete the primary cycle.
From P1 up to P6, there is no significant difference between boys and girls attendance to school:
almost 98% of each group go to P1 and about 72% of each group reach P6. But from P7 on, the share
of girls going to school is significantly lower than the share of boys.
Half of the generation (49%) start S1 whereas 18% of the generation complete S6.
35

This alternative analysis of school coverage leads to the same conclusion: many children go to P1, but
most of them drop from school quickly.

Annex1.6: Internal efficiency coefficient

Without repetition, any cycle leaver or graduate should have spent the number of years for
completing the cycle equivalent to its theoretical duration. If we define a pupil-year as one year
spent by one student in one grade, then the number of pupil-years effectively consumed by those
who are leaving the cycle should be equal to the duration of the cycle times the number of leavers.
One can therefore create an indicator by taking the ratio of this ideal pupil years to the number of
years of study completed by all pupils, including repeaters and dropouts. This ratio is called the
internal efficiency coefficient (IEC) and it establishes the average investment in terms of years of
education per cycle graduate.
IEC is comprised between 0 and 1, each representing hypothetical extremes: 0 represents a situation
where no pupil completes the cycle, regardless of enrolment, repetition and dropout; 1 represents
the ideal situation where all children complete the cycle in the set number of years (no repetition or
dropout). A coefficient of 0.4 indicates that the theoretical duration of the cycle is just 40% of the
effective average number of pupil-years required to complete the cycle. This indicates that 60% (= 1 0.4) of the pupil-years invested correspond to repetition and drop-out related inefficiency.
The Internal Efficiency Coefficient (IEC) is the ratio between the theoretical number of pupil-years
required to educate a pupil and the effective average number of pupil-years invested:

In practice, the IEC is calculated as follows:

36

CHAPTER 2: ESTIMATION OF THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS NEEDED

This chapter estimates the number of teachers the system will have to recruit in the coming years.
Two scenarios for the expansion of the system are analysed. The first, called low scenario, make the
hypothesis that the system will expand according to the trends observed in the recent years. The
second, called high scenario, is more ambitious and make the hypothesis that education actors will
take all possible actions in order to achieve the education objectives adopted by the government,
especially the UPE, the USE/UPPET and the automatic promotion.
For both scenarios, additional assumptions had to be made on key aspects where the education
policy is not clearly defined. For instance, the initial education sector strategy plan envisaged that the
education goals will be reached by 2015. It is acknowledged that given progress in the recent years,
this is not realistic; yet no other year has been chosen as the target. In this study, we make the
assumption that the education goals will be achieved by 2025. Tables in annex 2.1 summarize all the
assumptions made for the estimation of the number of teachers needed. Given these assumptions22,
the results are as follows (see table 2.1 for further details)23:
-

At primary level, the number of teachers in government schools will have to be multiplied by
1.7 (low scenario) or by 2.1 (high scenario) between 2010 and 2025. In order to satisfy this
need, the government will have to recruit at least 12 600 new teachers per year. According
to the high scenario, this figure can go up to 16 370 new teachers per years. In private
primary schools, no matter the scenario, the size of the teaching force will have to be
multiplied by 1.7, hence corresponding to an average annual new recruitments of about
6 100 new teachers per year.

At lower secondary level, the number of teachers in government schools will have to be
multiplied by 2.6 (low scenario) or by 5.6 (high scenario). In order to satisfy this need, the
government will have to recruit a number of new teachers varying between 4 400 (low
scenario) and 10 000 (high scenario) per year. In private lower secondary schools, the size of
the teaching force will have to be multiplied by a factor of 2.4 or 2.5, hence corresponding to
an average annual new recruitments of about 7 800 to 8 400 new teachers per year.

At upper secondary level, the number of teachers in government schools will have to be
multiplied by 3.4 (low scenario) or by 4.4 (high scenario). In order to satisfy this need, the
government will have to recruit a number of new teachers varying between 735 (low
scenario) and 975 (high scenario) per year. In private upper secondary schools, the size of the
teaching force will have to be multiplied by a factor of 1.6 or 2.1, hence corresponding to
average annual new recruitments of about 455 to 807 new teachers per year.

22

If different assumptions are made, then the number of teachers needed will be different.
For each indicator in 2010, when the targeted value is set for 2025, the value the indicator must take in the
years between 2010 and 2025 are computed using a linear projection (see annex 2.2).
23

37

Table 2.1: Estimation of the number of teachers needed

Low scenario

High scenario

2010

2015

2020

2025

ratio
2025/2010

Government schools

126 448

151 392

181 220

216 580

1.7

Private schools

57 827

69 288

83 001

99 266

Total

184 275

220 680

264 220

Government schools

23 114

31 462

44 054

Total

Government schools

Average
annual new
recruitments

Average
annual new
recruitments

2010

2015

2020

2025

ratio
2025/2010

12 596

126 448

160 453

204 895

263 186

2.1

16 366

1.7

6 156

57 827

69 075

82 586

98 695

1.7

6 105

315 846

1.7

18 752

184 275

229 528

287 481

361 880

2.0

22 471

44 319

60 869

2.6

4 396

23 114

41 054

74 000

128 921

5.6

9 981

58 120

79 233

105 191

2.4

7 815

44 054

60 702

84 179

111 399

2.5

8 415

67 168

89 582

123 552

166 060

2.5

12 211

67 168

101 756

158 178

240 321

3.6

18 397

2 857

4 563

6 661

9 687

3.4

733

2 857

5 085

8 075

12 562

4.4

974

11 014

13 227

15 185

17 832

1.6

455

11 014

14 739

18 408

23 125

2.1

807

13 870

17 790

21 846

27 519

2.0

1 187

13 870

19 824

26 483

35 686

2.6

1 781

BTVET (Lower level)

548

855

1360

2087

3.8

158

548

1294

2764

5305

9.7

422

BTVET (Middle level)

602

1029

1606

2496

4.1

257

602

1262

2328

4162

6.9

420

PTC

750

985

1134

1297

1.7

89

750

1212

1511

1891

2.5

143

NTC

227

337

415

543

2.4

40

227

618

984

1628

7.2

133

Primary

Lower
Secondary Private schools
(S1 - S4)

Upper
Secondary Private schools
(S5 S6)
Total

Other sub
sectors

Source: Authors estimations. BTVET Lower level comprises technical and farm schools / BTVET Middle level comprises technical and vocational training Institutes

38

In formal BTVET, lower level (comprising technical and farm schools) and middle level
(comprising technical and vocational training Institutes), the size of the teaching staff will
have to expand rapidly. The low scenario envisages that the teaching force will have to be
multiplied by a factor of 3.8 for the lower level and 4.1 for the middle level. This corresponds
to an average annual new recruitment of 158 and 257 instructors respectively. With the high
scenario, the factor of expansion is even greater: almost 10 for lower level and 7 for middle
level.

Estimations of the expansion of the teaching staff in PTCs and NTCs were also provided. It
appears that the government will have to recruit about 89 to 143 new instructors per year in
PTCs. In NTCs, the number of new recruitment required is comprised between 40 and 133,
according to the scenario.

The main finding from these estimations is that the government will have to increase its effort in
terms of teacher recruitments if i) education objectives are to be achieved or ii) the trend observed
in the recent years in terms of the expansion of the education system is to be sustained.

39

KEY RESULTS CHAPTER 2:

ESTIMATION OF THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS NEEDED

The size of the teaching force will have to increase significantly in order to i) sustain the expansion
of the education system observed in the recent past and/or to ii) achieve the education objectives.
Based on two scenarios (one realistic according to recent trends in education and the other more
ambitious given the education objectives), the estimated number of teachers the system requires is
equal to:
(i)

Primary level: 12 600 to 16 370 new teachers on average per year.

(ii)

Lower secondary:4 400 to 10 000 new teachers on average per year.

(iii)

Upper secondary: 735 to 975 new teachers on average per year.

(iv)

BTVET lower: 160 to 425 new tutors on average per year.

(v)

BTVET upper: 260 to 420 new tutors on average per year.

(vi)

PTCs: 90 to 145 new instructors on average per year.

(vii) NTCs: 40 to 135 new instructors on average per year.

40

Annex 2.1: List of assumptions used for the estimation of the number of teachers needed
Targeted value in 2025
Key Indicators
Grade 1 (GIR)

Value in 2010

Low scenario

High Scenario

157.6%

115.0%

100%

Grade 7 (Gross Completion rate)

62%

80%

100%

Share of repeaters

11%

5%

2,0%

17.4%

20.0%

20,0%

PTR

26.20

30.00

30

Attrition rate (per annum)

4.5%

4.5%

4,5%

Pupil teacher ratio (public)

56.7

55.0

45

Attrition rate (per annum)

Primary

Private schools
% of pupils in private schools

Lower Secondary (S1 - S4)

Public school

4.0%

4.0%

4,0%

Transition rate (Primary --> Lower secondary)

66%

86%

86%

Survival rate

72%

85%

95%

Share of repeaters

2.3%

2%

1,0%

% of pupils in private schools

61.7%

60%

50%

Pupil teacher ratio (private)

18.95

25

25

5.5%

5.5%

5,5%

63

60

45,0

Private schools

Attrition rate (per annum)

Public school
Pupil per stream
Effective Teachers' average teaching workload (hours per week)

12

16

16

5.0%

5.0%

5,0%

37%

55%

55%

Survival rate

89%

95%

95%

Share of repeaters

3.3%

3%

1%

% of pupils in private schools

63.7%

50%

50%

Pupil teacher ratio (private)

10.77

20

20

Attrition rate (per annum)

5.5%

5.5%

5,5%

37.6

45

45,0

12

12

5.0%

5.0%

5,0%

0.8%

1.0%

2%

11500

43830

111399

Attrition rate (per annum)

Upper Secondary (S5 S6)

Transition rate (Lower secondary --> Upper secondary)

Private schools

Public school
Pupil per stream
Effective Teachers' average teaching workload (hours per week)
Attrition rate (per annum)

BTVET
Lower

Enrolment as % of Ordinary Secondary School

Enrolment in number
STR
Attrition rate (per annum)
BTVET
Upper

Enrolment as % of Advanced Secondary School

Enrolment
STR

PTC

STR

NTC

Attrition rate(per annum)

STR

Attrition

Attrition

21

21

21

5.0%

5.0%

5,0%

6.4%

7.0%

7,0%

12000

49930

83248

20

20

20

10%

10%

10%

22

25

25

5%

5%

5%

22

25

25

5%

5%

5%

41

Annex 2.2: The principle of linear projection

Before estimating the number of teachers the system will need in the coming years, the expected
value for key indicators was set. When an indicator has a value x in 2010 and it is expected that it will
reach the value y in 2025, the value the indicator will have to take on the years in between are
computed using a linear projection. A linear projection assumes a steady rate of change (see figure
below).
Let us take the example of the primary completion rate. We assumed that it will increase from 62.8%
in 2010 to 100% in 2025; i.e. a gain of 37.2% in 15 years. In this case the annual increase for each
year is 2.48% (37.2% divided by 15). This means the completion rate should be 65.3% in 2011, 67.8%
in 2012, 70.2% in 2013, 72.7% in 2014, 75.2% in 2015 ... 95.0% in 2023, 97.5% in 2024 and finally,
100% in 2025. Education stakeholders must implement sound policies in order to allow the indicator
to effectively take these values. The following figure illustrates this example.

Linear projection of the completion rate

110.0

Targeted primary
completion rate in 2025
100.0

100.0

97.5
95.0
92.6

90.0

90.1
87.6
85.1
82.6

80.0

80.2
77.7
75.2
72.7
70.2

70.0
67.8
65.3

60.0

62.8

primary completion
rate in 2010

50.0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025

42

CHAPTER 3: TEACHER TRAINING

As in any education system, teachers play a central role, being at the frontline in the transmission of
knowledge. This explains why so much emphasis is given to academic and professional qualifications.
Teachers should receive adequate academic and professional qualifications to ensure s/he
adequately masters subjects syllabus and prepared to handle a class and students. Yet, there are no
blueprints of what constitute good academic and professional qualifications; and much debate still
arises around those questions. Central to this issue is the ability of the training apparatus to
effectively equip future teachers and those currently in class with the required professional skills and
competencies to allow them to teach effectively.
In this chapter, we will explore teachers training issues, under various angles. The first section, after
providing a brief overview of the various options available for teacher training in Uganda, will look at
pre-service and in-service training needs, by looking at the number of both current teachers in need
of training and new teachers to be recruited. The ability of the teacher training college (TTC) system
to meet these needs will also be assessed by confronting those numbers with current TTCs
enrollment levels. The chapter will pursue by providing some insights on the quality of primary
teacher pre-service training24, by looking at the PTCs training modalities, and how teachers do once
in class, and to what extent PTCs are effective in imparting teacher trainees with required
competences. The chapter will conclude with measures undertaken by MoES to improve teacher
quality.

3.1. Current Teacher Training System

This first section will offer a brief overview of teacher pre-service and in-service trainings available in
Uganda.
The training system in Uganda offers various teacher training opportunities, for the various
education levels and streams (general, and technical and vocational). It is currently being delivered
by both public and private institutions that include25:
Primary Teachers Colleges (PTCs)
National Teachers Colleges (NTCs)
Instructors Training Colleges (ITCs)
Health Tutors College (HTC)
Universities
Teacher training falls under two departments: the Teacher Instructor Education and Training (TIET)
Department of MoES and Kyambogo University, the latter dealing with all university trainings, leaving
TIET with teachers and tutors training institutions. TIET has three divisions, namely, the Preprimary
and Primary Teacher Education (PTE) division which is responsible for training of early childhood
24

Because accessing data on TTC was challenging, the scope of the analysis is limited, and in most cases constrained to
primary teacher colleges (PTCs).
25
Associations, such as the Young Mens Christian Association (YMCA) also offer teacher trainings.

43

development and primary school teachers, the Secondary Teacher Education (STE) division, that
deals with lower secondary teacher training, and the Instructor/Tutor Education (ITE) division,
responsible for training of teaching personnel for BTVET institutions. Both pre-service and in-service
trainings are available.
Tables 3.1 and 3.2, above, offer an overview of major pre-service and in-service teacher training
programmes available in Uganda, for both general and BTVET streams. It provides information on
minimum academic entry requirements, programme duration and mode of delivery, and specifies
the institution that offer the training, for the various awards currently available.
Pre-service training covers all basic teacher training courses across all levels of education. Various
policies and guidelines provide a clear framework of the available programmes. Kyambogo University
plays a central role in this respect, handling PTCs, NTCs and some technical ITCs programme entry
requirement, admission, registration, programme content, and certification process. Yet some
colleges and universities do initiate their own courses. As far as Mulago Health Tutors College is
concerned, its programmes fall under Makerere University. TIET/MoES also offer some healthrelated programmes.
ECDs Teacher Institutes train preprimary teachers. They are 93, and all private. ECD guidelines exist
and provide a framework for training. There are three main channels to get qualification each leading
to a specific award. They are currently under licensing and registration process. Kyambogo University
takes on the role of coordinating the setting, standardization, and administering examinations, with
other tertiary institutions offering ECD programmes.
Primary Teacher Colleges (PTCs) train teachers who teach in primary schools. A small group of
teachers who train in these institutions teach in pre- schools. They number 52 to date, of which 7 are
privately-owned.
National Teachers Colleges (NTCs) train teachers who teach in secondary schools. Some primary
school teachers who intend to upgrade can also train at NTCs. There are six such colleges in Uganda,
of which one is private26.
BTVET training is currently offered by four major instructors training institutions: Kyambogo
University, Abilonino Instructors College, Nakawa Vocational Training Institute, and the private
institution Kampala Institute of Technical Teacher Education27. There is one health tutors college
(Mulago), which trains tutors for health training schools such as nursing schools and school for
medical laboratory technicians.

26

Over 2002-2005, the number of NTCs was reduced from 10 to 5, followed an evaluation conducted in the early 2000s.
Government either closed down NTCs or withdrawn from non-government ones. To date, only one private NTC operates.
27
Other private sector initiatives organized by UGAPRIVI with support from development partners such as GTZ, ADB, DED,
and UNIDO do also train instructors (MoES, 2010). No data were available.

44

Table 3.1: General Stream Teacher Training Programmes

Subsector
Preprimary

Primary

Award
Certificate in Community Child Care
(CCC)
Certificate in Child Care (CC)

Academic Entry Requirement

None

Duration/Mode of Delivery
In-service ; 12 weeks

PLE Certificate

Pre-service ; 1 year

Early Childhood Development

Teachers Certificate (CEC)
Grade III Teacher Certificate

O-Level certificate with a minimum of 4 passes, incl. English

Pre-service ; 2 years

UCE/Olevel with a minimum of 6 passes incl. English and Mathematics and any two Sciences subjects
(agriculture, biology, physics/chemistry +
must not exceed 3 years after Olevel expect for ALevel leavers.
UCE/OLevel with a minimum of 6 passes incl. English and Mathematics and any two Sciences
subjects +
Must be a licensed teachers practicing in primary and must be recommended by the school head
teacher, DEO or DIS
Grade III Certificate or its equivalent +
2 years of teaching experience as a Grade III teacher +
at least 6 passes at Olevel; and a pass either in math or English at Olevel.
Must be registered, appointed and confirmed
A-Level with at least 2 principal passes in Art subjects or 1 in Science subject and two subsidiary
passes for Science subject; plus O-Level with at least 6 passes incl. English; or
Post-O-Level Diploma/Certificate +
Business studies: a principal pass in Economics at A-Level and 1 pass in O-Level (Commerce, Accounts,
Typing, Office Practice, and Shorthand) and credit passes in English and Math;
Technological studies: a principal pass at A-level in any of specific subjects (1) and a pass in O-level in
one among Math, Physics, Chemistry or Fine Art.
A-Level with 2 principal passes in any of the Arts, Science and Vocational subjects;
or Grade V Teachers Certificate
Or DTE, DEP, DSE or DSNE, with 2 years of experience
A-Level with 2 principal passes in any of the Arts, Science and Vocational subjects;
or Grade V Teachers Certificate
or DTE, DEP, DSE or DSNE, with 2 years of experience

Pre-service ; 2 years
With supervised school practice

PTCs

In-service; 3 years, part time

PTCs

In-service; 2 years

Universities

Pre-service; 2 years

NTCs
Universities

Pre-service; 3 years

Universities

In-service; 2 years course

Universities

Pre-service; 3 years

Universities

In-service; 3 years

Universities

In-service; 1 year
In service; 2 years minimum
In service; 3 years minimum
In service; 3 years, including
two supervised school practice
(Y2 and Y3)

Universities
Universities
Universities
PTCs

Grade III Teacher Certificate

Diploma in Education Primary (DEP)/

Grade V Primary
Certificate
Secondary

Diploma In Secondary Education

(DES)/
Grade V Secondary Certificate

Bachelor in Education (B. Ed)

Bachelor in Education (B. Ed)

Special
Need
Education

Bachelor Degree with Education

(BSc./Ed, BA/Ed)
Bachelor Degree with Education
(BSc./Ed, BA/Ed)
Post-Graduate Diploma in Education
Masters in Education
Ph. D in Education
Diploma Grade V SNE /(DSNE)

Grade III Teaching Certificate

Institutions
ECD Training
Institutions

45

PTC

Bachelor in Teachers Education

(BTE)

A-Level with 2 principal passes in any of the Arts, Science and Vocational subjects;
or Grade V Teachers Certificate
Or DTE, DEP, DSE or DSNE, with 2 years of experience
Source: MoES/UNTY, 2011. (1): Physics, Mathematics, Woodwork, Metal Work, Technical Drawing, Chemistry, Biology, Geography and Fine Art.

In-service; 2 years course

Universities

Mode of Delivery
Pre-service
In-service
1 year
In-service; 1 year

Institutions
ITCs

Pre-service; 2 years
In-service; 2 years

ITCs,
Kyambogo U.
ITCs

In-service; 1 year

ITCs

Table 3.2: Teatcher/Tutor/Instructor Training Programmes in BTVET

Subsector
Technical

Progammes
Certificate in Technical Teacher
Education (CTTE)

Entry requirement
O-Level Certificate; or equivalent of Junior Certificate in a Technical Course (UJTC); +
(1)
Craft Certificate Part II in specific trade

Certificate in Vocational Training

Instruction (CVTI)

O-Level Certificate or Equivalent; +

Craft II in any technical trade; Be nominated by Head of Institution; Be an in-service instructor or
technical teacher
O-Level Certificate or its equivalent; +
(1)
Craft II in specific trade + 2 years experience in industry
Diploma or degree in any specialized technical/vocational courses;
At least 2 years experience in a related TVET skill industry;
Be nominated by their respective head of Institution; Be an in-service instructor or technical
teacher;

Diploma in Technical
Teacher/Instruction Education (DTTE)
Diploma in Vocational Training
Instruction (DVTI)

Diploma in Training Institution

Management (DTIM)
Degree in Technical Teacher
Education

Health

Post-Graduate Diploma in Vocational

pedagogy (DGDVP)
Diploma in Health Tutor
Diploma in Health Tutor
Bachelor of Medical Education

Bachelor of Health Tutor Education

Post-graduate diploma in medical

A-Level Exam with at least 2 principal passes in Physics and Math, or its equivalent
(2)
Ordinary diploma or higher diploma in specific fields
Mature entry scheme with an advance certificate in Motor Vehicle Technician or Agriculture
Mechanics

Uganda Registered Nurse (URN) with additional qualification in registered Midwife (URM),
Psychiatric (URPN), Sick Child (URSCN) or its equivalent with 2 years of experience; or
Registered Comprehensive Nurse (RCN) with 2 years of experience; or
Public Health Nurse with 2 years of experience; or
Diploma in any of the Allied Health Professional Courses with 2 years of experience; or
Degree holder in Medical/Health profession with an interest of teaching
Graduate from Nursing and Allied Health Professionals and Health Institutions;
Diploma holder or equivalent in any of the Nursing Cadre with a minimum of 4 years of experience;
Evidence of registration with the various professional councils

Kyambogo U.

In-service; 1 year

Kyambogo U.

Pre-service; 2 years
In-service; 2 years
3 years

NTC, Mulago
HTC, Mulago
HTC, Mulago

3 years

HTC, Mulago

1 year

HTC, Mulago

46

education
Certificate in Clinical Instruction
3 months
HTC, Mulago
Source: MoES/UNITY, 2011. (1) Motor, Vehicle, Mechanics; Building and Concrete Practice; Carpentry and Joinery; Tailoring, Cutting and Garment cutting; Agriculture; Business Education; Plumbing; Fitter
Mechanics Part II; Painting and Decoration; Shoe making; Welding and Fabrication; Electrical installation Part II. (2) Mechanical Engineering; Refrigeration and Air Conditioning; Welding and Fabrication; Foundry
Technology or Automotive Engineering; Electrical Engineering; Bachelors degree in Physical Science.

47

Universities graduate teachers for secondary schools28. Teachers for primary and secondary schools
who wish to upgrade in the profession can also enroll at the Universities and choose a specific area of
study such as measurement and evaluation; guidance and counseling; curriculum and learning.
Following the liberalization of the university sector, there has been a proliferation of public and
private universities offering teaching related degree courses, with the most common options being:
A 3-year degree course (BA, BSc) followed by a one year post-graduate qualification in teaching;
A 3-year degree with education ; this is a normal university course with the education content
taken in the vacation periods;
A 2-year degree course in Kyambogo University for qualified teachers already holding a Diploma
in Secondary education.

Continuous Professional Development (CDP): the Role of In-Service Training

There are several in-service teacher education programs for teachers who want to upgrade. While
initial teacher education programmes offer basic knowledge and skills required in the teaching
profession, teachers have the possibility to specialize and upgrade, after initial training. For instance,
primary teachers might upgrade from a Grade III Teaching Certificate to a Diploma in Primary, to
then a Bachelor in Education or even a master. Similar upgrade mechanisms are also found in the
other sub-sectors. The privileged mode to upgrade consists in study leaves with pay29. While granted
on the relevance of the subject taught, past evidences show that this was not always well applied
(Teacher Report, 2007).
Courses are also offered for un/under-qualified teachers. Among them one finds the Grade III inservice training course that allows unqualified teachers to qualify after a three-year part-time course
offered by Core PTCs. Initially set up in response to the recruitment of unqualified primary teachers
by MoES following fee-free primary policy, the programs is being gradually phased out as needs are
waning; as a result few colleges still offer the programs. NTCs also offer training for secondary
teachers who wish to improve their skills in English and Kiswahili (through the Advanced Certificate
of teaching of English Language and of Kiswahili language).
Some other initiatives to strengthen competencies include the Certificate of Proficiency in Teaching
(C-PT), and the Certificate of Proficiency in Teacher Education (C-TEP)), two in-service training
programs designed to equip teachers and tutors respectively with managerial skills30, as well as the
SESEMAT (Secondary Science and Mathematics Teachers) programme31, that provides training for
28

S5-S6 teachers are expected to be graduates.

Formal application has to be submitted by the teacher to his/her head of institution, which is then submitted to DEOs and
Chief Administrative Officers for primary teachers and to the PS/MoES for post-primary teachers/tutors. Once admitted, the
teacher shall apply to the to the study leave which is granted by the ESC.
30
The Certificate in Teacher Proficiency Course is a need-based course designed to bridge existing gaps in PTE practices. CTEP was aimed at strengthening the capacity of PTC tutors to deliver college training programmes using appropriate
methods and was administrated and delivered by KYU in a cascade approach where the college principals were trained first
and then required to deliver the course to the tutors, working with KYU lecturers. Among the 900 tutors and principals who
took the course, less than 50% passed the course examination (Kyeyune, 2011). A replica of the course has been adapted
for District education Officials with the Certificate in Proficiency in Education leadership (C-PEL) and for teachers with the
Certificate in Proficiency in teaching (C-PT) (MoES/USAID, 2011).
31
This programme is part of a global programme set by MoES to promote quality teaching of mathematics and sciences. Its
implementation started in 2005; it follows a cascade approach with regionals training centers set up across the regions.
29

48

science and mathematics teachers. As of 2011, 4,911 teachers benefited from this latter programme
(NAPE, 2011). Yet, as a recent evaluation showed, the programme suffers from a major weakness: it
did not accounted well for the current stark situation in schools, marked by scare resources, limiting
its effectiveness (MoES, CGDE, 2011). Some patchy evidences suggest inadequate coverage of the CPT and C-TEP programmes to cover needs (Kyeyune et al., 2011).
So far, courses intended for schools managers are limited. Head teachers are selected on the basis of
experience in the classroom, and therefore generally lack leadership and managerial skills. Some
support is however provided by Coordinating Center Tutors (CCTs) in the form of training and
support on management and planning issues, and in the use of Customized Performance Targets32.
The support from CCTs to managers seems not to provide the expected results following various
challenges faced to adequately conducting their tasks (see Box 3.1. on CCTs)
Box 3.1: Coordinating Center Tutors as a Central Element in Teachers Support
Coordinating Center Tutors (CCTs) are at the heart of Core PTCs organization. There are 23 Core
PTCs distributed throughout the country. Each is in charge of a network of Coordinators Centers
(CCs) managed by CCTs33, themselves in charge of supporting schools on their catchment area. Core
PTCs offer both pre- and in-service trainings, and run additional outreach activities, through their
CCTs, such as community mobilization, continuous professional development for all primary
teachers, and support supervision to teachers in the field. Teachers are being trained on various
areas, identified in consultation with head teachers and teachers in the CC schools.
CCTs are currently facing a series of challenges that tend to weaken the effectiveness of their
support. The most prevalent include (Kyeyune et al, 2011):
- inadequate transport; making school visits difficult (not all have a motorbike, fuel
allowances is also lacking);
- limited skills by some CCTs; making the quality of the support to teachers poor;
- lack of adequate guidance on how to conduct School Performance Reviews (SPR) and School
Improvement Planning (SIP) further constraints CCTs support; This result in poor
implementation of both SPR and SIP by school heads;
- Strategies for remediation through Continuous Professional Development (CPD) and Peer
Group Meetings (PGMs) are fair. While being generally planned appropriately, their impact
remains limited, following low teacher attendance and a poor implementation of the
cascade approach used to CPD34;
- Not all CCs are staffed with CCTs implying that not all teachers are reached;
- CCTs tend to be overburdened with too many activities, further limiting their support, both
quantitatively and qualitatively. There is a current exercise of remapping of catchment areas
and revision of job-profile that should help readjust CCTs tasks and workload.
- The quality of CCTs support supervision by Deputy Principals Outreach (DPOs) is also poor,
as DPOs face difficulties in overcoming the twin challenges (also faced by CCTs) of
Initially intended to secondary teachers, the programme was extended to support tutors/lecturers of science and
mathematics in PTCs and NTCs. It promotes learner-centered teaching methods.
32
Customized performance targets were organized to serve as administrative tools to enhance accountability and create
measurable performance indicators for head teachers and tutors. It is to support SPR and SIP and consequently enhance
accountability of resources. It also provides measurable performance indicators to aid individual teacher and institutional
performance reviews to improve quality of education
33
There are currently 570 CCs in the country.
34
MoES often works with the cascade approach to CPD, intending that tutors pass on skills and competences to teacher
trainees, which often does not happen.

