Doolittle (A Treatise On Practical Astronomy, As Applied To Geodesy and Navigation) (1900)

Chemistry
Library
QB
145
D72i
1900
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
in
A TREATISE
ON
PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY,
AS APPLIED TO
GEODESY AND NAVIGATION.
C.
L.
DOOLITTLE,
Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Lehigh University
FOURTH AND REVISED EDITION.

SECOND THOUSAND.
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS
LONDON
CHAPMAN & HALL,

1900.
LTD.
COPYRIGHT,
BY
C. L.
1885,
DOOLITTLE.
Braunworth,
Munn
Printers and
& Barber
Binders
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Chemist^
6
45
PREFACE.
THE
following work is designed as a text-book for univerand technical schools, and as a manual for the field
astronomer.
The author has not sought after originality,
but has attempted to present in a systematic form the most
sities
approved methods in actual use at the present time.

Each subject is developed as fully as the necessities of the
case are likely to require; but as the work is designed to
be a practical one, those methods and developments which
have merely a theoretical or historic interest have been excluded.
Very complete numerical examples are given illustrative

all the prominent subjects treated.
These have been
selected with care from records of work actually performed,
and will show what may be expected in circumstances ordiof
narily favorable.
Such auxiliary tables as are applicable only to special problems will be found in the body of the work; those which
have a wider application are printed at the end of the volume.
The universal employment of the method of Least Squares
in work of this kind has led to the publication of an introduction to the subject for the benefit of those readers who are
not already familiar with it.
This introduction develops
the method with special reference to the requirements of
PREFACE.
IV
this particular class of
to
make
it
work, and
it
has not been the design
exhaustive.
For the materials employed original papers and memoirs

have been consulted whenever practicable. The illustrative
examples have been drawn largely from the reports of the
Coast and other government surveys. For most of the examples of sextant work, as well as for many valuable' suggestions, the author is indebted to his friend and former col-
Much assistance has also been

league Prof. Lewis Boss.
derived from the excellent works of Chauvenet, Brunnow,
and Sawitsch.
Fully appreciating the difficulty of eliminating all mistakes from a work of this character, the author can only hope
that this one may not prove to be disfigured by an undue
number
of such blemishes.
C. L. DOOLITTLE.
BETHLEHEM,
PA.,
May
20, 1885.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION TO THE METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES.

PACK
Errors to which observations are liable
Axioms
The law of distribution of
The curve of probability
error
3
5
Determination of the law of error

Condition of
maximum
The
The
The
The
of precision
measure
probability
6
1 1
12
probable error
13
mean
mean
15
error
of the errors
Precision of the arithmetical
17
mean
Determination of probable error of arithmetical mean

Probable error of the sum or difference of two or more quantities
Principle of weights
Probable error when observations have different weights
Comparison
of theory with observation
18
20
22
23
26
29
Indirect observations
32
Equations of condition Normal equations

Observations of unequal weight
35
Arrangement of computation
Computation of coefficients by a
Solution of normal equations
37
table of squares
Proof- formulae
errors of the
41
43
47
Weights and probable errors of the unknown quantises
Mean
36
unknown
quantities
54
65
CONTENTS.
vi
INTERPOLATION.
PACK
Notation
71
General formulae of interpolation

Arguments near beginning of table
Arguments near end of table
72
Interpolation into the middle

Proof of computation.. ,
84
Differential coefficients
86
The ephemeris
92
78
82
85
Lunar distances
PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY.
CHAPTER
I.
THE CELESTIAL SPHERE TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES*

Spherical co-ordinates
The horizon Altitude
100
Azimuth
The equator Declination

The ecliptic Longitude
Hour- angle
102
Right ascension
Latitude
103
104
and azimuth, to find declination and hour-angle

Having
Having declination and hour-angle, to find altitude and azimuth
107
112
To
To
114
altitude
find hour-angle of star in the horizon

find distance
between two stars
'
115
CHAPTER
PARALLAX
REFRACTION
II.
DIP OF THE HORIZON.
Definitions
120
To
find equatorial horizontal parallax

Parallax at any zenith distance
120
Form and dimensions
122
of the ear-th
Reduction of the latitude
121
124
CONTENTS.
vii
PAGE
Determination of the earth's radius

Parallax in zenith distance and azimuth
127
Parallax in right ascension and declination

Refraction
142
Descartes' laws
154
Bessel's formula for refraction
155
Refraction in right ascension and declination

