PANNABECKER, J. R. Representing Mechanical Arts in Diderot's Encyclopédie

Representing Mechanical Arts in Diderot's "Encyclopdie"
Author(s): John R. Pannabecker

Source: Technology and Culture, Vol. 39, No. 1 (Jan., 1998), pp. 33-73
Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press and the Society for the History of Technology
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MechanicalArts
Representing
in Diderot'sEncyclopedie
JOHN
R.
PANNABECKER
A singleartaboutwhichone wouldwantto representeverything

and sayeverything
volwouldfurnish
umesofdiscourse[written
texts]& plates.One would
neverfinishifone proposedto renderin figuresall
thestatesthroughwhicha piece ofironpassesbefore
intoa needle.That thediscourse
beingtransformed
followtheprocessoftheartistto thelastdetail,fine.
As forthefigures,
we haverestricted
themto theimmovements
of
the
worker
&
portant
onlythemoments
oftheoperationthatare veryeasyto depictand very
to explain.We havelimitedourselvesto the
difficult
essentialcircumstances,
to thoseofwhichthereprewhenitiswelldone,leadsnecessarily
tothe
sentation,
of
those
that
does
not
see.'
one
knowledge
Thus did Denis Diderot (1713-84), editorof thefamousEncyclo-
acknowlpidie,ou Dictionnaireraisonnidessciences,desartsetdesmitiers,
in representing
the meedge at the outsetsome of the difficulties
DR. PANNABECKER is professor

oftechnology
at McPhersonCollege,wherehe has
taughtsince 1982. He headed the departmentof technologytherefrom1982 to
1990,duringwhichtimehe managedthe McPhersonCollege automobilerestoration technology
program.He gratefully
acknowledgesthe assistanceofJoan RichKenAlder,RaySanteeofMcPhersonCollegeInterlibrary
ards,RachelPannabecker,
in Paris:BibliothequeNatiofresearchinstitutions
and staff
Loan, and thelibrarians
onale, ArchivesNationales,Archivesde l'Academiedes Sciences,Bibliothequede
and Bibliothequede l'Arsenal.
Conservatoire
Nationaldes Artset M6tiers,
l'Institut,
Earlierdraftsof thisarticlewerepreparedduringa summerseminarfundedbythe
NationalEndowmentforthe Humanities.Archivaland libraryresearchin France
was facilitated
bya sabbaticalleave fromMcPhersonCollege.
'Denis Diderot, "Prospectus," in Encyclopidie,ou Dictionnaireraisonnedes sciences,
ed. Denis Diderotand Jean d'Alembert,vol. 1 (Paris,1751;

des artset desrmitiers,
NewYork,1969), p. xl. Diderot's"Prospectus"was firstpublishedin 1750
reprint,
and republishedas partof the "Discourspreliminaire"(byJean le Rond d'AlemWhenI citethe"Prospectus"
vol. 1,pp. xxxiv-xlv.
theEncyclopidie,
bert)introducing
in thisarticlethereferenceis to thisrepublishedversion.Because all otherarticles
in the Encyclopidie
can be foundin alphabeticalorder,volumeand page numbers
are omittedhere.
@ 1998 bythe Societyforthe Historyof Technology.All rightsreserved.
0040-165X/98/3901-0002$02.00
33

34
JohnR. Pannabecker
chanical artsin words and pictures.Nor did the difficultiesdiminish

as the project progressed. Yet the diverse implications of technical
representationhave been overshadowed by a historiographythatfocuses on liberal philosophy and politics. This article is an attempt
to redressthisimbalance, at least in part,byuncoveringthe multiple
meanings in the Encyclopdie'sthree forms of portrayingthe arts:
namely, in articles organized alphabetically in the seventeen volumes of text; in eleven volumes of pictures (engraved or etched
plates); and in the "explanations" accompanying the plates.
Diderot regarded the representationsof the artsas a social responsibility.As the Encyclopddie
spread across Europe and to the New
World, it served as a vehicle for transmittingtechnological ideas.2
Thomas Jeffersonbought a Lucca edition for the United States in
Paris in 1781, and a generation later Thomas Blanchard, inventor
of automatic machines for making gunstocks,referredto the cams
illustratedin the Encyclopidie
in one of his patents.3
The 1951 bicentennial of the Encyclopddie's
publication stimulated
new interestin the work.4There were detractors;some historians
The Encyclopidiewas
volumesfrom1751to 1772,in Paris
publishedin twenty-eight
and Neufchattel.
Referenceshere are to the reprinteditionpublishedby Readex
in 1969. (Readex publishedtheoriginalseventeenfoliovolumesof text
Microprint
in threefoliovolumesand theelevenvolumesofplatesin one foliovolume.)Translationsare mine unlessotherwisenoted. Quotationsfromindividualarticlesand
referencesto platesand theirexplanationsare cited in the text;page references
are to thefirst
edition.The article"Encyclopedie"in volume5 is notto be confused
withtheEncyclopidie
itself.Like Diderot,in thisarticleI willoftenuse theterm"the
arts"to referto the "mechanicalarts."
AdamSmithdrewon thedescription
ofpinmakinggiven
2Inthenextgeneration,
in the Encyclopidieto illustratethe division of labor in his Inquiy intotheNatureand
Causes of the Wealthof Nations. See also W. F. Durfee, "The History and Modern
in Mechanism,"TransacConstruction
Developmentof theArtof Interchangeable
tions
S of theAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers14 (1893): 1236, 1241, 1243.
A PublishingHisOn Jefferson,see Robert Darnton, TheBusinessofEnlightenment:
"1775-1800 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), p. 318. On Blanchard,
toryofthe"Encyclopidie,
see MerrittRoe Smith, HarpersFerryArmory
and theNew Technology:
The Challengeof
Thomas
Change(Ithaca,N.Y.,1977),p. 125,and CarolynC. Cooper,ShapingInvention:
Blanchard'sMachineryand PatentManagementin Nineteenth-Century

America(New York,
1991), chap. 4.
4ArthurH. Cole and George B. Watts, The HandicraftsofFrance as Recordedin the

desArtsetMitiers,1761-1788" (Boston, Mass., 1952); Jean Dautry,"Une
"Descriptions
oeuvre inspiree de l'Encyclopidie:Le Dictionnairede l'Industriede 1776," Bertrand
dictionnairetechnique,"and GeorgesHuard, "Les planches

Gille,"L'Encylopidie,
de 1'Encyclopidie
et celles de la Descriptiondes Artset Mitiersde l'Academie des Sciences," all in L"'Encyclopidie"et le progr7sdes scienceset des techniques,ed. Suzanne
Delorme and Rene Taton (Paris,1952); George B. Watts,"The Encyclopidie

and
the Descriptionsdes Artset Mitiers," The FrenchReview25 (1952): 444-54; Georges
et le travailhumain,"AnnalesE.S.C. 8 (1953): 53-61; M.

Friedmann,"L 'Encyclopidie
Daumas and R. Tresse,"Les Descriptions
desArtsetMitiersde l'Academiedes Sciences

MechanicalArtsin theEncyclopedie
Representing
35
of the artsas obsolete

discreditedtheEncyclopdie's
representations
evenat thetimeofinitialpublicationor disparagedthemas unoriginal. Still,historianscontinuedto use theEncyclopidie,
especiallythe
a
and
as
source
to
illustrate
modern
plates, primary
early
technology
of
In
uniform
views
the
histories
of
manufacturarts.5
Enlightenment
Roe
inginAmerica,EugeneFerguson,DavidHounshell,and Merritt
Smithhave referredto the Encyclopidie
as a source of information
on earlymoderntechnology.'Ken Alder and AntoinePicon have
ideas forsystematizing
the
acknowledgedDiderot'srole in diffusing
artsin France.'Othershavefocusedon howtheartswereillustrated
et le sortde ses planchesgrav6esen tailledouce," Revued'Histoire
desSciences
8
de
Diderot
dansl'En(1954): 163-71;JacquesProust,"La documentation
technique
Revued'Histoire
dela France57 (1957): 335-52; CharlesCoulton
Littiraire
cyclopedie,"
A
Diderot
ed.,
Pictorial
(NewYork,1958);
Gillispie,
ofTradesandIndustry
Encyclopedia
Roland Mousnier,Progris
et technique
au XVIIPsidcle(Paris,1958); Paul
scientifique
du livreenFrancedesorigines
a la rivolution
de 1789 (Paris,1959).
Chauvet,Lesouvriers
See also F. G. Healey,"The Enlightenment
Viewof'homo faber',"Studies
onVoltaire
and theEighteenth
25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-ClaudeBeaune, "Technology
Century
froman EncyclopedicPointofView,"in TheHistory
andPhilosophy
ed.
ofTechnology,
George Bugliarelloand Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre
Studieson Voltaire
Aubery,"The Image of Workand Workersin the Encyclopidie,"
and theEighteenth
263 (1989): 91-94; GeorgesBenrekassa,"Didactique enCentury
dansl'Encyclocyclop6diqueetsavoirphilosophique:L'ensemble'Epingle-Epinglier'
(Actesdu Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January1987), ed.
pidie,"in L'Encyclopidisme
Annie Becq (Paris,1991), pp. 291-308. For comparativepurposes,see Acad6mie
des Sciences,Descriptions
des artset mitiers,
25 vols. (1761-89; reprint,Geneva,
1984).
A StudyofDiderotand theEncyclopidie
Plates(Bir5StephenWerner,Blueprint:
in
mingham,Ala., 1993); Madeleine Pinault,"Sur les planchesde l'Encyclopidie,"
des
Becq, L'Encyclopidisme,
pp. 355-62; Madeleine Pinault,"Les m6tamorphoses
surDiderot
etsurl'Encycloplanchesde l'Encyclopidie:
quelques examples,"Recherches
pidie,no. 12 (1992): 99-112; and Madeleine PinaultSorensen,"A propos des
etsurl'Encyclopidie,
no. 15 (1993):
Recherches
surDiderot
planchesde l'Encyclopidie,"
de "I'Encyclopidie"
143-52; Roland Barthes,"Image, raison,d6raison,"in L'univers
oftheplatesand theirmakers,see
deDiderot
(Paris,1964), pp. 9-16. On thehistory
deDiderot,
de "I'Encyclopidie"
RobertMauzi,"Une souverainet6
6ph6mere,"L'univers
pp.
Seguin,"Courtehistoiredes planchesde l'Encyclopidie,"
pp. 17-22;Jean-Pierre
et les graveurs
et biblio23-34; and FranCoiseGardey,"Noticessurles dessinateurs
in theEncyclopidie
of
graphie,"pp. 35-42. See also Terence M. Russell,Architecture
andSelected
TheLetterpress
Articles
Diderot
andd'Alembert:
1993);
(Aldershot,
Engravings
and FrankA. Kafkerand Madeleine PinaultSorensen,"Notices sur les collaboetsurl'EncycloRecherches
surDiderot
rateursdu Recueilde Planchesde l'Encyclopidie,"
pidie,nos. 18-19 (1995): 200-230.
and theMind'sEye(Cambridge,Mass.,1992), pp.
'Eugene Ferguson,Engineering
1800-1932
toMassProduction,
134,138;DavidA. Hounshell,FromtheAmerican
System
(Baltimore,1984), pp. 35, 38; Smith,p. 125.
inFrance,1763-1815
theRevolution:
ArmsandEnlightenment
7KenAlder,Engineering
(Princeton,N.J.,1997), chap. 4; AntoinePicon,"Gestesouvriers,
operationset proet
surDiderot
Recherches
cessustechniques:La visiondu travaildes encyclop6distes,"
no. 13 (1992): 131-47.
surl'Encyclopidie,

