Introduction

1.1 INTRODUCTION:
1.2 Reservoir is the most important geologic information which can be termed as a
subsurface volume of rock having ample porosity and permeability to store hydrocarbon
under adequate seals and traps. Whereas Reservoir Characterization is influentially
known as a term which integrates all available data to define the geometry, distribution of
physical parameters, and flow properties of a petroleum reservoir.
1.3 Well log is one of the most elementary methods for reservoir characterization, in oil and
gas industry. It is very essential for petroleum geologist to acquire more knowledge about
the condition below the surface by using petrophysical properties of rocks. This method is
very useful to detect hydrocarbon bearing zone, calculate the hydrocarbon volume, and
many others. Some approaches are needed to characterize reservoir, by using wireline log
data, one can calculate:
1. Shale Volume (Vsh)
2. Water Saturation (Sw)
3. Porosity ()
4. Permeability (k)
1.4
1.5 The interpretation of wireline log data must be done in several steps and it should not be
analyzed randomly because, the result might be a total error. Figure 1 shows the steps for
reservoir characterization by using wireline log data. Basically, petrophysical properties
(shale volume, water saturation, permeability, etc.) will be used in reservoir
characterization, which are mostly based on geology.
1.6
1.7 Formation or geologic formation is the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy and consists
of a certain number of rock strata having a comparable lithology, facies and other similar
properties. To get a crystal clear idea about a formation it must be evaluated. Formation
Evaluation is the process of evaluating oil or gas bearing formations penetrated by a well
or wells and appraising their commercial significance. [1]
1.8
1.9 It corresponds to the following steps: [1]
1. Determine the petrophysical properties of reservoir rocks.
2. Evaluate their volume and the nature of their content in oil or gas.
3. Estimate their economical potential.
1.10
1.11

This evaluation implies the study of of all the available data that are of: [1]

1. Different origins and natures (qualitative and quantitative)

2. Obtained at different scales (kilometric and micrometric)
1.12
1.13

1.14
1.15

Figure 1-Flowchart to analyze well logs that must be done to characterize a reservoir.
1.16
1.17 Reserves are known as resources which are economically feasible to recover in the
near future using the commercial methods under the regulations of the government and
regulatory agencies. There are 2 types of reserves and these are proven reserves and
probable reserves. The process evaluating these economically viable reserves is termed as
reserve estimation. This estimation process is subject to numerous revisions during the
life of the field. This can be done varying the recovery processes such as:
1.18
1. Primary Recovery
2. Secondary Recovery
3. Tertiary Recovery
1.19
1.20 The reserve estimates are important in their own right, but in addition, these estimates
are inputs and drivers for:
Capital-expenditure
Production
Cash-flow models.
1.21
1.22
1.23 The primary objective of this work is to identify the hydrocarbon bearing sand zone
and the amount and type of hydrocarbon resides there. This study is also to demonstrate
the understanding of the petrophyiscal application of wireline logs in hydrocarbon
evaluation and its significance in gas exploration and exploitation in regions similar to the
study area.
1.24
1.25

1.26 The process of estimating gas reserves for a producing field continues throughout the
life of the field. There is always uncertainty in making such estimates. The level of
uncertainty is affected by the following factors: [2]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.27

Reservoir type,
Source of reservoir energy,
Quantity and quality of the geological, engineering, and geophysical data,
Assumptions adopted when making the estimate,
Available technology, and
Experience and knowledge of the evaluator.

1.28

The gas reserves estimation methods can be grouped into the following categories: [2]

1.29

1. Analogy,

1.30

2. Reservoir simulation,

1.31

3. Material balance calculations for gas reservoirs,

1.32

4. Decline curve,

1.33

5. Volumetric.

1.34 The analogy method is applied by comparing the following factors for
the analogous and current fields or wells:

Recovery Factor (RF),

Barrels per Acre-Foot (BAF), and
Estimated Ultimate Recovery (EUR)

1.35
1.36 A close-to-abandonment analogous field is taken as an approximate to the current
field. This method is most useful when running the economics on the current field; which
is supposed to be an exploratory field. [2]
1.37 The process of simulating petroleum reservoirs has been thoroughly described by
Peaceman (24) as the: Process of inferring the behavior of a real reservoir,
the prototype system, from the performance of a model of that reservoir. The model may
be physical, such as a scaled laboratory model or mathematical. A mathematical model of
a real reservoir is a set of partial differential equations, together with an appropriate set of
boundary conditions, which are believed to adequately describe the significant physical
processes taking place in the real reservoir, see the below Figure 2.
1.38 The processes taking place in a real reservoir are basically fluid flow and mass
transfer.
Up to three immiscible phases (gas, oil, and water) may flow simultaneously where
gravity, capillary, and viscous forces play an important role in the flow process. Mass
transfer may take place between the phases (chiefly between gas and oil phases).