Dip of the horizon
157
160
CHAPTER
I3 1
53
III.
TIME.
Sidereal time
163
Solar time
164
Inequality of solar days

Equation of time
164
166
Sidereal and mean solar unit
168
To
To
convert
mean
solar into sidereal time
convert sidereal into
mean
170
solar time
CHAPTER
ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
172
IV.
THE SEXTANT THE CHRONOMETER AND

CLOCK.
The vernier
The reading microscope
174
The micrometer
Eccentricity of graduated circles
176
180
The
The
183
186
sextant
prismatic sextant
Adjustments of the sextant
Method
Index
of observing
error
188
190
194
Eccentricity of the sextant
196
The chronometer
207
208
Comparison
of
chronometers
The clock
The chronograph
209
211
CONTENTS.
VJii
CHAPTER
V.
DETERMINATION OF TIME AND LATITUDE METHODS ADAPTED TO

THE USE OF THE SEXTANT.
PACK
Determination of time
By a single altitude of the sun
By a single altitude of a star
215
Conditions favorable to accuracy
222
Differential formulae
223
228
220
Equal altitudes of a star

Equal altitudes of the sun
230
2 33
Latitude
on the meridian
observed at both upper and lower culmination.
the zenith distance of a star
By
By a circumpolar star
By the altitude of a star observed
By circummeridian altitudes
in
any position
Gauss' method of reducing circummeridian

Correction for rate of chronometer
235
236
238
altitudes of the sun
247
250
Latitude by Polaris
Correction of altitudes for second differences in time
Probable error of sextant observation
CHAPTER
233
.
256
260
265
VI.
THE TRANSIT INSTRUMENT.

Description of instrument
269
Value of level
276
of instrument
Adjustments
Methods of observing
Theory
of the transit
279
283
284
Diurnal aberration
289
Equatorial intervals of threads
291
Reduction of imperfect transits

Determination of constants:
294
The
level constant
Inequality of pivots
The collimation constant
The azimuth constant

Personal equation
Probable error and weight of transit observations
Application of the method of least squares
295
296
302
305
316
318
322
CONTENTS.
IX
PAGK
Correction for flexure

The transit instrument out of the meridian
335
338
Transits of the sun, moon, and planets

Correction to moon's defective limb
The
transit instrument
in the
prime
331,
343
vertical
348
352
Mathematical theory
Errors
in the
Reduction
to
data
356
middle or mean thread
Application of least squares to
prime
vertical transits
CHAPTER
356
372
VII.
DETERMINATION OF LONGITUDE.
transportation of chronometers
the electric telegraph
By
By
By the moon
By lunar distances
By moon culminations
By occul tat ions of stars
379
388
398
400
413
423
Prediction of an occultation
Graphic process of prediction
Computation of longitude
Correction for refraction and elevation above sea-level
Observations of different weights
CHAPTER
THE ZENITH
435
443
444
460
<
474
VIII.
TKI.ESCOPE.
Description of instrument
478
Adjustment of instrument
481
The observing
484
list
Directions for observing

Value of micrometer screw
Value of micrometer when level
General formulae for latitude
The
.... 48"
488
is
not
known
501
corrections for micrometer, level, and refraction
Reduction to the meridian
Combination
Ya'ue uf micrometer from
493
of individual values of the latitude

latitude observations
502
504
507
509
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
IX.
DETERMINATION OF AZIMUTH.
PAGE
The
The
theodolite
521
.-
523
signal
Selection of stars
Errors of
Method of observing
collimation and level
Azimuth by a circumpolar
524
525
star near elongation
526
Correction for diurnal aberration
530
Circumpolar stars at any hour-angle

Correction for second differences in the time
535
Conditions favorable to accuracy

Azimuth when time is unknown
542
Azimuth determined by transit instrument

Circumpolar star at any hour-angle
546
543
CHAPTER
PRECESSION
NUTATION
537
552
X.
ABERRATION
PROPER MOTION.
Secular and periodic changes
Mean, apparent, and true place of a
559
star
560
Precession
560
Struve and Peters' constants
563
Bessel and Leverrier's constants
564
Precession in longitude and latitude

Precession in right ascension and declination
564
Proper motion
Expansion into series
S'ar catalogues and mean places of stars
Nutation
578
571
583
.'.
590
598
Aberration
603
Reduction to apparent place
609
The fictitious year