36
JohnR. Pannabecker
in the platesand on howDiderot'sperspectiveinfluencedbroader

Yetforthe mostpartthe comment
viewsof the artsand artisans.8
of Jacques Proust,one of the Encyclopidie's
greatestscholars,still
to
one
has reflectedon the
the
current
state
of
research:
no
applies
and
sometimes
relations"
that
connectthetexts
"multiple
equivocal
of the articles,the images of the plates,and the plate explanations.'
Whatare these"multipleand sometimesequivocalrelations"that
of the arts,and whatis
connect the Encyclopidie's
representations
8See, forexample,RaymondBirn,"Wordsand Pictures:Diderot'sVision and
in PopPublishers'PerceptionsofPopularand LearnedCulturein theEncyclopidie,"
Sixteenth
to
the
Twentieth
ularTraditions
and LearnedCulture
inFrance
the
Century,
from
ed. Marc Bertrand(Saratoga,Calif.,1985), pp. 73-92; Cynthia
J.Koepp, "The Alin
in
in
France:
Order:
Work
Diderot's
Work
Representations,
phabetical
Encyclopidie,"
and Practice,
ed. StevenLaurence Kaplan and CynthiaJ.
Meaning,Organization,
Koepp (Ithaca,N.Y.,1986), pp. 229-57; WilliamH. Sewell,Jr.,"Visionsof Labor:
in
of theMechanicalArtsbefore,in, and afterDiderot'sEncyclopidie,"
Illustrations
Workin France,pp. 258-86; Picon, "Gestes"; and MiriamR. Levin,"The Printed
until1835," in Museand
Francefromthe Enlightenment
Image in Industrializing
Reason:TheRelationofArtsand Sciences
1650-1850,ed. B. Castel,J. A. Leith,and
A. W. Riley(Kingston,
Ont.,1994),pp. 43-61. BirnshowedhowDiderotbothrecogthearts,throughillusnized and blurredthehierarchy
of laborin orderto dignify
differences
by
trating
amongthearts;Koepp emphasizedthealphabeticalstructure
whichDiderotreorderedthe artsin a waythatdominantculturecould exercise
greatercontroloverthem;Sewellfocusedon howtheplatesrepresenteda distinct
breakwithviewsof community-held
knowledgeand skillsin favorof a "scientized,
individualized,
utopianprojectionof theworldofworkas imaginedbythe philowas an important
sophes" (p. 277); Picon discussedhow the Encyclopidie
stagein
workas reducedto machineexecution;and Levinemphasizedtheconquantifying
tribution
oftheplatesto a reformist
which
atmosphereofbroadercommunications,
wouldbe adoptedlaterin thedissemination
ofliberaland industrial
ideology.While
theseinterpretations
continuethe perceptionof systematic
treatment
of the arts,
of theartsand artisans.See alsoJeantheydo signala shiftin culturalperspectives
PierreLe Goff,"Science et techniquedes representations
et representation
des
scienceset techniques,"in L'Encyclopidisme
(n. 5 above), pp. 371-86; and Clorinda
Donato and RobertM. Maniquis,eds., TheEncyclopidie
and theAgeofRevolution
(Boston, 1992).
'Jacques Proust,"L'image du peuple au travaildans les planchesde l'Encyclopidie,"in Imagesdu peupleau 18e si&le(Paris,1973), p. 65. Giles G. Barber,in his
introduction
to BookMakingin Diderot's"Encyclopidie"
(Farnborough,1973), introduced some of the maincontributors
to bookmakingand commentedon some of
theirdifferences
in style.For a generalintroduction
to therelationship
amongarticles, plates,and plate descriptionsand how the nature,role, and lengthof plate
descriptions
changedovertime,see RichardN. Schwaband WalterE. Rex,Inventory
vol.7 (Oxford,1984): 3-32. Diderothimself
ofDiderot's
"Encyclopidie,"
acknowledged
in the scope of theexplanationsof theplatesas the projectprosome differences
gressed,forexample,in the "Etat detaille" of vol. 2, p. 6 and vol. 5, p. 6 of the
plates.

Mechanical
Artsin theEncyclopedie 37
Representing
theirrelevanceto historiansof technology?
Whydo historiansof
as
still
the
texts
and
platesof the Encyclopidie
technology approach
iftheywerehomogeneous,ifnotgeneratedbythepen and engraving burin of Diderot himself?Whyhave these textsand pictorial
mainlyin the contextof an Enimagesof theartsbeen interpreted
of
ideas
and progressofwhichtheEnliberal
lightenment
ideology
is
the
considered
centerpiece?It is truethatlack of docucyclopidie
But
mentationhas been an obstacleto detailedcontextualanalysis.'"
of
historians
have
not
the
of
engaged
surelypart
explanation why
lies
in systematic
stylesin the Encyclopidie
studyof representational
as textsand imagesofthings
in theirviewofall suchrepresentations
technical,somehowbeyondtheirken,as iftheywerewindowsonto
a separatereality."
I intendto show thatthe representations-articles,
plates,and
as
more
thana
be
interpreted something
plate explanations-can
on
unifiedideologicalentity.Theyare richsourcesof information
howwriters,
artisans,and plate designerssoughtto representearly
moderntechnology.
These representations
conveymessagesabout
and ideologicalviews;in brief,theyprovideclues
socialrelationships
about the variouswaysthatknowledgeof the artswas conceptualized, censored,and communicatedin the 18thcentury.They also
to the
revealsomethingabout the distinctviewsthatcontributors
held
about
artisans
and
their
communities.
Encyclopidie
and othercontextualaspectsof theEn1'Moredocumentationon contributors
is nowavailable,thanksto theindispensablevolumesoftheVoltaireFouncyclopidie
Oxford.:RichardN. Schwab,WalterE. Rex, and
dationat the TaylorInstitution,
"7 vols. (Genevaand Oxford,1971"Encyclopidie,
JohnLough,Inventory
ofDiderot's
84) (Lough coauthoredonlythefirstthreevolumes);FrankA. Kafker,ed., Notable
NinePredecessors
andEighteenth
Centuries:
ofthe"EncycloEncyclopedias
oftheSeventeenth
as
pidie"(Oxford,1981); FrankA. Kafkerand Serena L. Kafker,TheEncyclopedists
A Biographical
Individuals:
(Oxford,1988).
ofthe"Encyclopidie"
oftheAuthors
Dictionary
The Kafkers'workwas extremelyhelpfulin guidingme to originalsourceson
See also JohnLough, TheEncyclopidie
to the Encyclopidie.
contributors
(New York,
1971).
in de"StevenLubarhas examinedtheissueof "technologicalrepresentations"
thescopeofhisanalysisisbroaderthanmineand hisexpression"techtail;however,
artifactssuch as gauges,
nological representations"includes three-dimensional
in additionto printedmatter.StevenLubar,
models,and measuringinstruments
36 (April1995,suppl.): S54and Culture
and Power,"Technology
"Representation
S81, especiallyS55. See also Alder,pp. 136-46. I have notfounda moresatisfying
termthan "representation"to referto the articles,plates,and plate descriptions
as a whole;see,forexample,theEncyclopidie,
s.v.'"Decrire,"
byd'Alembert;"DescripMallet,andJaucourt;"Representation,"
tion,"byDaubenton,d'Alembert,
byBoucherd'Argis;"Representer,"unsigned.

38
JohnR. Pannabecker
These multiple messages often run counter to Diderot's philosophical discourse on the arts,which has already been dissected extensively.'2Although that discourse is importantfor understanding
his personal vision, it has overshadowed his representationsof the
arts in the Encyclopidie.Even though Diderot sought to promote
progress througha systematiclanguage or a "grammar of the Arts"
("Art," p. 716), the consistencyof his intellectual vision and the
rigor of his editing by themselvescould not ensure uniformrepresentation of the arts. Indeed, he himselflamented the ubiquitous
inconsistenciesand mistakesin the coverage of the arts ("Encyclopedie," p. 647).
This article analyzes textsand pictorial evidence, backgrounds of
contributors,and differentprocesses used for generating representations.'3FirstI examine Diderot's method of description,his reflections on the arts, and examples of his technical discourse. I then
compare the representationsmade by Diderot's colleagues to his
philosophical and technical writings.A comparativereading reveals
considerable variations, reflectingfluidityin conceptualizing the
artsand divergentsocial processes in producing the representations.
My focus on the clusterof articles,plates, and plate descriptionsrelated to printing(table 1) allows me to discuss these mattersin considerable technical and social detail . Diderot was familiarwith the
printingarts:he used them to illustratehis ideas in the articles"Art"
and "Encyclopedie"; he also wrote the article "Caracteres d'Imprimerie" (typefoundry).He knew personallysome of the contributors; theyvaried in social and economic status,and in the extent
The representationsof the
of their involvementin the Encyclopidie.
covered
a
activities
associated with the
arts
wide
of
printing
range
trade: men and women fabricatingtype;children,women, men, and
machines making paper; the "monkeys" settingtype and "bears"
printingin the printshop; and the engravingand etching of plates.
The richness of these differentrepresentations-of trades, referents, artisanal communities,and knowledge-allows access to other
levels of that "knowledge ... that one does not see" referredto by
Diderot in the epigraph above.
12See, for example, William H. Sewell Jr., Workand Revolutionin France: The Language ofLaborfromtheOld Regimeto 1848 (Cambridge, 1980), pp. 65-72; and Alder,
chap. 4.
13I began to develop some of theseideas in an earlieranalysisbut had not yet
formulateda broader interpretive
context.See John R. Pannabecker,"Printing
Technologyin theEncyclopidie:
Systematic
Constructing
Knowledge,"JournalofIndustrialTeacherEducation 29, no. 4 (1992): 73-91.

TABLE 1
ARTICLES, PLATE DESCRIPTIONS,
AND PLATES ON PRINTING IN THE ENCYCL
Articles
Vol.
"Caractlres d'Imprimerie"....................
"Gravure" . .................................
. ..............................
"Imprimerie"
"Imprimerieen Taille-Douce" .................
"Papeterie" ................................
2
7
8
8
11
Plates and Plate Descriptions
Vol.
Author
2
5
5
7
7
Fournier
Prevost
Goussier
Goussier
Goussier
"Fonderie en Caracteresd'Imprimerie" . .......

"Gravureen Taille-Douce"...................
"Papeterie" . ...............................
"Imprimerieen Caracteres"...................
"Imprimerieen Taille-Douce" .................
Columns
Pages
650-66
877-90
607-20
620-23
836F-45

31
26
21
6
23
Columns
Plate Designer
5
17
4
22
1
Goussier
Prevost
Goussier
Goussier
Goussier
40
JohnR. Pannabecker
and Representation
Method,PhilosophicalReflection,
theartsin the"ProDiderotoutlinedhismethodforrepresenting
spectus.""4He addressedmaterials,products,tools and machines,
and finallyartisans,who were treatedin a mannersimilarto machines-sometimesshownin theirentirety,
at othertimesdepicted
as disembodiedhands.'5Interactionamong artisanswas absent.
as "important,""apTherewereno clearcriteriaforsuchmodifiers
propriate,"or "mostaccurate."Diderotdid notmentionhistorical
origins,issuesof healthand safety,
productdimensions,mathematics, theory,or experimentation.
withhis methodofanaDiderothimselfexpresseddissatisfaction
in
"Art"
the
arts
two
and
articles:
"Encyclopedie."Publyzing
major
lishedabout fiveyearsapart (in 1750 and 1755), thesetwoarticles
do not constitutea unifieddiscourse,nor do theyhave the same
goals.'6"Art"waspublishedat aboutthesametimeas the"Prospecofthearts:
tus."It focusedon thenature,scope,and representation
of
natureof
and
the
arts,
treatment,
systematic
theory practice,goal
machines,language,and innovation.In "Art,"Diderot expressed
of obtainingaccess to practical
his concernsabout the difficulties
Sometimes
he
referred
to knowledgeof the artsas if
knowledge.
it could be collectedlike fruit.Diderotwas also interestedin the
to practice.In "Art" thediffirelationshipof theory,or speculation,
'4Diderot'smethodconsistedoffiveparts:"Here is themethodwe havefollowed
foreach artand craft.We treatedthefollowing
questions:1) The materialsand the
in
where
are
the
manner
which
found,
they
places
theyare prepared,theirgood
and bad qualities,thedifferent
kindsavailable,therequiredprocessingbeforeand
duringtheirutilization.2) The main productsthatare made withthemand how
thisis done. 3) We have suppliedthe names,descriptions,
and diagramsof tools
and machines,withtheirpartswhentakenapartand assembled;thesectionofcertain molds and otherinstruments
if it is appropriateto knowabout the interior
theworkmanship
design,theircontours,etc.4) We haveexplainedand represented
and the principaloperationsin one or severalplateswheresometimesonlythe
hands of the craftsman
can be seen and sometimesthe entirecraftsman
in action,
taskin his art or trade.5) We have collectedand
workingat the mostimportant
definedin themostaccuratewaypossiblethetermsthatare peculiarto a givenart
or trade." (S. J. Gendzier, Denis Diderot's "The Encyclopidie":Selections[New York,
1967], pp. 39-40.)

referred
to artisansas artistes;
a discussionof theuse ofterms
15Diderotgenerally
forartisansin theEncyclopidie
and 18th-century
Franceis beyondthe scope of this
and Revolution,
essay.See, forexample,Friedmann(n. 4 above) and Sewell,Work
pp. 22-24.
in timeofpublicationbetween"Art"and
'6Criticsoftendisregardthedifference
on theprocessof representing
the
"Encyclop6die,"changesin Diderot'sthinking
of thosechanges,whichI addressin the finalsectionof
arts,and the implications
thisarticle.

Representing
41
cultiesofrepresenting
theartsseemedlessproblematicto himthan
access
to
artisanal
practice.He stressedthe importanceof
gaining
who do notneed the
with
a
there
werefewartists
practice
paradox:
elementsofmathematics;
however,"theseelementswouldbe harmfulto them[artists]on severaloccasions,ifa greatdeal of physical
knowledgedid not correctthe precepts[of the elements]in practice" ("Art," p. 716). Diderotthusconsideredpracticeto be the
sine qua non of the artisan,but he thoughtthatthe workerwith
wasnarrow-minded
and theworkerwithonly
only"shop geometry"
"intellectualgeometry"clumsy.Diderot'semphasison mathematics
formedan integralpart of his visualthinkingabout the artsand
and his choice of
influencedboth his techniqueof representation
whatto represent.
Practicedid proveelusive,as can be seen in Diderot'sreflections
in his laterarticle"Encyclopedie,"of whichthe main goal was to
inexplaintheorganizationof theEncyclopidie.
Duringthefive-year
tervalbetween"Art" and "Encyclopedie" Diderot became frustratedwithartisanswho,accordingto him,deliberately
withheldinand misrepresented
formation
the truth("Encyclopedie,"p. 647).
But he also became more awareof difficulties
in representing
the
that
own
of
"each
one
has
his
arts,noting
[contributor]
way feeling
and seeing" ("Encyclopedie,"p. 641). Diderotdrewon his experience as editortoillustrate
therangeofdisparities
amonghiscontributors.He recountedhow he had explainedthe same guidelinesto
twoartist-authors:
one a wallpaperhangerwhosetradeDiderotconsideredsimplecomparedto thatof anotherunnamedartisanemThe wallpaperhanger
ployedin one ofthemostcomplexindustries.
submittedten or twelveplatesfilledwithan enormousnumberof
figuresplus threethickfolio-sizenotebookswithminusculewriting.
The otherartisansubmitteda tinycatalogwithoutdefinitions,
figures,or explanationsand claimed thathis art containednothing
else. Diderotconcludedthatthesecondcontributor
"supposedthat
or could notbe written"("Encycloeithertherestwasnotunknown,
because his methodwas
pedie," p. 641).17 Thus, he was frustrated
a boilerplateforgenerating
meant to be an editorialinstrument,
formand scope,withoutdistracting
ofconsistent
particmanuscripts
localesetpassageres)that mightencumularisms (notionsparticulieres,
was"Composition
inadequatesubmission
'7Diderot'sotherexampleofa woefully
en Peinture,"written
byan amateur,whichDiderotclaimedhe himselfhad to rewriteeven thoughhe was neitheramateurnor painter.Diderotnoted thatthese
whoseworkis studied
cases occuredbeforeWatelet-one of themaincontributors
in thisessay-began to assisthim ("Encyclop6die,"p. 641).