49

inadequate transport to engage in outreach supervision activities and the pressures

resulting in too many demands on them from NGOs and Development Partners.
In addition, evidences show that CCTs are not adequately equipped and facilitated to provide the
necessary support to teachers.

There is to date no institutionalized system for in-service teacher education/CPD to enable teachers to
improve their professional competencies, even at primary level despite the existence of the Teacher
Development and Management System (TDMS) which was put in place to address gaps in primary
teacher competences. The current system is fragmented and lacks a systematic approach for
professional growth. Because teachers upgrade to their own interest, rather than being controlled by
national education needs, the system as it is working today could prove inefficient as it potently does
not cover actual needs. Nor it is equitable. Indeed, in many cases, teachers have to sponsor
themselves to rise up the career ladder, leaving those unable to do so stagnate in the profession.
Upgrading is also not always followed by a systematic increase in salary benefits, which could
somehow be frustrating35.

3.2 Teachers qualification: levels and needs

In this sub-section we shall review teachers minimal qualifications and assess to what extent the
current education system is falling short or not of qualified teachers.
Minimal requirements to teach in Uganda
Minimum entry requirements to the teaching profession are set by Kyambogo University (KyU) as far
as PTCs, NTCs, and ITCs are concerned and by Makerere University for HTC students. Student
selection is conducted by a joint admission board (formed by MoES, KyU (chair) and all tertiary
institutions); students are ranked and the best ones are provided with the scholarship; the others pay
for themselves. Government makes full sponsorship of initial training for primary school teachers so
long as trainees join public institutions36. Persons who join private institutions sponsor themselves.
Less than 80 percent of pre-service trainees in NTCs are sponsored by Government, this share is
believed to be lower in Universities. In principal, while admitting students to train as teachers, equal
opportunities are extended to applicants without bias along sectarian tendencies of gender, tribe or
region of origin. Yet, some pressure from the local authority and other stakeholders to have their
people recruited (despite unmet minimum requirements) has been recorded (PTC questionnaires).
To be able to perform in preprimary schools one needs to holds at least a certificate in community
child care (CCC), obtained after a 12-week course. While this course is open to anyone, more
stringent entry requirements are requested for Certificate in Child Care (CC) and the Early Childhood
Development Teachers Certificate (ECE) holders. While the former is obtained after one year of
35

As discussed in Chapter 5, it is not automatic that after upgrading, teachers change the level of appointment. This can
only be done when vacancies are advertised. Similarly, attaining higher certificates in the profession does not automatically
lead to increase in pay.
36
One loses the scholarship if repeats. In-service trainees are not entitled to government sponsorships.

50

training and requires holding the Primary Leaving Examination (PLE), the latter involves two years of
training with Olevel as a prerequisite.
Teachers in primary education should hold at least a Grade III certificate obtained after a two-year
training. Entry to this PTC programme is dependent on successful completion of UCE examination, or
O-Level. Minimum entry requirements are six passes including English and Mathematics and any two
Sciences subjects (agriculture, biology, and physics/chemistry). Students may apply to PTCs up to
three years after completion of UCE to allow those who fail A-level to apply for PTCs. Other award
involved a Diploma in Primary (Grade V primary) that is obtained after 1 year of (in-service) training
after getting the Grade III or Grade II certificate37.
At OLevel, teachers should hold at least a Diploma in Secondary Education (also known as Grade V
Secondary) obtained after 2 years of training. Teachers specialize to teach either Arts or Science or
Vocational subjects. Minimum entry requirements are usually two principal passes at A-Level in the
subjects to be taught. In addition, applicants are required to have passed English and mathematics at
O-level. Because of shortage of students of mathematics and science, students are accepted into
mathematics and science courses with one principal pass in a relevant subject, and two subsidiary
passes. A Level (S5-S6) teachers are required to hold a Bachelor degree in Education (B.A. Ed, B. Sc.
Ed, B. Voc. Ed) or a bachelor degree with a postgraduate diploma in education.
Teachers for special needs should also have followed a specific training which lasts three years after
completion of grade III Certificate.
In BTVET, the same pattern of awards prevails, starting from Certificate in Technical Teacher
Education (CTTE) or Vocational Training Instruction (CVTI) consisting of a one-year training after
completion of OLevel or a Craft II certificate up to Degrees, which obtained after a 3-year training in
university. Diploma holders in Technical Teacher Education (DTTE) or Vocational Training Instruction
are also available and last 2 years. As far as health tutor training is concerned, qualified tutors are
those holding either a Health Tutor Diploma or Bachelor of Medical Education or Health Tutor
Education that entails respectively 2 and 3 years of studies with various academic/professional
requirements (see table 3.2 for details). Shorter training programs are also available, training tutors
at post-graduate diploma (one-year program) and certificate level (3 month-duration).

Do all Teachers Have the Minimum Requirements?

In this sub-section we will assess the extent to which teachers in class do have the required
professional certification; this to assess potential training needs.
Available data on primary and secondary teachers show that in 2010, 12.7 percent of primary
teachers and 16.1 percent of secondary teachers were not qualified, in the sense that they were not

37

Grade II certificate is a former award that is no longer offered. Grade II teachers are considered as undertrained.

51

holding the minimum required certification (Table 3.3).38 While this proportion has decreased over
the years, especially among teachers in government schools, the number of teachers to receive
training remains high at 23,363 in primary schools and at 13,021 at secondary.
Evolution of qualified teachers in government primary schools has increased steadily over the last
years, following both the output of qualified teachers from PTCs, and the provision of in-service
courses to upgrade and certify unqualified teachers. This trend was further supported by the
departure to retirement of undertrained teachers (Grade II). In 2010, one found very low proportions
of unqualified teachers in government primary schools at 2.7 percent; in secondary, a downward
trend was also recoded, leaving 6.2 percent of the secondary teaching force unqualified. Of worry is
the situation in private schools that absorb big shares of unqualified teachers. In 2010, almost 35
percent of teachers were unqualified in private primary, a proportion stable over 2006-2010. In
secondary, despite a slight decrease in the proportion of unqualified teaching staff, still 16 percent of
the private teaching force did not have the minimum requirements for teaching. This latter situation
is partially concerning, as private schools host most secondary students (62 percent).

Table 3.3. Distribution of Estimated Primary and Secondary Teachers* according to Qualification,
and Ownership, 2006-2010
Number and Percent
2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

187,382

164,573

160,248

196,904

184,326

Total

18.0%

13.3%

11.6%

14.3%

12.7%

Government schools

11.2%

7.6%

5.7%

3.4%

2.7%

Private schools

34.9%

35.2%

33.8%

34.5%

34.6%

84,891

91,528

86,528

91,611

81,038

81.0%

81.1%

81.9%

83.1%

83.9%

Primary
Number of teachers
Share Unqualified

Secondary
Number of teachers
Share Unqualified
Total
Government schools

9.4%

8.6%

7.9%

6.4%

6.2%

Private schools

22.1%

22.3%

21.9%

21.2%

20.7%

Source: EMIS, various years. * Estimates. See full Table in the annex, Table A3.1.

Distribution of teachers by type of certifications shows that at primary level, most teachers hold a
Grade III Certificate (64 percent) while 17 percent hold a DPE. In Government schools, respective
proportions are of 67 percent and 21 percent. Worth of note is that the vast majority of the
unqualified teachers were educated to at least an Olevel (94 percent). Yet, these teachers may not
have the Olevel passes in mathematics, English and science which are required for entry into PTCs.

38

It was not possible to assess the level/grade at which secondary teachers were teaching. We will consider here that a
teacher is qualified if s/he holds at least a diploma in Secondary. This might underestimate the magnitude of teachers
without the right professional qualification at upper secondary level.

52

At Secondary level, estimated data shows that 45 percent of teachers hold a Grade V/DES while 38.5
percent are Graduates. In government schools, respective shares are 45 and 49 percent. Most
unqualified teaching staff (75 percent) possesses at least an Alevel. They are mostly found in private
schools.
Table 3.4. Distribution of Primary and Secondary Teachers according to Qualification, by School
Ownership, 2010
Percent
Primary
Secondary
Government
Private
Total
Government
Private
Total
Un/undertrained
2.7
34.6
12.7
Un/undertrained
6.2
20.7
16.1
Trained
97.3
65.4
87.3
Trained *
93.8
79.3
83.9
Grade III
67.0
53.2
62.6
Grade V/DES
44.6
45.8
45.4
Grade IV
1.1
2.3
1.5
Graduate
49.2
33.5
38.5
Grade V
4.9
4.1
4.7
DPE
21.2
4.3
15.9
Graduate
3.1
1.6
2.6
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number
126,448
57,878
184,326 Number
25,970
55,068
81,038
Source: EMIS, 2010. Based on estimated numbers of teachers based on EMIS figures and schools under-reporting levels. *
We consider here that a secondary teacher is trained if s/he holds at least a DES.

Available data on BTVET teaching staff are derived from two studies conducted in 2006 and 200739.
It reveals that among the estimated 5,000 instructors employed in the BTVET sub-system, 30 percent
had the minimum requirements to teach (40 percent in public and 21 percent in private institutions);
this translated into 3,500 instructors in needs of upgrading training, especially in competences related
to occupational skills, industrial experience and instructional skills (Kohn et al., 2006).

Table 3.5. Distribution of BTVET Teachers and Non-Teaching Staff according to Qualification, by
Ownership, 2006
Number and Percent
Public
Category

Total

Private
Trained

Managers *

Total
1,008

With pedagogic and

management training
82 (8%) with management
training
508 (20%) CTTE

Instructors

2,500

1,000 (40%)

2,520

With work experience in

industry or business

2,010 (80%)

13 (1%) DTTE

302 (12%) with some

pedagogic training
Source: Kohn et al, 2006. Managers include Head/principal, deputy, dean, and bursar.

39

G. Kohn, S. Nalumansi, G. Rsch, S. Senoga: Training of Instructors and Managers for BTVET, Preliminary Study to develop
a Training Concept and Strategy. Final Report. Kampala, August 2006. Kiwanuka Makumbi Christopher, Olowo Silver,
Muwanga Fred, Oteka Albino, Kyahurwa Patrik: Follow-up Study for the third in-country training and Training Needs Survey
for the Managers and Instructors/Teachers in Uganda. Final Report. January 2007

53

Continuous professional development or upgrading for un/under-qualified teachers still remains a

challenge; to what extend can the system adequately deal with these issues need to be better looked
at. Also, the education training sector is facing another major challenge that lies with the need to
train new teachers as the system is expanding, but also following attrition (due to death, illness, or
departure from the teaching force (see chapters 2 and 4). Initial pre-training of those new recruits is
essential if the system is to expand smoothly, and should be adequately planned and tackled. The
ability of the current teaching training system to cater for those in need of initial training and of
upgrading is to be assessed. This is explored in the next section.

3.3 Current teacher/instructor training system outputs versus training needs

Pre-service training
The above issues raise a central question pertaining to the ability of the current teacher training
system capacity to train both un/under-trained and new teachers. To explore this latter aspect, we
will start by comparing two pieces of information: TTCs and University annual teacher graduates
outputs and the number of new teachers needed by the education system. Two figures of teacher
needs are provided referring to a low growth scenario and a high growth scenario. While the
latter refers to a scenario particularly optimist (where major education goals would be achieved by
2025), the former is somewhat more realistic, based on more sustained growth level hypotheses (See
chapter 2 for details). Table 3.6 below provides such information for primary Grade III and secondary
teachers, as well as BTVET instructors. It highlights the following:
-

The overall Grade III PTCs intake capacity is currently approximately of 19,150 students 40 and the
annual number of those who graduate was estimated at 8,800 over 2010-12. This latter output is
slightly below the current new primary teacher needs in government schools that reached 9,887
in 2011 (low growth scenario); this entails a gap of 1,120 teachers corresponding to a shortfall of
capacities of 11 percent41;

Over 2010-12, NTCs were hosting 4,900 DES students on average annually of which an estimated
average of 2,350 DES trainees graduated. At the same time, it is estimated that each year,
universities produce 12,000 teacher diploma and degree holders (Teacher Report, 2007). This
global output is well above the number of public secondary teachers needed in 2011, estimated
at 2,175 for lower secondary and 462 for upper secondary under the low growth scenario and at
3,550 and 540 respectively under the high growth scenario. At present, Uganda is oversupplying
secondary teachers.

In BTVET, the estimated number of students graduating annually rounds roughly to 390, a
number above current new instructor needs, under both low (205) and high growth (295)
scenarios. Yet, this figure does not really tell us whether the instructors have the required

40

Ceilings are set by MoES for both PTC and NTC, which is constrained by both the available dormitory facilities and the
number of students that can be sponsored by the Government. In 2011, PTC ceilings ranged from 270 to 450 students,
while year one intake capacities varied between 135 to 225 students.
41
The gap even widens when teachers working in private schools are accounted for.

54

certification level (certificate or diploma) and subject specialization to teach42. Further analysis
would be necessary to adequately estimate the global ITCs intake capacity requirements by
award/specialization.
Table: 3.6: Annual Preservice Training Outputs and Needs, by Sub Sector
Sub-sector

Institutions

Average
Enrollment
2010/112011/12

Curriculum
Duration

Average number of
graduates
2010/11-2011/12

Estimated
Number of New Teachers Required in
Government (private) Schools (1)
in 2011
in 2025
Low
High
Low
High
Growth
Growth
Growth
Growth

Primary and Lower Secondary

Primary

52 PTCs

19.500 *

2 years

Lower
Secondary

6 NTCs

4.900 *

2 years

University
Upper
Secondary
BTVET stream (Post P7 and Post S4)
4 (Abilonino.
ITC
Nakawa. Kal.
430 *
Kyambogo)
HTC
Mulago
50 *

8,769
Grade III
2,350 *
DES/Grade V
12,000 **
Diploma + Degree

1-2 years

360 *
Certificate +
Diploma

2 years

30

9,887
(4,820)

11,358
(4.778)

15,925
(7,890)

22,999
(7,740)

2,175
(4,084)

3,550
(4,601)

6,578
(11,219)

19,246
(11,674)

462
(496)

540
(776)

1,130
(552)

1,602
(991)

205 (2)

295 (2)

699 (2)

1,670 (2)

Source: TIET, MoES. (1) From Table 2.X in Chapter 2. Figures in brackets correspond to teachers employed in private
schools. * Estimates. ** Estimate based on the figure from the 2007 Teacher Issue in Uganda. (2) Figures based on both
instructors in both government and private institutions.

Under current intake conditions, NTCs and ITCs are able to cover current teachers needs, while PTCs
are not. However, if to sustain education expansion, both primary teachers and BTVET instructors
training systems will need to expand their physical intake capacity by a factor of 1.8 (under low
growth scenario) to comply with teachers needs by 2025. Oversupply of secondary teachers will
continue to remain till 2025 should the system continue to produce such high level of secondary
teacher outputs, unless they enter the private teaching sector, facing dire issues of teacher
qualification. Should secondary teachers working in private schools be accounted for, the current
capacities of both NTCs and University will not be able to cater for all teachers training need by 2025,
and would require an increase of 1.3 of the current outputs to comply with needs.
The issue of teachers qualification in private schools should not be overlooked. Indeed, as seen,
many of them are not qualified, and their number is expected to grow. While teachers quality in
private schools is controlled for by national authorities, it is inadequately enforced following mainly
inadequate resources, which calls for dedication of more resources to ensure proper monitoring of
teacher qualifications.
In-service training
As seen in the Table 3.3, many teachers currently employed are un/under-qualified, and therefore in
need of training to upgrade their competencies to the required level. Grade III in-service training
intended to under/unqualified teaching public staff is being offered by some core PTCs. However, the
42

There is only one HTC in the country (Mulago). While its physical capacity is 150, its current enrollment is smaller. On
average, thirty students graduated annually over 2010-12. There is also an ongoing process to upgrade awards offered from
diploma to bachelor. The first group of Bachelors of Medical Education is set to graduate in October 2013.

55

program is being phased out since some years following the decrease in the numbers of teachers
requiring it. The number of primary in-service teachers has dropped from 2,895 to 1,856 in 2010/11,
to an estimated 1,200 in 2011/12. In view of the current 3,363 unqualified primary teachers, and
under current supply, it will require a decade before all teachers are qualified.
Note that no such programs are currently available for under/unqualified secondary teachers and
BTVET instructors, although the current reform of the BTVET sub-sector in general and the
introduction of the UVQF, following the principles of CBET, in particular, will require highly
competent and well-motivated instructors in sufficient numbers. While the new instructor training
measures started by Nakawa VTI and UGAPRIVI along with the upcoming opening of Jinja VTI, are
promising, the current capacities for instructor training are not sufficient to cater for both the huge
demand of in-service competence upgrading in the BTVET system.

3.4. Teacher Training Quality Aspects

In this section, we will bring our attention to teacher training quality aspects. Quality in education
can reflect the level of resource allocation to the sector, but can also be measured by students
learning outcomes. According to the latter approach, quality education would ensure that students
acquire determined competencies and skills. Our analysis will rely on both approaches by looking
successively at PTCs Grade III program implementation (by reviewing curriculum features and staffing
aspects), and final examination determinants. Our focus on PTCs is mainly driven by the availability of
data43.
3.4.1 PTCs Grade III Certificate Program Overview
Curriculum: This is a national uniform curriculum taught across all colleges, generated by Kyambogo
University. It is meant to provide teacher trainees with the required skills to perform as a teacher in
all primary grades. It is achieved upon successful completion of a two-year pre-service training. The
same certificate can be obtained after three years in-service training by license teachers.
The PTE Certificate program has been recently reviewed in order to bridge the gaps that were
identified in a baseline study carried out by both Kyambogo University and the Ministry of Education
and Sports in 2006/07 on PTE curriculum implementation. Main gaps include (MoES, 2012):
Lack of emphasis on new subjects that were being introduced in the primary school, and
content not always related to primary curriculum;
Lack of emphasis on the thematic curriculum, that was introduced in Lower Primary Schools;
Curriculum mainly focused on what to teach (content), rather than how to teach (pedagogy
and class practice)44;
Inability by the PTC graduates to apply a number of essential methods of teaching;
Lack of mastery by some graduates of curriculum content;
43

Based on questionnaires received from 9 PTCs (some partially) and 1 NTC and on interviews conducted with senior staff
from 2 PTCs and 1 NTC.
44
The focus of the pedagogical content in the curricula was more on the memorization of pedagogical knowledge, rather
than on the development of pedagogical understanding, skills and strategies that are necessary to bring about learning
among primary school pupils and student teachers/tutors.

56

Failure of inclusion of course work assessment in the final PTE Certificate grading;
Low emphasis in specialization on in terms of teaching primary school.

The PTE curricula review also emerged from the current GoU and MoES (PEAP and ESSP) focus on
addressing the poor quality of teaching and learning in primary schools that has been highlighted in
the results of NAPE studies.
In order to ensure that the revised PTE curriculum focuses on preparing teachers to learn how to
teach, it was decided first to have teachers specialized in either lower or upper primary45. In
addition, it was proposed to include a separate syllabus within the Professional Education Studies
Syllabus on General Methods to enable student teachers to develop their pedagogical knowledge
and skills, and to use a variety of instructional strategies to effectively bring about learning. Along
this, new disciplines were introduced (Kiswahili Education (KSE), Local Language Education (LLE),
Agriculture Education (AGE) and Early Childhood Development (ECD)) along the 6 regular ones
(Professional Education Studies, Language Education, Social Studies, Mathematics, Science and
Cultural Education (Physical Education, Religious Education, Art & Craft, and Music). School practices
were maintained (see annex 3.1 for details of the new curriculum).
While the curriculum is to be introduced in PTCs in 2013, a draft version of the curriculum was shared
with PTCs and used by tutors along the old 1995 curriculum. This is reflected in the table 3.7 below,
that displays the curricula programs of some PTCs in 2011 and 2012.
A review of some PTC curriculum shows that school year consists of three terms (11-13 weeks), with
an annual student workload averaging 1,400 periods (hours) (40 periods per week; 35 weeks per
year). The curriculum consists of a mixture of academic and practical studies, with professional
education studies, mathematics, English, science health and social studies absorbing 50 percent of
the teaching time.

Table 3.7. Weekly Academic Training Time Allocation, PTCs, 2012

Hours and percent
Hours/Periods
Taught par Week

Subjects
Professional Education Studies
Special Needs Education
Early Childhood Education
Language
English Language Education
Kiswahili Education
Local Language Education
Social Studies Education
Science with Health

Distribution of Hours Taught par Week

Average
4.6
1
2

Min
3
1
2

Max
6
1
2

Average
11.5%
2.5%
5.0%

Min
7.5%
2.5%
5.0%

Max
15.0%
2.5%
5.0%

4.2
2.2
1.75
3.2
4

4
2
1
2
4

5
3
2
4
4

10.5%
5.5%
4.4%
8.0%
10.0%

10.0%
5.0%
2.5%
5.0%
10.0%

12.5%
7.5%
5.0%
10.0%
10.0%

45

The question of teacher specialization in Lower/Upper Primary was a major concern as it was deemed not feasible for a
teacher to teach all primary grades. Year 2 of the program is intended to specialization.

57

Mathematics Education
Cultural
Religious Education
Music
Physical Health Education
Art and Crafts
Community Service/Library/
Debate/Instructional
materials
Production skills
Agriculture
Information and
Communication Technology
Integrated Production Skills /
Home economics
Total

12.5%

10.0%

15.0%

2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2

5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%

5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%

5.0%
5.0%
5.0%
5.0%

5.0%

5.0%

5.0%

5.0%

5.0%

5.0%

5.0%

5.0%

5.0%

1.5

3.8%

2.5%

5.0%

40

40

40

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

Source: Based on PTCs questionnaires.

However, evidences arise that the curriculum is not always fully covered following activity overload,
lack of required teaching staff and teacher absenteeism. In addition, students poor foundation on
some subjects e.g. sciences and mathematics, and lack of reading culture further alters the smooth
running of the prescribed programme. Lack of funds to purchase required teaching and learning
material was also mentioned as a constraint by senior PTC staff. In some cases, the poor attitude of
some teaching staff towards the profession was perceived as detrimental.
The teaching and learning methods further impact on the delivery of the curriculum. Following lack
of teaching staff, PTCs tend to rely on participatory teaching methods, e.g. project work, resources
persons, small group discussions, and tutorials, to cover the curriculum on addition to formal
teaching. Yet, as shown in the 2006 baseline study, teaching in PTCs, and more specifically formal
teaching remained lecture-centered and rote learning was encouraged. In some cases, poor subject
proficiency by tutors unable them to teach the subject properly (ESA, 2006).
Co-curricular activities are also carried out, although remain limited. They include: games and sport,
music and drama, communal work, inter/intra-class competition, regional competition, public
lectures, subjects weeks and clubs. They tend somehow to be limited due to lack of funding.
School practice: It is part of the curricula and is organized in three parts, namely a child study in year
one and two school practices in year 2. The year one child study is intended to provide initial
understanding of childs behavior. When conducting child study, teacher trainees choose one or two
pupils, whom they follow to acquaint with the pupils home background, behavior, learning interests
and challenges. Child study lasts for three weeks and is conducted under the supervision of TTC
tutors and school teachers. Trainees compile a child study report which is submitted to the college
for graduation. On year 2 school practices, trainees are expected to practice classroom teaching and
other routine teacher activities (preparing schemes, instructional material, and teaching files). It last
12 weeks divided into two blocks of 6 weeks (semi-final school practice at the beginning of the school
58

year, and final school practice at the end of the school year). In both cases, trainees are assessed by
their tutors. All school practices are part of the award final grading46.
Some difficulties associated with transport of tutors and students, delays in payment of tutor
allowances, inadequate instructional material, all related somehow to lack of funding, have been
expressed, and make the school practice somewhat a challenging activity. Poor attitude/cooperation
of some school further constraints the quality of the practice47.
Assessment: It takes many forms, from continuous assessments (CA) and tests given regularly to
students, to group assignment and project works, to end-of-term exams for all subjects on which
feedbacks are sometimes given to trainees. Some PTCs organize remedial lessons to improve
students performances and clinical supervision. There is also a promotional exam at the end of year
1; should the candidate fails, s/he can repeat the failed papers the following year (while in year 2).
However, such trainees who would wish to continue with the training are to sponsor themselves. The
grade III teachers certificate is awarded upon successful performance in the final year examinations.
This examination, along the promotional one is national. Under the previous curriculum, to pass a
student has to score at least 40% in the 6 compulsory papers and must have passed the final school
practice48. S/he has the possibility to repeat the failed papers within the following 2 academic years,
at her/his own expenses.
Many issues were associated with assessments implementation. As far as CA was concerned, its
practice by pre-service tutors has been identified as a major challenge during the process of
curriculum implementation. CA is portrayed negatively, being a mere tool for grading and placement,
and not a tool to measure and support learner progresses. In addition lack of adequate training on
how to use CAs made its use limited. This is all the more concerning that MoES is promoting CA as an
integral part of the teaching learning process, and a key quality enhancement mechanism to enable
pupils achieve learning outcomes (MoES, 2010). In the view of institutionalizing CA in curriculum
implementation, MoES has developed a handbook on institutionalization of CA in PTE, along a selfinstructional training manual. They both complement each other and are intended to training and/or
mentoring teachers in primary schools and student teachers in all PTCs in authentic methods of CA
(MoES/UNESCO, 2011). Note that started 2012, CA will be part of the final grading of Grade III
certificate award (MoES/UNITY, 2011).
3.4.2 PTCs teaching staffing issues
Tutors recruitment procedures follow the ones of public teachers: while the Ministry of Finance
allocates the money, MoES declare vacancies. Then the Education Service Commission advertises the

46

School practice involve in general the following activities: schools identification, posting of students, CPD for students and
staff, demonstration lessons, scheming, supervision and grading.
47
It is reported that schools with experienced teachers are not willing to take on teacher trainees. Therefore, teacher
training colleges send their trainees to schools where there is need for qualified teachers. Consequently, the trainees do not
get professional support they desire.
48
While practical papers (school practice and child study) are scored by PTC teaching staff, and moderated by Ky U.,
examination written papers are scored by Kyambogo U. In the final examination, students take 6 subjects: mathematic,
English, social studies, professional education studies, science and cultural studies (music, physical health education, art and
religious education).