The Tabula Regiomontance
Conversion of mean solar
617
620
LIST OF TABLES
into sidereal time
623
626
INTRODUCTION TO THE METHOD OF

LEAST SQUARES.
When a quantity is determined by observation, the recan never be regarded otherwise than as an approximaIf a number of measurements of the
tion to the true value.
same quantity are made with extreme care, no two of the
values obtained will probably agree exactly at the same
time none of them will differ very widely from the true one.
There is a limit to the precision of the most refined instrument, even when used by the most skilful observer, and
therefore the determination of a quantity depending on instrumental measurement, however carefully made, must be
imperfect. It becomes then a problem of great .practical
importance to determine how the mass of data resulting from
observation shall be combined so as to give the best possible
value of the quantity sought. The theory of probabilities
furnishes the basis for such an investigation.*
1.
suit
2.
Observations are liable to errors of three kinds

Constant errors, or those which affect all observa:
First.
* The reader is
supposed to be familiar with the theory of probability as deSee, for instance, Davies
veloped in the ordinary text-books on algebra.
Bourdon, edition of 1874, p. 322, or Olney's University Algebra, p. 294.
LEAST SQUARES.
3.
These may result from a

tions of a given series alike.
errors in the instruments used,
variety of causes, such as
errors in the constants of repersonal error of the observer,
fraction, parallax, etc.,
used
in the reduction of observations.
proper investigation will generally show the magnitude of

such errors, and consequently the necessary corrections at
We shall suppose the data
least the more important ones.
to which our discussion applies freed from such errors, as
their investigation does not come within the scope of this
subject.
Second.
Mistakes, such as recording the wrong degree in

measuring an angle, or the wrong hour in the clock reading.
When such errors are large they are not likely to give much
trouble, as their true nature appears at once.
When
they are
small they may prove embarrassing. The present discussion

does not apply to them, and we shall suppose that no undiscovered mistakes have been made.
Third.
Errors which are purely accidental.
It is to
these
that our present investigation applies.

At first sight it might seem that such purely accidental
errors were entirely outside the sphere of mathematical investigation, but we shall see that they follow a very definite
(aw, and that theory is verified in an exceedingly satisfactory
manner by observation.
We
shall assume as the basis of our investigation the

3.
following axioms
I. If we have a series
of direct measurements of a quantity,
all made with equal care, the most probable value of the
:
quantity will be obtained by taking the arithmetical

mean of the individual measurements.
II.
III.
Plus and minus errors will occur with equal frequency.

Small errors will occur with greater frequency than
large ones.
DISTRIBUTION OF ERRORS.
4-
Various attempts have been made to prove the
first
of
All such proofs are more or less

these as a proposition.
unsatisfactory, and for elementary purposes it is more expedient to assume its truth at once. The "most probable
value" there mentioned must- be understood as the value

which most nearly represents the given data, and from the
evidence furnished by this series of observations alone it is

the best attainable approximation to the true value.
The principles are supposed in all cases to be applied to a
large number of observations; the larger the number the
more closely will the results correspond to the laws assumed.
The
4.
Law
of Distribution of Error.
Let x be a quantity whose value
is
to be determined
by observation either directly or indirectly.

Let MV M^ MV
m be the individual values obtained.
.
Then regarding M^
quantity x,
(M
x),
its
.
as a determination of
error will be
(M
the
unknown
Similarly, (M,
x],
x] will be the errors of the other ob-
(Mm
x).
served values.
Let us write
(M,
Let
j,
y^
ym
~x} = A,
(M,
-x) =
A... (Mm - x) =
Am
(i)
= the probability of the occurrence of the error A

= the probability of the occurrence of the error A^
l
= the probability
Then our second and
of the
occurrence of the error
//,,
third axioms assume a law as existing

such that the probability of a given error occurring will be
LEAST SQUARES.
% 4.
a function of the magnitude of the error

therefore have the equation
y
which A
in
= vW,
We
itself.
shall
........
and y the probability of
represents any error,
(2)
its
occurring.
reasoning seems obscure, a different application of
If this
the same logic
may
possibly assist in comprehending it.