42
JohnR. Pannabecker
ber the path towardhis ideal "invariablemodel" of the arts("Encyclop6die,"p. 648).

But Diderotwas also preoccupiedwiththe potentialof the arts
foradvancinghispoliticalagenda againstthetradeguildsand their
monopolyon knowledge.'8He knewthe artswere more complex
thanhismethodallowedand thatsomewherein thatcomplexity
lay
thekeyto change.A fewscholarshave examinedthe complexity
of
of
Diderot'sphilosophicalreflections,
butnone therepresentations
knowledgeof the artsbyDiderotand his colleagues."'This neglect
ofinterpretation
focusedon
has resultedin a biographicaltradition
Diderot,witha dominantfocuson whatis consideredhisphilosophical discourse.2'Diderothimself
ofhisanalywassensitivetocriticism
sis of the complexity
of the artsand admittedthattherewas some
in hisarticle"Art,"but"it wasimpossi"prettystrongmetaphysics"
ble thatit could have been otherwise"("Art,"p. 717).
Since Diderot's time,mostcriticalstudyhas been groundedin
of theartsratherthantheircomplexity,
theutility
perhapsbecause
liberaleasier
of
economic
is
to
within
framework
the
"utility"
place
revolution.
ism,thedemiseoftheguilds,and an incipientindustrial
Scholarlypreoccupationwiththe platesconfirmsan emphasison
the physical,and utility-oriented,
aspects of the arts.In this apof
the
the
mechanical
artsin theEncyclopidie
proach, representations
have been viewed primarilyas objectivetransparenciesthrough
whichto discoverthemore"useful,"and lessproblematic,
physical
worldof the arts.21
realityof the three-dimensional
Diderotand Goussier:TowardUniform
Representation
reflectwhatcontributors
knew,whattheycould
Representations
Some of thespecialdescribe,and whattheyconsideredimportant.
80Onthedevelopmentof economicideas in the 18thcenturyand theirrelationshipto the politicsof tradeguildcontrolof technologicalknowledge,production,
and markets,see Simone Meyssonnier, La balance et l'horloge:La genesede la pensie

liberaleen France au XVIIIe siecle(Paris, 1989).
and Revolution
(n. 12 above), p. 65.
"9Sewell,Work
20Inthisregard,a notableexceptionamongcriticsisJacquesProust(nn. 4 and
9 above). See also his Diderotet "l'Encyclopidie"
(Paris,1967), esp. chaps. 5 and 6;
and "De L'Encyclop6dieau Neveu de Rameau: L'objet et le texte,"in Recherches
nouvellessur quelquesicrivainsdes lumieres(Geneva, 1972), pp. 273-340. The latter
betweenDiderot'sphilosophical,literary,
and
essayfocuseson the relationships
technicalwriting.
of the alleged plagiarismof the platesof theAcademyconstitutean
21Analyses
importantexception.I addressthissubjectin the finalsectionof thisarticle.See
Watts,Huard,and Daumas and Tresse (all n. 4 above).

Representing
43
did not limitthemselvesto Diderot'smethod.In

ized contributors
thissectionand the next,I examine artifacts,
artisans,processes,
and
as
well
as
tacit
knowledge,experience,and
knowledge,
style,
and failures
of
difficulties
with
some
the
inherent
problem-solving,
of actualwork.The termtacitknowledge
refersto the intuitiveand
experientialknowledgeof expertsthatis essentialto practice,even
thoughit is oftenomittedfromdescriptions.22
The conceptof tacitknowledgeis pivotalhere because it highin Diderot'smethod.Onlyhis fourthcategory
lightsthe ambiguity
containsdirectreferencesto humanbeings-main d'oeuvre(work(craftsmenor artisans).And even
manshipor labor) and artistes
thenartisanswere to be depictednot in the textbut in the plates
only.In contrast,Diderot's philosophicalreflectionselevate artisans and practice,whichsuggestsan ambivalencebetweenwhathe
knewabout the artsand artisansand whathe intendedto represent.
Diderotand hisclose associatefortheartsLouis-Jacques
Goussier
an
who
hundreds
of the
artisan
(1722-99),
designed
platedesigner
in
of
In
collaborated
the
the
plates,
representation
printingarts.2"
I
a
their
and
on
found
correlation
texts
analyzing
plates printing,
theirworkbetweenDiderot'smethodand theirtexts,whichreflects
and
orientation.
Their
representations
ing relationship ideological
ofprinting
suggestthatsolvingtechnicalproblemswasnottheirconcern; theirtextsread like staticcompendiaof factsand rules.For
example,in the article"Caractbresd'Imprimerie"(typography/
Diderotworkedfrominformation
providedbyFourtypefounding),
a
and
Likewise
well-known
artisan
nier,
typedesigner
founder.24
22Ontacitknowledge,see H. M. Collins,"Expert Systemsand the Science of
New Directionsin the

of TechnologicalSystems:
Knowledge," in The Social Construction
ed. Wiebe E. Bijker,Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor
and HistoryofTechnology,
Sociology
J.Pinch(Cambridge,Mass.,1987),pp. 329-48; MichaelPolanyi,TheTacitDimension

(GardenCity,N.Y.,1966); and RichardLarsonand GabrielSegal,Knowledge
ofMeanto SemanticTheory(Cambridge, Mass., 1995).
ing: An Introduction
23Thebroadestcoverageof Goussier'slifeand workis GeorgesDulac, "Louiset 'Originalsansprincipes',"in Proust,Recherches

JacquesGoussier,Encyclop6diste
of his social statusas an artisancan be found
nouvelles,
pp. 63-110. Confirmation
in the "DossierGuenardGoussier"in theBibliothequede l'Arsenal(ARS), 12050;
and in a partialcopyof the dossierin theArchivesNationales(AN), Y/11245.
nouvellement
de l'imprimerie,
24SimonPierre Fournier (the younger), Caract~res
graves
(1742; reprint,Pinner,Middlesex,1975). Fournierthe youngerwas a well-known

almostthesameage as Diderot,whohad alreadypublished
printerand typefounder,
on 18th-century
a book on printingtype.Since theliterature
printingis extensive,
is noted
onlythe mostpertinentliteraturerelatedto printingin the Encyclopidie
and
here.Barber(n. 9 above) introducedletterpress
printing(excludingengraving
For a listof Frenchprinting
etching;includingbookbinding)in the Encyclopidie.

44
JohnR. Pannabecker
Goussierfrequently
workedfromothermaterials-as,forexample,
in the article"Papeterie" (paper making),wherethe textualinformationwassuppliedbythedirectorofthelargepapermaking
establishmentat I'Anglke(near Montargis).ButGoussierwasmorelikely
than Diderotto have spenttimein shops or factorieslike the one
at l'Anglhe.25
Diderotand Goussierorganizedtheirarticlesand dein
similar
fashion,workingback and forthfromarticleto
scriptions
plate,movingmechanicallyfromthe beginningto the end of the
processof makingtypeor paper.
TogetherDiderotand Goussierillustratedand promoteda uniformdiscourseofwordsand pictorialimages.Theysoughtnotsima methodofvisualthinking
buttoformalizethethree
plytoillustrate
modesofrepresentation:
Indeed,
text,plates,and platedescriptions.
both filledtheirtechnicaldiscoursewithreferencelettersthatconnect the platesand discoursein a systemof one-to-onecorresponThis techniquewas
dence thatwas not adoptedbyall contributors.
consistent
withDiderot'soriginalplan ("Prospectus,"p. xl). Goussierevenreflectedon thenovelty
ofthisrepresentational
technique
in "Papeterie,"wherehe assumedreaderswouldnotbe accustomed
to so manyreferential
letters:"This millis representedin thePl. V,
VI, VII, VIII, in whichone has been carefulto place thesameletters
on similarparts" ("Papeterie,"p. 836H).26
CriticshavereproachedDiderotforthestaticimpressiongivenby
But even
theidealizedshopsand widespacesin theplates(fig.1)."27
manualsof the period,see GilesBarber,French
(Oxford,1969),
Letterpress
Printing
(Saint Omer,
especially Martin Dominique Fertel, La sciencepratiquede l'imprimerie
ed. GilesG.
1723). See also NicholasContat,Anecdotes
(1761; reprint,
typographiques
Barber,Oxford,1980); and the volumesof the VoltaireFoundation,especially
Schwaband Rex (1984), pp. 24-32 (n. 10 above). On engraving,
see AbrahamBosse,
Traiti des manieresde graveren tailledoucesur lairain par le moyendes eauesforteset des
vernixdursetmolsensemble
de lafacon d'en imprimer
lesplanches,etd'en construire
la presse
see JosephJerrmele Franiaisde Lalande, Artde

(Paris,1645). On papermaking,
faire le papier,in Descriptionsdes artset mitiers(n. 4 above), vol. 15.
in "Copie du Certificat
mentionedhistripto Montargis
de
specifically
25Goussier
M. Goussier," in Riponsepour leslibrairesassocidsa l'Encyclopidie,

du marquis
au mimoire
de la Saone and Consorts,
etcontre
lesieurLuneau deBoisjermain(Paris, 1777),
intervenans,
to BookMakingfora backgroundsummary
on
p. 42. See also Barber'sintroduction
and sources.
contributors
26Acommoncomplaintofmodernreadersis thatsomearticlesoftheEncyclopidie
do not correspondto the plates.
delumieres
Minard,Typographes
27Philippe
(Seyssel,1989),notedcritics'contrasting
viewsofpictorialrepresentation
(p. 190,n. 10). See also Darnton(n. 3 above),who
hisperceptionoftheplatesas representing
contrasted
"an immaculate,
mechanical
utopia" withBarthes'viewof themas "intenselyhuman scenes" (p. 242, n. 98).
See Sewell,"Visionsof Labor," (n. 8 above), pp. 268-79, fora broaderanalysis,
natureofhiscommentsand theneed formorework
thoughhe notedthetentative

Representing
45
is theexaggeratedsmoothnessoftheprocessesand
moresignificant
the lack of obstaclesand problemsin the discourseof Diderotand
Goussier. Diderot's referencesto typefounders
were simplistic
and failedto describeproblemsworkershad to solve:theyopen and
close the mold,pour in the moltenmetal,and give the mold the
propershakeorjerk to forcethemetalto the bottomof the mold.
The functions
ofhumansare notclearlydistinguished
fromthemechanicaloperationsoftheequipment.Theydo notappear to think,
and iftheyare makingdecisionswe rarelylearnabout it. The only
timethatDiderotdigressedfromthisimpersonalapproachwas to
celebrateFournier'scontribution
to standardizing
type,his system
ofmathematical
and
hisknowlhis
to
make
proportions,
willingness
edge public.
Diderot's contributionto printingreflectednot only his allelinkedto thegrowing
gianceto his methodbut a deeperformalism
of
In
for
importance mathematics.28 "Art,"
example,Diderot dividedknowledgeof theartsintotwomainparts:"academic geomeand "shop geomtry,"whichhe also called "intellectualgeometry,"
the
was
to
etry."Geometry
key systematizing
knowledge:"What I
of
is
such
that
the
method
exactness,
say
accordingtowhichMathematicsis treatedin ourDictionary
is thesamethathas been followed
fortheothersubjects.Fromthispointofview,thereis no difference
betweenan articleon Algebra,and an articleon Theology" ("Encyclop6die,"p. 643A).
Thus the Encyclopidie
was intendedto be a practicalapplication
of Diderot'smathematical
interests
to the arts.For example,in his
notoriousLettre
surlesaveugles
(1749) Diderotfocusedon howthreeIn that
dimensionalreality
wasgraspedbytheseeingand theblind.29
workhe consideredthe mirrorto be a machineforrepresenting
MadeleinePinault
bysomeonewithan arthistorian'sbackground.More recently,
(n. 5 above) has broughta backgroundin arthistoryto analyzingtheplates.One
of the artsthatI have foundis in the preliminary
of the leastidealizedportrayals
locatedin theBibliothequede l'Institut
sketchesfortheDescriptions
desartsetmitiers
(BI), MS 1064-1065.In a platein vol.2 ofMS 1064called "Amidonnier,"theworkers are shownpreparingstarchin a dingyroom of dirtybrickswithplasterfalling
fromthewalls.
J.L. Heilbron,and RobinE. Rider,eds., The
28See,forexample,Tore Fringsmyr,
Quantifying
Spiritin the18th Century(Berkeley, 1990); and M. Norton Wise, ed., The
ValuesofPrecision
(Princeton,N.J.,1995). Picon (n. 7 above) emphasizedthe relahowworkwas
and quantifying
perspective,
tionshipbetweenDiderot'smechanistic
in disseminating
thisnewperspecconceptualized,and the role of theEncyclopidie
werefully
to theEncyclopidie
tive;however,he thoughtthatonlya fewcontributors
awareof thisperspective-forexample,the engineerPerronnet.
ed. Paul Verniere(Paris,1961), p. 97.
philosophiques,
2Denis Diderot,Oeuvres

...
.....
. .
..
iiq
qL C.\
,;Ii,.i
.tr
.. . :
::::::
::::-::I:...i::
::::::::
/'' " -.
===================================
...NN
..
FIG. 1.-The initialplateforeach tradetypically

includesan overview
withseveral
humanfigures
roomyshop,withthedetails
doingrepetitive
operationsin a relatively
Plate deof some of the toolsor productsin the lowerportionof the illustration.
signedbyGoussier("Fonderie en Caracteres,"pl. I). (Courtesyof Linda Hall Library,KansasCity,Missouri.)