59

position, interviews the various candidates and appoints successful staff based on resource envelop.
The MoES then post tutors to the colleges based on critical staffing position.
Tutors are trained by Kyambogo University and are now required to have a degree in Education.
Practicing tutors who hold only the Diploma in Teacher Education (DTE) are encouraged to upgrade
their qualifications. All tutors teach according to subjects of specialization.
In general, PTCs face major teaching staff shortages 49. Available data show that on average, half of
the teaching positions are not filled, with major gaps being registered in Special Needs Education
(SNE, 87 percent), Local language (LL, 85 percent), and to a lesser extend Professional Education
Studies (PES, 52 percent), Kiswahili (KIS, 51 percent) and English language (LAG, 50 percent) (See
figure 3.1). Mathematic and Sciences teachers fall short in 44 percent of the cases.
A combination of reasons leads to this situation: failure to advertise vacant post due to wage bill
restrictions; lack of trained personal willing to work in certain PTCs following poor staff
accommodation and /or working conditions (lack of funds to support department activities); lack of
qualified staff with required qualifications e.g., languages and mathematics; delays in the
recruitment of staff; and lengthy promotion mechanisms which can be demoralizing and further
making the profession not attractive. To overcome staff shortages, PTCs rely on various strategies to
fill the gap which consist mainly in recruiting resources persons, usually part-timers (based on funds
availability); allocation existing actual staff among the various subjects; or having the curricula shared
with students for them to read widely and discussed with their peers. In Core PTCs, one relies also on
CCTs.
Figure 3.1. Distribution of PTCs Vacant Positions, By Subject, 2012
Percent
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

87%

45%

46%

47%

50%

52%

30%

Source: TIET/MoES data as of March 2012. RE : Religious Education, MUS : Music, SST: Social Studies, ECE: Early Childhood
Education, A&C: Art and Craft, PE: Physical education, AGR: Agriculture, MTC: Mathematics, SC: Science, LAG: English
Language, KIS: Kiswahili, PES, Professional Education Studies, LL: Local language, SNE: Special Needs Education.

49

Non-teaching staff shortages are also a concern.

60

3.4.3. PTCs effectiveness

PTC effectiveness will be assessed thought three angles: i) Grade III examination outputs and results,
ii) primary teacher performances while in school, and iii) the effectiveness of PTCs in transforming
inputs into quality outputs.
PTCs examination outputs
The number of candidates sitting the Grade III examination has remained within a range varying
between 9,100 to 11,700 over 2006-11. The pass rate shows no stable trend, ranging between 70 to
85 percent. However, in 2011, 93 percent of students who sit the exam passed it, corresponding to
an output of 8,562 graduates. Over the years, more students have graduated with credits, from 41.5
percent in 2006 to 88.9 percent in 2011; yet the number of those graduating with distinction remains
marginal (barely 1 percent in 2011). Female participation is not an issue, accounting for half of the
candidates on average. They also have reduced their disadvantage vis--vis males as far as
graduation is concerned50: from 0.91 in 2009 the gender parity index increased to 0.98 in 2011,
entailing that for every 100 males graduating one finds 98 females in 2011, against 91 in 2009.
Table 3.8. Grade III Examination Results, 2006-2011
Number and Percent
2006
2007
2008
2009a
Nb of candidates
9,411
10,947
11,063
11,658
Share of female
na
na
na
na
Nb who Passed
7,860
7,805
7,461
8,768
(1)
Nb who Failed
1,551
3,142
3,602
2,890
%
Overall Pass
83.5%
71.3%
67.4%
75.2%
Pass with Distinction
0.00%
0.02%
0.03%
0.18%
Pass with Credit
41.5%
55.9%
54.2%
65.3%
Pass with Pass
42.0%
15.4%
13.3%
9.8%
Failed
16.5%
28.7%
32.6%
24.8%
Source: TIET reports, various years. Na not available (1) Includes the ungraded.

2009b
9,172
48.7%
6,793
2,379

2010
11,193
49.0%
8,976
2,217

2011
9,167
52.0%
8,562
605

74.1%
0.05%
59.6%
14.4%
25.9%

80.2%
0.25%
73.7%
6.2%
19.8%

93.4%
0.98%
88.8%
3.6%
6.6%

A review of pass rates by subject shows high pass rates for all 6 major subjects, above 96 percent in
2011. Unavailability of data disaggregated by score prevents us from assessing if there is any bias
toward passes or credits for a given subject, which would have informed on the level of subject
mastery. However, data on subject mastery by teachers in class can offer initial insights on the issue,
as shown below.
School Teachers performance
The National Assessment of Progress in Education (NAPE) 2011 report51 provides information on
teachers subject mastery by certain teacher characteristics. Among the latter, teachers professional
50

The share of female passing the exam has increased from 36 percent in 2008 to 51 percent in 2011.
NAPE (National Assessment of Progress in Education) is been carried out since 1996 at the primary level (and 2008 at the
secondary level) by UNEB to monitor the effectiveness of the teaching learning process. It consists in a nationally
representative sample-based evaluation, testing P3 and P6 students on numeracy and literacy in English and literacy in
51

61

qualification and teaching experience are of particular interest: while the former will inform us on
how Grade III teachers perform vis--vis teachers with other qualifications, the latter will offer a
gross assessment of the quality of newly recruited teachers (those with 5 years and less of teaching
experience), and in the same token will inform us on the quality of the teaching in PTCs in recent
years52.
Table 3.9 consolidates the information on the level of proficiency of teachers in numeracy, literacy
and oral reading according to teaching qualification and years of experience (tables A3.4 in the annex
provides similar information based one tests mean scores). A teacher was rated proficient if s/he
reached the advanced level of proficiency.
Table 3.9: Primary Teachers Rated Proficient, by Highest Teaching Qualification, and by Teaching
Experience, 2011
Percent
Numeracy
Literacy
Oral Reading
Teaching Qualification
Grade III
69.2
72.2
37.0
Grade V Primary
64.5
81.1
45.1
Others *
65.5
75.9
37.9
Teaching Experience (years)
1-5
72.1
73.9
36.4
6-10
64.1
76.8
34.1
11-15
64.0
69.6
40.2
16-20
65.8
76.8
50.6
Over 20
70.7
79.3
54.0
Total
66.1
72.6
37.5
Source: NAPE Report, 2011. P3 and P6 teachers. * Others include DTE, UCE and UACE holders, student teachers and
Community Development Certificates.

While more Grade V (primary) teachers were rated satisfactory in Literacy and Oral reading (81 and
45 percent respectively than Grade III teachers (72 and 37 percent for Grade III teachers), the
reverse situation could be observed in numeracy, with relatively more Grade III teachers mastering
the subject (69 percent) against 64 percent for Grade V teachers. Yet according to NAPE analysis,
these differences are not statistically significant, implying that qualification has no major impact on
the level of subject mastery. As per year of experience, newly recruited teachers (e.g., those with 5
years and less of teaching experience) tend to do much better than their more experienced peers,
displaying the highest share of teachers reaching proficiency (72 percent), while faring poorly
(although not the poorest) in literacy and oral reading. This trend could highlight some
improvements in the teaching of mathematics both in schools and PTCs, and a weakening of literacy
teaching in recent years.

Local language for some P3 pupils. Teachers were administered on similar tests as P6 pupils on numeracy, literacy and oral
reading.
52
To be more robust, results should have been based on a multi variant analysis that allows computing the net effect of
each variable, all things been equal. Yet, this type of analysis could not be carried out as the NAPE data set could not be
accessed. Nor could we assess the impact on teacher proficiency level and initial characteristics on student performances.
Such analysis would be worthwhile as it would provide some interesting insights on how teacher characteristics and scores
impact on student scores.

62

Notwithstanding those observations, a striking remark is the very low level of proficiency in oral
reading (37.5 percent), while proficiency numeracy53 and literacy54 seem better, although not all
satisfactory, with respectively 66.0 percent and 72.6 percent of teachers fully mastering the subject.
The low level of mastery in oral reading is concerning and is potentially associate with an inadequate
coverage in PTCs, a general lack of books and of reading culture. More specifically, the limited use of
spoken English, and the interferences with the mother tongue55, associated with inadequate reading
skill further limits oral reading abilities. As far as numeracy is concerned, inadequate teaching
methods in PTCs, along with initial poor teacher trainees mathematic and sciences competences and
lack of tutors in mathematics and sciences subjects could account for poor mastery of sciences
subjects among teachers (NAPE, 2011a).
The initial poor quality of teacher trainees has been raised by many stakeholders. However, patchy
evidence tend not to support the idea that the teaching profession does not attract the best
academically talented students. Results in table 3.10 below, that compares UCE scores distribution in
2009 for all UCE candidates with the 2009 UCE score obtained by Grade III candidates in 2011, who
supposedly took the UCE exam in 2009, show that Grade III candidates in our sub-sample of PTCs
were not among the lower achievers at UCE. Although this result cannot be generalized, given the
sample size, it remains quite illustrative, and contradicts the general view that some students join
PTCs as an alternative to the higher school certificate (HSC) programme.
Table 3.11: Distribution of OLevel Score by Division, 2009 UCE Candidates & 2011 Grade III PTC
Candidates
Percent
Division

All UCE 2009 Candidates

2011 Grade III PTC

I (8-32)

7.6

3.8

II (33-45)

18.5

40.3

III (46-58)

27.0

55.3

IV (59-69)

42.4

0.6

VII-IX (70 and beyond)

4.4

1.8

Total

100.0

53

(1)

100.0

Major weaknesses in numeracy could be observed in: rounding off numbers to a specified number of decimal points,
dividing a fraction by a faction, applying the concept of fractions in novel situations, finding the LCM and square roots of
numbers, drawing bar graphs, with well labeled axes and suitable scales, drawing parallel lines and measuring angles
accurately. This highlight, among others, major shortcomings in PTCs teaching e.g., the absence of mental arithmetic,
teaching and learning concepts without relating to real life situations, the use of inadequate geometrical instruments, the
use of assessment with tests LOTS, other than HOTS (NAPE, 2011).
54
In literacy, while more teachers rated well, some displayed difficulties, especially in areas related to: reading and
answering questions on a poem, reading and interpreting a picture sequence, writing a well-sequenced narrative
composition, using the correct format, naming object with the correct spelling, or identifying opposites and giving plurals.
Reasons related to PTCs are here again stressed. They concern lack of skills among some tutors to teach reading properly,
limited exposure of trainees to reading, limited practice in writing composition because of the difficulty to mark it,
insufficient reading material (NAPE, 2011).
55
Language issue at the PTC is complex. The language of instruction is English but trainees are expected to deliver the
Thematic Curriculum in the area local language in rural areas and English in urban areas where there is usually a multiplicity
of first languages in the classroom. Yet, one also found an absence of textbooks and teachers references in the local
language.

63

Source: UCE 2009 data: UNEB database; (1) Based on 704 Grade III students in 4 PTCs: Bwera, Canon Apolo, Gulu, and
Kiyoora.

This said, teacher quality remains an issue and tackling it is of major importance. Indeed, research
examining teacher quality confirms that poor quality of pupils learning correlates strongly with poor
quality of teachers teaching. It further acknowledge that effective pupil learning and achievement is
hampered by weaknesses in teachers pedagogical content knowledge and classroom practice
(Pontefract and Hardman, 2005; Akyeampong et al, 2005, in Kyeyune et al., 2011), 2011). The new
PTC curriculum that is to be introduced in all PTCs in 2013, along with the Continuous Assessment are
very encouraging, as tackling major PTCs shortcomings.
PTCs effectiveness in transforming inputs into quality outputs
Because training teachers has a cost, ensuring that trainees acquire the relevant teaching and
learning competences during their PTC stay is important. Every year, PTCs are ranked according to
the global pass rates of the College. One could assume that good colleges, those ranked at the top,
tend to be effective in bringing students to a certain academic level, while those at the bottom of the
distribution, fare poorly in this regard. Yet, it could also be related to the fact that good colleges
attract good students and fare well because of initial good competence level of its student
population; indeed it is well known that one of the main determinant of final students score is
his/her score at entry. To analyze this issue, we have conducted a simple multivariate analysis on
PTCs on which we had information on students scores at Grade III and their score at Olevel, as well
as other PTC related characteristics56. This analysis is not meant to be representative but just
informative, given the low level of PTCs representativeness (4 of them).
Table 3.10 presents a recapitulate of the main factors at stake, their significance and their impact. A
reminder: the higher the score, the poorer has the student performed (see table A3.5 in the annex
for statistics on scores). While trainee gender and age have no impact of final exam scores, a major
determinant remains the score obtained at Olevel. A decrease in one point in the Olevel aggregate
score entails a decrease in 0.1 point in the Grade III score. All major colleges related variables have
also en effect: higher Student Teacher Ratios (STRs) are associated with higher scores, while a higher
share of teacher on the payroll has a downward effect on scores. Higher Student Support Staff Ratios
and Core PTCs are also associated with lower scores. Nevertheless, as shown by the R2, the main
scores variation determinant remains the initial student level at college entry proxied by his/hers
score at Olevel: Olevel score explains 87 percent of the variance in the distribution of Grade III
scores. This result tells us: i) good PTCs are good because they trainees had initially good skills; ii) the
direct effect of PTCs on students performances is limited. Although this result cannot be generalized
given the nature of the sample, it raises a fundamental question pertaining to the effectiveness of
the PTC and its ability to adequately train teachers and raise the skills of its students to the desirable
level.

56

This includes only 4 PTCs: Bwera, Canon Apolo, Gulu, and Kiyoora.Note the Grade III score computed refers to the
average scores of the various subjects sat.

64

Table 3.10: Grade III Examination Final Score Determinants, 2011

Points
Variables
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
0.074
0.074
Student is Female
Students Age
0.025
0.025
Student O Level Aggregate
0.111 ***
0.109 ***
0.109 ***
Student Teacher Ratio
0.007 ***
0.012 ***
% Tutors on the Payroll
-0.206 ***
-0.038 ***
-0.065 ***
PTC is Core
Student Support Staff Ratio
-0.011 ***
1.093 **
0.617 ***
0.524 ***
Constant
2
R
86.9%
87.7%
87.7%
Number of observations
704
704
704
(1)
Average Score at Grade III
6,1
Source: Grade III Examination data, 2011, for Bwera, Canon Apolo, Gulu, and Kiyoora. (1) Average scores were computed
based on students subjects grades. *** Significant at 1%, otherwise not significant at 10% and beyond.
Reading note: the higher the value of the final score, the worse it is; the same prevails for Olevel Aggregate. Apart from the
O level variable, those with a negative (positive) sign impact positively (negatively) on scores.

The various shortcoming identified above are certainly at play to explain this disappointing result.
While the new curriculum, along the institutionalization of continuous assessment, will certainly
provide some positive change in the way PTCs student are trained, other challenges that hamper
adequate teaching and learning processes would need to be tackled if to improve the overall
performance of TTCs, they include (MoES, 2012, Kyeyune, 2011, PTC questionnaires):

Insufficient instructional materials to support school curriculum delivery;

inadequate staffing;
Inadequate students (dorms) and staff accommodations;
Inadequate and dilapidated infrastructure;
Inadequate training facilities: laboratories and workshops are ill equipped, with no suitable
equipment and apparatus; few libraries equipped with relevant resource materials to allow
teacher trainees to do self-study; some texts in libraries are out dated and irrelevant;
Inadequate ICT facilities, with some tutors being still ICT illiterate, making access for students
and tutors to current research information concerning teaching and learning difficult;
Inadequate mobility to facilitate PTE activities
lack of resources to induct newly appointed PTE staff
Minimal support supervision by Inspectors making support in guidance limited
Large catchment areas/number of schools of coordinating centers associated to inadequate
resources to support mentoring CCTs in service delivery,
Inadequate resources to facilitate CPDs for PTE staff.

An issue often raised by PTCs heads is the insufficient level of funding: the level of capitation grant of
USh 1,800 per trainee per day for both PTCs and NTCs is said to be too low to adequately run teacher
colleges. To adequately assess this statement, in depth analysis of teacher training colleges financing
is needed. Indeed, patchy available data show high relative recurrent public cost to train a primary
teacher (twice the level to train a lower secondary teacher, Table 1.X in chapter 1), and wide

65

disparities in PTC global recurrent unit costs, from one to three57. While the College ability to raise
additional funding impact on the level of unit costs, how efficiently teachers are used and the
existence of economies of scales also affect unit cost levels. Disentangling between factors at stake
would require collecting appropriate data on a sizeable number of PTCs (and NTCs)58.
Measures taken to improve quality of teaching
Very much aware of all the challenges facing Primary Teacher education (PTE), the Ministry is to rely
on a series of strategies to reverse the current situation. They include (MoES, 2012): implement the
revised PTE curriculum; conduct a need assessment on PTCs facilities, in the perspective to improve
PTCs facilities and infrastructure; carry out a remapping of CCs; implement the probation curriculum
for newly qualified primary teacher; enhance CPDs for all the stakeholders to improve performance,
via the roll out of the Certificate in Teacher Proficiency Course (C-TP); administer the Customized
performance targets; (CPTs) for PTC staff; and encourage diploma tutors to go for upgrading courses.
These strategies cover both initial teacher education and continuous professional development that
are believed to make a difference to teachers pedagogic knowledge and skill acquisition which in
turn will be reflected in enhanced pupils outcomes (Dembl and Legoka, 2007).
Quality of teaching is an issue not only in PTCs but also in NTCs and ITCs. NTCs, like PTCs suffer from
various challenges ranging from understaffing, inadequate and dilapidated infrastructure, insufficient
teaching and learning materials, to lack of institutionalized CPD programs and little government
funding (MoES, 2012b). The poor results of S2 students at NAPE, particularly those taught by DES
holders (vis--vis graduates)59, further question the quality of the teaching provided in NTCs.
Improving the quality of teaching and learning in NTCs is a priority set by MoES. Among strategies the
Ministry is to implement, one finds: development a TDSM for Secondary; review of the Secondary
Teacher education Curriculum to harmonize it with the Secondary Education Curriculum;
rehabilitation and construction of new infrastructures; equipping colleges facilities; roll out of the
Certificate in Teacher Education Proficiency Course (C-TEP) for secondary teachers and NTC lectures
in line with the science policy; strengthening the Communication Strategic Management to better
support supervision and visitation.
The BTVET sector is also engaged in a series of reforms to improve its quality. As shown earlier, many
challenges still prevail, a lot dealing with lack of instructors both in quality and quantity, and the
requirements that pose both the on-going BTVET reform along the rapidly changing technological
and health environment (that affect both take up of technologies and the emerging of new diseases).
Increasing intake capacities to accommodate more instructor trainees in more diversified trade is
urgent. Future planned interventions consists in: review of curricular to match the BTVET reviews;
expansion of the fields of training; rehabilitation and expansion of the colleges; upgrading of Nakawa

57

This is based on data on 5 PTCs for which we could get relevant information. Cost per student varies between USh 0,7 to
USh 2.7 million. Table 1.X in Chapter 1 showed that public recurrent unit cost of a PTC trainee was averaging ShS. 1.2
million.
58
The difficulty to get accurate data on PTCs and NTCs functioning and finance issues has prevented us from conducting
an in-depth analysis of PTCs and NTCs unit costs which could have help us in disentangling between all those factors.
59
See tables A3.6 in the annex for details from NAPE. Of interest is that in terms of subject proficiency of S2 teachers in the
various subjects, here were no significant differences.

66

VTI and Jinja VTI to National Instructors Colleges, and Strengthening Kyambogo University and DIT as
awarding bodies (MoES, 2012c).

67

KEY RESULTS CHAPTER 3:

TEACHER TRAINING
Teacher qualification still remains an issue, although the situation has improved over the last 5 years.
In 2010, 12.7 percent of primary teachers and 16.1 percent of secondary teachers were not qualified;
proportions that are however lower than those registered in 2006 were the share of the unqualified
was respectively of 18 percent and 19 percent. Yet, this drop was essentially driven by a reduction of
the number of unqualified teachers in public schools, which shares dropped from 12 to 3 percent in
primary and from 9 to 6 percent in secondary over 2006-10. This results in a situation where the vast
majority of the unqualified (86 percent) are operating in the private sector. In 2010, almost 35
percent of private teachers were unqualified in primary, and 16 percent in secondary. This situation
is partially concerning at secondary level where most of the students are enrolled (69 percent of the
secondary schools are private). Dedicating more resources to adequately monitor teacher quality in
private schools would be necessary.
The BTVET sector also suffers from qualification issues among its teaching staff. 30 percent of the
estimated 5,000 instructors have the minimum requirements to teach (40 percent in public and 21
percent in private institutions); this translated into 3,500 instructors in needs of upgrading training,
especially in competences related to occupational skills, industrial experience and instructional skills.
Continuous professional development or upgrading for un/under-qualified teachers still remains a
challenge. There is to date no institutionalized system for in-service teacher education/CPD to enable
teachers to improve their professional competencies. In addition, current in-service capacities are
insufficient to cover the needs. Moreover, such programs are currently unavailable for
under/unqualified secondary teachers and BTVET instructors. This is worrying as the current reform
of the BTVET sub-sector in general and the introduction of the UVQF following the principles of CBET,
in particular, will require highly competent and well-motivated instructors in sufficient numbers,
which call for a rapid setup of in-service trainings opportunities.
Under current intake conditions, NTCs and ITCs are able to cover current teachers needs, while PTCs
are not. However, if to sustain education expansion, both primary teachers and BTVET instructors
training systems will need to expand their physical intake capacity by a factor of 1.8 (under low
growth scenario) to comply with teachers needs by 2025. Oversupply of secondary teachers will
continue to remain till 2025 should the system continue to produce such high level of secondary
teacher outputs, unless they enter the private teaching sector, facing dire issues of teacher
qualification. Should secondary teachers working in private schools be accounted for, the current
capacities of both NTCs and University will not be able to cater for all teachers training need by 2025,
and would require an increase of 1.3 of the current outputs to comply with needs.
Some evidences suggest low level of subject mastery among primary teachers, with proficiency levels
averaging 37 percent in oral reading, 66 percent in numeracy, and 73 percent in literacy. The low
level of mastery in oral reading is concerning and is potentially associate with an inadequate
coverage in PTCs, a general lack of books, and of reading culture. More specifically, the limited use of
spoken English, and the interferences with the mother tongue, associated with inadequate reading
68

skill further limits oral reading abilities. As far as numeracy is concerned, inadequate teaching
methods in PTCs, along with initial poor teacher trainees mathematic and sciences competences,,
and lack of tutors in mathematics and sciences subjects could account for poor mastery of sciences
subjects among teachers.
Patchy information provides some ground on the fact that PTCs do not provide teacher trainees with
the required skills. Indeed, PTCs have virtually no impact on student final performances (good PTCs
are good because their trainees had initially good skills); this result calls for further analyses to better
understand what are the main factors driving TTCs quality and identify the levers that could impact
positively on TTCs quality and ultimately on teacher quality.
PTCs and NTCs funding levels require further analysis: the level of capitation grant of Ugx 1,800 per
trainee per day for PTCs and NTCs is said to be too low to adequately run teacher colleges. In depth
analysis of teacher training colleges financing would be needed to better assess this statement.
Patchy data at hand show relatively high public unit cost for PTCs, along wide disparities in PTC
trainees unit cost, from one to three. While the College ability to raise additional funding impact on
the level of unit costs, how efficiently teachers are used and possibilities of economies of scale also
affect unit cost levels. Disentangling between playing factors at stake would require collecting
appropriate data on a sizeable number of PTCs and NTCs.

69

Annex 3
Table A3.1. Distribution of Estimated Primary and Secondary Teachers* according to Qualification,
and Ownership, 2006-2010
Number and Percent
2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Primary
Number of teachers

187,382

164,573

160,248

196,904

184,326

Share Qualified

82.0%

86.7%

88.4%

85.7%

87.3%

Share Unqualified

18.0%

13.3%

11.6%

14.3%

12.7%

Number to be trained

33,683

21,816

18,523

28,239

23,363

Government schools
Number of Teachers

133,981

130,998

126,785

127,540

126,448

Share Unqualified

11.2%

7.6%

5.7%

3.4%

2.7%

Number to be trained

15 069

9 988

7 227

4 336

3 363

Number of teachers

53,401

33,575

33,463

69,364

57,878

Share Unqualified

34.9%

35.2%

33.8%

34.5%

34.6%

Number to be trained

18,614

11,829

11,296

23,903

20,000

Number of teachers

84,891

91,528

86,528

91,611

81,038

Share Qualified

81.0%

81.1%

81.9%

83.1%

83.9%

Share Unqualified

19.0%

18.9%

18.1%

16.9%

16.1%

Number to be trained

16,136

17,307

15,661

15,445

13,021

Private schools

Secondary

Government schools
Number of Teachers

20,577

22,808

23,545

26,814

25,970

Share Unqualified

9.4%

8.6%

7.9%

6.4%

6.2%

Number to be trained

1,941

1,962

1,863

1,712

1,614

64,314

68,720

62,983

64,797

55,068

Private schools
Number of Teachers
Share Unqualified

22.1%

22.3%

21.9%

21.2%

20.7%

Number to be trained

14,195

15,344

13,798

13,732

11,407

Source: EMIS, various years. *Figures are estimated based on EMIS figures and schools under-reporting levels.

Table A3.2. Distribution of Primary teachers according to Qualification, by School Ownership, 20062010
Percent
2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Un/undertrained

11.2

7.6

5.7

3.4

2.7

Trained

88.8

92.4

94.3

96.6

97.3

Grade III

66.9

67.9

68.1

67.5

67.0

DPE

14.5

16.8

18.2

20.4

21.2

Grade IV

2.7

3.1

3.5

4.1

4.2

Government

70

Grade V

4.6

4.6

4.6

4.6

4.9

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Un/undertrained

34.9

35.2

33.8

34.5

34.6

Trained

65.1

64.8

66.2

65.5

65.4

Grade III

52.2

51.6

52.8

52.7

53.2

DPE

4.3

4.7

4.6

4.5

4.3

Grade IV

3.2

3.4

4.0

3.9

3.9

Total
Private

Grade V
Total

5.5

5.1

4.8

4.4

4.1

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Source: EMIS: various years.

Table A3.3. Distribution of Secondary teachers according to Qualification, by School Ownership,

2006-2010
Percent
Total

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Government
Un/undertrained

9.4

8.6

7.9

6.4

6.2

90.6

91.4

92.1

93.6

93.8

7.7

8.0

27.3

31.4

36.6

DES

39.7

39.5

19.6

13.1

8.0

Graduate

43.1

43.9

45.1

49.1

49.2

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Un/undertrained

22.1

22.3

21.9

21.2

20.7

Trained

77.9

77.7

78.1

78.8

79.3

7.0

6.7

17.3

23.6

27.0

43.5

42.2

30.4

22.5

18.8

Trained
Grade V

Total
Private

Grade V
DES
Graduate
Total
Source: EMIS: various years.

27.4

28.7

30.4

32.7

33.5

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

71

Table A3.4. Mean Scores of Primary Teachers by the Highest Teaching Qualification, and by
Teacher Experience. 2011
Percent
Numeracy
Mean
SE

Literacy

Teaching Qualification
Grade III
79.7
0.61
Grade V Primary
79.1
1.10
Grade V Sec
76.5
3.70
Bachelor in Ed
82.7
3.54
Others
82.2
1.91
Years of Experience
1-5
81.3
0.93
6-10
78.3
0.97
11-15
79.0
1.06
16-20
78.9
1.67
Over 20
79.8
1.71
Source: NAPE Report. 2011. P3 and P6 teachers.