of tickets in a lottery-
Suppose we have a large number
Let a definite proportion of them be numbered i,

other proportion respectively 2, 3, etc. Then
the probability of drawing any given number from the wheel
wheel.
a certain
number
will be a function of the
Suppose
ticket
in
2 tickets in
3 tickets in
itself
every 55 numbered I
every 55 numbered 2
every 55 numbered 3
10 tickets in every 55
Then every
ticket
5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10,
The
The
The
Or
if
would have one
of the
10.
numbers,
probability of
probability of
probability of
drawing a
drawing a
drawing a
drawing
1S
i, 2, 3,
4,
10
would be ^;
would be ^-;
would be ^g-.
k represents any one of the numbers from
f(fy
If
numbered
and
clusive, the probability of
viz.:
drawing a k will be
to 10
in-
=/(), or
tne equation which represents the

probability of
k.
now we were ignorant
the successive
numbers
of the relations
existing between
etc., and the relative number
i, 2, 3,
CURVE OF PROBABILITY.
5-
we could, by drawing a sufficiently large

from the wheel, determine it, at least apIn this case we have to determine the proba-
of tickets so marked,
number
of tickets
proximately.
bility of a given event occurring, viz., that of drawing a
In the above probticket marked with any given number k.
lem we have also to discuss the probability of a certain event

occurring, viz., that of the appearance of any given error A
in any one of our observations taken at random.
The Curve of Probability.
In the equation y
<p(A\ we can regard A as the aband y as the ordinate of a curve. From the laws previously assumed we at once infer that the general form of
5.
scissa,
the curve will be that of the following figure. In the first

errors are equally probable, it follows
place, as -f- and
that the curve will be symmetrical with respect to the axis
of
y and
it
follows that the values of
as small errors are
large values of 7, while as
more probable than large
ones,
A near zero will correspond to

A becomes very large y becomes
very small.
FIG.
not a continuous variable, and our locus,

Practically
therefore, consists of a series of disconnected points. The
is
LEAST SQUARES.
O.
between the different values of A will DC equal to

the smallest reading of the instrument with which the observations were made. The greater the degree of precision in
the data, however, the more closely will our locus approach
it as a continuous curve we have
continuity so by regarding
a condition towards which we are constantly approximating
intervals
methods
as
of observation
become more and more
Determination of the Function
For the probability
6.
of an error
y
and
for
an error
-f-
refined.
(p.
A we have
the equation
8 A,
probability that an error falls between A and A -\- 6 A

sum of all the probabilities between y and y'\ or
When 6 A becomes
is small, it will be
nearly dA<p(A\
The
will be the
if
6A
dA, we have rigorously y = (p(A)dA for the probability that

an error falls between A and A -j- dA* For the probability
of an error falling between any finite limits, as for instance
*
of illustration let us suppose the smallest unit of measure made

our observations tobeo".i, and that any given number of these units,
By way
use of
in
Then the errors between A and

3, are represented by SA.
and their
2), and (A -j- 3);
including the latter, will be (A
i), (A
as for instance
A -\- 8 A,
respective probabilities, y^
q>(A -f- i), y-i
q>(A
(p(A -\- 2), and / 3
If now the limits between which the errors of our series he extend to
we
see that the probability _y, will differ but
probabilities
j',
-f-Js
-J-
y3
8 Ay
from y 3 and the sum of

from jy, or
little
will differ but little
<p(A)SA.
-f- 3).
10",
all
the
DETERMINATION OF THE LA
6.
a, we shall have the sum

A between
a, or
of
IT
OF ERRORS.
"J
of the probabilities for all values
(3)
When we
all
extend the limits of integration so as to include

possible values of J, the probability becomes a certainty,
which
is expressed mathematically by unity.

As, however,
impossible to fix a finite limit to the value of A which
shall be universal in its application, the limits in this case
oo
must be extended to
giving us the eguation
it is
From
the foregoing
y^
ym
If
now
=
=
=
for the probability of the error

cp(A^ for the probability of the error
P=
multaneously,
the probability of the error
J
J
t;
a;
Am
the probability that all these errors occur

we have, from the theory of probabilities,
and the most probable value of the unknown quantity x

be (hat which makes the quantity /*a maximum.
Taking the logarithms
of both
members of
P=
log q>(A?)
-\-
log
<p(A^) -f-
-j-
si-
will
this equation,
we have
log
(4)
we have
fp(A^)
<p(A,^) for
-.'.
log (p(A^).
LEAST SQUARES.
6.
and placing the difDifferentiating this with respect to x,