Mechanical
Artsin theEncyclop6die 47
Representing
A
three-dimensional
objects literallyin two-dimensional
form."3
the
used
Diderot
after
later,
completing Encyclopidie,
quarter-century
a workthatlinks
the metaphorof the machineinJacqueslefataliste,
the representation
of the artsto his friendGoussierthroughthe
curious characterGousse."1In this fictionalwork,the narrator
claimedthatGousse and Le Guayde Pr6montval
kepta school of
one oftheirstuGoussehelpedPremontval
with
mathematics.
elope
and whowasprobably
dents,wholaterbecameMmede Pr6montval,
the "Mme de P . . ." to whom Diderot's Lettresur les aveugleswas
Diderot,
Mme de Premontval,
dedicated."3In reality,Premontval,
friendsin the
and Goussierwerepartof a circleof mathematician
1740s.
Goussiercame froma verymodestbackground,and as a student
and friendofPr6montval
wouldhavebeen exposedto Pr6montval's
Priorto his
on
the
emphasis
pervasiveinfluenceof mathematics.33
workon the Encyclopidie,
Goussierdirectedthe publicationof La
Condamine'smemoirson measuringthe firstthreedegreesof the
meridianin the southernhemisphere.34
By 1747,Goussierhad behe workedclosely
on
the
thereafter
Encyclopidie;
gun collaborating
withDiderotuntilat least1760."5Beyondhisskillsas mathematician
A contemand plate designer,Goussierwas talentedmechanically.
that
as
to simwrote
Goussier
"was
not
content, manywriters,
porary
he
the
himself
and
learned,practiced,
ply consult;
perfected arts
thathe described... in privateconversation,
he spoke withsuch
whathe dictated
eleganceand precisionthatone could havewritten
withouthavingto changea singleword.""3Goussier'smathematical
his emdescriptionof theprintingpressscrewin theplatestypifies
and
foreshadowed
his
on
machine
design
specializedstudies
phasis
'Ibid., p. 85.
ed. Henri B6nac (Paris,1962). According
s3DenisDiderot,Oeuvres
romanesques,
to thisedition'seditor,HenriBenac,thedateofthecompositionofJacques
lefataliste
is unknownbut was probablyin the mid-1770s;it was firstpublishedin 1796 (pp.
890-91).
32Diderot,Oeuvres
pp. 554-5. See also Dulac, "Louis-JacquesGousromanesques,
editor'snote,p. 81.
sier" (n. 23 above), and Diderot,Oeuvres
philosophiques,
Discours
surl'utiliti
Goussier."See Le Guayde Premontval,
33Dulac, "Louis-Jacques
des mathimatiques(Paris, 1742).
deParis(8 brumaire,yearVIII): 181-82,

3D. F. Donnant,"N6crologie,"Journal
Nationaldes Artset M6tiers(CNAM), 7-134. This
in Archivesof theConservatoire
5 (1799): 215-17.
was also publishedin the Magasinencyclopidique
of the accountsof
MAN,U/*1051. See also Louis-PhilippeMay's transcription
the Encyclopidie:"Documents nouveaux sur l'Encyclopidie,"Revue de synthtse
(1938):
from1747 to 1760.
31-110. Goussier'sname is listedfrequently
3"Donnant,"N6crologie."

48
JohnR Pannabecker
as a draftsman
in the Conservatoire
des Artset M6tiers(createdin
desArtsetMitiers
1794).7 He also later contributedto the Descriptions
of theAcad6miedes Sciences.
Goussier'sdimensioningof drawings-he typicallyincluded a
scale on his figures-wasan important
and distinctive
contribution
to theEncyclopidie.
He gaveprecisedimensionsin thetextof "PapeofHollandermillsformaking
terie,"in particularin hisdescription
As
in
the
of
case
the
pulp.
printingpressscrew,he waswritingnot
forthegeneralreaderbutforan entrepreneur
whoneeded to make
a screw;he thus went well beyond Diderot's method. Goussier
claimed thathis drawingassuredthe reader of a "perfectunderstanding"of the machine ("Papeterie,"p. 836H), but he omitted
ofartisanalpracticeand thefactthatFrenchmananyconsideration
ufacturers
had triedHollandersin the1750swithoutsuccess.In contrastto Dutch practice,the Frenchfollowedthe older methodof
whiletheDutchfedthemachines
lettingragsdisintegrate
byrotting,
newrags.In addition,theDutchrepeatedlypressedand reshuffled
thesheets.Ironically,
NicolasDesmarest,also an encyclopedist,
and
latera consultantand inspectorof manufactures,
learnedof these
differences
throughvisitstoHollandin the1760sand reportedthem
to theAcademyof Sciencesin 1771 and 1774.31
Goussier'sstylein "Papeterie"isjust as impersonalas thatofDiderot's"Caracteres."'9He did notportray
workersas knowledgeable
individuals.In envisioninghis readeras an entrepreneur,
Goussier
furthered
Diderot'svisionoftechnicalprogress.His initialplate,an
overview
oftheplantand a cylindrical
mill,includesno workers(fig.
He
mechanical
as faras possible,withan
2).
pushed
systematization
on
Goussier's
ofpapermaking
emphasis equipment.
representation
"7Inthe later 1790s,Goussier'sname was listedfor"studiesof the mannerof
ofhisworkspecifically
tracingscrewsand nuts."Whenhe diedin 1799,a description
noted thathe wasjust finishing"an interesting
workthathe had undertakenfor
the Conservatoire
on the fabrication
of screwsand nuts": CNAM,10-115; 7-134;
de Vaucanson.The drawingbyGoussierin the"Portefeuille
de VaucanPortefeuille
son," No. 47, showshighlydetailedmachineparts,includingscrews,fora portrait
lathebyHoulot.In contrast,
whopreparedan unpublishedmanuJacquesJaugeon,
desartsetmitiers
(n. 4 above) paid
scripton letterpress
printingfortheDescriptions
littleattentionto the pressscrew:"Descriptionet Perfectiondes Artset Metiers.
Des Arts.De construire
les caractires.De graverles poinConsde Lettres.De fondre
les lettres.D'imprimerles lettres.et De relierles livres,"BibliothequeNationale
(BN), fr.9157-9158,and BI, MS 2741.
38CharlesGillispie, Scienceand PolityinFranceat theEndoftheOld Regime(Princeton,
1980), pp. 444-47.

39BarberthoughtGoussier'sarticleon papermakingmoreimpersonalthanthe
texton printing,
whichwas "written
to BookMaking
bya practician";introduction
(n. 9 above).

MechanicalArtsin theEncyclop6die
Representing
49
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::i:ii;;.-i;ii!i;ii;i-.:::i~iiiiiii:i;ii
::-::
i.-:::
i:-i:::-i:_:::i:
:-:::.
:::
:::
::ii:_:::::r:::::?:
:iii:ii'.:':i:ri:ci':i:ii-iiiiiiiiiiii:'
'::::::':'':':~:
---?~
:I:':
r
?):::::'::
::::::::
""~"
?-::~-:::::::::1::::::::::::::::::::::.:
--:::::::::'::
:::::::_:^::I
::::::::.1,?:-;:.:,::.~:;
::::?::::::::::::::::::::??
--????::::::
.t::::::
?1
r*rrer
C~nlR~
I2?rtc/je/lP,
r;~
ncru
a ~ .~
k T-~nMTnr.
rr rA*
R~-
,I~ ilarN~m~rrr
,krw,;rV~wbkrun??
is an overview
ofthephysicalplant,
FIG.2.-Goussier's first
plateon papermaking
butemphasizinga Hollandermill,a complexmachinerecently
showingno workers
introducedin FrancefromHolland. ("Papeterie,"pl. I.) (Courtesyof Linda Hall
Library,KansasCity,Missouri.)
is especiallysignificantbecause he contributedall threecomponents

of representation:article,plate designs, and plate descriptions.His
impersonal styleis consistent throughout,and his article seems to
be simplyan extended commentaryon the plate descriptions.
Nevertheless,papermaking machinery could not have operated
verylong withoutskilled workers.In practice, complex mechanical
systemswere subject to diverseproblems: buckets on the millwheels
broke or wore out, cam and strikerplates became loose or broke,
bearings eroded, and shaftsbroke. Everymalfunctioningpart,every
accident, everypoorlymixed batch of paper pulp required the attention of the artisans. Goussier chose not to describe these complicated aspects of papermaking or how the workersdealt with them.
For the mostpart,he representedpapermaking as a continuous process from rags to paper-a systemof facts,rules, and routine mechanical workers. Diderot's and Goussier's representations conformed more to the simplicityof Diderot's method than to his

50
JohnR Pannabecker
analysisin "Art."Neitherdescribedperceptualand problem-solving

skills.
Watelet,
Privost,and Brulld:Alternative
Approaches
Othercontributors
and designersdid revealmoreofthecomplexof
the
mechanical
arts.Claude-HenriWatelet(1718-86) had
ity
been receivergeneraloffinanceforOrleansand eventually
became
knownto his contemporaries
as a both a writerand artistand as
a patronof otherwritersand artists.4Watelet'sstylein his article
"Gravure"(engraving)is morelikethatof the contestation
thatDiderot so admiredin scientific
writing("Encyclopedie,"p. 647). In
of the precepts
raisonne
fact,Wateletcalled his approachan extrait
of AbrahamBosse (1602-76), but he pointedout thathe was not
simplycopyingBosse's work ("Gravure,"p. 883).41He oftenreferredto his own experienceand experimentation
and included
heuristicsand commentson perceptualand manipulativeskills.
Wateletadopted a personal,pedagogical style,using first-and
second-personpronounsas ifthereaderwerean apprentice.Sometimeshe returnedto a previouscommentthatthereadermighthave
sometimeshe wroteas ifthereaderwereactuallyholding
forgotten;
theobjector tool.42Wateletassumedthatsome ofthereadersknew
4On Watelet'sextensiveinterestin themechanicaland finearts,pedagogy,and
and his activities
in the artworld,see C.-H. Wateletand P.-C. Levesque,
writing,
Dictionnairedes arts et peinture,sculptureet gravure,5 vols. (1792; reprint, Geneva,
1972); Roger Portalis,Les graveursdu dix-huitieme
siicle,vol. 3 (Paris, 1882), pp. 63349; Jacques Chouillet, La formationdes idies esthitiquesde Diderot,1745-1763 (Paris,
1973); and Dora Wiebenson, ThePicturesqueGardenin France (Princeton, 1978), pp.
15-19, 28-31, 64-70. Kafkerand KafkersuggestedthatWateletprobablybecame

involvedin the Encyclopidie
throughhis friendd'Alembertratherthanany tiesto
Diderot (n. 10 above,pp. 396-400). Like Diderot,Wateletattractedthe attention
of police inspector
Josephd'H6mery;BN, f.fr.22066. These fileswerepopularized
in RobertDarnton'sTheGreatCatMassacre(NewYork,1984), pp. 107-89,although
Darntondid notmentionWatelet.Accordingto d'Hemery'sentryof 1 August1749,
Wateletwasblond and had a "small,thin,handsomeface." D'H6meryalso claimed
thatWateletwasverybrightand had written
a playtitledMelanide.
on thisarticle
(n. 24 above).WhenWateletwasworking
41Bosse,Traitidesmanieres
in themid-1750s,
Bosse'sbookhad alreadygone throughthreeeditions(Paris,1645,
modifiedtitleDe la Manieredegraver
a l'eau
1701,and 1745,thelastwiththeslightly
des presses
forteet au burinet de la gravureen manierenoire,avec la fafon de construire
modernes
et d'imprimer
en taille-douce).Le Clerc, whom Watelet cited, added one and
a halfpages and a plate to the 1701 edition.The 1745 editionwas almosttwiceas

long,including19 plates;thoughthe book does not name who did the revision,
Wateletgave creditto Cochinfils(Pr6vost'scollaborator).
fewpagesofWatelet's"Gravure,"withDiderot's
42Compare,forexample,thefirst
"Caract6resd'Imprimerie"and Goussier's"Papeterie." GrantedGoussierbegan
on a different
scale bydescribinglargemachinery
formakingpulp. But in other