Oral reading
Mean
SE

Total
Number of
Obs.

Mean

SE

79.2
80.4
84.1
77.9
81.0

0.60
1.08
1.86
5.18
3.06

75.8
79.6
83.8
76.8
81.1

0.68
1.08
2.53
5.27
2.15

1176
397
19
28
29

79.3
81.3
69.6
76.8
79.3

0.20
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03

75.8
74.8
77.5
81.7
80.1

1.04
1.08
1.25
1.43
1.88

475
494
335
164
150

Table A3.5. OLevel Score and 2011 Grade III Examination Final Score. Various PTCs
Score
Mean
Bishop Willis
Bwera
Canon Apolo
Gulu
Kiyoora
Total

46.4
45.8
47.0
43.7
45.5

AGG O Level
Min
na
16
21
29
22
16

Max
55
59
58
59
59

Grade III Final Exam Mean Score (1)

Mean
Min
Max
Number of Students
6.2
3.3
8.1
204
6.3
4.1
7.4
124
6.2
3.7
7.7
231
6.3
3.9
7.6
142
5.9
3.0
7.6
210
6.2
3.0
8.1
911

Source : Grade III Examination data. 2011. for Bishop Willis. Bwera.Canon Apolo.Gulu.and Kiyoora. (1) Average scores were
computed based on students subjects grades. Na: non-available.

Table A3.6. Secondary Teachers Rated Proficient. by Highest Teaching Qualification, and by
Teaching Experience. 2011
Percent
English Language
Mathematic
Biology
Teaching Qualification
Grade V Secondary
68.0
80.1
15.2
Degree in Education
75.9
68.9
18.6
Others *
69.5
60.7
15.9
Teaching Experience (years) (1)
1-5
75.9
67.6
16.5
6-10
59.9
78.3
13.2
11-15
70.4
86.9
18.1
16-20
79.2
63.3
2.9
Over 20
76.3 *
64.9 *
49.3 *
Total
69.4
70.3
16.6
Source: NAPE Report. 2011. S2 teachers. * Results to be taken with caution as too few observations. (1) Differences not
statistically significant.

72

Table A3.7. Secondary Students Rated Proficient. by Highest Teacher Teaching Qualification, and
by Teacher Teaching Experience. 2011
Percent
Teaching Qualification (1)
Grade V Secondary
Degree in Education
Others *
Teaching Experience (years) (2)
1-5
6-10
11-20

English Language

Mathematic

Biology

63.0
72.9
59.5

35.0
44.6
30.6

17.7
25.1
10.7

67.1
64.8

38.6
32.6

18.2
21.9

66.2

39.8

19.7

Over 20
64.3
40.5
19.5
Total
66.4
38.2
19.6
Source: NAPE Report. 2011. S2 Students and teachers. * Results to be taken with caution as too few observations. A student
is rated proficient when s/he reached adequate and advanced level; a teacher is rated proficient whens/he reached the
advanced level (1) Differences between Grade V and Degree holders not significant. (2) Differences not statistically
significant..

Annex 3.1: Revised Grade III certificate curriculum

The teacher educators are required to integrate their teaching/tutoring during the Curriculum
implementation because most of the content has been housed in a certain discipline to avoid
repetitions. The previous PTE Curriculum and resources should be utilized for referencing purposes.
For every Theme/Unit/Topic some instructional strategies have been suggested. A tutor is advised to
create and apply beyond the proposed for context/setting uniqueness. There is need to apply a
variety of hands on Methodology (Participatory and Experiential) to impact on trainee learning and
mastery of skills.
The environment and Whole School/College Approach should be used in the implementation of the
revised Curriculum. The use of Internet and other relevant Media should be supportive in enriching
the revised PTE Curriculum. With the Information Communication Technology Support in PTCs. its
use as a methodology for teaching and learning shall be of added advantage.

73

Year I.During the First year.all candidates shall take all the thirteen (13) subjects. The programme
shall comprise:
SUBJECT
CODE
P101

P102
P103
P104
P105
P106
P107
P108
P109
P110
P111
P112
P113

SUBJECT NAME

Professional Education Studies (PES). (Foundations of

Education (FED). Special Needs Education (SNE). General
Methods
English Language Education (ELE)
Social Studies Education (SSE)
Integrated Science Education (ISE)
Mathematics Education (MTE)
Religious Education (IRE and CRE)
Kiswahili Education (KSE)
Local Language Education (LLE)
Music Education (Performing Arts) (MSE)
Physical Education (PHE)
Early Childhood Education (ECD)
Integrated Production (IPS) Home Economics. Arts and Crafts.
Technical Education
Agriculture Education (AE)
Total Contact hours excluding examination time

CONTACT
HOURS

Contact
Hours per
week

Time
Allocation

161

12%

130
99
132
130
76
84
132
60
66
140

3
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
4
2

9%
7%
10%
9%
6%
6%
10%
4%
5%
10%

99

7%

66
1375

2
33

5%
100%

Year II: During the Second year. a student will specialize in either in Lower Primary (P1 P.3) or
Upper Primary (P4 P7). He or she will choose any two specified Electives. The Year II subjects
include:
SUBJECT
CODE

SUBJECT NAME

P201 *

Professional Education Studies (PES). (Foundations of Education

(FED). Special Needs Education (SNE). General Methods
P202 *
English Language Education (ELE)
P203 *
Social Studies Education (SSE)
P204 *
Integrated Science Education (ISE)
P205 *
Mathematics Education (MTE)
P206 *
Religious Education (IRE and CRE)
P207 *
Kiswahili Education (KSE)
P208
Local Language Education (LLE)
P209
Music Education (Performing Arts) (MSE)
P210
Physical Education (PHE)
P211
Early Childhood Education (ECD)
P212
Integrated Production (IPS) Home Economics. Arts and Crafts.
Technical Education
P213
Agriculture Education (AE)
P214 *
School Practice I
P215 *
School Practice II
Total Contact hours excluding examination time
Note *: The following shall be Compulsory Subjects in the Second Year:

74

HOURS

Contact
Hours per
week

Time
Allocation

102

7%

90
60
80
90
28
57
53
42
48
90

4
3
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
3

6%
4%
6%
6%
2%
4%
4%
3%
3%
6%

48

3%

40
280
280
1388

3%
20%
20%
100%

40

Electives
A student shall select two subjects either in Upper or Lower Primary.
Lower Primary: A candidate who selects the Lower Primary School option must take P 211: Early
Childhood Development paper and any one of the following papers: P208 Local Language Education;
P209 Music Education; P210 Physical Education; P212 Integrated Production Skills (IPS)
Upper Primary: A candidate shall select one subject from Block A and another from Block B as shown
below:
Subjects in Block A:
P209 Music Education; P210 Physical Education
Subjects inBlock B:
P212 Integrated Production Skills (IPS); P213 Agriculture Education

School Practice (560 Hours)

There shall be two blocks of supervised School Practice to be carried out in PrimarySchools (SP).
namely P214 and P215. Each School Practice shall last 6 weeks in Term I and Term III of the Second
year:
i.
The first school practice shall contribute up to 30%.
ii.
The Second School Practice shall contribute up to 70%
The candidate shall sit for Thirteen (13) theory examination papers in the first year and then sit for
Ten (10) theory examination papers in the Second year.

75

CHAPTER 4: RECRUITMENT, DEPLOYMENT, ABSENTEEISM AND ATTRITION

This chapter deals with issues related to teacher management. Four aspects are analysed:
1. Teacher recruitment. What is the process for teacher recruitment? What is the number of
teachers the government recruit using this process? Can this process lead to the recruitment
of the adequate number of teachers needed to achieve the national education objectives?
2. Teacher deployment: Are there enough teachers in the educations system? Are these
teachers utilised/deployed adequately?
3. Teacher absenteeism: What is the magnitude of teacher absenteeism? What are the causes
of teacher absenteeism?
4. Teacher attrition: What is the magnitude of teacher attrition? What are the causes of
attrition?

4.1. Teacher recruitment

This section describes the process of teacher recruitment and analyses the sustainability of this
process in terms of its capacity to recruit enough teachers. We focus on teachers in government
schools60.

4.1.1. The teacher recruitment process

The process of teacher recruitment varies according to the level of education.
At primary level:
Vacancies are identified at school level by the head teacher, using the recommended staff
establishment formula. The formula is implemented in two steps:
o
o

Step 1: each class/stream must have a teacher. Therefore, any case of class/stream
without a teacher identifies a vacancy.
Step 2: The school is entitled to receive extra teachers according to its level of
enrolment. Indeed, if the pupils-teacher ratio in a school is greater than 53 (53 being the
PTR at national level, and this can varies over time), then any additional 53 pupils over
and above (53x761) as per school enrolment will attract an extra teacher.

60

According to the interviews conducted with education stakeholders, there is no clear or unique process of
teacher recruitment in private schools. Interviewees also reported that private schools recruit teachers with no
control and without paying attention to the rules set by MoES.
61
If the school has less than 7 grades or if some grades are merges into a single class, the figure will differ from
53x7 and will need to be computed according to the school configuration.

76

The number of vacancies at school level identified by the head teacher is sent to the District
Education Officer (DEO). The DEO compiles the total number of vacancies in its district and then
sends it to the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO). The CAO sends the need to Central Government
(MoPS) for clearance. The MoPS compiles the total number of teacher needs in the country then
liaises with the MoFPED to ascertain availability of funds for paying the teachers.
The amount of resources available at MoFPED determines the number of teachers that can be
recruited at national level. Generally, this number is lower than the total number of vacancies
identified. Therefore, the number of vacancies needs to be cut down. The Office of the Permanent
Secretary of MoES is responsible for the decision on how many teachers each district is allowed to
recruit.
The decisions taken by the PS office is based on the idea to reduce disparities between districts
PTRs. Using EMIS data for each district, PS office compares the number of teachers in each school
and identifies cases where there is a surplus of teachers. These teachers need to be re-deployed in
schools of the same district where there is lack of teachers. This reduces the number of vacancies
initially identifies. Once this is done for all the districts, a new series of real vacancies per district is
derived. The total number of teachers to be recruited, according to fund availability, is allocated to
districts by the PS office according to their real need for teachers. The PS then writes to CAOs on the
number of teachers to be recruited by each district.
After approval of the recruitment work plan by the MoPS, the CAO declares allowed vacancies to the
DSC requesting for the recruitment of the number of teachers that fit within the available budget.
DSC recruits the number of teachers allowed and sends them to the CAO for issuing letters of
appointment. Finally the DEO deploys teachers to schools.
Eligible candidates to the position of primary teacher must meet the following requirements:

Complete successfully a training approved by the Ministry of Education (Grade III Certificate
or Diploma in Primary Education),

Registered with the Ministry of Education and Sports.

The report of the monitoring of the recruitment of primary school teachers 2011 shows that in all
districts, the number of applicants was higher than the real number of vacancies. This is a signal that
the job of primary teacher is attractive (chapter 5 provides more information on the attractiveness of
a teaching position). Candidates that are selected sign a contract with the district and can only be
posted in a school within the district.

Given that the government budget does not allow to recruit the exact number of teachers needed,
some government schools that still lack teachers are obliged to recruit teachers off payroll and pay
them using resources mobilized by the school62. There is no clear process for this kind of recruitment;
despite the fact that according to the rules, every teacher must be registered at MoES before being
in charge of a classroom, there is no control on the profile of the teacher recruited directly at school
level.

62

It is estimated that about 2% of teachers in government schools are off payroll (EMIS, 2010).

77

At secondary level:
Staffing gaps are identified at school level by the head teacher based on the recommended teaching
load and the subjects offered by the school (Each teacher is required to teach 24 periods of 40
minutes a week, hence corresponding to 16 hours per week. A stream in S1 and S2 should learn 50
periods a week. A stream in S3 and S4 should learn 36 to 38 periods per week. A stream in S5 and S6
should learn 26 periods per week). For a given subject, the head teacher compares the total number
of hours to give and divides them by the total number of teachers who offer the subject/ considering
teacher workload. The remaining periods determine the need. The head teacher then submits the
teacher need, by subject, to the commissioner secondary (MoES).
The commissioner secondary aggregates all the needs, by subject, at national level and provides the
budget implication to the PS/MoES. The PS/MoES writes to MoFPED for budget allocation depending
on the number of teachers to be recruited and finance gives the feedback. The PS/MoES then gets
clearance from MoPS to recruit. After clearance, PS/MoES submits to ESC to recruit. ESC implements
the recruitment process (advertisement, short listing, interviews, appointment) and submits to MoES
for deployment. Finally, commissioner secondary school deploys teachers to schools according to
needs.

Eligible candidates to these positions must meet the following requirements:

Complete successfully the training approved by the Ministry of Education (Grade V

Certificate or Diploma in Secondary Education and degree certificate for graduate teachers)

Registered with the Ministry of Education and Sports

Table 3.1 extracted from the Education Service Commission annual report for the financial year
2011/2012 gives insight on the status of the recruitment of new teachers in government aided
secondary schools.
Table 3.1: Appointment of assistant education officers for government aided secondary schools,
FY 2011/2012

A.E.O (Mathematics)

70

67

54

39

Ratio
appointed vs.
vacancies
56%

A.E.O (Chemistry)

60

38

34

15

25%

A.E.O (Physics)

38

36

33

14

37%

A.E.O (Biology)

110

47

43

22

20%

300

60

100%

A.E.O (English)

58

82

66

50

86%

A.E.O (Kiswahili)

58

104

84

58

100%

403

674

374

207

51%

Vacancies

A.E.O (Agriculture)

Total

No. Applicants No. Shortlisted

Source: Education Service Commission annual report for the financial year 2011/2012

78

No. Appointed

During the financial year 2011/2012, 403 positions were identified as vacant in government aided
secondary schools. A total of 674 candidates expressed their interest in taking these positions;
however, many of them could not meet the requirement. After analysis of their applications, only
374 candidates were eligible63. In subjects related to science (mathematics, chemistry, physics,
biology), the number of eligible candidates is lower than the vacancies. Therefore, when it was
possible to recruit enough teachers in other subjects (Agriculture, English, and Kiswahili) the number
of teachers targeted in science subjects could not be reached. Overall, only half of the positions
advertised could be filled (207 out of 403). This is a major issue as it indicates that the system is not
able to recruit enough teachers for secondary schools, especially for science subjects.
Summing up, budgetary constraints and the number of eligible candidates for secondary teacher
positions are the two major issues MoES is facing in recruiting the adequate number of teachers.
4.1.2. Systems capacity to recruit teachers:
To assess to what extent the system has the capacity to recruit the number of teachers needed in the
years to come, table 3.2 compares the evolution of the number of teachers recruited in the past to
the evolution required according to the projected need.
Table 3.2: Evolution of the number of teachers in primary and secondary between 2000 and 2025

Primary

2000

2010

Government Schools

82 148

126 448

216 580

263 186

4,4%

3,7%

5,0%

Private schools

28 218

45 995

99 266

98 695

5,0%

5,3%

5,2%

Total

110 366

172 443

315 846

361 880

4,6%

4,1%

5,1%

Government Schools

12 541

26 758

70 555

141 483

7,9%

6,7%

11,7%

17 843

38 073

123 024

134 524

7,9%

8,1%

8,8%

30 384

64 831

193 579

276 007

7,9%

7,6%

10,1%

Secondary Private schools

Total

2025
(high scenario)

Average
Average annual Average annual
annual
growth rate
growth rate
growth rate
2010-2025
2010-2025
2000-2010
(low scenario) (high scenario)

2025
(low scenario)

Source: EMIS data, and projections of the number of teachers needed (see chapter 2)

Table 3.2 shows that in order to maintain the current trend in the expansion of the education system,
the government is already recruiting enough teachers. It can therefore limit its effort to the
recruitment of the same number of teachers it has done during the recent past.

63

Further analyses are needed in order to identify the reasons for this shortage.

79

But, if the objective is to achieve the education objectives (EFA, USE/UPPET), then the number of
teachers currently recruited per year is not enough. There is need to significantly expand the number
of teachers. Indeed in primary, the increase in the total number of teachers expected in the future in
order to meet the education objectives is slightly higher (5.0%) than the increase observed in the
recent past (4.4%). At secondary level the average annual growth rate of the teaching staff expected
in the future is higher (11.7%) than the average annual growth rate observed in the past (7.9%).
Private schools will also have to produce more effort before achieving the education objectives.

4.2. Teacher deployment

This section examines whether in practice, the teacher deployment process described previously is
effective. The effectiveness is assessed in terms of the matching between what is observed on the
ground and what is expected by MoES. The focus is on government schools.

4.2.1. State of teacher deployment in primary schools

The first criterion for teacher allocation in primary schools is that each class/stream must have a
teacher. An easy way to see if there are enough teachers in the system to comply with this criterion
is to look at the ratio number of teachers in government primary schools to the number of
classes/streams in government primary schools.
Using EMIS data for the school year 2010, one can compute that at national level, the ratio is equal
to 1.11. As the ratio is greater than 1, one can conclude that there are enough teachers in the system
to comply with the first criterion 64 (at least one teacher per class/stream). Therefore, it is possible for
MoES to post one teacher in each class in government primary school using the current teaching
staff.
A breakdown of this ratio by district shows a wide disparity. While some districts displays a teacher
per class ratio greater than 1 (reaching 1.6 in Kampala, 1.7 in Kween and almost 2 in Maracha), 28
districts out of the 112 have a teacher per class ratio lower than 1 (the most extreme cases being
Oyam, Mubende, Kyankwanzi with a ratio of 0.7 and Buyende with a ratio of 0.4). One can conclude
that these 28 districts lack teachers.
The second criterion for teacher allocation in government primary school is the level of enrolment:
schools with a high level of enrolment must be allocated a higher number of teachers as compare to
schools with low level of enrolment. Another ratio can be used to analyze to what extent this is the
case on the ground: it is the pupils-teacher ratio.
Again, using EMIS data for the school year 2010, one can compute that at national level, the pupilsteacher ratio in government schools was equal to 57:1. Teacher allocation to districts should
therefore be conducted in a way that each district has a PTR close to 57:1. Unfortunately, the
comparison of PTR by districts shows a wide variety. If we consider that a value of PTR close to 57:1 is
64

Note that teachers in government schools that are not on the payroll are integrated in the computation. They
represent 2% of the teaching staff in government schools.

80

acceptable, let say for instance between 50:1 and 60:1, then one can conclude that among the 112
districts, 31 have enough teachers and 27 districts have a PTR lower than 50:1. In the remaining 54
districts, the number of teachers is not enough. The magnitude of this lack varies; in the most
extreme cases, the PTR is greater than 1:70 (see Annex 3.1).

Another analysis can be used to specifically identify schools and districts where there is a lack of
teachers. Using the national PTR of 57:1, the number of classes per school and the level of enrolment
in each school, the exact number of teachers a school is entitled to receive can be computed, based
on the staff establishment formula. One can then compare the result of this computation to the
current number of teachers in the schools: this allows identifying schools with a surplus of teachers
(37%), schools with a deficit of teachers (45%) and school with the adequate number of teachers
(17%). A breakdown of these figures by district can be provided (see table 3.3)65.

Tabe 3.3: Status of teacher deployment in school,by districts, 2010

% of schools % of schools % of schools
in deficit of with enough in surplus of
teachers
teachers
teachers

District

District

% of schools % of schools
in deficit of with enough
teachers
teachers

% of schools
in surplus of
teachers

Abim
Adjumani

56%
61%

15%
21%

29%
18%

Kitgum
Koboko

70%
60%

12%
10%

18%
31%

Agago
Alebtong
Amolatar
Amudat

81%
72%
61%
91%

11%
12%
12%
9%

8%
16%
27%
0%

Kole
Kotido
Kumi
Kween

72%
100%
84%
27%

10%
0%
2%
7%

18%
0%
14%
67%

Amuria
Amuru
Apac
Arua

59%
87%
74%
59%

15%
2%
7%
9%

25%
12%
19%
32%

Kyankwanzi
Kyegegwa
Kyenjojo
Lamwo

58%
77%
62%
71%

17%
16%
21%
14%

25%
8%
18%
15%

Budaka
Bududa
Bugiri
Buhweju

80%
36%
65%
40%

11%
19%
15%
21%

9%
45%
21%
40%

Lira
Luuka
Luwero
Lwengo

39%
47%
29%
39%

10%
24%
20%
22%

50%
29%
51%
38%

Buikwe
Bukedea
Bukomansimbi
Bukwo

50%
63%
39%
44%

21%
23%
28%
12%

29%
13%
33%
44%

Lyantonde
Manafwa
Maracha
Masaka

20%
30%
64%
21%

11%
19%
14%
24%

69%
51%
22%
55%

Bulambuli
Bulisa
Bundibugyo
Bushenyi

37%
70%
45%
21%

23%
7%
17%
27%

40%
23%
38%
53%

Masindi
Mayuge
Mbale
Mbarara

26%
62%
41%
21%

17%
15%
11%
31%

57%
23%
48%
48%

Busia
Butaleja
Butambala

59%
80%
21%

14%
10%
42%

27%
10%
37%

Mitooma
Mityana
Moroto

18%
14%
65%

34%
21%
19%

49%
65%
15%

65

Similar analysis can be run using the most recent available EMIS data.

81

District

% of schools % of schools % of schools

in deficit of with enough in surplus of
teachers
teachers
teachers

District

Buvuma
77%
8%
15%
Buyende
89%
7%
4%
Dokolo
70%
14%
16%
Gomba
32%
31%
37%
Gulu
41%
16%
43%
Hoima
33%
19%
48%
Ibanda
20%
32%
48%
Iganga
27%
19%
54%
Isingiro
56%
20%
24%
Jinja
18%
12%
70%
Kaabong
80%
13%
7%
Kabale
13%
16%
70%
Kabarole
50%
11%
39%
Kaberamaido
76%
15%
9%
Kalangala
63%
25%
13%
Kaliro
71%
14%
15%
Kalungu
22%
31%
47%
Kampala
13%
10%
77%
Kamuli
50%
9%
41%
Kamwenge
50%
26%
24%
Kanungu
44%
18%
38%
Kapchorwa
7%
7%
86%
Kasese
25%
20%
55%
Katakwi
46%
22%
32%
Kayunga
50%
18%
33%
Kibaale
66%
18%
16%
Kiboga
24%
26%
50%
Kibuku
76%
10%
14%
Kiruhura
66%
20%
14%
Kiryandongo
63%
18%
19%
Kisoro
42%
23%
35%
Source: Authors computation using EMIS data, 2010.

Moyo
Mpigi
Mubende
Mukono
Nakapiripirit
Nakaseke
Nakasongola
Namayingo
Namutumba
Napak
Nebbi
Ngora
Ntoroko
Ntungamo
Nwoya
Otuke
Oyam
Pader
Pallisa
Rakai
Rubirizi
Rukungiri
Sembabule
Serere
Sheema
Sironko
Soroti
Tororo
Wakiso
Yumbe
Zombo

% of schools % of schools
in deficit of with enough
teachers
teachers
14%
24%
53%
40%
65%
45%
30%
74%
49%
76%
58%
64%
50%
38%
70%
78%
66%
71%
65%
7%
43%
8%
42%
72%
24%
59%
59%
83%
23%
25%
70%

12%
30%
21%
11%
8%
27%
21%
6%
16%
7%
20%
18%
17%
26%
12%
9%
9%
19%
12%
13%
22%
15%
17%
10%
25%
18%
11%
7%
13%
17%
15%

% of schools
in surplus of
teachers
74%
46%
27%
49%
28%
28%
49%
20%
35%
17%
22%
18%
33%
37%
19%
13%
25%
10%
23%
80%
35%
77%
40%
17%
52%
24%
30%
10%
64%
58%
16%

Drawing this table every school year is very useful for planning purposes. It shows which district is in
acute need of teachers: they are those where the share of schools in deficit is very high. For instance,
in Kotido, every school is in deficit. Similar conclusion can be said for Amudat, Buyende. The table
also shows that in some districts, before planning to post additional teachers, one should first redeploy teachers by withdrawing extra teachers in schools with surplus and posts them in school with
deficit. In the following district for instance, more than half of the school have more teachers than

82

they are supposed to get66: Bushenyi, Jinja, Kampala, Kapschorwa, Kiboga, Kween, Lyantonde,
Mityana, Rakai, Rukungiri and Wakiso.

These results show that the staff establishment formula is not adequately implemented. As a result,
some schools get more teacher than they should, whereas other lack teachers. A better monitoring
of teacher deployment in government primary schools is therefore needed.

4.2.2. State of teacher deployment in secondary schools

In secondary schools, a group of students (stream) learn different subjects taught by various
teachers. A teacher can teach more than one subject. This setting, different from primary, implies a
different methods for the analysis of teacher deployment. The approach adopted here is to compare
the number of hours of learning students in a school deserve, to the number of teaching hours the
teaching force in a school can give. If we take the example of a lower secondary school with one
stream per grade, we know that each stream deserves 10 periods of 40 minutes a day, which
corresponds to 33,33 hours a week. For the entire school, the students will deserve 33,33 hours x 4 =
133,32 hours. Yet, we know that a teacher in lower secondary must teach 16 hours a week. To be
able to fulfill the 133,32 hours, the school will need at least 8 teachers (= 133.32/33.33).
In upper secondary schools, a group of students (stream) is supposed to take 3 principal subjects and
1 optional subject. Each principal subject deserves 6 periods of 40 minutes a week and the optional
subject deserves 4 periods of 40 minutes a week. So, in total, a group of students (stream) in upper
secondary is supposed to receive 14,67 hours of lessons per week. At this level, teachers have a
lower workload; they are supposed to teach 12 hours per week67.
The comparison of the number of hours to be receive by students to the number of hours the
teaching force can give is used to analyze i) whether there are enough teachers at secondary level
and ii) whether the available teachers are posted in secondary schools according to the needs in
terms of hours to cover.
i)

Are there enough secondary teachers in the system?

According to data available68, the total number of streams in 971 government secondary schools was
equal to 10 024 hence corresponding to a deserved learning hours of 294 204. Yet, the total number
of teachers in these 971 schools was equal to 25 585, hence corresponding to a strict minimum

66

Using EMIS data, it is possible to know which schools have a surplus or a deficit of teachers, and how many.
One can then aggregate the figures to find the exact number of teacher need by district.
67
Note that in 2012, this has been changed. Teachers are supposed to teach 16 hours a week and students now
have 4 principal subjects and 1 subsidiary, corresponding to 17,33 hours of learning per week. Given that data
are for 2010, we use the former setting for analysis. However, results of the analysis though different in figures,
lead to the same conclusion.
68
Out of the 996 government secondary schools that were operating in 2010 EMIS has collected complete
information on the number of streams per grade (S1 to S6) in 971 schools.

83

potential workload of 307 488 hours. This figure is rather an underestimation of the real value69.
However, with this underestimated figure, the number of teaching hours the teaching force can give
is greater than the number of hours students must receive. One can therefore conclude that at
national level, there are enough teachers in government schools.
At school level, when comparing the number of teaching hours the teaching staff can give to the
number of hours students in the school deserve, it appears that 53% of government secondary
schools have enough teachers70.
The results suggest two things:
a) The resources currently used to hire teachers in government schools (including resources
from government and schools) are enough to hire the adequate number of teachers. But,
one still need to analyze what happen when it comes to subjects. Nevertheless, patchy
evidences suggest that some subjects (especially science subjects) lack teachers. There is a
need to better address how many teachers are recruited by subject.
b) The fact that at national level the number of teachers is sufficient and yet, many schools still
lack teachers suggests there is an issue of teacher deployment.

ii)

Are available teachers posted where they are needed?