which is the condition of a
ferential coefficient equal to zero,
maximum, we have
dx
.
c/riosr <P(
4m
}~\
dA m
-
From
(i)
we have
~~
~dx
dx
dx
Substituting these values in the above equation, also for

x}, etc., it becomes
etc., their values (M,
d log y(J/,
d(M~- x]
.r)
t,
^ log
d(M~-
~----
d log q>(Mm
x]
This equation gives the means of determining x as soon

form of the function q> is known, and this can best be
determined bv considering a particular case. As this function is strictly general, if we have once determined its form
in a special case the result will be applicable to all cases.
We have assumed as an axiom that in the case of direct
measurement of the quantity sought the most probable value
will be the arithmetical mean of the individual measurements.
This principle will furnish the basis for investigating the
form of the function (p.
as the
In case of direct
quantity
measurement we have
for the
unknown
DETERMINATION OF THE LAW OF ERRORS.
6.
which may be written
(M -x} + (M,-x)+...+(Mm -x)=o.

l
Equation
(6)
may be
(8)
written
+<".->
("-*)
Comparing equations
(8)
and
(9),
we
see that since the
x}, (Mz
quantities (M
x), etc., are independent of each
other, these equations can only be satisfied when the coefficients of (M
x), (M^
x), etc., in (9) are respectively equal
l
to the
same constant quantity.
;-
(M,
_~
=
- x) d(M, -~xj
*)
(M,
We
have therefore
- x)d(M,-^}
m(
cp(
Mm
x)
d(Mm
d\lognod
(Mm
(M
Writing for
x] in general A,
d log
and, by integration,
c
cp( A)
log tp(A)
r\
x)
= k.
x)
(10)
we have
kAdA,
%kA*
-\-
log
c,
being the constant of integration,
or
(p(A)
From axiom
tity
III. it
= ce&* ........
appears that as
must diminish, and
this requires the
(11)
increases this quanexponent of e to be
LEAST SQUARES.
10
7.
As J cannot be negative, it follows that k must

If, our equation becomes
Writing therefore \k =
2
negative.
be
so.
(12)
Let us now consider the constant of integration c. This

be determined by substituting the value of 9>(J) in (4),
giving us
7.
may
a special form of the integral
For the purpose
Then dA
As
form,
as the
is
we
e~
fl
= 2e-^dt =
to
/.
write another symbol instead of
t.
2A
for convenience).
dt the value will be the
same
Therefore
Multiplying both members of this equation by
have
nA
involved only in the quadratic
which we write the integral equal
In the definite integral

jf
if
function.
evidently have
-*dt
(in
gamma
and we have
in this expression
we
known
of integrating the expression, place
e~ fl dt, we
CONDITION OF MAXIM I'M PROBABILITY.
8.
In
dv
the second
member
of this equation write v
tu,
Then
tdu.
/^-*
'
"" )/<//=
d+)
"icT+vy
which between the given
limits
becomes -f
Therefore
A*
<fo
/""
L/t a n-
A =
Therefore
oo
- tan-
'
o)
- -x
and we have
and equation
(12)
becomes
j-W> '-*-*!
(.3)
In this equation the constant h will require further conhut if we assign any arbitrary value, as unity, to
sideration
h we can readily construct the locus of the equation. It will

at once appear that the general form will be that shown on
page 5.
Condition of Maximum Probability.
8.
etc.,
Substituting in equation
from
(13), it
becomes
5)
the values of
LEAST SQUARES.
12
9.
P
P
From this equation we see that will increase in value as

will be a maximum when
the exponent of e diminishes, or
A* -f- A* -{-... -J- A^ is a minimum, thus giving us the important principle
The most probable value of the unknown quantity
makes
the
is that which
of the residual errors a minimum.
principle comes the name Method of Least Squares.
sum of
From this
the squares
The Measure of Precision.

Let us now consider the constant h.
Substituting in equation (3) the value of <p(A\
the probability of an error between the values
9.
for
we have
we
take another series of observations,

a'
probability of an error between
If
we have
the
Vn
If
these respective probabilities are equal
which equation
will
be satisfied by making ha
We see
we
h'
= a'
shall
= h'a',
have
or
(16)
from this equation that in two different series of

observations h will have different values, these values
being
THE PROBABLE ERROR.
10.
13
to each other inversely as the errors to be ascribed with equal

If, for instance, the errors of the
probability to each series.
first series are twice as great as those of the second, h will
The constant h
'
equal \h
is
therefore the measure of preand if its value could be
cision of the series of observations
determined from the observations themselves, we should by

this means be able to know to what degree of confidence the
data were entitled. This determination is possible, at least
approximately, but for practical purposes it is more convenient to compare the relative accuracy of different series of
observations by means of their respective probable errors,
which will now be considered.
The Probable Error.