Mechanical
Representing
littleabout engraving,and he wroteas if he were givingpersonal
lessons:"I believethatafterhavingtaughthowto makethecopper
[plate] ready,itis necessaryto beginbytheoperationsused to etch
withacid; afterwhichI willcome to the wayof engravingwiththe
burin" ("Gravure,"p. 878).
to therulesand preceptsofBosse,but
Wateletreferred
frequently
them
he knewthelimitations
offactsand rules,explicitly
qualifying
with"observations."Thus,he counseled:"It is up to the artisanto
experimentand choose; and I believeitis necessaryto recommend
thathas
to Artiststo alwaystrywithcare and reflectioneverything
been practicedbeforethem;thisis the wayto develop an artand
to make one's own new discoveries"("Gravure,"p. 881).
Wateletacknowledgedthe historicalevolutionof etching.Acbutitwas
cordingto him,etchingwasunknownpriorto engraving;
fasterand once introducedgained widespreadacceptance.It was
firstused as a "servileimitation"of engravinguntilit maturedand
style,leavingto engravinggreater
developeditsown self-conscious
and
sharpness perfection.
Althoughetchingled to manyabusesand
itsutility
forthe
mediocreworks,in the long runWateletaffirmed
communication
oftheartsand knowledge:"Engravinghas become
less perfect,but more usefulfor humans" ("Gravure,"p. 882).
Wateletviewedthesechangesin techniquesas havingalteredthe
ofrepresentation
and communication
and in the
conceptualization
case of engravingas havingalso transformed
the rules:"Here are
to us, and whichcan be
some of the rules thatBosse transmitted
or
to
one
which
can
add, providedthatit is done aceliminated,
one alwayskeepsin mindthe
to
and
that
work,
cording thoughtful
imitationof nature,and the applicationof the trueprinciplesof
Paintingand Drawing"("Gravure,"p. 882). Wateletdid not questionthe existenceof abstractprinciplesbehindpaintingand drawing,buthe maintainedan empiricalapproachtoproblemsofexecution,even his own.This is apparentin his attemptto describehow
long to subjectplatesto acid when etching:"I willobservethatit
wouldbe wrongtorequirethatone giveprecisevaluationsregarding
thetimethatone shoulduse acid each time;themostexactcalculahave not been able to satisfy
tionsand observations
me; the effect
ofacid dependstoo muchon accidentalcauses to be able to submit
it to invariablerules" ("Gravure,"p. 887).
withDiderot'squestforinvariablemodThese commentscontrast
els. Wateletdid attemptto analyzevariables,such as the amountof
sections,such as making individual sheets of paper, the thirdperson and impersonal
stylestill dominate.

JohnR. Pannabecker
heat, the qualityand choice of the ingredients,the typesof copper,
the temperatureand humidityof the air, and the manner of using
tools on the copper. But such a multiplicityof factorsmade it hard
to determine precise rules: "[I] t is thus necessary that practice accompanied by the particularobservationsof the artist" provide the
basis forjudgment ("Gravure," p. 887). Similarly,when describing
how to make the varnishfor the copper plates, he recorded "observations" or heuristics.For example: "Let the whole mixture cook
until the point where if one allows a drop to fall onto a plate and
then to cool offwell, it will break up when pressed three or four
times between the fingers" ("Gravure," p. 879). Or: "[T]he water
into which one pours the mixtureshould be about the same temperature as the ingredientsthat one pours in" ("Gravure," p. 879).
The contrastbetween these heuristicsand Goussier's description
of papermaking is striking.For example, Goussier described the
mixingof the paper pulp in a long section on machine operation, in
which he noted that the workerscalled gouvernauxlet in the proper
amount ofwater.Then "they testthe pulp bydilutingit or spreading
a certain amount in a tub half-fullof water: theybeat it with a stick
split in four parts at the end" ("Papeterie," p. 838). Goussier did
not mention any of the intuitiveand practical knowledge of the
workers who maintained this complicated equipment and monitored the pulp, as if theywere simplycomponents of a clock.
Benoit-Louis Pr&vost(1735?-1804), who designed the plates and
descriptionson engraving,provides another interestingcontrastto
Goussier's treatmentof papermaking. Prevostwas an accomplished
plate designer who contributedabout 270 plates to the project and
signed the Encyclopidie'sfrontispiecewith Charles-Nicolas Cochin
(the younger), another well-knownengraverand writerwithwhom
he collaborated frequently.43
Pr&vost'splate descriptions were far
and
than
more
Goussier's unreflectivestyle.Pr&complex
longer
vost's seventeen columns for nine plates on "Gravure" were six
times longer than Goussier's plate descriptionsof "Papeterie."
Like Watelet, Prevostincluded heuristicsfor engraving.His comments imply either a collaboration with Watelet or at least knowledge of Watelet's article. His firstplate in the series, an overviewof
shopwork,is filledwithengravingworkers.It is much more cluttered
than Goussier's overviews,and probablymore realistic (fig.3).44Un52
4"Gardey(n. 5 above); Portalis,pp. 348-57. Prevostwas a specializeddesigner

and engraverand contributedto some seventyotherworksin addition to the
Encyclopidie.
"See Sewell,"Visionsof Labor" (n. 8 above), p. 268.

AZ
..
IXI
I3l
,,
/;,
?.
".
.
.. ..
' .
.,
FIG. 3.-Prevost's overviewof an engravingshop ("Gravure,"pl. I.) Note that

theshopappearsmoreclutteredand crowded-and is probablymoretrueto lifeofLinda
thanGoussier'sengraving
ofa copperplateprinting
shop (fig.7). (Courtesy
Hall Library,
KansasCity,Missouri.)

54
JohnR. Pannabecker
like Goussier, who used a terse,almost telegraphic stylein his plate

descriptions on papermaking, Prevost wrote a long rationale that
emphasized the complexityof engravingand the limitedmechanical
scope of his representation: "All these properties of the art would
have required here a considerable number of examples, but our intentionis not to prescribea wayof engravingas particularto a genre
or to a painter; we can only give general principles on the mechanism,it is up to the engraverto consult his tasteand his intelligence,
according to the case, and followingwhat the paintingwillinspirein
him" ("Gravure," pl., p. 1). Prevostnoted thatthe "art of engraving
considered from the mechanical side influenced us on the choice
of the figuresthat compose these Plates" ("Gravure," p. 1). He was
not onlyconscious of editorial constraintsbut also wanted to impress
upon the reader the mechanical nature of those constraints.
The differencesbetween Prevost'swork and Goussier's were not
due simplyto notions that engravingwas more "artistic" than papermaking.Even withinthe limitedmechanical scope of his description Prevostaddressed abstractartisanal knowledge. If the oilstone
forsharpeningtools became concave fromuse, forexample, it could
be turned upside down and rubbed withpulverized sandstone on a
flatsurface to restore its evenness. Again: when the process of erasing something resulted in a copper plate that was no longer flat
which he illustratedin
enough, one should use a compasa repousser,
the plates ("Engraving," pl., I, suite, fig. 18). The upper point of
the compass was to be placed preciselyon the fault and the lower
point brought into contact withthe corresponding point on the underside to mark the area to be hammered flat. Prevost frequently
made detailed descriptionslike this,not simplyof the tools but of
how theywere used and under what circumstances.At times he critiqued certain practices-for example, when he discredited a specialized engravingtool with three or four needle points used to engrave backgrounds (fig. 4): "It is good to observe that ifsome artists
have sometimes found some sort of success with this needle point,
one should neverthelessconsider its use as wrong, and one should
put this point only in a hand guided by a free and capricious taste,
whose productions will pass for picturesque badinage rather than
forengravingstrictly
speaking ... one shall not use it at all, especially
in serious work" ("Gravure," pl., p. 3). Thus Prevostchose to take
up valuable space in the plates to emphasize what in his opinion was
poor practice.
Ironically,itis thisinternalcritiqueof artisanalpractice thatdistinguishes Watelet's and Prevost'stechnicalwritingfromDiderot's and
Goussier's, even though Diderot claimed he wanted preciselysuch

. ....
iF
Al..........
'tAir
,,
.i
?
.J
.sr
6
J~y
x .I
I,'...c r,
)[lP
GrcI'rYI
m z7
Iha,
FIG. 4.-At m,Prevostillustratedthe resultsof the multi-tipped

point he disdainedforproperengraving.
The representation
ofwhatnotto do or inferior
practiceis unusualin platesrelatedto the printingarts.("Gravure,"pl. II.) (Courtesy
of Linda Hall Library,
KansasCity,Missouri.)

56
JohnR Pannabecker
critiques.Wateletand Prevostexamineddifferent
waysof doing
with
certain
which
things,analyzed
practices
theydisagreed,provided alternatewaysof working,and selectedtechniquesbased on
experienceand intuition.They acknowledgedthe importanceof
trialand errorand attemptedto expand discoursein thatgrayarea
betweentheoryand practice.Theyalso acknowledgeddisagreement
among artisans,whichDiderotconsideredlackingin the arts,and
which he thoughtwas exemplifiedby les savantswho discussed,
wrote,and made theirdiscoveriespublic ("Encyclopedie,"p. 647).
Anothercontributor,
Brull6(firstnameand datesunknown),was
a shop foremanforLe Breton,one of the main publishersof the
Brull6approached his article"Imprimerie"(letterEncyclopidie.45
fromtheothercontributors.
UnlikeGouspressprinting)differently
sier,he did not citelabeled detailsof theplatesbutratherreferred
to themonlyin a generalway.Indeed,Brullkseemed to writeindeoftheplates,emphasizingminuteinstructions
forthevarpendently
ious tasksof artisans.
Brulle's articleoftenreads as if a masterartisanwere walking
slowlyaround the shop, stoppingto describeeach taskin detailto
an apprentice,and he seemsto have had in mindquite a different
shop fromthe one idealizedin the corresponding
platesdesigned
45Accordingto Kafker and Kafker,p. 78, Brulle assisted Le Breton in censoring
the last ten letterpressvolumes, an act thatso infuriatedDiderot thathe called Brull6
and Ostrogoth.
bitebrute,boucher,
Littleis known about his background, although there
was a Phillippe Brulle, a printer received as master in Bordeaux in 1701 (BN, fr.
claimed that Le Bret22125). The article on letterpressprintingin the Encyclopidie
on's foreman (i.e., Brulle) was its author. But the origin of the text was disputed
by Claude-Frangois Simon, a reputable printerwho according toJoseph d'Hemery's
police records of 1 April 1751 was a "printer of the Queen and Archbishop," had
been requested by the court to writea historyof printing,and had been recognized
by d'Argenson for the high quality of his work (BN, n.a.fr. 10783). In 1758, Simon
described in a mimoire
secret
how in 1748 two high governmentofficials(d'Aguesseau
and Maboul) had requested that he submit parts of his treatiseon printingto Diderot and David (BN, f.fr.22066 piece 25). When Simon inquired about his manuscriptin 1751, Diderot and his publishers apparentlygave him the runaround (indjcent balottage).He further claimed that Diderot and Le Breton (a publishing
while alleging that Le
colleague of David) used his manuscript for the Encyclopidie
Breton had done the work. Simon requested reimbursementand the return of his
notebooks. The mimoire
was writtenin the period between R6aumur's complaints of
plagiarism of the plates in 1756 and Pierre Patte's subsequent accusation of Diderot's
plagiarism of the plates in 1759 (see Watts and Huard, both n. 4 above). Simon
continued to press his claims and on 11 October 1763, invited d'Hemery to hear
him read from his Artde l'Imprimerie
(BN f.fr.22066, piece 32). Simon's mimoireis
so full of specific details and emotion that it is hard to believe that at least some of
it was not true.

Mechanical
Representing
Brullepointedout problemsencounteredin practice,
byGoussier.46
the
instructing readerto payattentionto excessivedustin thecases,
lettersin thewrongcases,mislaidtypeon themarblesurface,loose
furniture
and quoins in theforms,relativemoisturecontentof paand
per,
proofsstillneedingcorrection.Goussier'sexplanationsto
the letterpress
printingplatesdescribedoperationsunencumbered
withobstacles,failures,or negligence.Everything
worked;letters
and caseswereall in place and readyforcomposing.Brullk,on the
otherhand,began byexplaininghowto place the typecasesto take
a teadvantageof availablelight,and then discusseddistribution,
dious but importantprocessof returningthe typefromthe forms
used back intothe cases.He describedhow to storetype
previously
by placingthe notchand face of the characterin the mostconvenientposition,"despitethe oppositemethodof some foreigners"
in his
("Imprimerie,"p. 610). Goussierdid not coverdistribution
and
the
on
reader
must
the
article
to
platedescriptions,
rely
appreciate itsimportance.Indeed,forBrulle,properdistribution
wasa preconditionto fast,accuratetypesetting.
Brullethusincludedthepitfalls,
details,accidents,and sloppiness
ofactualpractice.He wasadeptat describingheuristicand manipulativeaspectsof the tradethatcould be learned onlyfromexperience. For example,ifone werenot sureof the columnwidthto be
used fora line of type,one shouldtakeit froma previousform.If
no formwas availableone could measurefroma page of text,first
fortheshrinking
ofthepage fromdryingafterhaving
compensating
been dampenedforprinting("Imprimerie,"p. 610). Brullk'sdeis noteworthy
because he rescriptionof correctingand justifying
vealed varioustricksof the tradeformakingcorrectionsefficiently
while maintaining
justification.His explanationof how to make
correctionsdemonstrates
a sensitivity
of rulesin
to the complexity
threeand a halfcolumnsofunusuallydetailedtext("Imprimerie,"
pp. 613-14) filledwitha multitudeofconditions("if... then") in
whichhe triesto coverall themainproblemsthatmightbe encounteredand theirpossiblesolutions.
Brull6'sdescriptionof dampeningpaper priorto printingillustratesthemanipulative
and perceptualskillsofartisans.In contrast,
Goussier'scorrespondingplate and descriptionillustratethe same
eventor rule:one dampens
operationreducedto an instantaneous
For
the
was
Brulle,
process
complicated.If the paper was
paper.
4This analysis of Brulle's text is adapted from Pannabecker, "Printing Technology" (n. 13 above), pp. 80, 84-85.