At secondary level, we can consider that there is a good deployment if more teaching hours are
made available to schools were there are more need of learning hours. The consistency of the system
in the allocation of teachers to schools is assessed on the basis of the determination coefficient (R)
of the linear regression of the number of teachers in the schools against that of pupils. This
determination coefficient provides information on the proportion in the number of teaching hours
made available in a school explained by the number of learning hours students in that school are
supposed to receive. The complement of the determination coefficient to 1 (1-R2 referred to as
degree of randomness) measures the proportion unexplained by learning hours students are
supposed to receive. The lower the degree of randomness the more consistent is the system in the
allocation of teachers to schools. On the contrary, the higher the degree of randomness, the less
consistent the system is(see figure 3.1).

69

We make the assumption that each of the 25 585 teachers will teach about 12 hours a week. In reality, must
of them are lower secondary teachers and are supposed to teach more than 12 hours (actually 16h). Therefore,
the real potential workload is greater than 304,488 hours.
70
With the increase in the upper secondary teacher workload from 12 hours to 16 hours per week, this figure
goes up to 82%. One can then conclude that this measure, if effective, help reducing the gap in terms of
teacher need in many schools.

84

Figure 3.1: Consistency of teacher deployment at secondary level

Secondary schools

1400

R = 0.602

Number of teaching hours tachers can give

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0

100

200
300
400
500
600
Number of learning hours deserved bystudents

700

800

Source: Authors computation using EMIS data, 2010

Figure 3.1 shows a general tendency to allocate more teaching hours (hence teachers) in schools
where there is more need of learning hours (streams). However, in many cases, schools with
approximately the same need received a very different number of teaching hours. For instance, in
schools where students deserve about 450 learning hours per week, the staff available in some
school can provide only 200 hours whereas staff in other schools of the same need can provide up to
1000 hours. This general trend is confirmed by the value of the degree of randomness 1-R2 which is
somehow high (0.40), hence indicating that other factors than the need in terms of hours guide the
deployment of teachers in secondary schools71.
There is need for MoES to question the process of teacher allocation so as to make it more equitable.

4.3. Teacher absenteeism

Despite the fact that teacher absenteeism is a salient topic, there is not much information available
on the topic. Even the definition of teacher absenteeism can create controversy; does it refer to the
fact of not reporting to work? Does it integrate the fact of being at work but doing nothing? Does it

71

It is possible to specifically identify schools in surplus of staff and schools in deficit of staff.

85

refer to being in class but not doing what is related to the curricula? Etc. As a result, it is generally
difficult to collect information on teacher absenteeism and to assess its magnitude.
However, MoES has tried to capture the magnitude of teacher absenteeism via repeated joint
monitoring reviews (about two reviews are conducted each year since 2008). The methodology
adopted is simple. Teacher absenteeism is defined as a case where a teacher is supposed to report to
work, yet he has not. Even if this definition can be considered as leading to an underestimation of the
real magnitude of teacher absenteeism, it already provides some insight into the issue. Authorities of
MoES then run unannounced visits in a randomly selected sample of schools. Every joint monitoring
review has selected a different sample of school, but has revealed the same conclusion: the
magnitude of teacher absenteeism is the education system is very high. Moreover, not only teachers
are absent, but head teachers absenteeism is also a crucial issue, and is believed to enhance teacher
absenteeism. The following sentences can be read from the joint monitoring reviews:

Joint Monitoring Report 2008

The monitoring exercise confirmed widespread evidence of high head teachers and pupil
absenteeism in schools. Finding an absent Head teacher has now become a norm in the majority of
schools. During the joint visit for instance, 60% of the head teachers of the eighty (80) schools
sampled, were found out-of station. This obviously has implications for not only teacher
management but also teacher and pupil attendance and accountability
The monitoring team also noted increase in the number of indiscipline cases amongst teachers due
to alcoholism which is a common occurrence in the districts of Kasese, Pader, Kitgum, Busia and
Luwero. This has led to increased absenteeism of teachers in schools.
In majority of the schools visited, the teachers were not in station at the time of the visit

Joint Monitoring Report 2009

While findings from the monitoring exercise indicate that a total of 296 instructors are in post only
208 or 70% of the instructors were present in their respective institutions on the day of the
monitoring visit. That means a total 88 instructors (i.e. 30%) were absent on the day of the
monitoring visit.

Joint Monitoring Report 2011

According to the recently concluded Quality Enhancement Initiative follow up study, Head teacher
attendance was about 62% in the 12 poor performing districts. Low Head teacher attendance is one
of the attributed causes of the declining quality of performance at primary level.
Unlike other monitoring exercises, this exercise ascertained the teachers presence in school as well
as their being on task. It found that 64% of teachers were present, out of which 73% were on task.

Joint Monitoring Report 2012

Findings reveal that out of 765 teachers in primary schools visited, 634 (83%) were present. 17
percent were absent, of which 61 had authorized leave while 57 did not. Extreme cases of teacher

86

absenteeism without authorized leave were observed in the districts of Alebtong, Kiryandongo and
Kalungu.
Findings indicate that head teachers absenteeism rate stands at 19.4 percent in the schools
visited.

Teacher absenteeism is therefore a crucial issue education stakeholders must tackle.

Another source of information that can help estimating teacher absenteeism is SACMEQ data.
SACMEQ is an evaluation of Grade 6 students achievement. It was conducted in Uganda in 2007 and
has targeted 235 government schools all around the country. During that evaluation, the following
question was asked to head-teachers: About how often does the school have to deal with the
following behaviours of teachers? three items on teacher attendance at work were inserted in the
response. Findings are summarized in table 3.4.

Table 3.4: SACMEQ findings on issues related to teachers attendance at work

Answers (%)
About how often does the school have to deal
with the following behaviours of teachers?

Never

Sometimes

Often

Teachers arriving late at school

3.0

52.3

44.6

Teacher absenteeism

6.0

53.2

40.5

25.1

45.1

29.8

Teachers skipping classes

Source: Computed by authors using SACMEQ data, 2007

Teacher attendance is a major issue in the education system. Only 6% schools have reported not
having the issue of teacher absenteeism; these issues appear to be frequent in about 40% schools.
Another issue reported by head teachers are teachers who skip class: this is frequent in about 30%
schools and late arrival to work (in about 45% schools).
The results from SACMEQ 2007 and joint monitoring reviews lead to the same conclusion: teacher
absenteeism, defined as cases where teachers are not at work is frequent in the Ugandan education
system.

4.4. Teacher attrition

Teacher attrition refers to the fact of quitting the teaching profession. In order to assess its
magnitude in the education system, EMIS has inserted a specific question on the issue in the
questionnaire use to collect schools statistics in 2012. Head-teachers were asked to give the number
of teachers who left the school at the end of the school year 2011 and the reason for leaving the
87

school. The analysis of their answers, combined to the data collected in 2011 provides the findings
summarized in table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Teacher attrition in primary and secondary, 2011
Education
sub-cycle

Nb. of teachers
in 2011

Nb. of teachers who quit the

teaching profession

Attrition
rate

Primary

169 503

6,616

4%

Secondary

47 194

2,185

5%

Source: Authors computation using data collected by EMIS

Teacher attrition rate in Uganda is estimated at around 4% in primary and at about 5% in secondary.
This magnitude is closed to the average attrition rate in African countries72.
While collecting the data on teacher attrition, EMIS has identified 6 major causes for teacher
attrition: retirement, death, prolonged illness, transfer to a non-teaching post, dismissal and
resigning. They are depicted in figure 3.2according to their weight in the overall attrition rate.
Figure3.2: Causes of teacher attrition and their magnitude on the overall attrition rate

Primary

8%

Prolonged Illness

4%

Secondary
8%

Transferred to a non-teaching post

15%
9%
7%

Retired

10%
9%

Died

14%
16%

Dismissed

21%
21%

Resigned

31%
28%

Reason not known / Other

0%

5%

10%

15% 20% 25% 30%

35%

Source: Authors computation using data collected by EMIS

72

Eritrea 2%, Gambia 3%, Kenya 3%, Zanzibar 3%, Zambia 5%, Malawi 5%; South Africa, 6%. Source: UNESCO/BREDA
(2009), Analyzing teacher issues in sub-Saharan Africa: A methodological guide, p. 85.

88

Looking at figure 3.2, one can draw the following conclusions:

-

73

The main cause for teacher attrition is resigning; in primary and secondary, they contribute
to about 21% of total attrition. Further investigation is needed to know whether this is
related to a high level of dissatisfaction (see chapter 6) or if many people become teachers as
a starting point before moving to another working position.
A considerable share of attrition is due to teacher dismissal (14% to 16%), hence signalling
the existence of issues related to ethics and teacher behaviour.
Transfers to non-teaching post also contribute to teacher attrition: at secondary level, this
represents 15% of attrition whereas at primary level, it represents only 8%. This shows that
secondary teachers are more likely to be promoted than primary teachers. Chapter 5 will do
an in-depth investigation of this inequity in ladder of promotion and chapter 6 will show how
it impacts teachers satisfaction.
The magnitudes of death and prolonged illness on attrition are rather low (less than 10%);
but put together, they represent about 13% to 18% of attrition.
Retirement, which can be considered as the natural path of teacher attrition, represent only
7% to 9% of attrition.
Finally, in about 30% of the cases, the survey was not able to identify the reason for quitting
the job73.

In-depth investigation or a specific study on the issue is needed.

89

KEY RESULTS CHAPTER 4:

RECRUITMENT, DEPLOYMENT, ABSENTEEISM AND ATTRITION

The government will have to intensify its recruitment effort is education objectives are to be
achieved by 2025. It is estimated that the average annual growth rate of government school teachers
required to meet national education objectives by 2025 is equivalent to 5.0 percent, 0.6 percent
higher than growth over the past 10 years. At secondary level, the required annual growth rate in
teacher numbers must reach 11.7 percent, having stood at an annual average level of 7.9 percent
over the past 10 years.
Attracting good teachers is also a challenge, especially in science subject. Indeed, short listed
candidates for secondary teacher positions are fewer than the number of vacancies. This is especially
true for science subjects where the need for teachers is critical.
At primary level, teachers are not deployment according to the existing rule. There are enough
teachers in the system to care about the currently enrolled student (ratio teacher per class/stream
greater than one). But, teachers are not deployed adequately: some districts lack teachers whereas
others have too many teachers. Moreover, some schools have a surplus of teachers whereas others
are in deficit of teachers. There is a need to effectively deploy teachers according to the staff
establishment formula.
Teacher deployment at secondary levels is suboptimal. At the secondary level, in 40 percent of
cases, teacher allocations do not reflect the expected number of hours of class to be given.
The rate of teacher absenteeism is high. Various joint monitoring reviews conducted since 2008
have come to the same conclusion. This seems to be associated with head teachers absenteeism
which is also high. In 2012, the rate of teacher absenteeism was estimated at 17%. This only takes
into account the fact ongoing being in school. If we consider the fact of being in school but not
teaching, the rate of absenteeism will be even higher.
The level of teacher attrition is close to that observed in neighboring countries. It is estimated that
the teacher attrition rate is four percent at the primary and five percent at the secondary levels. This
is in line with the norm for similar countries. The major causes of teacher attrition identified are
resignation (21 percent) and dismissal (15 percent).

90

Annex 3.1: Pupil teacher ratio by district, government schools, 2010

27 districts with PTR < 50
24.1%

31 districts with 50 < PTR < 60

27.7%

34 districts with 60 < PTR < 70

30.4%

20 districts with PTR > 70

17.9%

Kalangala

34.8

Isingiro

50.5 Bulambuli

60.1

Budaka

70.4

Mbarara

38.1

Yumbe

51.1 Adjumani

60.1

Kumi

71.8

Wakiso

38.4

Kasese

51.1 Soroti

60.8

Tororo

71.9

Kabale

38.9

Ntoroko

51.3 Katakwi

61.2

Otuke

71.9

Rukungiri

38.9

Kiruhura

51.7 Sironko

62.7

Pader

73.0

Bushenyi

39.6

Luwero

51.8 Abim

63.0

Zombo

73.1

Sheema

40.0

Kalungu

52.3 Ngora

63.7

Nwoya

73.5

Kiboga

40.5

Kween

52.4 Arua

64.2

Buvuma

73.7

Mityana

42.0

Iganga

52.6 Bugiri

64.3

Alebtong

73.8

Kampala

42.5

Butambala

52.7 Maracha

64.5

Butaleja

74.3

Mitooma

43.4

Masindi

53.1 Kibaale

64.5

Kyegegwa

74.4

Ibanda

43.5

Nakaseke

53.8 Amolatar

64.9

Kaberamaido

75.1

Nakasongola

43.7

Gomba

54.3 Busia

65.0

Lamwo

75.7

Rakai

44.1

Bududa

54.9 Mayuge

65.2

Kibuku

76.0

Moyo

44.5

Buikwe

55.2 Amuria

65.3

Amuru

78.5

Lyantonde

45.0

Gulu

55.6 Moroto

65.5

Agago

79.8

Kapchorwa

45.3

Kisoro

55.8 Nebbi

65.6

Kaabong

80.6

Buhweju

46.1

Bundibugyo

55.9 Namutumba

66.0

Buyende

91.4

Mukono

46.1

Lwengo

56.1 Pallisa

66.4

Kotido

96.5

Masaka

46.2

Manafwa

56.3 Kitgum

67.6

Amudat

102.6

Sembabule

46.3

Lira

56.5 Kiryandongo

67.6

Ntungamo

47.5

Bukwo

56.7 Kyenjojo

67.9

Jinja

47.6

Hoima

57.1 Bulisa

68.4

Mpigi

49.6

Mbale

57.9 Koboko

68.7

Kyankwanzi

49.6

Kamwenge

58.5 Dokolo

68.8

Rubirizi

49.8

Kabarole

58.6 Oyam

68.9

Kanungu

49.8

Kayunga

59.8 Kaliro

69.2

Bukomansimbi

59.8 Serere

69.2

Kamuli

60.0 Napak

69.2

Mubende

60.0 Apac

69.3

Luuka

60.0 Kole

69.3

Nakapiripirit

69.3

Namayingo

69.7

Bukedea
69.7
Source: Authors computation using EMIS/MoES data, 2010

Most of the districts with high PTR (PTR>70) are newly created districts, located in rural or in hard to
rich/hard to stay areas. Moreover, the process for teacher recruitment in these districts is very slow,
especially due to the fact that few applications for teacher position are recorded. The recent joint
monitoring reviews suggest that building accommodation for teachers can be a strategy to attract
teachers in these areas.

91

CHAPTER 5: TEACHER CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND REMUNERATION

This chapter will look at teacher management issues through a financial lens, by focusing on teacher
professional development and its impact on their remuneration and cost. As seen in chapters 3 and
4, the education system relies on a variety of teacher profiles, with various entry qualifications and
status that shape both teacher remuneration patterns and career path, which impact directly on
education budgets (teacher salaries amounted for a sizeable share of the total recurrent education
budget See chapter 1). Teacher salaries and career opportunities also impact on the relative
attractiveness of the teaching profession, e.g., the ability of the system to attract and retain
individuals in the profession (see also Chapter 6 on job satisfaction).
This chapter deals with issues pertaining to government teacher career development74, and their
related impact on remuneration in primary and post-primary sub-sectors75. Two major sources of
information are mobilized, namely the civil servant and teacher salary structures; and teaching staff
payroll data, to help answer a series of questions pertaining i) to teacher mobility opportunities
(section 1); ii) teacher salary level and composition (section 2); and iii) the teaching profession
attractiveness, at both regional and national levels (section 3). All these issues will be reviewed
successively in the different sections of this chapter.

5.1. Teacher professional mobility throughout the teaching career

Government teacher career development is set by the Scheme of service that provides a
comprehensive framework for career progression and development for civil servant staff progression
in a given organization. It describes minimum entry requirements, training requirement at each level,
career path, job description and specification, job skills and qualities, working experience, and age
requirement.
As far as teaching staff is concerned, the Scheme provides clear information on requirements needed
to upgrade within the various education positions available76. These requirements are based on a
series of specific criteria that a teacher must meet in terms of academic qualifications and
experience:

Minimum level requirement: this consists in the possession of a teaching certificate from a
recognized Teacher Education Institutions, a certificate of registration in the relevant grade
and a medical fitness certificate. All newly appointed teachers are under a probation period
of 6 months (reduced from 2 years as a motivation strategy), after which s/he is eligible for
teaching based on their supervisors appraisal. Confirmation is done in written 4 months
before the end of the probation period to the Education Permanent Secretary with a copy to

74

Although the system relies also on contract-based teachers, this chapter deals with teachers hired by the Government only,
as they constitute the bulk of the teaching force and are those for which a formal career path is available.
75
University teaching staff career evolution is not analyzed here, following lack of comprehensive data.
76
Teachers can benefit from various professional promotion modalities within the education sector: i) s/he can be promoted
from one position to the next one within the same education sector; ii) s/he can change sectors, for instance, from a primary
to a secondary school or from a primary school to an PTC, etc.; and iii) s/he can be transferred from a teaching to an
administrative position at district or central level.

92

the ESC in the case of post-primary teachers, to the Chief education Officer with a copy to
the DSC in the case of primary school teachers. Regarding recommendation for confirmation,
they are made at least 3 months before the end of the probationary period by Heads of
Institutions and School Inspectors and submitted to ESC and CEO/DSC respectively in the
case of post-primary teachers and primary teachers.

Professional growth: According to the Scheme of Service, a teacher is expected to grow

through various mechanisms including upgrading to improve qualification, undertaking
refresher courses, conducting research, attending workshop and seminars (up to 4 for the
top position), etc. For certain top positions, research work in relevant field and development
of a demonstrable workable project. So far, professional growth (or more generally
continuous professional development) is not institutionalized; professional growth being
based on the sole individual will to up-grade using in-service programmes (many operating
on a distance-base or relying on night courses).

Experience: promotion to the next level is based on years of experience in certain positions
that vary between a minimum of 6 years of teaching in initial positions (assistant and
teacher) and 3 years in upper positions (from senior to deputy)

All in all, appointments remain, above all, subject to the availability of a vacancy and funds.
Candidates need also to be eligible for promotion e.g. having acquired the required competencies
and having served for a minimum of years at the lower grade. Indeed, one cannot step up a step,
although in some cases, accelerated promotion is possible when no other qualified candidates could
fulfill the position and if s/he has the set competencies. Promotion to manager positions (deputy,
and head), as all other positions, is based on a competitive selection process (see chapter 4 for
details)77.
Table 5.1 below provides an overview of the promotional ladder and related salary grade for the
various teaching personnel extract from the Scheme of service. As shown, qualified primary teachers
(with a Grade III certificate) start their career at U7 Upper level, while secondary ones start at U5
Upper (Grade V teachers) and U4 Lower (Graduate teachers). U5 Upper is also the grade at which
assistant teaching staff in BTVET and PTCs are recruited, while U4 Lower is the grade at which
tutor/lecturer and teacher from PTCs, NTCs and BTVET start. Some BTVET teaching staff also starts at
a higher grade, U4 Upper. In most cases top management positions (deputy and head) are set at U1.
However primary school head teachers end their career at U4 Upper. Not that ECD teaching staff are
not subject to the scheme, being recruited by private institutions.

77

Note that applicants for top positions as usually already acting head or acting deputy head, or very experienced teachers.

93

Table 5.1: Promotional Ladder: Position, Entry Requirements, and Promotion Modality, by
Education Sub-Sector
Institution
Preprimary
Primary

Secondary

BTVET
(Technical/
Farm
school/
VTC)
BTVET
(TI, TVI,
CoPo)

Position
Care givers
Nursery teacher
Education assistant
Senior education assistant
Principal education assistant
Deputy head teacher
Head teacher
Assistant education officer
Education officer
Senior education officer
Principal education officer
Deputy head teacher
Head teacher
Tech./Farm school teacher
Senior tech/FS teacher
Principal tech/FS teacher
Deputy head teacher
Head teacher
Assistant instructor
Instructor
Senior instructor
Principal instructor
Deputy principal
Principal

Entry
Professional Qualification
ECD Child care
ECD teacher certificate
Grade III teacher certificate
Diploma in primary education
Degree in primary education
Diploma in secondary education (Grade V Secondary)
Bachelor degree in/with education
Master degree in/with education

Advanced craft certificate with a CTTE/CVTI or

/DTTE/DVTI
Ordinary tech. diploma with a CTTE/CVTI or /DTTE/DVTI
HD/Bachelor degree in relevant field with a CTTE/CVTI or
/DTTE/DVTI
Advanced craft certificate with a CTTE/CVTI or
/DTTE/DVTI
Ordinary tech. diploma with a CTTE/CVTI or /DTTE/DVTI
Higher diploma in relevant field with a CTTE/CVTI or
/DTTE/DVTI

Salary
Grade
(1)

Promotion
modality

U7
U6
U5
U5
U4
U5
U4
U3
U2
U1
U1
U6
U5
U4
U3
U2

Based on years
of experience in
certain position
that varies
between a
minimum of 6
years of
teaching in
initial positions
(assistant and
teacher) and 3
years in upper
positions (from
senior to
deputy)
+

U5
U4
U3
U2
U1
U1

HD/Bachelor degree in relevant field with a CTTE/CVTI or

/DTTE/DVTI

attendance to a
certain number
of certificate
and short
courses (up to 4
for the top
position)
+

BTVET
(TC, CoC,
Specialized
TIs) (1)

PTC

PTC
outreach
NTC

HTI (2)

Assistant lecturer*
Lecturer
Senior lecturer
Principal lecturer
Deputy principal
Principal
Tutor
Senior tutor
Principal tutor
Deputy principal
Principal
Senior Coord. Center tutor
Principal Coord. Center tutor
Deputy principal
Lecturer
Senior lecturer
Principal lecturer
Deputy principal
Principal
Assistant lecturer/tutor//instr
Lecturer
Senior lecturer
Principal lecturer
Deputy principal
Principal

OD in the relevant field with a CTTE/CVTI or /DTTE/DVTI

or DE
Ba. degree or HD in the relevant field with a CTTE/CVTI or
/DTTE/DVTI or DE
Masters degree in the relevant field with a CTTE/DTTE or
DE
Ba. Degree in the relevant field with a DTE
Masters in the relevant field with a DTE
Masters in the relevant field with a Dipl. in Edu Mgt/Planning
Ba. Degree in the relevant field with a DTE
Masters in the relevant field with a DTE
Ba. degree of HD in the relevant field with a DE
Masters degree in the relevant field with a DE

OD in the relevant field with a CIC

Ba. degree or HD in the relevant field with a CHT/DHT or DE
Masters degree in the relevant field with a CHT/DHT or DE

U5
U4
U3
U2
U1
U1
U4
U3
U2
U1
U1
U3
U2
U1
U4
U3
U2
U1
U1
U5
U4
U3
U2
U1
U1

for certain top

positions,
research work
in relevant field
and
development of
a demonstrable
workable
project

Source: Adapted from ESC, 2008. * for UTC/AC/FTI only. (1) ECD staff are not affiliated to the payroll as ECD is delivered
by the private sector. (2) Refers as well to instructor or tutor.

Upward mobility within sub sectors: to what extend is this possible?

While the scheme of service offers an interesting institutional framework from which to understand
existing professional evolution modalities, it is interesting to confront it to the reality on the ground,
to better assess teacher upward opportunities. Data at hand, the 2010/11 payroll that display the
94

actual distribution of teachers according to their salary grades, while not perfect, helps to provide
some insights on promotion avenues within a subsector.78 It shows contrasting situations according
to the education level considered.

Table 5.2: Teaching Staff Distribution, and Promotion Opportunities (Ratio), by Salary Grade, By
Sub-Sector, FY 2010/11
Percent
Primary
Distribut
ion

Secondary

Ratio
(base U7)

PTC

NTC

BTVET

U1

Distribu
tion
1,2

Ratio
(base U5)
2

Distributi
on
8,5

Ratio
(base U5)
22

4,3

Ratio
(base U4)
6

9,1

Ratio
(base U5)
33

U2

3,2

0,6

1,4

17,3

63

U3

1,5

4,7

12

17,7

25

20,0

73

100

23,8

87
100

Distribution

Distribution

U4

4,7

31,6

51

46,2

121

71,3

U5

5,4

61,5

100

38,0

100

3,0

27,4

U6

7,4

0,1

0,2

0,9

2,4

U7

82,1

100

0,9

1,8

1,4

U8

0,4

0,0

Source: Payroll (MoFPED). From tables A5.2 to A5.4 in the annex.

Note: 82% of primary teachers hold a U7 position, while 7% of them are employed at U6 level. In other words, for every 100
U7 positions there are 9 U6 positions.

As shown in the Table 5.2 above, the vast majority of primary teaching staff (82 percent) is employed
at U7 Upper level; while about 5 percent respectively hold a U5 or U4 position. This situation reflects
both the dominance of education assistants within the primary teaching force, and the limited career
opportunities that are offered to primary teachers. Indeed, for every 100 U7 positions there are 9 U6
positions, 7 U5 positions, and 6 U4 positions. At secondary level, top positions (U1 and U2) are held
by 4 percent of teaching staff, while the vast majority is found in U4 (32 percent) and U5 (62
percent). Here again there is virtually no upgrade possible beyond U4.
The more balanced distribution of grades in BTVET is certainly a reflection of the great variety of
institutions that fall under the subsector, more than a balanced distribution of staff/grades. As far as
PTCs are concerned, teaching positions are mainly concentrated towards U5 (38 percent) and U4 (46
percent grades, to rapidly narrow at upper grades, implying again very little upgrade opportunities
for those in U4 grades. The situation is somewhat different for NTCs that offer more upper grade
positions (18 percent of U3) although most lecturers are employed at U4 grade (71 percent). This
translates into a ratio of 25 U3 level positions for every 100 U4 level positions.

Teaching staff promotion opportunities are particularly slack. The professional ladder, as it is, does
not offer much professional advancement opportunities, especially for primary teachers which
represent the bulk of teachers (80 percent). The new Scheme of service, while introducing
intermediate positions (based on experience and qualification) such as the U6 senior teacher
position to favor better career path for teachers, seems still insufficient to provide primary
teachers with positive career development; major financial constraints limiting despite its proper
78

This analysis is conducted on data available for one year (teacher payroll), although longitudinal data would have been
required but are difficult to get. Nevertheless, the analysis holds, assuming that staff distribution across grades/sectors remain
somewhat stable in the medium run.

95

implementation and impact. 79 Another mechanism based on teacher performance (as opposed to
qualification) is under reflection, but how it would be included in the promotional criteria remains to
date unclear.