10.
The probable
error of any observation of a given series
a quantity such that if the errors committed be arranged

according to their magnitude without reference to the
is
algebraic sign, this quantity will occupy the middle place in

the series. It may therefore be defined as a quantity of such
value that the probability of an error greater than this one is the
same as
tlic
probability of one
less.
When we
consider both plus and minus errors, we have

from equation (i 5) the following expression for the probability
between
a, remembering that the probability
between o and
a is the same as between o and
a
of an error
Let r
the probable error.

of errors being represented by unity,
The whole number
LEAST SQUARES.
14
our definition of the probable error gives us the following

equation
^VJ,
'-
or
The solution of this equation

known r becomes known, and
will
give us hr
so that
if
//
is
conversely.
ii. It is evident that the equation for hr can only be
solved approximately, as the expression e-^^lidA is not
The only method of solution is to comdirectly integrable.
pute a series of numerical values of the integral for different

values of the limit, hr, and then by interpolation determine
that value which- satisfies equation (18) with the necessary
degree of precision.
Owing
to the great importance of this integral, not only

theory of refraction, vari-
in this connection, but also in the
ous methods have been developed for computing its numeriThe most elementary of these consists in expandcal value.
*** =
e~ fl (JiA being written equal to /) into a series ot
ing e~
/l
/, by means of Maclaurin's formula, and

This series
integrating the separate terms of the series.
converges rapidly for small values of /, and is therefore well
ascending powers of
adapted to numerical computation, but for large values of
becomes diverging. For this case, as well as for the case

where / is small, a series may be obtained by successive ap-
it
plications of the formula for integration
udv
nv
by
parts,
vdu,
by which means the expansion may be effected either in

terms of ascending or descending powers of /. When an
extensive series of values of the integral is required, as in
computing a table of values for different values of the argu-
THE MEAN ERROR.
12.
the most simple process is to apply what

method of Mechanical Quadratures.
ment,
/,
as the
is
known
As very complete tables of numerical values of this integral

have been many times computed, we shall simply refer to the
tabular quantities without entering more fully into the methods
Table I. of this volume gives the values of
of computation.
-
V 7T
e~ fl dt
for values of
from o to
oo
We
readily find
*J o
this table that the value of
from
between
(18) lies
.47
and
An
.48.
hr
hr which
0.47694;
satisfies
equation
interpolation readily gives
.47694
''
(19)
.47694
7
The Mean Error.
The probable error

may be used
12.
errors which
is
not the only function of the

comparing the relative ac-
for
curacy of different series of observations. Another quantity

which may be used for this purpose, or as a convenient aux-
computing the probable
iliary for
The
Mean Error
the squares
Let
between
1
,
A",
/i,
:
is
the
Mean
is
the
Error.
mean of
errors.
Then to determine the relation

and consequently between e and r, we proLet
mean
and
error,
a quantity whose square
of the individual
the
ceed as follows
is
A'"
error.
etc.
(p(A'\ q>(A"}, <p(A'"}, etc.
= the different errors which occur

= their respective probabilities.
LEAST SQUARES.
12.
Then m being the whole number of errors, there

number expressed by the quantity zm<p(A') (both
be a
will
-f-
and
errors included) of the value J', 2mq>(A") of the value A",

etc.,
and
J,
in all
+4+
dm.
2mcp(A'}A' -f
+ 2mcp(d'")A " + etc.

r
From
mean error
the definition of the
we
shall
///2
2mcp(A')A" -f 2tn(p(A"}A"* -f 2w<?(/r')J
have
-f etc.
Expressing this by an integral, by the same method of reasoning as was used in deriving equation (3) we have
This equation expresses a relation between
hA
Integrating this by parts by placing n
effect the integration,
let
as before
and
To
h.
Then dA
t.
-y-,
and we have,
Va
and substituting
in
J udv =
which readily gives
e*
uv
-y-a
J vdu,
and dv
we
= e-
fl
tdt>
find
(20)
THE MEAN OF THE ERRORS.
13-
Substituting the value of h from
From
these r
is
readily
=
=
(19),
I.4826r;
.6745,
I/
we have
.......
computed when we know
e,
(2I)
and vice
versa.
7/fc
Mean of the
Errors.
Another quantity which is much used as an auxiliary

computing r is The Mean of the Errors. This must not
be confused with the mean error. It is thus defined
The Mean of the Errors is the arithmetical mean of the differ13.
for
ent errors all taken with the positive sign.