58
JohnR. Pannabecker
large formatwith small type,it was dampened more than if it was

small formatwithlarge type.However, ifthe same typeof paper had
recently been used, it was best to inquire about recent practice.
Some exceptions, such as marriage announcements, were usually
printed dry.In addition, one had to be able to distinguishdifferent
typesof paper: coated paper was dampened longer than uncoated
paper because the coating inhibited water absorption.
In Goussier's plate, the dampening table is simply a table. For
Brullk, the table had to be level and even, otherwise the water did
not accumulate evenly. The printer firstwould throw some water
with his hand on the blotters"more or less" according to hisjudgment and experience, afterwhich he plunged seven or eight sheets
into the water "more or less deeply and more or less quickly depending on the nature of the work and the quality of the paper"
("Imprimerie," p. 615). From time to time,the printerhad to press
the stack of paper down in the middle to prevent a raised center
that would be drier in the middle and wetteron the edges. Seven
or eight hours later, the printerstillhad to reshufflethe entire lot
to furtherpromote moisture stability.If too wet, the paper would
not accept ink, which would stayon the type; if too dry,the paper
would show only partiallyprinted type.Similar pedagogical instructions followed on inking balls, setup, and presswork.
In summary,Prevost,Brullk,and Watelet attempted to represent
some of the more intuitive,tacit aspects of the arts and reflected
more on mattersof personal judgment than did either Diderot or
Goussier. Where Diderot and Goussier wrote as reportersor lecturers to an entrepreneur or a class of entrepreneurs,theywrote as if
their relationship to the reader was one of master-apprentice.
Health, Safety,and Innovation:A Case Study
While Goussier and Diderot emphasized formal thinkingabout
the arts,Watelet emphasized issues of health and safety.In "Gravure," Wateletreferreddirectlyto safetyhazards on at least fiveseparate occasions, especially with regard to the use of acids in etching
copperplates. According to him, contemporarymethods of etching
did not adequately protectworkersfromthe hazardous fumes. For
example, afterdescribing a procedure for making acid for etching
plates covered with vernisdur (hard etching-ground), Watelet expressed the followingcaution: "I will observe here thatthismixture
is rather dangerous to make, if one does not pay enough attention
to breathe as littleas possible the vapor thatis givenoff,and to renew
often the air in the place where one heats it" ("Gravure," p. 885).
As for the process of etching the plate, Watelet firstillustrateda

Mechanical
Representing
methodearlierdescribedbyBosse thatinvolvedpouringacid over
the plate in almosta verticalposition-simple,but not veryconverevisedBosse's work,soughtto improve
nient.LeClerc,who lightly
in a box and maniputhisoperationbyplacingtheplatehorizontally
But
less
box
back
which
was
the
and
forth,
tiringand faster.47
lating
to Watelet,a problem
neitherof thesetechniqueswas satisfactory
thathe addressedwithhis own invention:"I am satisfiedtodayto
offerto artiststhe machinewhichI have describedin detail,as a
sure wayto avoid the inconveniencesthatacid has forthosewho
workaround it. The conservationof human beingsshould always
be theprincipalobjectofthosewho,in thearts,seekto spreadtheir
discoveries"("Gravure,"p. 887).
Insofaras he accorded primacyto the "conservationof human
beings," Watelet's prioritiesclearly differedfrom those that
In "Art,"Diderot
emergedfromDiderot'sphilosophicalreflections.
of one manufacture
claimed thatwhatestablishedthe superiority
overanotherwas the qualityof materials,in conjunctionwiththe
speed and perfectionof thework.The speed and perfectionof the
work"depend entirelyon the multitudeof workersassembledtogether,"which permittedthe divisionof labor ("Art," p. 717).
WhileWatelet'sprimarycriterionforinnovationdoes not in itself
his motivating
contradictthe importanceof speed and efficiency,
concernwasworkerhealthand safety.
Watelet'ssolutionto thehealthand safety
problemwasmechanical. In the articlehe describedhis improvedbox and machinefor
etching,whichhad a coverto protectthe workerfromthe fumes
(fig.5): "This coverwhichclosesthebox preciselypreventsthevapor of the acid put intomovementfrombeingas abundantand as
toxicas whenitexpandsfreely"("Gravure,"p. 885). He thenadded
machineto automatethe
to the coveredbox a pendulum-driven
the
thus
of
acid,
savingenergyand time.It is onlyat the
agitation
thatthe overallvisualappearance
his
invention
of
point describing
shiftsto resembletheappearanceof
ofWatelet'sarticletemporarily
Goussier's"Papeterie,"withitsprofusionof referencesin the text
ButalthoughWateletexplained
tolabeleddetailsin theillustrations.
the box in detailusingthe same systemof indicatingdetailsin the
thedifferplates,he did not providedimensions.Prevostillustrated
entwaysofetchingplates,includingBosse's and LeClerc'smethods
47See the 1701 edition of Bosse (n. 41 above), in which Le Clerc added his method
of pouring the acid onto the plate (pp. 31-32), along with a plate signed by F.
Ertinger.Neither Bosse nor Le Clerc seemed veryconcerned about safety;Le Clerc's
innovation resulted from his claim that Bosse's method tended to loosen the resist.

;trl
............
. . . . .. . . .
I...
pilimsi~i?.liiiiiiil:
lull
IIIIII
IIIIII
II II
.............
II
' i
A4
(.-t
"
,4
rr
....a
a+lI
$k
...
" '
. ......... ...
z,.,
"~'+
...
. ..
?.a
+,tm.,.+e+
,/t~
rip
FIG. 5.-Watelet's machineforfacilitating

copperplateetchingand reducingthe
worker'sexposureto directfumesfromtheacid is presentedas a meansofpromotconcern.
ingprogressin theart,ofwhichtheworkers'healthshouldbe theprimary
PlatedesignedbyPrevost("Gravure,"pl.VI). (CourtesyofLinda Hall Library,
Kansas City,Missouri.)

61
Mechanical
Artsin theEncyclopdie
Representing
as wellas Watelet'smachine.But thereaderis referredto Watelet's
articlefortherationaleand safety
evidencethatWatelet
precautions,
and Prevostworkedcooperatively
on thistopic.
Wateletwas so convincedof the healthbenefitsof his machine
that he expressedwillingnessto go beyond the publishingconstraints
of theEncyclopidie
to makeitavailableto others:"I willnote
thatsincethismachineis perfectly
intelligible
onlywiththehelp of
will
which
at
the
end
of
the
work,ifsomeone
figures,
onlyappear
I willalwaysbe availwerecuriousto have the machinefabricated,
able to showtheone whichI use,or tosenda drawingofit,ifthatcan
be of serviceto someoneor be of some utility
to him" ("Gravure,"
p. 886).
In thiscase,Wateletclearlysawhisdescriptions
and drawingsnot
as a meansto controlworkersbut as a meansto promotetheirwelfare,and he waswillingeven to consultwithreadersin viewof the
factthatsubscribers
wouldnotreceivetheplatesuntillater.48
Since
Wateletclaimedthathe wasalreadyusinghis machineit musthave
been operational.Perhapshe was even awareof Diderot'sconcern
thatmanymachineshad been proposed to them as if machines
representedon paper functionedequallywell in practice("Art,"
p. 716).
In contrastto Watelet,Diderot did not concern himselfwith
workerhealthand safety.
Whenhe had a chance to addresshealth
in "Caracteresd'Imprimerie,"he downplayedthe issue.
and safety
In thatarticle,Diderotconfirmedthatworkerswereadvisedto protectthemselves
againstthevaporof themoltenalloys,whichhe acothers
considereda dangerouspoison ("Caracteres
knowledged
d'Imprimerie,"p. 655). But he (and perhapsFournieras well) did
not seem to considerthesefumesto be a seriousproblem.He suggestedthatat worstthevaporwasunhealthyforcats,whomightget
dizzythefirsttimetheywereexposedto itand thenwouldjump out
the window.If theysurvivedthe firstattacks,theywould become
in the
accustomedto the vapor and would livejust fineafterward
with
seem
to
be
cauthen
did
Diderot
dispensing
Why
foundries.49
4Watelet's article "Gravure" appeared in volume 7 in 1757, the last volume published before the privilege for the text was revoked in 1759. Prevost's plates and
descriptions in volume 5 of the plates were not published until 1767.
49For an interpretationof cats in artisanal culture of 18th-centuryFrance, see
Darnton, The GreatCat Massacre(n. 40 above), pp. 75-104, and Contat (n. 24 above),
pp. 51-53. For an example of how a social historianhas integratedrepresentationsof
the arts,technical knowledge, and issues of toxic substances into a studyof artisanal
France (Berkeley,
culture, see Michael Sonenscher, The HattersofEighteenth-Century
1987), especially chap. 9.

JohnR. Pannabecker
tion,insteadof relyingon the enlightenedvoice of reasonand systematicexperimentation
thatcharacterized
Watelet'sdiscourse?
Indeed, a varietyof factors,such as the personalexperiencesof
authorsand different
contextsofpractice,influencedtherepresentationsoftheartsin theEncyclopidie.
For example,heavyequipment
at thepaper millin Goussier's"Papeterie"posed a potentially
serious safety
hazard,whiledecomposinglinenragsput childrenat risk
(fig.6). But Goussierwas a generalist,not a papermaker.Watelet
and Prevostworkedaround acids. Brulle was a practitioner,
but
Diderot
and
involved
few
hazards.
printing
comparatively safety
Goussierprobablywereneverexposed to long-termtoxicenvironconcerns
to theabsenceofsafety
ments,whichmayhavecontributed
in theirconceptualframework
of the
and in theirrepresentations
arts.
Designing
Representations
oftheArts
Diderotrecognizedthelack ofcoherenceamongtherepresentaas bevu2es
tions,someofwhichhe characterized
(crudeblungrossieres
ders), and declaredthatthereare "entirearticlesthatdo not have
the shadowofcommonsense" ("Encyclopedie,"p. 647). This lack
ofconsistency,
whicheventodayis obscuredbytheveneerofsimilarthe
sheer numberof articlesin the Encyclopidie,
has no
and
ity
by
of
The
social
and
cultural
values
simpleexplanation.
producingand
such
an
endeavor
were
not
and
werebeingnestandardized
editing
as
the
work
thatthreatThe
scandal
gotiated
progressed.50 political
in thelate 1750spresumably
ened theveryfutureof theEncyclopidie
lefttherepresentations
oftheartsuntouched.51
Butin facttheirdeand
did
follow
not
a
production
sign
systematic
pattern.
I have identified,however,severalmain typesof approachesto
the arts.This typology
representing
providesa usefulguide to the
culturalnuancesof the representations
thatgoes beyondthevariaThe first
tionsofindividualcontributions.52
type,and themostexpe62
50The social process of negotiating standards for representingthe arts has much
in common with the process of negotiatingstandards for patents. See, for example,
and Culture32 (1991), special issue (October) on patents and invention.
Technology
In that issue, Lilian Hilaire-Perez pointed out the intended role of the Descriptions
des artsetmitiers(n. 4 above) to "penetrate the secrecy" of the arts ("Invention and
the State in 18th-CenturyFrance," pp. 916-17). Beyond that intended role, which
was shared by Diderot, the design of verbal and pictorial representationsfacilitated
discourse on the arts, including discourse on invention.
and the context of its publication,
51Fora general introductionto the Encyclopidie
see John Lough, The Encyclopidie(n. 10 above).
52For purposes of comparison, Madeleine Pinault, "Les metamorphoses des
planches" (n. 5 above), developed a formal typologyof plate designs in the Encyclopidie. She emphasized the perennial nature of these models, showing how theyin-

Representing
63
dient,wasplagiarism.Diderotwasaccusedofcopyingtheplatescreated forthe Academy of Science's Descriptions

desArtsetMitiers.53
This
scandalatteststo theconservative
processofdesigningmanyrepreindeed theapparentphilosophicalcontradiction
ofsimsentations,
and
outdated
knowltools,
machines,
ply re-presenting
processes,
But
the
and
ethical
issues
there
were
technical,
beyond
edge.
legal,
othersocialimplications.
Forinstance,in hisarticle"Encyclopedie"
Diderotindirectly
criticizedR6aumur,directoroftheAcademy'sDefor
scriptions, keepingtheworkhidden and unpublished(p. 647).
The nextyear,in 1756,R6aumuraccused "littledelicatepersons"
of usingsome of theAcademy'splatesand complainedof his own
engravers'negligence.JusttwoyearsafterR6aumur'sdeathin 1757,
one of thoseengravers,
PierrePatte,publishedhis own criticism
of
To
conditions
and
matters,
complicate
employment
Diderot.54
boundarieswerenotclear.For example,Goussierwaslaterinvolved
in designingplatesfortheAcademy'sDescriptions.
A projectwhose
to
mix
was
the
arts
other
of
with
forms
goal
knowledgejoined tomen
of
in
and
letters
a network
ofnewand
scientists,
getherartisans,
social
within
which
the
relations,
ambiguous
parametersand problemsofrepresentation
and plagiarism
weresociallyrenegotiated.
In a second typeof designprocess,contributors
workedfromexbut
them
istingrepresentations changed
just enoughto avoidaccusationsofplagiarism.
An exampleis a viewofthecopperplateprinting shop designedbyGoussierforthe Encyclopidie
(fig.7) thatis a
mirrorimageof one ofBosse's plates.55
Since theAcademy'sDescriptionsalreadyused the techniqueofhavingan overview
at the top of
theplateand detailsbelow,Goussieressentially
modifiedan existing
and placed it in a page designborrowedfromthe
representation
Bosse
placed the printingpresssquarelyin the center,
Academy.56
thusemphasizingthe mechanicalaspectsof thepress,an emphasis
in
also dear to Goussier.In his book on engraving,
Bosse illustrated
detailvariousinstruments
oftheartsin a mannerjust as impersonal
fluencedeach otherand evolvedin a moregeneralmannerbeforeand afterthe
Encyclopidie.
53Onthe technicaldetailsof the alleged plagiarismof theAcademyplates,see,

forexample,Watts,Huard,and Daumas and Tresse (n. 4 above).
54Watts,
p. 445-46.
55Seethevignetteat thetop ofp. 129 ofthe 1745 editionofBosse'sDe la Manidre
de graver... (n. 41 above), whichis signed"Ab Bosse" and "Soubeyran."The
vignettecloselyresemblesa similarplate byBosse locatedin the BN (Cabinetdes
estampes),reproducedand discussedin Sewell,"Visionsof Labor" (n. 8 above),
p. 266. The earliereditionsof Bosse'sworkcontainplatesthatare a mirrorimage
viewof onlythe centerpartof thevignetteof the 1745 edition.
on letterpress
56Forexample,see Jaugeon'smanuscript
printing(n. 37 above).