5.2 Teacher remuneration

In this section, we will look at teacher remuneration in details. This issue is all the more important
that wages are known to be a major ingredient of teacher motivation and attractiveness (see chapter
6); they also constitute the bulk of education spending (see chapter 1) and as such requires special
attention. Both pay structure and payroll data will be mobilized to address specific remuneration
issues: while the pay structure will provide insights on the official structure of teacher pay in Uganda,
and assess salary progression, the payroll data, by offering a more comprehensive picture of
remuneration, will allow us to look in details at the composition of teacher remuneration.80
5.2.1 Teaching staff Salary Progression
Teacher salary progression is analyzed using the pay structure, issued and reviewed annually by the
Ministry of Public Service. Teaching personnel, as any other civil servant, are integrated onto a Single
Spine Salary Structure (see box 5.1 for details). Related information for primary and post-primary
teaching staff are gathered in tables 5.3 and 5.4 below. It includes: salary entry and exit points, the
number of spine points available within each grade, the percentage increase over each Grade, annual
average increment per grade, and starting salary as a percentage of top of scale of a qualified
teacher.
An unqualified primary teacher is appointed at a fix pay of Ugx. 165,664 per month, while a qualified
primary teacher with a certificate (Grade III teachers) begins at Ugx.273,000 (U7 Upper, spinal
point1).
Box 5.1 : Pay Reform in Uganda
The GoU has undertaken a number of reform initiatives over the last 10 years to strengthen civil service
performance. The Public Service Pay Reform Strategy adopted in April 2002 and approved by Cabinet in
August 2006, rationalized the public service pay into a single spine structure with the aim of removing
inequalities in wages for similar graded jobs81. For efficient and effective performance of the public sector, the
2002 strategy also targeted pay increases to personnel with requisite technical, professional and managerial
skills. The strategy led to significant pay increase for some of the targeted staff categories. In 2006, it was also
recognized the need to enhance pay for scientists and researchers. New salary grades were then introduced.
While the relative pay increase proposed varies between the pay structures, all pay structures are to receive
around a doubling of nominal wages in the medium term (FY 2009/10). Some specific officers and upper level
management are targeted for additional increases that will triple their total nominal wage increase. The strategy
also sets out long-term pay targets to be implemented over a ten-year period (between 2007/08 and 2016/17).
While the extended period would significantly reduce the real level of these increases, the targets for most pay
structure imply a further doubling of nominal wages compared to the medium-term targets.
79

The Scheme is to be implemented in a phasedmanner: while it has started with primary sub-sector, with the introduction
of U6 level (i.e. senior teaching positions) to ease career progression. Secondary implementation was to start in FY 2011/12,
but was delayed following lack of funding.
80
In addition, payroll data could be computed for one fiscal year (FY 2010/11) only, while pay structure was available over
many years, allowing for trend analyses (see section 5.3).
81
Two underlying factors are accounted for: i) semi-autonomous staff were paid better than civil servants; ii) the increasing
cost of living.

96

Overall progress against the original development was hampered by a number of developments:
- Rapid growth of public employment driven by the expansion of service delivery
- Wage provisions in the budget were insufficient to meet salary targets
- Pay increase were given selectively to certain staff categories following certain circumstances
particularly to legal workers, health workers and primary teachers (U7)82
- Real compensation levels in the Uganda Public Service (teachers inclusive) have been blurred by the
re-introduction of various non-salary allowances and benefits.
All public teachers are appointed to public services pay structure83. Circular standing instructions are issued
every year that provide information on the salary structure for the forthcoming fiscal year. Salary
enhancements are based on provision of resources and Governments priority. The salary entry point
attached to a post is the minimum salary attached to that salary scale. Salaries are fixed at annual rates and paid
in twelve monthly equal installments directly through individual bank accounts84. Annual salary increment is of
one notch on the salary segment and does not exceed the maximum salary on the salary scale attached to the
post. Officer on probation are not paid salary increment, until there have being confirmed in appointment and
reflected as such in the payroll. Increments are due on the first day of month in which s/he assumes
duty/promotion. Yet this is not automatically activated. Newly recruited staff is expected to access payroll
within four weeks from the date of assumption of duty; however integrating the payroll may take more time.
When an officer is appointed on promotion, s/he shall receive a salary at the minimum entry point of the scale
of the post to which s/he is promoted and the date of anniversary of his/her appointment shall be his/her future
incremental date. Training lasting for a period of nine months or more and leading to a relevant qualification
will attract one salary increment. This however does not apply for staff on fixed salaries, and those who have
reached the highest segment of the salary scale.

This salary rises in 10 annual increments to Ugx. 312,833 corresponding to a total increase of 15
percent, or Ugx 3,983 on average per increment. Once the teacher reaches this point (i.e. after 10
years in the position), the next step is promotion to the next level depending on available promotion
opportunities. Yet, in many cases, teachers remain stuck at the top of the grades scale. Head
teachers in the largest schools (Grade I) earn double the salary of qualified teacher at the top of the
scale; while those in small schools (Grade VI), earn 10 percent more than a qualified primary teacher
at the top of the scale.85 Average increments are also higher among top grades than lower grades (on
average three times more).

82

As far as primary teachers are concerned, much complains were received from Grade III teachers about their low level of
remunerations, and the rate of attritions among primary teacher was high. In the context of UPE development the
Government felt it was necessary to retain its workforce. In FY 2009/10 and FY 2010/11, U7 Primary teacher were granted
with a 5% and 30% increase in their basic salary respectively. In FY 2012/13, a 15% increase has been approved, following a
provision for salary enhancement of 250 Bn Ugx in FY 2012/13. For upper grades, the increase is lower: between 8% (U6U4 staff) and 6% (U3-U1 staff).
83
Salaries are paid by the Ministry of Public Service (MoPS) directly to teachers. Primary teacher salary is budgeted at
district level, while the one of secondary and tertiary teaching staff is budgeted at central level by MoES.
84
Teachers are directly paid through personal bank accounts, which allows pay to arrive on time, although delays up to two
weeks are accounted for. Teachers are expected to travel to their bank account to withdraw their pay. In rural areas, where
there are fewer banks, teachers might be absent at least one day from school to be able to pick up their pay from the bank. As
noted in the 2007 teacher issues report, while the introduction of bank wire transfer has eased the payment of teachers, this
has tend to make it difficult to stop payment of teachers who failed to report for duty ; taking some months to regulate as it
takes some time to detect or delete the absentee teachers. Also, delays were recorded in the regularization of status staff (in
the payroll) following a promotion or a change of work place.
85
Before the implementation of the UPE policy, head teacher and deputy head teacher positions were divided between
different levels depending on the size of the school: Grade IV (smallest school) to Grade I (biggest schools); the bigger the
school, the bigger the salary. While this distinction by school size is not relevant today, the salary structure still accounts for
it.

97

Table 5. 3 Primary Teacher Salary Progression, Pay Structure, FY2010//11

Grade

Monthly
Starting
Salary
(Ushs)

Top of scale
(Ushs)

Number of
spine
points

% increase
over the
grade

Annual
average
increment
(Ushs)

Starting salary
as a % of top
of scale of a
qualified
teacher

Untrained/licensed
U7 L.
165 664
165 664
1 (fixed)
0%
teachers
Education Assistant
U7 U.
273 000
10
15%
3 983
100
312 833
(Grade III teacher)
Senior Education assistant
U6 L.
330 577
340 815
4
3%
2 559
106
(Grade V prim)
Head teacher GR IV
U6 U.
343 204
359 584
7
5%
2 340
110
Principal Education
Ass/Head teacher GR III/
U5 U.
371 581
471 805
15
27%
6 682
119
Deputy H/Teacher GR II
Head teacher GR
U4 L.
473 789
629 777
11
33%
14 181
151
II/Deputy H/Teacher GR I
Head teacher GR I
U4 U.
626 260
740 903
11
18%
10 422
200
Source: Pay Structure FY 2010/11, PSC. L: Lower, U: Upper.
Note: before the implementation of the UPE policy, head teacher and deputy head teacher positions were divided between
different levels depending on the size of the school: Grade IV (smallest school) to Grade I (biggest schools); the bigger the
school, the bigger the salary. While this distinction by school size is not relevant today, the salary structure still accounts for
it.

Secondary school teachers, as any post-primary school teachers, with a diploma start with a monthly
salary of Ugx. 371,945 (U5 U.) rising by 27 percent over 15 annual increments to reach Ugx. 471,805
at the end of the grades scale. This consists of an annual increment of Ugx. 6,657 on average, the
lowest increment among the different salary grades. The grade at which head teachers and deputy
head teachers vary according to the size and category of the school (boarding/day school, or ALevel).
By contrast, the top positions start at a salary of Ugxh 1.38 million and earn almost 3 times more
than a qualified teacher at the top of the scale. This represents a big challenge.

Table 5. 4 Post-Primary Teacher Salary Progression, Pay Structure, FY2010//11

Positions

Assistant teacher /
Diploma
Teacher /
Graduate
Senior teacher /
Dep head teacher Olevel day
Principal teacher /
Deputy head teacher boarding
and A level day/
Head teacher Olevel day
Senior principal teacher
Deputy principal/
Head teacher A level
day/Olevel boarding
Principal/ Head teacher/
Alevel boarding

Salary grade

Monthly
Starting
Salary
(Ushs)

Top of scale
(Ushs)

Number
of spine
points

%
increase
over the
grade

Annual
average
increment
(Ushs)

Starting
salary as a
% of top
of scale of
a qualified
teacher

U5 U.

371 945

471 805

15

27%

6,657

100

551 763

629 156

14%

12,899

117

629 260

740 903

11

18%

10,149

133

U3 L.

744 336

816 886

10%

10,364

158

U2 L.

990 968

1 065 345

8%

12,396

210

U2 U.

1 057 457

1 259 435

10

19%

20,198

224

U1 EXE L.

1 339 997

1 394 297

4%

13,575

284

U1 EXE U

1 376 848

1 424 996

4%

12,037

292

U4 L.
(spine 5)
U4 U.

98

Source: Pay structure, FY 2010/11, MoPS. L: Lower, U: Upper.

Teacher refers either to officer, instructor, lecturer, tutor, or technician depending on the institutions considered (Secondary,
PTC, NTC, BTVET schools). Positions in bold refers to secondary teachers.

Two major general observations can be derived from these tables: i) increments are small in size,
especially among lower grades teaching staff vis--vis upper grades ones and among primary
teaching staff vis--vis post-primary staff; and ii) the wage range is larger for post-primary teaching
staff than primary teachers, entailing more salary progression.
The current career structure provides little upward opportunities and increase in pay other than
promotion to managerial posts thus limiting opportunities to real career progress and evolution.
Career structures are relatively flat, at both primary and secondary/post-primary levels. For the
majority of teachers, pay progression to the top of the scale is automatic, and once they reached the
top of the scale, the only avenues for increases are promotions to managerial posts or accumulation
of additional academic qualification (otherwise they remain there). Yet, as seen above, opportunities
for promotion are few (even among teaching positions) and very few teachers could expect get
promoted to managerial positions.
5.2.2 Teaching staff remuneration composition
In this subsection, we will look at teacher pay composition, using the FY 2010/11 payroll which
provides for each teacher his/her current gross wage, that takes into account experience (grade and
spine levels), as well as his/her allowances, and benefits.86
Gross pay is composed of basic pay (based on pay structure grade and spine levels) and allowances;
but some deductions from salary occur to form the net wage. Allowances are almost non-existent,
and represent barely 5 percent of gross wage (Table 5.5 below).87 Indeed, there are no housing or
medical allowances per se.88 Teacher housing is provided in some schools, particularly in boarding
schools but is not at all the norm. Only primary teachers posted in-hard-to reach areas are entitled to
a top allowance of 30 percent of their basic pay. Nevertheless, while this figure could be
underestimated as many allowances especially those paid by the school are not tracked, evidences
from the field suggest there are not systematic and most of the time remain at the discretion of the
school (see annex note 5.1 on Public Teaching Staff Benefits and Allowances).
Deductions from gross salary represent a quarter (24 percent) of gross wage; this share however
varies between 20 percent in primary to 24 percent in NTC to reach a high 33 percent in higher
education. In primary and post-primary levels, deductions consist of statutory taxes (PAYE pay as
you earn), Local Service Tax (LST), salary loans, any over-payments or other unauthorized payments
from public funds made to the officer, the cost or part of the cost of any losses of public funds or

86

Note that most public primary teachers are on the payroll. According to 2010 census, as of March 2010 there were 126,448
teachers working in public and grant-aided schools, of which 116,707 were on the payroll (96.6%), and the remaining 4,350
(3.4%) paid via other sources (EMIS, 2010).
87
This figure can be underestimated, as many allowances, especially those paid by the school, could not be tracked. See
annex 5.1 on 3 Public Teaching Staff Benefits and Allowances.
88
Since 1996/97, all civil servants receive a consolidate pay package.

99

property damages attributable to the officers negligence, any other outstanding debts to
Government owed by the officer; being a judgment debtor.89
Table 5.5: Annual Teacher Remuneration Composition, by Education Sub-Sector, Payroll, FY
2010/11
UShs.
Basic Wage

Allowances

Gross Wage

Deduction

Net Wage

Share of
Allowances
in Gross
Wage

3,733,640
3,437,356

196,659
192,218

3,930,299
3,629,574

780,972
669,145

3,149,327
2,960,430

5.3%
5.6%

19.9%
18.4%

6,024,123
4,944,903
7,005,994

317,287
279,204
350,383

6,341,410
5,224,107
7,356,377

1,390,416
1,050,351
1,656,244

4,950,994
4,173,755
5,700,133

5.3%
5.6%
5.0%

21.9%
20.1%
22.5%

7,179,084
5,253,839
6,842,774

88,897
34,025
122,659

7,267,981
5,287,864
6,965,433

1,737,990
1,130,695
1,590,620

5,529,991
4,157,169
5,374,813

1.2%
0.6%
1.8%

23.9%
21.4%
22.8%

NTC
All
8,096,019
136,953
8,232,971
U4L
7,318,202
190,353
7,508,555
12,455,363
1,678,364
14,133,726
HE
All (average)
6,571,936
326,091
6,898,027
Source: Payroll (MoFPED), 2010/11. Authors computations.

1,987,058
1,706,436
4,702,520
1,672,950

6,245,913
5,802,120
9,431,206
5,225,077

1.7%
2.6%
13.5%
5.0%

24.1%
22.7%
33.3%
24.3%

Sub-sector
Primary
All
U7 U
Secondary
All
U5U
U4L
PTC
All
U5U
U4L

Share of
Deduction in
Gross Wage

5.3. Teacher pay attractiveness

In this section, we will examine the level of teacher remuneration attractiveness, as it is a central
ingredient of any efficient teacher policy. This will be done by comparing Uganda teacher wage with
those professions requiring similar academic and professional qualifications in the country, but also
with those in countries with similar development level. Looking at the evolution of teacher wage over
time is also instructive, as it offers an historic perspective to the issue.
Does teacher remuneration remain attractive vis--vis other countries?
A way to look at wage attractiveness is to compare the situation prevailing in Uganda to the one of
countries in the continent with similar development levels. When conducting cross-country analysis,
it is common to compute wage as a share of GDP per capita. This offers a common ground on which
to compare countries from each other. It also allows to think about costs in term of sustainability, as
it relates costs of education service delivery items to the resources available in the country.
Table 5.6 below gathers information on teaching pay during FY 2010/11 using the payroll (which
provides a complete figure of remuneration) according to their grade and level of teaching. Gross
salaries range from 3.3 times GDP per capita. at primary level to 5.3 times the GDP per capita. At
89

Additional deductions (NSSF - National Social Security Fund) are recorded for higher education staff.

100

secondary to reach 6.1 and 6.9 times GDP per capita. at PTC and NTCs respectively. The average
salary in BTET in among the highest, at 7.6 times GDP per capita. Staff (including non-teaching staff)
working in higher education, are paid at 11.9 times the GDP per capita.90
Table 5.6: Teaching Staff Gross Pay, by Grade and Sub Sector, FY 2010/11

Av Number of Staff
Primary
All
U7 U

126 053
102 425

Payroll
Annual Gross
Wage Per Staff (UShs)

Annual Wage
As a multiple of GDP p.c.

Times Grade III

Teachers

3 930 299
3 629 574

3.3
3.1

Secondary
All
20 597
6 341 410
5.3
U5U
12 673
5 224 107
4.4
1.4
U4L
6 476
7 356 377
6.2
2.0
PTC
All
1 122
7 267 981
6.1
U5U
424
5 287 864
4.5
1.5
U4L
505
6 965 433
5.9
1.9
NTC
All
233
8 232 971
6.9
U4L
165
7 508 555
6.3
2.0
BTVET
All
358
9 061 041
7.6
U5U
95
4 954 333
4.2
1.4
U4L
30
6 422 079
5.4
1.7
U4U
55
8 081 551
6.8
2.2
6 617
14 133 726
11.9
3.8
HE *
148 363
4 309 417
3.6
Total
Source: Payroll (MoFPED). Authors computations.
Note: Head teacher and deputy head teachers are included in the teaching staff category. * Include non-teaching staff.

When the annual average primary and secondary school teacher salaries are compared to other SSA
countries with similar GDP per capita, Uganda primary teacher remunerations are systematically
lower than those in other countries in the region, standing at 3.3 times GDP per capita, compared
with 4.0 on average in the sub-sample of low income countries. Nevertheless the ratio is very close to
the EFA-FTI benchmark (calculated as the average observed in the countries closest to achieving
universal primary completion), of 3.5 times GDP per capita for primary teachers.

90

Note that one relies on gross wage and not on the net wage as what one is interested in the total cost borne by the
Government.

101

Figure 5.1. Primary Teacher Wage, LICs, 2008-2010

As % of GDP per capita
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0

8.8

4.0

3.3
2.2

Source: Uganda, Table 5.6; Pole de Dakar database. For Uganda, primary teachers refer to Grade III.

At secondary level, disaggregated data show that while lower secondary teachers (Grade V) costs
tend to be in par with the average country of our sample (4.7 times GDP p.c.), upper secondary
teachers (Graduate) cost relatively more (6.6 against 5.3 times GDP p.c.). Having in mind that
secondary teacher basic wages have drop significantly over the period (see below), this evolution
seems to have allowed a convergence of teachers pay to somewhat more reasonable and sustainable
levels.91

Figure 5.2. Lower and Upper Secondary Teacher Wage, LICs, 2008-2010
As % of GDP per capita
10.0

8.6
Lower Sec
Upper Sec

8.0
6.0
4.0

6.6
4.7

5.3
4.8

2.6

2.0
0.0

Source: Uganda, Table 5.6; Other countries, estimates from Pole de Dakar database. For Uganda, Lower secondary teachers
refer to Grade V, and Upper secondary teachers to Graduate.

Is teacher pay locally attractive?

While knowing how much a Uganda teacher costs vis--vis other countries can be insightful, Ugandan
teachers, especially primary teachers are much more interested in their teacher pay situation vis-vis their nationals, as their skills are mainly marketable locally. To be able to assess to what extent,
91

An analysis of teacher pay relying on purchasing power parity expressed in USD shows that primary teacher wages are
close to the one of the average country in our sample, while secondary teachers salaries are slightly above the average
country of the sample, implying that Ugandan teachers purchasing power is in general better than the one in other countries
with similar level of development (see table A in the annex).

102

teachers wage is attractive, we will rely on two sets of data: i) the 2009 Uganda labor Force Survey
that will help to examine potential wage differentials between public and private workers; and ii) the
pay structure for civil servants belonging to different profession groups, that will allow to assess if
teachers benefit or not from a salary premium.
While the 2009 ULFS report does not provides information on teacher remuneration per se, it
provides interesting information on wage by level of qualification that can be mobilized to assess
whether or not government teachers are better off or worse off than workers working in the private
sector. Indeed, data gathered in table 5.7 shows that the public sector, regardless of the level of
qualification, tends to offer better wages than the private sector. For those academic qualifications
held by teachers i.e., post-primary, post-secondary and degree specialization - the premium of
working in the public sector against the private one goes from 20 to 70 percent.

Table 5.7: Comparison of Median Monthly Wages, by Level of Qualification, and Sector of Activity,
2009
Thousands of Ugandan Shillings
Public/Gov. Sector

Private Sector

Total

Ratio Public/Private

90

90

--

No formal schooling
Primary

210

100

100

2.1

Some secondary

234

150

150

1.6

Completed S6
Post-primary specialization
Post-secondary specialization

200
200
250

180
170
200

180
170
270

1.1
1.2
1.3

Degree and above

850

500

508

1.7

150

2.0

Total Population
300
150
Source: UBOB, 2010 (ULFS, 2009), Payroll, authors computations.

The pay structure is another source of information that can be used to assess the relative
attractiveness of government teacher pay vis--vis other civil servant groups. As already noted, the
MoPS issues annually the salary structure of the regular civil servants as well as the one of some
professions benefiting from specific salary structure, namely: the primary teachers, the medical
workers, the police and prison staff and the legal professionals. Table 5.8 below consolidates
information on the pay structure (entry and top grade salary level) of primary teachers and other
working groups for grades relevant to teachers for FY2010/11.

Table 5.8: Comparison of Public Service Salary Structure, Monthly Wage, by Profession, 2010/11
Ugandan Shillings
Primary teachers

Other civil servants incl.

post prim. teachers
Grade
Top of
Entry
Grade
190,000
205,035

U7 Lower

Grade
Entry
165,664

Top of
Grade
165,664

U7 Upper

273,000

312,833

224,188

267,686

U6 Lower

330,577

340,815

277,844

304,612

U6 Upper

343,204

359,584

299,129

333,717

U5 Upper

371,581

471,805

371,945

471,805

U4 Lower

473,789

629,777

473,789

629,156

Grade

103

Medical Workers

Police and Prison

Legal Professionals

Grade
Entry

Top of
Grade

Grade
Entry

Top of
Grade

Grade
Entry

Top of
Grade

319,604

334,784

260,000

281,835

370,486

387,549

283,694

310,462

644,963

644,963

304,979

339,849

752,456

752,456

752,456

1,100,000

U4 Upper

626,260

740,903

629,260

740,903

Source: Public Service Salary Structure, MoPS, 2010/11.

As data shows, primary teachers benefit from a specific wage scale, that tends to provide U7 Upper
and U6 teaching staff with better pay than regular civil servants with a premium varying between 8
percent to 22 percent; the latter figure being registered for entry salary wage for U7 Upper, while the
former is recorded for top of grade for U6 Upper92. U7 Upper and U6 primary teachers are also better
off than prison and police personnel, but tend to fare less well than their medical peers and legal
professionals.
Partial data on basic pay for the general civil servant show that Grade III teacher have benefited from
this wage premium since 2006/07, as shown in figure 5.3 that displays real wage for grade III
teachers as well as U7.U. Staff in the non- primary teaching profession. Starting 2006/07, the wage
curve for Grade III teachers lies above the one for U7U staff. Over the last decade, primary teachers,
as other civil servant, have seen their basic wage increases many times, and sometimes in a sizeable
manner, up to 33 percent in FY 2006/07 and 30 percent in 2010/11 (see table A5.8), allowing them to
get better wage relative to their U7.U counterparts in non-teaching positions. While these rises have
allowed curbing inflation and improving real wages, these has been done on a quite erratic manner
and have sometimes led to a loss in teacher purchasing power, such as during 2007/08-2009/10 (as
for other U7.U staff) Figure 5.3 below). In 2010/11, annual Grade III primary teachers starting real
wage was estimated around Ugx 3.3 million, a level above the one recorded in previous years. But it
is decreased in 2011/12 following high inflation levels.

Figure 5.3: Annual Entry Basic Wage Trend, by Salary Grade, Teaching and NonTeaching Staff, Real
(2011 prices), FY 2003/04 2011/12*
Ugandan Shilling
10,000,000
9,000,000

Graduate

8,000,000
7,000,000

Grade V

6,000,000
5,000,000
4,000,000

Grade III

3,000,000
2,000,000

U7 U.

1,000,000
2003/04

2004/05

2005/06

2006/07

2007/08

2008/09

2009/10

2010/11

2011/12

Sources: Payroll Scale, various years, MoFPED. UBOS (GDP deflator). * Estimates for 2011/12. Based on table A5.7 in the
annex

Beyond U6, primary teachers follow the same wage structure like any other regular civil servant staff;
this is also the case of any post-primary teaching staff. Only legal professionals seem to benefit from

92

The premium tends to decrease gradually from U7U entry wage (22 percent) to U6U top grade (6 percent).

104

higher wage level at all grades. One can note that no major pay increase has been recorded since
2004/05 among secondary teachers, leaving both Grade V and graduates teachers real wages to
steadily decrease, by around 25 percent over 2004/05-2010/11, with a further decrease in 2011/12.
Some evidences highlighted in the 2007 teacher report indicate that secondary teacher pay is
augmented by additional payments from funds raised by parents (PTAs) in non-USE schools, which in
some cases could make up between Ugx 50,000 - 75,000 per month corresponding to up 15 percent
of their basic salary (Shinyekwa, 2006).9394
In FY 2012/13, primary teachers were granted with a 15 percent increase in their basic salary wage to
avoid teacher going on strike as it was the case in 2011. A provision of 40 Bn Ugx was also granted to
science teachers at secondary and tertiary levels to improve their wage conditions (via the
introduction of new salary grades effective in FY 2009/10 for tertiary and 2012/13 for secondary95).
Implementation among stakeholders remains a concern as secondary Art teachers, as well as BTVET
lecturers, are left aside. How this situation will be handled is still not clear.
Two major observations can be derived from this analysis: in 2010/11 i) primary teacher entry salary
remains in general attractive; but their comparative advantage disappears beyond a certain point
(above U6); ii) as far as secondary and other post-primary teachers are concerned, their salary is in
line with those of other civil servants, and have evolved over years similarly.

93

The existence of PTA fees in non-USE schools provides extra income for the teachers, which is not existent in USESchools. This situation creates two compensations for teachers in non-USE schools.
94
The strong drop observed in secondary teachers wage has entailed a reduction of the differential between primary and
secondary teachers, making the relative price of secondary teachers less costly than before, which in itself can help sustain
the expansion of the secondary sector. As of 2010/11, Grade V teachers were earning 1.4 times the wage of a Grade III
teacher against twice in 2004/05. Compared with graduate teachers, Grade III teachers were earning 3.7 times less and twice
less in 2004/05 and 2010/11. At the same time, the differential between Graduated and Grade V teachers was remaining
stable at 1.5. The premium earned by Grade V secondary teachers vis--vis primary teachers and by Graduates vis--vis
Grade V teachers seems reasonable if one considers a 10 premium per additional year of study reasonable.
95
As of May 2012, this has not been effective.

105

KEY RESULTS CHAPTER 5:

TEACHER CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND REMUNERATION
The current career structure provides limited opportunities for real career development. Upward
mobility within subsectors is particularly slack, especially for primary teachers which represent the
bulk of the teaching force (80 percent): indeed, for every 100 U7 positions, there are just nine U6
positions and seven U5 positions. The new Scheme of Service, although introducing intermediate
positions, still appears to be insufficient to provide primary teachers with positive career
development. In addition, the pay structure is particularly flat: salary increments are small, especially
among the lower grades and for primary teaching staff. Once the top of the scale has been reached
(after just 10 years of teaching), the only avenues for career development are promotion to
managerial posts (of which there are few) or acquiring additional academic qualifications (which do
not necessarily entail a raise, but can provide further promotion opportunities).
Primary teacher salaries are slightly lower than those in LICs, whereas salaries are at par for lower
secondary and above par for upper secondary teachers. In 2011, primary teacher pay was
equivalent to 3.3 units of GDP per capita, compared to a regional subsample average of 4 units; yet in
line with the FTI-benchmark of 3.5. At the secondary level, disaggregated data show that while lower
secondary teacher (Grade V) costs tend to be on par with the average country of the subsample (4.7
units of GDP per capita), upper secondary teachers (Graduate) cost relatively more (6.6 units of GDP
per capita, against 5.3 units for the subsample).
Primary teacher pay is nevertheless relatively attractive locally. Generally, the public sector tends
to be more attractive than the private sector, offering better wages for teachers with similar
qualifications. Within the public sector, the primary teacher entry salary is comparatively attractive,
with U7-upper teachers earning a wage premium of 22 percent over other civil servants of similar
grade (with the exception of medical and legal staff). This comparative advantage disappears beyond
U6 however, as post primary teacher salaries are in line with those of other civil servants.
Purchasing power has deteriorated among post primary teachers over recent years, while
fluctuating for primary teachers. Since FY 2003/04, primary teachers have benefitted from several
basic wage increases, some of which have been sizeable, but their erratic nature has lead to teachers
losing purchasing power at times. In 2010/11, Grade III primary teachers starting annual wage was
estimated at around Ugx 3.3 million, above that of previous years, but decreased in 2011/12
following high inflation. Nevertheless, Grade III teachers situation remains still favorable vis--vis
their U7.U counterparts occupying a non-teaching position. No major pay increase has been recorded
since 2004/05 among post primary teachers (as most civil servant), leaving both Grade V and
Graduate teacher wages to steadily decrease in real terms, by about 25 percent over 2005-11, with a
further decrease in 2012. Note that these evolutions have enabled the convergence of primary and
secondary teacher pay, making the gap more reasonable and financially sustainable in a context of
sector expansion.