1.39 The model equations must account for all forces, and should also take into account an
arbitrary reservoir description with respect to heterogeneity and geometry. The equations
are obtained by combining the mass conservation equation with the equation of motion
(Darcy's law).
To use the mathematical model for predicting the behavior of a real reservoir, it is
necessary to solve the model equations subject to the appropriate boundary conditions.
The methods of solution are basically divided into two main
methods, analytical and numerical. Analytical methods are applicable only to the simplest
cases involving homogeneous reservoirs and very regular boundaries. Numerical
methods, on the other hand, are extremely general in their applicability and have proved
to be highly successful for obtaining solutions to very complex reservoir situations.
A numerical model of a reservoir, then, is a computer program that uses numerical
methods to obtain an approximate solution to the mathematical model. [2]
1.40
1.41
1.42

1.43
1.44

Figure 2- Algorithm of reservoir simulation.

1.45

1.46
1.47
1.48
1.49
1.50 Material balance calculation is an excellent tool for estimating gas reserves. It is based
on the non-ideal gas law, PV = ZnRT.
1.51 If a reservoir comprises a closed system and contains single-phase gas, the pressure in
the reservoir will decline proportionately to the amount of gas produced. Unfortunately,
sometimes bottom water drive in gas reservoirs contributes to the depletion mechanism,
altering the performance of the non-ideal gas law in the reservoir. Material balance can be
applied after obtaining certain amount of production data such as: [2]

1.52
Production Volume.
Reservoir Pressure and Temperature.
Fluid analysis data.
Log Data, Core data.
Drive Mechanism.
1.53
1.54
1.55 A decline curve of a well is simply a plot of the wells production rate on the y-axis
versus time on the x-axis. The plot is usually done on a semilog paper; i.e. the y-axis is
logarithmic and the x-axis is linear.
1.56 When the data plots as a straight line, it is modeled with a constant percentage decline
exponential decline. When the data plots concave upward, it is modeled with a
hyperbolic decline. A special case of the hyperbolic decline is known as harmonic
decline.
1.57 The most common decline curve relationship is the constant percentage decline
(exponential). With more and more low productivity wells coming on stream, there is
currently a swing toward decline rates proportional to production rates (hyperbolic and
harmonic).
1.58 Although some wells exhibit these trends, hyperbolic or harmonic decline
extrapolations should only be used for these specific cases. Over-exuberance in the use of
hyperbolic or harmonic relationships can result in excessive reserves estimates. [2]
1.59
1.60 The volumetric method entails determining the physical size of the reservoir, the pore
volume within the rock matrix, and the fluid content within the void space.
1.61 This provides an estimate of the hydrocarbons-in-place, from which ultimate recovery
can be estimated by using an appropriate recovery factor.
1.62 Each of the factors used in the calculation have inherent uncertainties that, when
combined, cause significant uncertainties in the reserves estimate. The below figure is a
typical geological net pay isopach map that is often used in the volumetric method. [2]
1.63
1.64 The probabilistic methods have several inherent problems. They are affected by all
input parameters, including the most likely and maximum values for the parameters. In
such methods, one cannot back calculate the input parameters associated with reserves.
Only the end result is known but not the exact value of any input parameter.
1.65
On the other hand, deterministic methods calculate reserve values that are more
tangible and explainable. In these methods, all input parameters are exactly known;
however, they may sometimes ignore the variability and uncertainty in the input data
compared to the probabilistic methods which allow the incorporation of more variance in
the data. A comparison of the deterministic and probabilistic methods, however, can
provide quality assurance for estimating hydrocarbon reserves; i.e. reserves are calculated
both deterministically and probabilistically and the two values are compared. If the two
values agree, then confidence on the calculated reserves is increased. If the two values are
away different, the assumptions need to be reexamined. [3]

1.66
1.67

OBJECTIVES:

1.68

The objectives of this research work is as follows:

1.69
1.70

To interpret and analyze different types of logs.

To identify the lithology.
To detect hydrocarbon bearing sand zone.
To estimate shale volume.
To calculate thickness and area of the reservoir.
To evaluate porosity from different logs.
To determine water saturation of the formation.
To evaluate log derived permeability.
To estimate the reserve using volumetric method.

1.71