... :
::
.-
: ..
. .
"
_:
........ .. .....
ad
l}
Hi
..
,......,?
.
:.....-.._-.-.
......., ,-,.
...............-,...............
,DerOn
ot/:
FIG. 6.-Plate designedbyGoussier("Papeterie,"pl. III). Goussier'sdescription

and mechaniofthelittleboyscuttingup ragsformakingpaperis as straightforward
ofmachinery,
cal as hisdescription
althoughhe does notethevarioussizesofstools
fortheboyswhoare ofdifferent
morecomfortable
to makeworking
heights.(CourKansasCity,Missouri.)
tesyof Linda Hall Library,

..
...........
/ l (7
......
.ii/ ~ z
hz,,z'z,zzcz'iem
Grr
FIG. 7.-Plate illustratingcopperplate printing,designed by Goussier ("Imprimerie en Taille Douce," pl. I), but apparently adapted from Abraham Bosse, De la
Manierede gravera l'eau forteet au burinet de la gravureen manizrenoire,avec la fafon
et d'imprimer
en taille-douce(Paris, 1745). (Courtesy of
de construire
despressesmodernes
Linda Hall Library,Kansas City,Missouri.)

66
JohnR. Pannabecker
as any of those of Diderot's colleagues." Thus, while changes in the

artisticstylesof the human figuresand workplace occurred, these
transformationswere evolutionary.58
Bacon's influence on Diderot
furtherconfirmsthe evolutionarynature of much of Diderot's endeavor.59
This process of transformationwas similar to the process used
in which textual material was
throughout much of the Encyclopedie
assembled and modifiedfromother sources. While the materialwas
heavilymarked by the existingcultural heritage, changes reflected
the gradual imposition of new values. Watelet's discourse in "Gravure" is an example of this type of transformation;he referreddirectlyto his main source, Bosse, but went beyond it in describing
changes in technique and social values that allowed the expansion
of etching.
A third and verydifferenttype of process is illustratedby Goussier's representationof "Papeterie," which was not modified from
existingrepresentationsbut generated froman existingmanufacturing plant. Goussier was sent by Diderot to l'Angl6e to studythe government paper mill, collaborate withits director,and generate representations based on that particular physical referent." Further
evidence of representationsbased on known physical artifactscan
be identifiedby specific named referents,contributors'visitslisted
visits
in the account books of the Encyclopidie
project, or fact-finding
referredto in Diderot's or his colleagues' correspondence or personal records."6In workingfrom a physical referent(for example,
an industrial plant or shop), more extensive social relations were
involved in generating the representationthan in the solitaryprocess of copying or modifyingexistingrepresentations.
The case of Goussier's "Papeterie" illustratesjust how much the
personal emphases of an individual contributorcould dominate a
given set of representations,even in the case of a specific,complex
physicalreferent.In visitingl'Angl6e, Goussier could have portrayed
workerbehavior in detail or representedtheirknowledge in the style
"5Bosse, Traiti des manieres(n. 24 above).
"marked a sharp break with
58Sewell considered that the plates of the Encyclopidie
tradition, a break that parallels the ideological rupture between the philosophes
and surrounding Old Regime society"; see "Visions of Labor," p. 268. He also
felt that the workerswere portrayedas "docile automatons," a view he considered
similar to Darnton's, but "fundamentally at odds" with that of Roland Barthes
(p. 277).
59For an overview of Bacon's influence, see Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre
(n. 40 above), pp. 191-213.
6oSee Goussier, "Copie du Certificatde M. Goussier" (n. 25 above).
61Foraccount books, see AN, U/*1051 (n. 35 above).

Mechanical
Representing
ofWatelet,Prevost,or Brulle.LikeWatelet,he could haveaddressed
social and technicalissuessuch as problemsof healthand safetyin
of adaptingHollandersin France.
papermakingor the difficulties
are embedded tracesof diverse
Thus, withineach representation
documentsand traditions,
personalstylesand experiences,social
and
and
context,
relationships
physicalreferents.
A fourthapproachto representation
oftheartsis Diderot's"ideal
In
the
article
die"
Diderotdescribedthehypoprocess."
"Encyclop
theticalrole of encyclopediaeditorsand whathis successorscould
learnfromhisownexperience.His originalideal wasan interactive
social processin whichskilledartisanswould submitmanuscripts
and thenworkat theeditor'sside duringtherevisionprocess:"He
withhiscanvas;
[theeditor]willcomparethememoirsoftheArtists
he willconferwiththem;he willmakethemcontributeorallywhat
theyhave omitted,and clarifywhat theyhave explained poorly"
("Encyclop die," p. 646A).The editorwouldthusscreeneverything
ofrepresentathroughhis "canvas" in orderto achieveconsistency
tion.This typeofprocessmayhavebeen fairly
consistent
withDiderot's philosophicalreflections,
and it promotededitorialcontrol,
but it wasverytime-consuming.
Such an interactive
Sometimebeprocessalso proveddifficult.
tweenthecompositionofthe "Prospectus"and "Art"and thelater
"Encyclop die" Diderot'sideal processbrokedown,ifindeedithad
everstarted.He became frustrated
by twomain obstaclesto reprearts:
the
senting
obtainingknowledgefromartisansand findingacHe nowportrayed
theartisanshe had so admired
ceptablewriters.62
in "Art"as confusedand confusing
tohim.Evenwhenhe had direct
the
access to artisans,theirideas about secretswerenot necessarily
same as his,and itwas not easyto organizewhathe received:
Howeverbad thesememoirsmightbe, iftheyhave been done
of thingsthat
in good faith,theywillalwayscontainan infinity
manwillnotperceive,willnotevensuspect,
themostintelligent
and willnotbe able to ask.He willdesireotherthings,itis true,
but it willbe those thatthe Artistsdo not hide fromanyone;
because I have experiencedthatthosewho are constantly
busy
withone objecthad an equal tendencyto believethateveryone
knewthatwhichtheydid not considera secret;and thatwhich
theyconsidereda secretwas not knownby anyone:such that
62Thisis, of course, Diderot's perspective. If C.-F. Simon's account (n. 45 above)
of his treatmentby Diderot and the publishers between 1748 and 1751 is true, and
if such treatmentof artisans' submissions was common, then Diderot's frustrations
were also due to his own inattention and the social conflict that resulted.

68
JohnR. Pannabecker
they were always tempted to take their interviewereither for
a transcendent genius or for an imbecile ("Encyclopedie,"
pp. 646A-47).
Through experience Diderot learned fromartisanssomethingabout

how theyviewed their own knowledge and their perceptions about
how othersviewed theirknowledge. But he also encountered obstacles in obtaining knowledge of the arts. Collecting and analyzing
knowledge and representingthe artswere not the pleasant, cooperative endeavors he had expected.
It is especially when he [the editor] will have toured the workshops for awhile, money in hand, and one will have made him
pay dearlyfor the most ridiculous falsehoods, that he will know
what sort of people these Artistsare, especially at Paris, where
the fear of taxes holds them perpetuallyin mistrust,and where
they consider anyone who questions them with curiosityas an
emissaryof the farmersgeneral [tax collectors], or as a worker
who wants to set up shop. It has seemed to me that one would
avoid these inconveniences by seeking in the provinces all the
knowledge on the Arts that one would like to collect: one is
known there; one is dealing withpeople who are not suspicious;
money is scarcer there,and time is cheaper. From this,it seems
evident to me thatone would learn thingseasier and at less cost,
and one would have more accurate information ("Encyclopedie," p. 647).
Diderot thus felthis effortshad been obstructedby misinformation,
a political environmentof mistrust,restrictiveeconomic practices,
and suspicious artisans,all magnified by the intensityof urban culture.
Despite these social constraintson his control, he seems not to
have appreciated fullytheir implications for his project. In theory,
Diderot feltthatscientistsand artisanshad much to learn fromeach
other and recommended that scientistsgo into the shops ("Art,"
p. 717). But in practice it was difficultto find scientistswilling to
spend time in the workshops and writeabout that knowledge. Diderot praised Fournier for his assistance on typefoundingand noted
thattypefoundingwas a "free art," but he apparentlydid not analyze
the relationship between that special legal and social status and
Fournier's willingnessto provide materials ("Caracteres d'Imprimerie," pp. 651, 653). Diderot claimed thatCochin theyoungerwould
not have refused to writethe article "Gravure" if his work had allowed him the time to writeit; Cochin apparentlydid not find the
time. It is unclear whether Diderot realized why artisanswould be

Representing
69
to divulgetheirhard-earned,
morereluctantthanscientists
low-paid
Diderot's
knowledge.
proposalsto solve thisproblemwere social:
one could become an apprentice;or one could leave the cityin
searchofknowledgein theprovinces("Encyclopedie,"p. 647). But
was a long, involvedprocessand leavingPariswas
apprenticeship
all thearts.Trips
feasibleoptionforresearching
notan economically
to the provincesmighthave facilitatedaccess to some artisanal
in socialcontextwouldhaveinfluenced
knowledge,butdifferences
thecontent,somethingDiderotdid notacknowledge.For example,
artisanalpapermakingwould have differedfromthe processillustratedat l'Anglke;goldsmithing
as practicedat Paris would have
differed
fromParisto provinbeen rarein theprovinces;hatmaking
cial cities.63
As the projectprogressed,Diderotleaned towarda morerestricthearts."He concludedthat
tiveeditorialapproachto representing
but that
forthefirsteditionitwasfineto havehad so manywriters,
would
fora second edition"a smallnumberofwellchosenwriters
a
man
have
he
"would
to
who
would
suffice";
alwaysgivepreference
written
withsuccesson thetopictowhichhe wasassigned,"preferablya friendwhomhe trusted("Encyclopedie,"p. 645). He recomwho wouldcovera nummended thatan editorchoose generalists
ber of related areas. In opting for expertise in writingover
specializedexpertisein each art,fora smallgroup,forgeneralists,
and fortrustedfriends,Diderotas editorseemed to be expressing
a preferenceforcontributors
like Goussierand forformalanalysis
of the arts.Goussierwas prolificin the productionof formaldiscoursethatintegrated
wordsand pictures.BythetimeDiderotwrote
"Encyclopedie"the numberof plateshad expanded fromthe six
hundredprojectedin the"Prospectus"to aboutone thousand,and
Diderotnoted that"we have made sure to accept hardlyanythat
do not representan existingmachineoperatingin society"("Encyclopedie,"p. 645). His visioncalledformoreplates,moreemphasis on machines,moreformalanalysis-theperfect
job description
forGoussier,whosebackground,
skills,and interests
convergedwith
Diderot'sconceptualapproachto the arts.
Conclusion
Faced withthebewildering
arrayofarts,a lackofqualifiedcontriblimitations
and
utors,
imposedbythepublicationbusiness,
practical
63Sonenscher (n. 49 above) discusses differencesin making hats in Paris and the
provinces.
"Proust suggested thatDiderot's involvementin the shops was probably minimal,
and that his role was primarilyone of editorial direction; Diderotet "l'Encyclopidie"
(n. 20 above), pp. 192-95.