Let ?/
the mean of the errors. Then to
relation
between
//
and r we proceed
that followed in the previous section.

d',
'\
A"
A'"
<p(A"\
<p(d'"\
etc.
etc.
=
=
in a
As
determine the
manner
similar to
before, let
the individual errors.

their respective probabilities.
Then, the whole number of observations being m,
m = 2m (p(A'}A'
from definition
+ 2m <p(4"}A" + 2m (p(A'")A'", etc.,
and therefore
A'", etc.
Passing to the integral as before,

large,
_ ^ .^.
being supposed very
=-
(22)
LEAST SQUARES.
18
Substituting the value of h from

i/
Equations
(20)
tween sand
tj,
=
=
14.
(19),
i.i82 9 r;)
(
0.8453'/-
and (22) give us the following relations

which we shall hereafter find convenient:
be-
(24)
Either of the quantities r, s, or ?? may be used for comparing

the relative accuracy of different series of observations, or of
the quantities derived from them by computation.
shall,
however, always use r for this purpose, making use of ?/ and
We
when occasion serves, as convenient auxiliaries for computing the probable error r.
,
Precision of the Arithmetical
Mean.
14. Although the arithmetical mean is the best value to be

obtained from a series of equally good direct measurements,
it will
only be an approximation to the true value. It is therefore important to determine to what degree of confidence it
is entitled.
Let
,,
n^ n 3
AÂÂ^
Then
nm
= m individual measurements of the quantity^;
.A m = the errors
(,
J,)
=(*,
of each n respectively.
- J,) =...==
(n m
z/ m
).
THE ARITHMETICAL MEAN.
$ 14-
Or
19
taking the mean,
In this equation the first term of the second member is the

arithmetical mean, and the second term is its error. As there
is only one value of the arithmetical mean, this error will
correspond, for this quantity, to our definition of the mean
Therefore
error.
r.
=
=
the
let
mean error
of the arithmetical
mean
the probable error of the arithmetical mean.
Then
4*+
Since from theory plus and minus errors will occur with equal
frequency when the number of observations is large, the
last term of this expression will vanish, or at least will become
very small in comparison with the term preceding. Disregarding it and writing, in accordance with the notation of
Gauss,
we have
But from
*w
m'
definition,
Therefore
[44].
........
vm
=
(25)
Let h = the measure of precision of the arithmetical mean.

Then, from formulae (19), (21), and (25),
a
//
Vm.
(26)
LEAST SQUARES.
20
15.
That is, the precision of a result obtained by direct measurement

is directly as the square root of the number of measurements.
Determination of the Probable Error.
15.
From
we can now compute
the foregoing principles
from the observations themselves the probable error of a

quantity determined directly by observation.
n m = the individual measureAs before, let
ments of a quantity x.
9
2,
Let
z/,
=
=
the arithmetical
x^
z' 2
#2
mean
.*,
of the n's;
vm
TO
;F O .
These quantities (v^ v etc.) are known as residuals, and

must not be confounded with the true errors (4., A v etc.),
from which they will always differ, unless x is absolutely the
true value of x.
Let the error of
Then x
x, be 6.
-f- 6,
and conse-
quently
J,
and we
shall
which
and
in
Since
etc., it
Vt
tf,
7/ 2
d,
Am
vm
6,
have
\yv\
\y]
=
--=
v* -f
v?
-\-
v,
+ v,
-f
-j-
vm
z/ Bl .
is the arithmetical mean of the

quantities
follows that [v]
o, and consequently
^r
Frequent use will be made hereafter of this symbol of summation, and

no further explanation.
will require
it
DETERMINATION OF PROBABLE ERROR.
15-
d being the error of the arithmetical mean, is unknown. A

close approximation will, however, be obtained if we assume
to (25), we have
it.
equal to the mean error ? .* Then referring
=
=
and since
=m
me
mt\ we have
mf =
\vv\
/_M;
y m
Therefore
and from
(21),
.
From
(25)
and
(26), f
m(m
,.2533
(27)
and
-4=;
(27)
if
*(>
Combining equations
LirJ
(24),
we
readily find
r .= 0.8453
Ll
In these expressions [+ z/] represents the