106

Annex

Table A5.1: Nomenclature of the various categories of teachers

Nomenclature
Education assistant
Education officer
Technical teacher
Tutor
Lecturer

Instructor
Source: ESC, 2008.

Institution
Primary school
Secondary school
Technical and farm school, vocational training center
PTC, HTI
NTC, Technical college, College of commerce, Community polytechnics instructors college,
fisheries training institute, cooperative college, Institute of survey and physical planning, Wildlife
training institute, national meteorological training school
Vocational training institute, technical institute, community polytechnic

Table.A5.2: Primary Teaching Staff Distribution and Pay, by Grade, FY 2010/11

Grade

Nb

Annual
Gross Wage
Per Staff

per
GGPPC

U7 Lower
U7 Upper
U6 Lower
U6 Upper

1 059
102 425
6 703
2 677

0,8
81,3
5,3
2,1

2 445 763
3 629 574
4 144 141
4 478 956

2,1
3,1
3,5
3,8

U5 Upper

6 845

5,4

5 241 055

4,4

U4 Lower
U4 Upper

4 458
1 450
125 617

3,5
1,2
100

7 195 564
8 599 717
3 936 873

6,1
7,3
3,3

Position
Untrained/licensed teachers
Education Assistant (Grade III teacher)
Senior Education Assistant
Head teacher GR IV
Principal Education Ass/Head teacher GR III/
Deputy H/Teacher GR II
Head teacher GR II/Deputy H/Teacher GR I
Head teacher GR I
Total
Source: Payroll (MoFPED). Own computations.

Table.A5.3: Secondary Teaching Staff Distribution and Pay, by Grade, FY 2010/11

Position

Grade V teachers (Lower Sec)

Education officer (Upper Sec.)
Senior education officer
Principal education officer

Grade

Nb

Annual
Gross Wage
Per Staff

per GGPPC

U8-U7
U5 UPPER
U4 LOWER (spine 5)
U4 UPPER
U3 LOWER
U2 LOWER
U2 UPPER
U1 EXE - LOWER
U1 EXE - UPPER

204
12 673
6 476
31
306
662
3
135
107
20 597

1,0
61,5
31,4
0,1
1,5
3,2
0,0
0,7
0,5
100

3 204 897
5 224 107
7 356 377
8 009 932
9 930 809
13 033 400
17 961 582
16 950 215
17 354 068
6 309 628

2,7
4,4
6,2
6,8
8,4
11,0
15,2
14,3
14,6
5,3

Deputy head teacher

Head teacher
Total
Source: Payroll (MoFPED). Authors computations.

107

Table.A5.4: PTC Teaching Staff Distribution and Pay, by Grade, FY 2010/11

Position

Grade

Number

Annual Gross
Wage Per Staff

U7 UPPER
U5 UPPER
U4 LOWER
U4 UPPER
U3 LOWER
U2 LOWER
U2 UPPER
U1 EXE - LOWER
U1 EXE - UPPER

per GDP p.c.

19
1.7
2 885 046
424
37.8
5 287 864
Tutor
505
45.0
6 965 433
14
1.2
7 809 054
Senior tutor
53
4.7
9 829 039
Principal tutor
2
0.2
13 090 194
4
0.4
14 273 106
Deputy principal
58
5.2
16 613 247
Principal
37
3.3
17 244 445
Total
1 116
99.4 *
7 360 407
Source: Payroll (MoFPED). * Does not add up to 100%, as only main positions were represented here. Authors
computations.

2.4
4.5
5.9
6.6
8.3
11.0
12.0
14.0
14.5
6.2

Table.A5.5: NTC Teaching Staff Distribution and Pay, by Grade, FY 2010/11

Position

Lecturer

Grade
U7-U5
U4 LOWER
U4 UPPER
U3 LOWER
U2 LOWER
U1 EXE - UPPER
U1 Senior EXE

Senior lecturer
Principal lecturer
Deputy principal
Principal
Total
Source: Payroll (MoFPED). Authors computations.

Number

Annual Gross
Wage Per Staff

per GDP p.c.

12
165
1
41
3
5
5
233

5.3
70.8
0.4
17.7
1.4
2.1
2.1
100

3 987 594
7 508 555
7 552 671
9 764 508
12 684 971
17 731 572
17 516 880
8 232 971

3.4
6.3
6.4
8.2
10.7
15.0
14.8
6.9

Table.A5.6: BTVET Teaching Staff Distribution and Pay, by Grade, FY 2010/11

Position

Grade

Number

Annual Gross
Wage Per
Staff

per GDP p.c.

9
2.4
3 408 777
2.9
3
0.8
4 338 652
3.7
95
26.6
4 954 333
4.2
Teacher
30
8.4
6 422 079
5.4
55
15.4
8 081 551
6.8
Senior teacher
29
8.0
9 345 415
7.9
41
11.5
11 331 779
9.6
2
0.6
11 972 976
10.1
Principal teacher
20
5.6
12 088 716
10.2
26
7.2
15 623 248
13.2
16
4.5
12 102 960
10.2
Deputy principal
9
2.5
16 557 509
14.0
Principal
23
6.3
17 048 474
14.4
1
0.3
15 765 768
13.3
Total
358
100
9 061 041
7.6
Source: Payroll (MoFPED). Teachers refer either to instructor, lecturer, tutor, or technician. Authors computations.
Assistant teacher

U6 LOWER
U5 LOWER
U5 UPPER
U4 LOWER
U4 UPPER
U3 LOWER
U3 UPPER
U3 (SC)
U2 LOWER
U2 UPPER
U2 (SC)
U1 EXE. LOWER
U1 EXE UPPER
U1 SENIOR EXECUTIVE

108

Table A5.7. Teaching and Non-teaching Basic Wage Trend, Nominal and Real (2011 prices),
2001/02-2011/12
Thousand USh and as a Percentage of GDP per capita
2001/02

2002/0
3

2003/0
4

2004/0
5

2005/0
6

2006/0
7

2007/0
8

2008/0
9

2009/1
0

2010/1
1

2011/1
2

1,805
2,717

2,400
3,354

2,400
3,159

2,400
2,757

2,520
2,642

3,276
3,276

3,276
2,690

3,957
5,531

4,044
5,323

4,044
4,646

4,247
4,453

4,463
4,463

4,463
3,664

5,934
8,294

6,006
7,904

6,006
6,899

6,309
6,612

6,621
6,621

6,621
5,438

1.6

1.7

1.7

1.7

1.4

1.4

2.5
1.5

2.5
1.5

2.5
1.5

2.5
1.5

2.0
1.5

2.0
1.5

Non-teaching
staff (U7U)

1 356
2 404
Teaching staff
Grade III (U7U)
Nominal
Real, 2011 price
Grade V (U5U)
Nominal
Real, 2011 price
Graduate (U4L)
Nominal
Real, 2011 price
Ratio
U5U/U7

1,208
2,262

1,356
2,254

1,560
2,404

3,118
5,182

3,832
5,904

5,089
8,458

5,803
8,941

2.3

2.5

U4L/U7
3.3
4.0
3.8
U4L/U5U
1.6
Sources: Pay Structure, various years, MoPS.

3.7
1.5

3,997
7,484

1,264
2,210

5,042
8,813

5 861
8 823

3.2

Table A5.8. Annual Increases in Basic Teacher Wage, Current and Constant (2011 prices),
2001/02-2011/12
Percent
2002/0
32001/0
2

2003/04
2002/03

2004/05
2003/04

Nominal
5%
7%
15%
wage
Grade Real
III
wage
-2%
2%
7%
(2011
price)
Nominal
23%
wage
Grade Real
V
wage
14%
(2011
price)
Nominal
26%
1%
14%
wage
Gradu Real
ate wage
18%
-4%
6%
(2011
price)
Sources: Pay Structure, various years, MoPS.

2005/06
2004/05

2006/07
2005/06

2007/08
2006/07

2008/09
2007/08

2009/10
2008/09

2011/10
2009/10

2011/12
2010/11

16%

33%

0%

0%

5%

30%

0%

13%

23%

-6%

-13%

-4%

24%

-18%

2%

0%

5%

5%

0%

-4%

-13%

-4%

0%

-18%

1%

1%

1%

0%

5%

5%

0%

-1%

-6%

-5%

-13%

-4%

0%

-18%

Table A5.10. Regional Comparison of Government Primary and Secondary Teachers, 2008-2010
PPP, USD
Primary teachers

Secondaryteachers

Liberia

1 286

Liberia

1 358

CAR

1 832

Sierra Leone

2 833

Sierra Leone

1 943

Guinea Bissau

3 697

Madagascar

2 294

CAR

4 836

Guinea Bissau

2 501

The Gambia

5 283

Rwanda

2 861

Sudan

5 707

Chad

3 798

Niger

5 775

Guinea

3 819

Average

6 055

Comoros

3 974

Mali

6 196

Burundi

4 182

Burundi

6 480

Average

4 282

Uganda

6 981

Uganda

4 347

Comoros

7 373

Mali

4 381

Rwanda

7 498

The Gambia

4 554

Benin

7 796

Malawi

4 612

Tanzania

7 920

Sudan

4 829

Malawi

8 493

Niger

4 882

Mauritania

9 582

Benin

6 521

Togo

7 448

Mauritania
Tanzania
Source: Ple de Dakar database, IMF data.

7 449
8 188

Annex 5.1. Public Teaching Staff Benefits and Allowances

As any civil servant, public teaching staff is entitled to monetary and non-monetary benefits and
allowances that complement their wage. Information is gathered in the tables A5.9 and A5.10 below
on respectively the various types of leave teachers and benefits and allowances are entitled to.
While teachers may in theory benefit from various types of leave (annual leave, special leave of
absence, study leave with pay and without pay, maternity and paternity leave, sick leave and,
sabbatical leave), many of them are not granted whether because the beneficiary is unaware of it
(parental leave, sick leave provided on the recommendation of a government medical officer) or
because of shortage of teachers (leave without pay, sabbatical year). As far as study leave with pay
are concerned, the 2007 teacher survey reported that in practice, many teachers are able to get
study leave for courses not related to their work. Others are unable to get study leave, but enroll for
further education courses and absent themselves from school without permission when the course
demands. Anecdotal evidences also suggest that some ends up being scrapped from the payroll.

110

Table A5.9. Public Teaching Staff Leave

Type
Annual leave

Beneficiary
Full-time employee
on the payroll

Benefit
School breaks
With full pay

Special leave of absence

Granted by the head

of institution
Granted to permanent
teachers after
confirmation

Up to 7 days a year

Study leave with pay

Leave without pay

Maternity leave

Up to 3 years depending on the

curricula prepared
Full pay

Up to 5 years
All pregnant women

Some are denied or scrapped to

the payroll
If the course is deemed relevant
and arrangements can be made
to cover their class
Shortage of teachers, so not
easily granted

60 days of full pay

Paternity leave

4 days of full pay

Sick leave provided on the

recommendation of a
government medical officer
Sabbatical year

Up to 90 days in any period of 12

months and extended to 180 days
University staff

Effectiveness
Correspond to teachers taking
holidays during regular school
breaks. As a result do not need
to apply for this

12 months in pay en every 10

years of duty
Source: Adapted from the Uganda public Service Standing Orders.

Seldom requested by fathers

(not well known)
Most teachers are unaware of it
or fear to take leave for fear of
loss of job
Not effective

Regarding benefits, they consist mainly in retirement and medical benefits. All permanent teachers,
on the payroll, are entitled to retirement benefits. They consist in a monthly paid pension
commensurate with his/her rank, salary and length of service, and a gratuity paid at the beginning of
the retirement. A pensionable teacher may retire when i) s/he has attained 60 years of age; or ii) has
served for a continuous pensionable period of at least twenty years; or iii) on medical grounds.
Government provides free medical and dental attention for permanent teachers and their children
and spouse. Free medical attention (including subsidized hospital treatment) and drugs are available
free of charge in a Government Health facility. Yet, very few teachers are aware of it. Drugs are also
often unavailable.
Among allowances, the hardship allowance is the most appealing. It is targeted to staff working in
hard to reach districts96, defined as hard to stay and hard to work in, and characterized by
remoteness, insecurity and poor infrastructure; to attract and retain public officers in those zones.
It has been implemented since the 1st July 2010 (FY 2010/11), with two interventions97: top-up
allowance of 30 percent of the basic monthly salary and improvement of schools infrastructures
through provision of more funds for the construction of teacher houses. Note that the latter scheme
has not been fully implemented.

96

This consists in 24 LGs : Kotido, Abim, Kaabong, Moroto, Nakapiripirit, Pader, Kitgum, Amuru, Gulu, Adjumani, Nwoya,
Mukuno (Koome Ismand), Kalangala, Bundibugyo, Kisoro, Kanungu, Bukwo, Buvuma, Lamwo, Namayingo, Napak,
Ntoroko, Mayuge (Makonge Island), Bugiri (Sigulu islands). The payment of allowance excludes public officers working in
the municipalities, town councils and headquarters of these LGs.
97
The scheme comprises of a series of measures over time including: payment of hardship allowance, leave transport
concession, transport allowance and provision of preferential training and career growth support, as well as targeted
recruitment, construction of staff housing, improved planning of public investments, pay reform strategies, improvement of
general infrastructure and sector specific incentives.

111

Table A5.10. Public Teaching Staff Benefits & Allowances

Type
Retirement

Medical benefits
Allowances
Hardship allowances
Travel allowances
Extra duty allowances:
acting allowance, duty
allowance, honoraria,
sitting allowances,
overtime allowances
National exam marking
Other compensations
Compensation for
injuries
Death gratuities

Beneficiary

Benefit

Effectiveness

Permanent teachers on the

payroll, when i) have reached
60 years old; or ii) have serve
20 years in public services; or
iii) on medical ground

Pension: based on a formula

based on the last grade reached
and number of years of
experience
+
Gratuity paid at the beginning of
retireness
Consultation+ drugs + surgery
in government health facilities

Gratuity paid in installment

according to availability of
funds

Top-up allowance of 30% of the

basic monthly salary
Safari day allowance (SDA)/Per
diem, transport

Part of the wage package

National examiner

Performance related allowance

(per copy marked)

Effective

Appointed teachers

Medical bills

At the discretion of the

school

Permanent teachers and their

next-in-kin
Staff working in hard-toreach districts
All teachers are entitled
Appointed teachers

Formula based on job tenure and

last grade held
Burial expenses
Civil servant and their
Funeral expenses (coffin,
spouses and children at the
transport, feeding) no
charge of the government
standards
Source: Adapted from the Uganda public Service Standing Orders.

Paid monthly, with

immediate effect
Not all aware of it.
Often drugs not available

At the discretion of the

school
At the discretion of the
school, paid late

Permanent teachers

At the discretion of the

school

Other compensations consist in extra duty allowances, travel allowances, compensation for injuries,
death gratuities and burial expenses that mostly rely on school discretion for payment. The financial
implications of all those benefits and allowances (expect the hardship allowance) could not be
assessed, as they could not be tracked in the national education budget.

112

CHAPTER 6: TEACHERS JOB SATISFACTION AND THE CONTEXT FOR SOCIAL

DIALOGUE

The development of teacher policy cannot ignore socio-professional context, as it is a crucial

aspect in encouraging the social dialogue necessary for building consensus. The preceding chapter
is aimed at identifying the major challenges concerning teacher policy and to dene the space for
dialogue for teacher policies. However, this dialogue is not created out of nothing; it is part of a
context which is important to understand and take into consideration. In fact, beyond the
contextual factors and more traditional dimensions discussed in the previous chapters, there
remains two crucial, though more subjective and less quantiable areas which must be examined
in analyzing the teachers issues: that is, professional satisfaction and the social context within
which teachers evolve.

6.1.

Keeping Teachers Happy: Job satisfaction among primary school teachers

Teachers are not only tasked with imparting knowledge, they often have the power to inspire or
suppress intellectual curiosity. Primary teachers in particular help to lay the foundation upon
which students attitudes towards education are built. However; this is not possible when
satisfaction levels are low or when dissatisfaction may exist. Satisfaction is relevant to the physical
and mental well-being of the employee, as well as its implications for such job-related behaviors
such as productivity, absenteeism, turnover and employee relations. Job satisfaction is therefore a
major interest in an organizational variable that should be understood and constantly monitored
for the welfare of any organization. Despite this importance of job satisfaction, any national study
has been conducted in Uganda in order to capture the teachers career satisfaction. The present
section begins to address this gap at primary level. It sought to get answers to the following
questions:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

What does the concept of teachers professional satisfaction mean and how is it perceived
in the Ugandan context?
What is the overall primary teacher level of satisfaction?
How is job satisfaction affected by teachers background and demographic characteristics?
What are the major factors determining job satisfaction among teachers in Uganda?
What are the impacts of teachers dissatisfaction on teachers performances in Uganda?

6.1.1. The concept of teachers professionals satisfactions and it measuring in Uganda

Satisfaction is primarily an individuals total feelings (likes: that is, satisfactions; and dislikes: that is,
dissatisfactions) about the job. Teacher professional satisfaction can then be defined simply by the
fact of knowing whether or not teachers like their job. According to Locke (1961, p. 316): Job
dissatisfaction is the unpleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job as
frustrating or blocking the attainment of ones job values or as entailing disvalues. Job satisfaction

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and dissatisfaction are a function of the perceived relationship between what one wants from ones
job and what one perceives it as offering.
Despite the importance of teacher Job Satisfaction, measuring procedures appear to be complicated
at a first glance. A Job Satisfaction Questionnaire is the most appropriate instrument in measuring
job satisfaction (Smith et al., 1969). This instrument is structured to measure specific areas of
satisfaction; its questions ask a respondent to describe their work; and it is designed to guide the
respondent in answering the questions. It seems simple to go to the employees and get data from
them and then interpret. But experience has shown that careless procedures/methodologies can
seriously limit the validity and usefulness of the data collected from the study. Keen attention should
therefore be given to question construction, maintenance of anonymity for employees and sampling
procedures.
The analysis presented in this section is based on the data collected during the National Survey on
Primary Teacher Satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU) organized by MOES in 2012 with the support of
Pole de Dakar from UNESCO (see questionnaire in annex 6.1). The population sample size for this
study was 387 elementary teachers employed in the public primary school and randomly selected
from all regions of the country. The following three questions were retained to capture teachers
level of satisfaction/dissatisfaction.

Table 6.1: Questions used for capture teachers satisfaction in Uganda, 2012
QN.

Generally speaking, how would you rate

your overall satisfaction with your job
as a teacher?

VERY
SATISFIED

SOMEWHA
T SATISFIED

SOMEWHAT
VERY
DISSATISFIED DISSATISFIED
3

YES
If you had the opportunity to start over in a new career, would you
2
choose to become a teacher?
Generally speaking, do you believe that the teachers with whom you
3
work are satisfied with their job?
Source: National Survey on Primary teacher Satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU)

NO

The question 1, allows capturing the point of view of teachers concerning their satisfaction. Their
answers permit to compute the dissatisfaction or satisfaction statement rate. Question 2, using as
the second measure allow to capture if teachers are feeling well in their job. In fact teachers who
answer Yes are considered as satisfied and the others are considered as dissatisfied. It allows
computing the dissatisfaction or satisfaction Willingness rate. In the same vein, question 3 allows
capturing the perception of teachers concerning the satisfaction of their colleagues. Teachers who
answer Yes are considered as satisfied and the others are considered as dissatisfied. It allows
computing the dissatisfaction or satisfaction perception rate.

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6.1.2. Uganda primary teachers overall level of satisfaction

The computation of questions 1, question 2 and question 3 is presented in the figure 6.1 below:

Figure 6.1: Overall level of satisfaction of teachers in Uganda, 2012

Source: National Survey on Primary teacher Satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU)

As presented in the first graphic, when extrapolating the two modalities very dissatisfied and
somewhat dissatisfied of question 1, 47% of teachers stated that they are dissatisfied with their job.
This is further accentuated by the high percentages of teachers (59%) who would not choose to
become teachers again if they had the opportunity to start a new job (second question). The
dissatisfaction of primary teachers seems to be more amplified than these figures shows. In fact, to
the question Generally speaking, do you believe that the teachers with whom you work are satisfied
with their job? 78% of teachers perceive that their colleagues are dissatisfied of their job.
Let us note that, the forthcoming analysis will be based only on the second question i.e. a teacher is
dissatisfied if he would not choose the same job given the opportunity to start over in a new career.
Most studies show that asking direct questions to employees on their level of satisfaction yields
biased results. Question 3 also has the same critique as the respondents just provide their perception
on the satisfaction of their colleagues. Even in the literature, the second question is usually
considered as the main proxy to capture the rate of dissatisfaction/satisfaction98.
As illustrated in graphic 6.2 below, Western region is the place where teachers are the most
dissatisfied (68%) and Eastern region is the place where teachers are relatively less dissatisfied
(51%). The same graphic shows that 55% of teachers of hard to reach region are dissatisfied
compared to 59% in non-hard to reach area, but there is no statistical significant difference between
the two rates.

98

See for example the TTISSA methodological guideline

115

Figure 6.2 : Level of teachers dissatisfaction according to the region or if the place where they teach
is hard to-reach or not

Source: National Survey on Primary teacher Satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU)

6.1.3. Satisfaction of primary teachers with respect to their socio-demographics and

professional characteristics
It is important to explore the direct relationship between job satisfaction (i.e. satisfied or dissatisfied)
with socio-demographic characteristics and professional characteristics, including: gender, age,
marital status, academic level, professional level, length of service, member or not of UNATU and
among others. It can allow understanding what role socio-demographic and professional
characteristic factors play, since this might have implications on interventions based on its
physiognomies (e.g. programs for new teachers).
The analyses of data collected during the NASPTSU reveal that, there is no significant relationship
between teachers satisfaction and most of their socio-demographics characteristics including
Gender and marital status. It is only Age that is significantly related to the level of satisfaction. The
study found that on average, with an increase in age, the overall level of satisfaction decreases. For
instance, 45% of teachers below 35 years were satisfied by the teaching profession while only 36% of
teachers above 46 years old were satisfied with the teaching job.
On the contrary of socio-demographic characteristics, almost all professional characteristics of
teachers are related to their level of satisfaction. Teachers with O level as highest academic level are
the most satisfied With more than 58% of them who are satisfied, they represent the group
(compared to teachers with primary level, A level, tertiary or Graduate) most satisfied of their job.
Teachers with high job satisfaction are more likely than other holders of an O level certificate (50% of
satisfied teachers are holders of an O level certificate, compared to 41% in the group of teachers with
low satisfaction). Satisfaction decreased as professional qualification increased. Teachers with
Grade III are the most satisfied (45%) compared to 36% for teachers with Grade V and 32% for those
116

who are Graduate. Teachers with high job satisfaction are mostly Grade III teachers compared to
holders other qualifications (63% of satisfied teachers are holders of Grade III, compared to 53% in
the subset of teachers with low satisfaction). Teachers with less than five years of experience are
the most satisfied. When analyzing the relationship between satisfaction and length of service, it
appears in the same pattern with age. Less experienced teachers are the most satisfied (55%)
compared to only 40% of teachers with more than 20 years of experience in the teaching profession.
In the same vein, teachers with low job satisfaction are more likely to be members of UNATU. The
survey shows that 73% of primary teachers are members of UNATU. Compared to those who are not
members, it appears that UNATU members are more dissatisfied than non-members (61% of UNATU
members are dissatisfied, compared to 54% of non-members).

6.1.4. Sources of teachers satisfaction

Like many authors (ABIODUN .M. GESINDE, 2012) put it, several factors determine teachers levels of
satisfaction. Altering teachers aspects like compensation levels, professional environment, and
economic conditions can generate diverse satisfaction levels. The survey examined eight major
possible sources of primary teachers career satisfaction among which included Recognition,
opportunities for professional growth, Interpersonal relationships/social activities with colleagues,
Salary, Benefits, Working conditions, Regular assessment of teacher performance and Quality of
leadership and supervision of head teacher. Respondents were asked to rank the proposed 8 factors
in respect to their effect/impact on their job satisfaction. The analysis of the findings to derive the
factors that mostly impact on teachers job satisfaction can be done using two approaches: The first
consisted of determining the number of times a factor has been chosen as the main source of
satisfaction i.e. one has to count the number of times that factor has received a rank 1 for example.
All the 8 factors can then be ranked according to the number of times they have been chosen. The
second approach involved computing the mean mark received by each of the eight factors. The 8
factors thereafter are ranked according to the mean obtained. The best factor will be the one with
the less mean. The finding presented below is based on the first approach. Some results obtained
with the second approach are presented in annex 6.2. What is interesting is that, the two approaches
provide the same conclusion.
Table 6.2 below presents the percentage distribution of teachers who choose a given factor as the
main source of satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Each of the 8 factors is rank according to his importance
as source of satisfaction/dissatisfaction for teachers.