70
JohnR. Pannabecker
of the artsin the
Diderot set out to constrainthe representation
to
the
he
set
forth
in the "Prospecmethod
Encyclopidie
according
tus." Tools, machines,processes,and practitioners
wouldbe representedas elementsin a "grammar"thatemphasizeduniformity.65
In Diderot'sterms,his methodwouldeliminatethe distracting
particularisms
thatencumberedthe path towardhis ideal "invariable
model" ("Encyclopedie,"p. 648). As workon theEncyclopidie
proacgressed,Diderotbecame moreentrenchedin hisview,favoring
even
artisan-writers.
writers
over
or
artisans,
practicing
complished
Althoughhistorianshave criticizedthe obsolescenceof the conhave
tentofsomeoftheEncyclopidie's
representations,
theygenerally
in representassumedthatDiderotachievedconceptualuniformity
oftheEncyclopidie's
Buttheapparentuniformity
repreingthearts.66
sentationsoftheartsand thesubsequenthistoricalstudiesthathave
inhaveobscureddivergent
theimpressionofuniformity
reinforced
tellectualemphases,designprocesses,and attitudestowardthearts,
work,and workersembedded in both textand plates. Historians
in general
haveexaggeratedDiderot'sinfluenceon hiscontributors
of
and have interpretedthe Encyclop4die's
representations the arts
this
in
the
of
context
ideology.In contrast,
Enlightenment
primarily
of
the
mechanical
has
that
the
shown
representations
varying
study
stoauthorsand engravers
telldifferent
artscontributed
bydifferent
ries about the contextof the mechanicalarts-the social standing
of artisanalcommunities,
the stateof craftmethods,and local and
and
so
on.
variation,
regional
To understandthe differences
betweenDiderot and Goussier's
on
mathematics
and
Watelet's
on craftexperienceand exemphasis
or
between
Brullk's
perimentation,
"shop tour" approach and
Goussier'sfocuson mechanicalaspects,and to appreciatetheimplicationsofthosedifferences,
historians
need to examinethecontext
and detailsoftherepresentations,
theircontributors,
theirreferents,
and thesocialprocessesofdesign.One, two,or severalcontributors
wereinvolvedin generatingthearticle(s),plates,and platedescriptionsof each art.Contributors
broughtto the tasktheirownpriorities,whichmayor maynot have lined up withDiderot'sconcerns
as editoroftheEncyclopidie,
thepriorities
and concernsoftheirown
socialclass,or thevaluesof thecraftcommunity
whosearttheypor65See Lubar (n. 11 above) for a discussion of the relationship between grammar
and empire, and technological representationsas a language of technological bureaucracy.
"See also, for example, historiansof uniformmanufacturingwho have cited the
Encyclopidieasan earlysource: Alder (n. 7 above), Hounshell (n. 6 above), and Smith
(n. 3 above).

Representing
71
some
trayed.Therewasnota singleprocessofdesignor description:
more
or
less
some
were
were
representations
plagiarized
blatantly,
an
or
from
or
from
artifact
some
were
memory
shop,
progenerated
duced throughan extendedsocialprocessinvolving
thecontributor,
and workers.Most of thisinternaldiversity
and reentrepreneurs,
has
remained
obscure
to
historians.
sultingambiguity
Historiansoftechnology,
havetendedtoviewrepresenmoreover,
tationsof the mechanicalartsas essentiallytransparent,
objective
windowson a technologicalreality.StevenLubar and Ken Alder
have scrutinizedthe limitations
of thisviewand consideredtheuse
of representations
as importanttoolsin the developmentand controloftechnology.67
Lubarhas suggestedthat19th-century
representationscan be "almostpurevisualizations
oftechnologicalthought"
(an inventor'ssketchesor models,forexample) or "mostlyofsocial
import,and construction"(design drawingsand technicaldocumentationthatexistonlybecause of a social context).Alder,disFrance,argues
cussingartisanalformsof drawingin 18th-century
thatevenengineeringdrawingwascontestedand cannotbe considered a trueobjectiverepresentation,
althoughitwas a meansofincontrol
of
creasingengineers'
productionprocesses."8
in theEncyclop4die
therepresentations
do not always
Nevertheless,
fitgeneralcategories.Forexample,Lubarconsidersrepresentations
"the middlestepbetweenidea and practice,"as ifidea and practice
an objectivedichotomy.69
In Diderot'sarticleon typograconstituted
well
have
been
thesediscretemiddlesteps
may
phy,representations
or toolsforcommunicating
Fournier'sideas. ButWatelet,Prevost,
and Brullkarticulatednovel or controversial
ideas, knowledgebeDiderot's
method
and
and
tacit
knowledge-knowlyond
ideology,
Forthem,
edge thattheydid notalwaysseemsurehowtorepresent.70
of
a
seamless
of
were
representations
part
process systematically
throughproblemsin whichideas could not alwaysbe conthinking
sidereddistinctfrompractice,as in Brullk'sdescriptionofdampenwillhelp bridgethe
"6Lubar,p. S56, suggestedthatan analysisofrepresentations
gap betweentwo main themesor schools-biographyand visual thinkingapschoolofhistoriogproaches,and socialprocessapproaches.Forthevisualthinking
treatedas "pure thought"in theinvenraphy,technologicalknowledgeis typically
tor's mind;hence its close associationwithbiography.In contrast,social process
schoolsfocuson the social,cultural,and politicalnatureof technology.
Alder,pp.
136, 138, 143, 145-6.
"Lubar, p. S62; Alder,pp. 73-74, 139-46, 305-7.
69Lubar,p. S60.
7?Ferguson(n. 6 above), pp. 58-59, discussedthe importanceof workers'tacit
production.See also Collins,Polanyi,and Larsonand Segal
knowledgein industrial
(n. 22 above).

JohnR. Pannabecker
ing paper by plungingsevenor eightsheetsinto thewater"more
or less deeplyand moreor less quicklydependingon thenatureof
theworkand thequalityofthepaper" ("Imprimerie,"p. 615). They
soughtto articulatethe processby whichartisanscreated,developed, and imposednewvaluesand knowledgeof thearts-visually
and verbally-beyondan artificial
oftheoryand practice.
dichotomy
As tracesof thatprocess,theirrepresentations
of the mechanical
howindividarts,in wordsand images,offera keyto understanding
ual artisansthoughtand whattheyconsideredto be important.
Goussier'sworkprovidesan especiallyrichcase studyforfurther
researchintothethoughtprocessesand socialcontextofone ofthe
His case illustrates
anothermisleadingyetprevalent
encyclopedists.
of
historiographic
dichotomy-that technicalversussocial thought.
in 18th-century
is an importantexamGoussier'sinvisibility
history
of
has
as
the
ofconceivwhat
described
"drawbacks
PatrickJoyce
ple
of
the
relation
as
or
even
ing
mainlyantagonistic
employment
solely
In somesocialhistories,
in form.""71
thenotoriety
ofartisansin 18thhas
semiauFrance
been
constructed
on
the
semifictional,
century
a
on the
of
artisan-writers
who
focused
few
writings
tobiographical
Historians
have
contentiousnatureof employment
relationships."
to
also referredto the conceptualuniformity
of the Encyclopidie
bolsterthe historiographic
model of a conflict-ridden
employerWriters
and platedesignersare consideredto
employeedichotomy.73
havebeen successful
in representing
mostor all technicalknowledge
thus
it
from
artisans;artisans'mostimsystematically, expropriating
ideas
are
not
the most interesting
technical;
portant
political,
of
artisans'
work
is
their
to
resistance
aspect
employers;and the
methodsof intellectualhistoryare not applicable to them.74
The
of
artisans'
tacit
is
work,
complexity
knowledge, neglected.
including
These historiographic
values tend to exclude interestin someone
like Goussier.He did not dwellon his misfortunes
or contentious
which
to
his
relationships,
mayhelp explain neglectbysocialhistori72
71PatrickJoyce, The HistoricalMeanings of Work(Cambridge, 1987), p. 7. Joyce

added that "it is arguable that employment relations may be culturallystructured
in a way as to be mainly reciprocal or even consensual in character."
72See, for example, a printer,Nicholas Contat (n. 24 above); a glazier,JacquesLouis
Journalde ma vie, ed. Daniel Roche (Paris, 1982); and a printer,
NicolasMnentra,
Restifde la Bretonne, MonsieurNicolas,2 vols. (Paris, 1794-97).
73Sewell,Workand Revolution(n. 12 above), pp. 5-13; and Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order" (n. 8 above), p. 257.
74See, for example, Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order," p. 257; and Sewell, Work
and Revolution,p. 8. I suggest that authorship of discourse on the arts needs to be
examined in greater detail and that intellectualitybe extended to include technical
thought.

Mechanical
Artsin theEncyclop6die 73
Representing
Ifwe are to appreciateGoussier'sinfluencein representing
the
ans.75
to his documented
arts,we mustreconnecthis platesand writings
to hispractice,and to hisextensivesocialrelationships.
philosophy,
Goussierplayeda prominentrole in popularizinga quantifying
a role that
and standardization,
perspective,
conceptsofuniformity,
historians
haveusuallyattributed
to scientists,
and
engineers, powerfulelitesas opposed to artisans.76
Yet distinctions
amongscientists,
and
artisans
were
often
less
clear
in
the
18th
than
engineers,
century
the
in
which
today.Paradoxically, historiographic
polarization
systematizedknowledgeis linked to powerfulelitesand inarticulate
knowledgeto artisanshas resultedin a subtleformofscholarlycondescensionthatneglectsartisans'rolesin thedevelopmentofknowledge and its dissemination.Goussierbelies this historiographic
myth.
rolesplayedbyGoussierand othersin deDespitethesubstantial
for the Encyclopidie,
historianshave provelopingrepresentations
moted the idea thatDiderotimposeda conceptualuniformity
on
theirwork.That veneerof uniformity
did not end withtheEncyclopidie,whichwasoftenacceptedas a modelforsubsequentrepresentationsoftheartsand theirdissemination,
includingtheevenlarger
The
of
Encyclopidie
Mithodique.77 production thatworkcontinuedwell
intothe 19thcentury,
thussettingup yetanothercycleofreproductionsand subtletransformations
of representations
of the artsto
whichhistorians
haveattributed
an exaggeratedsenseofcontributor
and uniformity.
anonymity,
objectivity,
Onlythroughcriticalcontextualexaminationsofsuchworkswillhistorians
be able to appreciate
the diversity
and incrementalchangesin the representation,
ideolof
the
role
of
artisans
and
control
and
ogy,
technologicalknowledge,
in thatcomplexprocess.
and otherpractitioners
"Nevertheless, Goussier's domestic problems are recorded in a police dossier, as

is the accusation that he and coworkers participated in the events of the royalist
insurrection of 13 vendemiaire, year IV (5 October 1795), to which their defense
included a description of their intellectual work (CNAM, 7-110; see also Dulac [n.
23 above]).
76See, for example, Picon (n. 7 above), and Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order."
. . . (Paris and Liege, 1782-1832).
ou par ordrede matidres
mithodique,
77Encyclopidie
See Sewell, "Visions of Labor" (n. 8 above), pp. 279-86, foran analysisof the Encyclopidie's persistentprestige in 19th-centurypictorial descriptions of the arts.


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Representing Mechanical Arts in Diderot's "Encyclopdie"

Author(s): John R. Pannabecker

This content downloaded from 185.2.32.58 on Thu, 19 Jun 2014 20:08:24 PM

A singleartaboutwhichone wouldwantto representeverything

DR. PANNABECKER is professor

ed. Denis Diderotand Jean d'Alembert,vol. 1 (Paris,1751;

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chanical artsin words and pictures.Nor did the difficultiesdiminish

Blanchard'sMachineryand PatentManagementin Nineteenth-Century

4ArthurH. Cole and George B. Watts, The HandicraftsofFrance as Recordedin the

dictionnairetechnique,"and GeorgesHuard, "Les planches

Delorme and Rene Taton (Paris,1952); George B. Watts,"The Encyclopidie

et le travailhumain,"AnnalesE.S.C. 8 (1953): 53-61; M.

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of the artsas obsolete

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in the platesand on howDiderot'sperspectiveinfluencedbroader

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AND PLATES ON PRINTING IN THE ENCYCL

Plates and Plate Descriptions

"Fonderie en Caracteresd'Imprimerie" . .......

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1967], pp. 39-40.)

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This content downloaded from 185.2.32.58 on Thu, 19 Jun 2014 20:08:24 PM

ber the path towardhis ideal "invariablemodel" of the arts("Encyclop6die,"p. 648).

and markets,see Simone Meyssonnier, La balance et l'horloge:La genesede la pensie

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did not limitthemselvesto Diderot'smethod.In

New Directionsin the

J.Pinch(Cambridge,Mass.,1987),pp. 329-48; MichaelPolanyi,TheTacitDimension

23Thebroadestcoverageof Goussier'slifeand workis GeorgesDulac, "Louiset 'Originalsansprincipes',"in Proust,Recherches

(1742; reprint,Pinner,Middlesex,1975). Fournierthe youngerwas a well-known

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see JosephJerrmele Franiaisde Lalande, Artde

faire le papier,in Descriptionsdes artset mitiers(n. 4 above), vol. 15.

M. Goussier," in Riponsepour leslibrairesassocidsa l'Encyclopidie,

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This content downloaded from 185.2.32.58 on Thu, 19 Jun 2014 20:08:24 PM

FIG. 1.-The initialplateforeach tradetypically

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deParis(8 brumaire,yearVIII): 181-82,

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1980), pp. 444-47.

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is especiallysignificantbecause he contributedall threecomponents

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analysisin "Art."Neitherdescribedperceptualand problem-solving

15-19, 28-31, 64-70. Kafkerand KafkersuggestedthatWateletprobablybecame

a halfpages and a plate to the 1701 edition.The 1745 editionwas almosttwiceas

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4"Gardey(n. 5 above); Portalis,pp. 348-57. Prevostwas a specializeddesigner

"See Sewell,"Visionsof Labor" (n. 8 above), p. 268.

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FIG. 3.-Prevost's overviewof an engravingshop ("Gravure,"pl. I.) Note that

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like Goussier, who used a terse,almost telegraphic stylein his plate

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FIG. 4.-At m,Prevostillustratedthe resultsof the multi-tipped

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PANNABECKER, J. R. Representing Mechanical Arts in Diderot's Encyclopédie

PANNABECKER, J. R. Representing Mechanical Arts in Diderot's Encyclopédie