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Table 6.2: Percentage of teachers who choose a given factor as the main source of
satisfaction/dissatisfaction, 2012
Factors
Dissatisfied Satisfied
All teachers
Salary
55%
43%
50%
Potential/opportunities for professional
10%
12%
11%
growth
Recognition
8%
13%
10%
Quality of leadership and supervision of
7%
10%
9%
head teacher
Benefits
7%
5%
6%
Interpersonal
relationships
with
6%
6%
6%
colleagues
Working conditions
3%
8%
4%
Regular
assessment
of
teacher
3%
4%
3%
performance
Total
100%
100%
100%
Source: National Survey on Primary teacher Satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU)

Ranking
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Salary as the main source of satisfaction/dissatisfaction

The above analysis indicates salary as the major factor that affects teachers level of satisfaction with
a 50% response rate for all respondents covered in the survey. Dissatisfied teachers give more
importance to salary as the major factor behind their dissatisfaction with a 55% response rate while
43% of the satisfied teachers also affirm salary as the main source of their satisfaction. The
importance of salary is also highlighted through analyzing the linkage between revenue and level of
satisfaction as indicated in figure 6.3 below.
Figure 6.3: Link between revenue on level of satisfaction (revenue in Uganda shilling) , 2012
69%
60%
54%

49% 51%

46%
40%
31%

Satisfied
Dissatisfied

Salary below
300000

Salary above
350000

Additional
revenue below
50000

Additional
revenue above
50000

Source: National Survey on Primary teacher Satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU)

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From the findings above, the rate of dissatisfaction decreases with the increase in teachers salary
while satisfaction increases with the increase in the salary. Figure 6.3 above shows a 69%
dissatisfaction rate for teachers earning a salary below 300,000 UGX which decreases to 54% for
teachers who earn a salary above 350,000 UGX. The satisfaction rates however increased from 31%
to 46% for teachers earning a salary below 300,000 UGX and above 350,000 respectively. The same
pattern is obtained when analyzing additional revenue. The rate of dissatisfaction decreased from
60% to 51% with teachers who have less than and above 50,000 UGX respectively as additional
revenue. The reverse is however true for satisfaction rate which increased from 40% to 49% with
teachers who have less than and above 50,000 UGX respectively as additional revenue.
Opportunities for professional growth followed by Recognition as the two other most
important sources of teachers satisfaction/dissatisfaction
After salary, the others two main factors considered by teachers as important for their satisfaction
are opportunities for professional growth and Recognition. Findings in Table 6.2 above indicate
that 11% and 10% of the teachers in Uganda chose opportunities for professional growth and
recognition respectively as their main source of satisfaction. It is also clear from the analysis that
dissatisfied teachers rank opportunities for professional growth and recognition second and third
respectively to salary as the major factors behind their dissatisfaction (10% and 8% respectively). To
the satisfied teachers however, recognition is rated more powerful (13%) than opportunities for
professional growth (12%). It can therefore be deducted that recognition and opportunities for
professional growth are the two others most important sources of teachers
satisfaction/dissatisfaction which have to be handled with maximum care if the best is to be achieved
in Ugandas teaching profession.
It is Important also to mention that, quality of leadership and supervision by head teacher appears
as the fourth important source of satisfaction/dissatisfaction. The relative significance of the quality
of supervision is also highlighted by the result presented in the figure 6.4 below.
Figure 6.4: Level of satisfaction/dissatisfaction of teachers with respect tothe number of year of
experiment of the head teachers
71%
57%
43%
29%

satisfied
Dissatisfied

Schools with Head teacher having a length Schools with Head teacher having alength
of service below 15 years
of service above 15years

Source:National Survey on Primary teacher Satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU)

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The figure 6.4 shows that on average, 71% of teachers working in a school with less experienced
teachers (less than 15 years) are dissatisfied while the rate decreases to 57% for teachers working in
schools with more experienced head teachers (more than 15years).
The preceding analysis provides room for looking at solutions to alleviate the high level of
dissatisfaction. One can note that if salary is the key source of dissatisfaction/satisfaction, the other
factors (Opportunities for professional growth, Recognition, Quality of supervision) indicates that
low cost measures can be taken to increase the level of satisfaction.
The main surprise is thatRegular assessment of teachers and Working conditions that are usually
considered among main factors impacting on the quality of education/performance of teachers were
only choose by 3% and 4% of teachers respectively as their main source of
satisfaction/dissatisfaction.
Even if salary is chosen in all the regions as the main source of satisfaction, the importance
accorded to salary varies from one region to another
Teachers in Western and Central regions accorded more importance to salary than the other regions
with a percentage distribution of 67% and 57% respectively. In Eastern and Northern they are only
36% and 35% respectively who have chosen salary as their main source of satisfaction.
Table: 6.3: Percentage of teachers per region who choose a given factor as the main source of
satisfaction/dissatisfaction, 2012
Factors

Central

Salary

Eastern

Northern Western

UGANDA National Ranking

57%

36%

35%

67%

50%

14%

9%

16%

5%

11%

Recognition

4%

16%

17%

4%

10%

Quality of leadership and

supervision of head teacher

7%

14%

7%

7%

9%

Benefits

6%

7%

6%

6%

6%

Interpersonal relationships with

colleagues

5%

8%

9%

3%

6%

Working conditions

4%

7%

6%

4%

4%

Regular assessment of teacher

performance

3%

3%

4%

4%

3%

Potential/opportunities
professional growth

Total

for

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

Source: National Survey on Primary teacher Satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU)

Even if salary is chosen by the vast majority of teachers, opportunities for professional growth also
appear as one of the significant factors affecting teachers satisfaction in the Central region with 14%
percentage distribution.

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 It appears also some disparities between regions when considered the importance
accorded to other sources.
In the Eastern region, the findings indicate that Recognition and Quality of supervision follow salary
as the two others major factors influencing teachers satisfaction with a percentage distribution of
16% and 14% respectively. The northern region also follows the same trend like the eastern region
with recognition and opportunities for professional growth taking 17% and 16% percentage
respectively.
Important to note in the western region is that Quality of leadership and supervision of head teacher
takes a center stage as a strong determinant of teachers satisfaction with 7% of the respondents
prioritizing it as a major factor.
Let us remark that when one considers gender and apply the same methodology as above, it appear
that the point of view of women and men is the same concerning salary. Each of the two groups
considers salary as their main source of satisfaction/dissatisfaction. However, if Recognition and
opportunities for professional growth follows in this order as the others two main sources of
satisfaction for men, it is quality of supervision and for professional growth that are considered by
women as their two main source of satisfaction after salary.
1.4 Effect of satisfaction/dissatisfaction of teachers in their devoutness and their propensity to quit
the teaching profession.
As presented in the table below, during the National Survey on Primary teacher Satisfaction in
Uganda (NASPTSU), four questions (indicated in table 6.5 below) were asked to teachers in order to
appreciate the relationship between teachers satisfaction and the devoutness concerning their job.
Table 6.5: Questions to capture teachers devoutness
4.1. How often do you give assignments/homework to your pupils per month?.........................
4.2. How much time (hours) do you spend in teaching in a week?..............................................
4.3. How much time per week do you spend in lesson preparation and marking
assignments/homework?...............................................................................................................
4.4. How many times have you been absent from school with permission this year?................

Source:National Survey on Primary teacher Satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU)

As summarised in table 6.6 below, the analysis of the answers provided by respondents shows an
insignificant difference between satisfied and dissatisfied teachers.
Table 6.6: Effect of satisfaction on some teachers devoutness at the school level, 2012
Satisfied
Mean
Sd
Frequency of Assignment per month
12.0
7.7
Number of teaching hours per week
23.0 11.9
Number of hours per week in lesson preparation and marking
15.0 10.3
Number of time you have been officially absent with permission
3.3
2.7
Source: National Survey on Primary teacher Satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU)

dissatisfied
Mean
Sd
13.0
7.7
22.0
12.7
14.0
10.0
3.1
2.7

This therefore means that the devoutness of the satisfied teachers does not significantly differ
from the devoutnessof dissatisfied teachers.

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The data collected also allows one to get a sense of teachers professional aspirations. The findings
indicate that around 60% of teachers want to get an administrative position in the education sector
in the next two years. The figure 6.5 below presents more details on the distribution of teachers
with respect to their job expectation in the next two years.
Figure 6.5: Aspiration of primary teachers in terms of work in the next two years, 2012

16%

16%

Stay as teacher in the education

sector
Stay in the education sector but
at an administrative position

9%

59%

Be promoted to an
administrative position out of
the education sector
Find a position in the private
sector

Source: National Survey on Primary teacher Satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU)

It appears that, most of the teachers will like to quit the teaching profession within the next two
years. Concerning their aspiration, only 16% of primary teachers would like to stay in the teaching
profession within the next two years. Administrative functions seem to be more attractive for
teachers, with over 70% of teachers interested in getting promoted to administrative positions in the
publics sectors. The analysis show that 37% of dissatisfied teachers would like to quit the profession
in the next to year. The same rate is estimated to 6% for satisfied teachers. The propensity to quit
the teaching profession is then six times higher among dissatisfied teachers compare to satisfied
teachers.
Beyond teachers professional satisfaction and perception of the teaching profession, it is important
to consider the broader social context in which teachers operate. Social dialogue is a key element in
achieving decent and productive work for men and women, in conditions of freedom, equality,
security and human dignity. The subsequent section focuses on these aspects.

6.2.

Social dialogue in education sector

Social dialogue is defined by the International Labor Office (ILO) to include all types of
negotiation and consultation, and also the exchange of information between, or among,
representatives of governments, employers and workers on issues of common interest relating to
economic and social policy. The main goal of social dialogue is to promote consensus building and
the democratic involvement of the main stakeholders in the world of work.
Within the education sector, social dialogue is a vital component in achieving the objective of
quality education for all. Like scholars put it, it is widely known that teachers are key stakeholders in
implementing good educational reforms. Without their full involvement in key aspects of
educational objectives and policies, full attainment of educational goals becomes a myth. In order
to grasp the states of social dialogue in the Uganda Education sector, this section starts by
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describing the main stakeholders in the education sector. Then it assesses the real involvement of
teachers in the definition of education policies. Points of divergences/convergences between
government and teachers are then highlighted. An analysis on the way to improve the social
dialogue in education sector ends the section.
The analysis is based on a literature review of relevant education policies and documents,
interviews with SG of UNATU, President of COUPSTA, semi-structured interviews with two focus
group discussion with members of TISSA national team and informal talks with persons
knowledgeable of education challenges.
6.2.1. Stakeholders in the education sector in Uganda: role, responsibilities and challenges
Parents and students
Parents are the first stakeholders in the education sector. Their role is principally to send children to
school and provide scholastic materials, supporting learning at home etc. The major problem in
Uganda is that parents are not represented at the national level. Despite their contribution on the
financing of education (materials, meals, books, etc.), there is no formal involvement of parent in
the definition of the education policies. For instance, parents are not formally consulted during
curriculum development and review.
Lets note that on the contrary of parents, students are formally represented at the national level
through the Uganda National Students Association (UNSA). It is this national organization that
responsible for organizing students in both secondary and tertiary institutions as well as ensuring (in
principle) that all educational institutions set up school councils or university guilds. Furthermore,
several interviewees point out that in spite of this structure students have little voice in the
educational system and that student leaders often move away from the concerns of their fellow
youth.
Civil organization
There are many civil organization involved in the education sector in Uganda. One can cite Forum for
Women Education, Orphans Community Based Organization, Gulu Development Agency, KINGFO etc.
FENU is the main body of these NGOs at the national level. These make advocacy, represent
voiceless, complement government programmes and efforts through funding, technical guidance,
policy engagement and professional development. The major challenge for civil organizations in
Uganda is misinterpretation of their work of advocacy by government. In addition, there is not an
efficient coordination in their intervention with repeated duplication of programmes 99. For instance,
Gulu Development Agency and Christian Relief Services in Gulu all focus their advocacy on peace
education and conflict resolution.
Foundation bodies
Mainly represented by religious institutions and community, they are fully involved in the
development of the education policies. They recommend heads of institutions, influence guidelines
for running institutions; provide infrastructure and funding to the institutions. The main challenge
they faced is the harmonization of recommendation with ministry priorities.
99

they are in general donor-dependent and in competition with one another

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 Private sector
Private sectors mostly represented by financial institutions and firms are also involved in the
development of educational policies. They contribute towards evaluation of the curriculum, provide
scholarships and instructional materials. The main challenge they faced is turbulent political
environment, bureaucracy and corruption.
Development partners
The most active are UNICEF, UNESCO, USAID, ADB, World Bank, UNDP, UNFPA, IRISH AID, ACTION
AID, OXFAM, DAAD, SAVE THE CHILDREN and WHO. They are fully involved during the development
of educational policies. They also contribute to resource mobilization, infrastructure development,
policy support, reform and implementation. In addition, they contribute to the coordination of
implementation of convention goals such as MDGS and EFA. The major challenges are economic
depression, duplication of work, conflicting priorities with government, political interferences,
competition on misappropriation of funds.

6.2.2. Involvement of teacher in the development of educational policies

Teachers have one main UNION named UNATU (Uganda National Teachers' Union) which has more
than the half of teachers affiliated. There is also COUPSTA (Coalition of Uganda Private School
Teachers' Association) which is a civil organization that brings together all teachers in private schools
to contribute towards the education policy interpretation and implementation at different levels.
UNATU and their involvement
UNATU officially registered as a Union in 2003 with members (publics teachers) from primary to the
tertiary levels. Teachers from private are admitted as associate members. With more than 86000
members in 2012, the UNION covers around half of the total of public teachers in Uganda. Members
pay a subscription of 1% of their salary, deducted at source.
UNATU has a series of activities, including advocacy for teacher rights; Policy development (they have
developed a code of conduct for teachers); training of teachers during seminars on variety of topics,
including classroom management and conflict resolution.
It is in November 2011 that an official agreement was established between UNATU and the
Government of Uganda to determine and regulate the relationship between them in the interests of
mutual understanding and co-operation.
According to UNATU, the two main challenges in the education sector are related to the Poor
quality of education and the politicization of education. They usually organize campaigns to
improve on the quality of education. The campaign is run as a coalition of Civil Society organizations
with a passion for quality public education. These coordinating organizations include Uganda Joint
Christian Council (UJCC), UNATU, Uganda Moslem Education Association (UMEA), Action aid

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International Uganda, Forum for Education NGOs in Uganda (FENU) and are jointly recognized as the
Citizens Action for Quality Public Education.
The main results up to now are (i) the public outcry and support for increase in the remuneration of
teachers, (ii) the increased debate on the poor status of education and plight of teachers and (iii) the
increased interest of Parliament on the issue. Their implications on the education policy are generally
elaboration of Education Strategy Plan, during Annual education review and also during preparation
of budget. However, it seems that at the end, the government is indifferent to ideas and positions
defended by them.
Involvement of civil organizations devoted essentially to teacher: the case of COUPSTA
COUPSTA is a civil organization that brings together all teachers in private schools (Early childhood
education centers, Primary and Secondary schools, teacher training colleges and National teachers
colleges) to contribute towards the education policy interpretation and implementation at different
levels. It was registered as an NGO in 2004. The association is presently represented in about 50% of
districts in Uganda. Even if their status differs from the one of a UNION, they seem to address the
same issues with UNATU.
COUPPSTA does not feel involved in the elaboration of the policy of Education for All (EFA) policies.
According to them, very few teachers from private schools (less than 5 percent) are aware of EFA.
According to them, the main challenges in the education sector are poor quality of education and
poor implementation of the government policy within public and private school.
In the recent years, some concerns of the association have been taken into account by the
government. A case in point is the creation of the department of private schools in the Ministry of
Education and Sports as well as the elaboration and implementation of the regulatory framework of
the private education sector. There are still certain points of divergence between the association and
the government such as the negotiations about the independence of the department in charge of the
private education sector and the desire to increase the financial support to the education sector.
The association believes that in order to improve performance of private institutions, the
government should level the ground for implementation of education policies between the private
and government institutions. It was noted for instance that examination fees for students from
private schools are more than those from public school. The government had agreed in 2011 to levy
the same tariffs to the two categories (private and government), but the application of the
agreement is still awaited.
The major challenge that is facing the association is the lack of resources for implementation of the
associations programmes and for their expansion. It is the associations prayer that more
associations dealing in issues of private schools be formed to address the many challenges being
faced and to add on their voice to government.

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6.2.3. Points of convergences or/and divergences between government and teachers

A good indicator of the social context in relation to teachers condition of work and their associations
is an examination of the major points of convergence and divergence between them and the
government. This section presents the main points of convergence or divergence that has been
reported.
Effectiveness of The Public Service Negotiation, arbitration and Disputes Settlement Act
2008
The Public Service Negotiation, arbitration and Disputes Settlement Act 2008 is one the laws that
relays to social dialogue in Uganda. Despite its existence, it has not been operationalized hence no
formal bargaining has taken place between the teachers and Government. This therefore creates a
gap between policy formulation and policy implementation. The teachers and Government have
been involved in arbitrary negotiations/ dialogue that have not been formally organized as per the
provisions of the Public Service Negotiations and Disputes Settlement Act. As a result, there is no
formal agreement on issues discussed and agreed upon. Governments proposed dates to
operationalize the negotiation Act passed in February 2012 and to date, there has been no action.
Improvement of teachers remuneration
Both government and UNATU stated that teachers salaries remain low and teaching is often cited as
an increasingly unpopular career option. In order to improve the living conditions of teacher, the
UNION requested for 100% increment of salary such that the lowest paid teacher earns 546,000/=.
Government proposed an increment of 50% in three phases: 15% increment in 2012/2013 financial
year, 20% in 2013/2014 and 15% in 2014/2015. However, on the point of UNATU, this decision was
not subject to negotiation and falls far below the 100% requested.
Delayed remittance of capitation grants
The government and teachers agreed in 2011 that capitation grant to school where not pay on time.
The delay in the release of capitation grants continues to be a subject of contention between the
government and the management of education institutions.
Financial support of parents in school
The general suggestion for UNATU and public education institutions is that government should allow
institution to solicit for financial support from parents for effective implementation of school
activities. The current government policy in UPE and USE does not allow schools to require Parents
and Guardians to make financial contributions. According to UNATU and other stakeholders, in
addition to insufficient funds received, capitation grants generally arrive late at schools and therefore
need to be supported by other sources of funds.
Payment of allowances to all secondary schools science teachers
Ministry of Education and Sports committed to a 30% salary enhancement for all science teachers in
Secondary schools effective Financial Year 2012/13. MOES reported the total beneficiary science
teachers as 9,903 teachers. According to UNATU and others stakeholders, government is proposing
an increment to only those in Post O-level institutions.
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Resumption of the Schemes of Service for both Primary and Secondary schools
In 2008 the Teachers Scheme of Service was establish to the enhancement of the status, morale and
professionalism of teachers as one of the strategies for achieving EFA goals. It was part of the
Education Sector Strategic Plan 2004-2015. The Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic
Development was directed to make a provision for the implementation of the Scheme. According to
UNATU and others stakeholders in education sector, up to now, it is only at primary level that it is
implemented. Secondary and tertiary institutions are still ignored. In addition, some teachers that
were promoted on the scheme of service continue to complain that Ministry of Public Service has
failed to pay their remunerations since appointment.

Student Automatic promotion

One point of divergence between government and teachers is Automatic promotion policy. The
policy was introduced in 2005 by the MoES in which schools were compelled to promote pupils
irrespective of their performance. Government was convinced that the policy of automatic
promotion would improve on the completion rates (63% in 2010)100. This completely contradicts with
teachers views who stated that quality of primary education cant match with the automatic
promotion. In their point of view, this could not be possible when teachers are facing large classes.
There are districts with one teacher per 100 pupils, and asking such a teacher to do automatic
promotion could contribute to destroy the quality of education of those young fellows, because the
teacher can spends a week without giving feedback to certain pupils.

6.2.4. Improve relationship between teachers and government

As was recommended in the Pretoria Declaration on Teachers101, countries such as Uganda, which
do not already have institutionalized a permanent structures for social dialogue between education
employers and teachers by means of regular information sharing and consultation on policy issues
and negotiation of employment and working conditions, should develop such structures as a matter
of priority.
The effectiveness of such permanent platform would allow to define in a consensus manner how to
develop specific measures that can positively impact on the main sources of satisfaction of teachers
revealed in the first section (Salary, Opportunities for professional growth, Recognition and Quality of
supervision). It will also allow to find consensus on several divergent points of view revealed in the
preceding section (section2.3).
Furthermore, actors have also identified a series of measures that can allow to improve the
relationship between teachers and government. The main points are related to:
Systematic and full involvement of teachers from the initial stages of policy formulation for
easy understanding, ownership and implementation. The best way to involve teachers
must be to invite more members of the teacher UNION or teachers association who can
speak without fear of repression. Generally it is inspectors and head teachers who are
involved. Since they are with their hierarchy, they are not free to speak in presence of
100
101

This is order to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE).

http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/ed_dialogue/sector/documents/publication/wcms_161959.pdf

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them.
The way the current performance contracts are administered. On the point of view of
teachers, it can be a source of conflict or frustrations on their side. The teachers
performance contracts are taken to be a coercive ways of yielding good results rather than a
motivating factor. In addition government does not provide the necessary inputs
(inadequate capitation delayed release and low salaries) in order for teachers to produce
expected outputs. Its therefore a dream to think that in the present situation the teacher
can achieve desirable results that would lead to good and quality education in Uganda.
The development by government of strategies to reduce the gap between teachers who
have an administrative function and teachers who are in class (who use chalk), such as more
opportunities for teachers in the field concerning professional travels, participation to
workshops and seminars etc. It can be one of the reasons why around 60% of teachers in
the classroom would like to have an administrative position in the next two years.
The way the allocation of education sector resources is done. In the last 20yrs, government
has received a lot of Aid and Donor funding from development partners but most of this has
always been allocated to the hardware (construction of classes procurement of equipment
to laboratories etc.). Government should now mainstream more on software (teacher and
their working conditions and capacity building). Hardware without software is useless.
Before ending this section, it is important to recall that, all the analyses presented here are based on
a series of interviews conducted with the Secretary General of UNATU, the President of COUPSTA, as
well as semi-structured interviews using focus group discussions with members of TISSA national
team and informal talks with persons knowledgeable of education challenges in Uganda. Let us note
that additional studies should be undertaken on the various domains where major divergences were
found between teachers, government and stakeholders to adequately appreciate the feasibility and
sustainability of the various points of views/propositions made.

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KEY RESULTS CHAPTER 6:

TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION AND THE CONTEXT FOR SOCIAL DIALOGUE

Job dissatisfaction is high among Ugandan teachers. In a national survey on teacher job satisfaction
conducted on a representative sample of teachers in government primary schools, 47 percent
indicated that they were dissatisfied with their job. About 59 percent, if asked to choose their career
again, indicated that they would not be teachers. Finally, 78 percent of teachers believe that
teachers with whom they work are dissatisfied with their job. The perception of dissatisfaction in
the profession is high.
Teacher job dissatisfaction shows clear regional disparities however. The Western Region is where
teachers are most dissatisfied and the Eastern Region where they are relatively less so. Surprisingly,
there is no significant difference between the level of satisfaction of teachers working in hard to
reach hard to stay areas and the other teachers.
Being male, older, or more qualified are teacher characteristics associated with high levels of
dissatisfaction. Findings indicate that male teachers are slightly more dissatisfied (60 percent) than
female teachers (56 percent). Generally, the overall level of dissatisfaction also increases with the
teachers age and level of professional qualification.
Salary is stated by teachers as the main cause of job dissatisfaction, mentioned by 50 percent of all
survey respondents. The findings show that the rate of dissatisfaction is lower for teachers with
higher salaries.
Furthermore, few non-salary related factors improve teachers job satisfaction. Those that do are
opportunities for professional growth and recognition. After the salary, these factors were the most
important sources of teachers job satisfaction/dissatisfaction (mentioned by 11 percent and 10
percent respectively).
Most teachers would like to leave the teaching profession within two years. Only 16 percent of
primary teachers aspire to remain in the teaching profession over the next two years. Administrative
functions attract the interest of over 70 percent of teachers. The propensity to abandon the
profession is six times higher among dissatisfied teachers than among satisfied teachers.
There is no permanent structure for social dialogue between education employers and teachers.
Stakeholders in the education sector recognize that social dialogue is a vital component in achieving
a quality education for all. Those available for teachers to occasionally share their concerns, views
and positions with the government include the Joint Consultative Committee on Education, the
annual Education Sector Review, and the Education Sector Consultative Committee.
Teachers in the field are not frequently involved in policy formulation. According to UNATU and
some teacher associations (COUPSTA), only inspectors and head teachers tend to be consulted, but
cannot freely voice their opinions for hierarchical reasons.

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Many points of divergence and issues between teachers and the government have been reported,
mainly relating to:
- The effectiveness of the Public Service Negotiation, Arbitration and Disputes Settlement Act
of 2008;
- The improvement of teacher remuneration;
- The inadequate/delayed remittance of capitation grants and streamlining of allowances to
teachers in hard-to-reach/hard-to-stay areas;
- The non-payment of allowances to all secondary school science teachers;
- The resumption of the Schemes of Service for both primary and secondary schools;
- The policy of automatic promotion introduced in 2005 by the MoES; and
- The financial implication of parents in the management of primary schools.
Furthermore, actors have identified a series of measures that could help to improve the
relationship between teachers and the government, relating to:
(i)

The institutionalization of a permanent structure for social dialogue between education

employers and teachers, through regular information sharing, consultation on policy
issues and the negotiation of employment and working conditions.

(ii)

A more frequent involvement of teachers in policy formulation from its initial stages, to
promote the understanding, ownership and implementation of new policies. The best
way to involve teachers is almost certainly to invite more teacher union members or
teacher associations, providing them with the opportunity to share their views freely.

(iii)

The better administration of current performance contracts, which can currently be a

source of conflict and frustration for teachers. Teacher performance contracts are used to
coerce rather than motivate, in addition to which the government does not provide the
inputs (capitation grants are inadequate, their release is often delayed and salaries are
low) necessary for teachers to produce the expected outputs.

(iv)

The development of government strategies to reduce the benefit gap between teachers
who have administrative functions and chalk-in-hand teachers, relating to professional
travel, participation in workshops and seminars and so on, that is one of the reasons why
many teachers aspire to administrative functions.

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Annex 6.1: UNESCO Teacher Training Initiative for Sub-Saharan Africa (TISSA)-UGANDA
TheTeacherJobSatisfactionSurvey
NB:Dear Teacher, this questionnaire seeks to solicit information to contribute to a Diagnostic Study of Teacher Issues in
Uganda. For eachitem,pleaseindicateyourresponse in front of the question, rank or circle the appropriate number where applicable.
Please do not write your name, telephone number or contact on this questionnaire. Thank you
1.1. Age:...........................................................................................................................................................................
1.2. Sex:........................................................................................................................
1.3. District origine:
1.4. Marital status (single, married, separated, divorced, widowed):
1.5. Number of children (if applicable)..
1.6. Highest academics level of education (Primary, OL; AL; Tertiary, University):...
1.7. Highest professional level of education (Grade III, Grade V, Graduate):..
1.8. Number of years of teaching experience:....................................................................................................................
1.9. Teaching deployment (Lower, Upper):
1.10. Teaching area (for P1 to P4 teacher) .Or teaching subjects (for P5 to P7 teacher):.
1.11. Member of UNATU (yes or no):
1.12. Total monthly income: (a) Salary :(b) Estimation of other incomes:..
QUESTION NO.
1.

VERY
SATISFIED
Generallyspeaking,how would you rate your overall
satisfaction with your job as a teacher?

SOMEWHAT
SATISFIED

SOMEWHAT
DISSATISFIED
D
3

VERY
DISSATISFIED

YES

NO

2.

If you had the opportunity to start over ina new career, would you choose to becomea
teacher?

3.

Generallyspeaking,doyoubelievethattheteacherswithwhomyouworkaresatisfied with their

job?

4.1. How often do you give assignments/homework to your pupils per month?............................................................................................................................................
4.2. How much time (hours) do you spend in teaching in a week?........................................................................................................................................................................
4.3. How much time per week do you spend in lesson preparation and marking assignments/homework?....................................................................................
4.4. How many times have you been absent from school with permission this year?..................................................................................................................................
4.5. What is your job expectation in the next two years? (Circle one option in the table):...
Stay in the education sector as a Be promoted to an administrative
teacher
position in the education sector
1

Be promoted to an administrative position

out of the education sector

Find a position in the

private sector
4

5. Rank the 8 factors in the table below using figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 in respect to their effect/impact on your job satisfaction as a
teacher. Note that: 1 is the most important and 8 is the least important and that no figure from 1to 8 can be repeated.
FACTORS

1 is the most important and 8 is the least

important, do not repeat any figure

Recognition(e.g.,receivingpraisefromauthorities,parents,students,or others)
Potential/opportunities forprofessionalgrowth (e.g.,possibilityofimprovingone'sown
professional skills, additional responsibilities)
Interpersonal relationships/social activities with colleagues
Salary
Benefits (health security, housing, transport, specific status for teachers, etc.)
Working conditions (e.g., infrastructure, class size, workload, facilities and
equipment at work)
Regular assessment of teacher performance
Quality of leadership and supervision of head teacher
According to you, what is the main (one) measure the government can take to significantly improve your level of satisfaction? (Please write
below, not more than two lines)

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Annex 6.2: Main source of satisfaction according to the computation of the mean of the mark

provided by respondent to each factor

Ranking
Mean
Factors
Pay
2.9
1
Opportunity of professional growth
4.0
2
Benefits
4.3
3
Working condition
4.3
4
Recognition
4.3
5
Interrelationship with colleague
5.0
6
Quality of supervision
5.2
7
Regular assessment of performance
5.3
8
Source: National Survey on Primary teacher Satisfaction in Uganda (NASPTSU), 2012

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