taken with the positive sign.
^ r,7
(
sum
o>
'
(28)
of the residuals
all
These simple formulas

value.
When
the
(27)
number
values given by (27) will be a

*
the
and
(28) are of
great practical
not large the
more accurate than those
of observations
little
is
From what precedes we see that this assumption would be

number of observations were infinite.
rigorously true
if
LEAST SQUARES.
22
6.
by (28), but when the number is large (28) will be sufficiently

accurate for practical purposes, and the facility with which
they are applied is something in their favor.
Probable Error of the
Sum
or Difference of
Two
or
More
Observed Quantities.
Let us next suppose the
16.
unknown quantity x, instead

sum or difference of two
of being directly observed, to be the
or more quantities whose values are obtained by direct
measurement
viz.
Let x
y in which y, and y^ are independent of each
y,
other and whose values are directly observed.
Let the individual errors of observation be
The
For 7,,
J/, J/',
Forj,,
4',
4",...
A\
A.
errors of the individual determinations of
(j/
and if
have
m? =
is
J/), (j,"
the
mean error
(J/
4. (j/'
Expanding and making use
Let
f,
and
we'
the
et
/, respectively.
[J,J,]
z/;o,
(4
will then
Am
);
of a determination of x,
4")
of the
symbol
2[J,J a ]
+ (4
for
[J 9 J
be
we
shall
j,*)'.
summation,
9 ],
mean errors of a measurement of y and

Then since, for reasons before explained,
l
PRINCIPLE OF WEIGHTS.
I/-
the middle term ([J^])
comparison with
[A^J
may
In a
to the
be regarded as vanishing
we shall have
manner precisely
sum or difference
me*
-f-
w^
2
,
= V^~+~C
similar
(29)
we may extend
method
the
any number of observed quantiwe have x = y^

y^
ymt
of
so that in general if
errors being respectively
ties,
mean
the
in
an<3 \_^^^\,
m?
or
2j
e,,
we
shall
have
= *V + < + V +
J
in
fm
+ *' = nl.
Suppose next that we have x = a^y^

cr m are constants.
which a v av
.
are the
mean
errors of
)>
ym
a^y^
as before,
.
If,
then the
am y m will be respectively a
of a y a^yv
and the mean error of x
t
(30)
a m ym
mean
t
ev
fa ,
e,,
C = vtv].
,
.
errors
.
am m
(31)
Principle of Weights.
17. In the foregoing we have assumed all the observations
considered to be equally trustworthy, or, as it is expressed
As will readily be seen, we
technically, of equal weight.
shall frequently have occasion to combine observations of
different weights.
It is therefore important to ascertain
how to treat them, so that each shall have its proper influence in determining the result.
Confining our discussion for the present to the case of a
directly observed quantity, the most elementary form of the
LEAST SQUARES.
24
7-
be that where the quantities combined are themmeans of several observations of the
weight unity. Thus, suppose the quantity x to be determined from m such observations the most probable value
problem
will
selves the arithmetical
of x' will then be
From
tions
a second, third,
we have
etc., series
of m", m'",
etc.,
observa-
respectively
Combining all these individual values, we have for the

most probable value of
.*-
'
+ '" +
The value
of x will not be affected if we multiply both numerator and denominator of this fraction by any constant a
;
viz.,
am' x'
-J-
;'
am"x" -J- am'"x'"

am" -\- am'" -j-
-j-
-}-...
'
.
'
\#
\3
PRINCIPLE OF WEIGHTS.
I/.
which we may regard am', am"
2$
etc., as the respective

a may be integral or fractional.
x", etc.
From this we see that the weights are simply relative quantities and are in no case to be regarded as absolute.
in
weights of
x',
the foregoing we have the following practical rule

observations are to be combined to which different weights
are to be ascribed, the most probable value of the unknown quantity
From
When
will be obtained by multiplying each observation by its weight,

the sum of the products by the sum of the
and dividing
weights.
It is clear that the difference of weights may result from

a variety of causes other than the simple one considered
above as, for instance, one series of observations may be
made with a more accurate instrument than another, or by a
more skilled observer. Thus, for example, it may be the
case that ten measurements made by one observer will have
If the weight of
as much value as twenty made by another.
an observation of the first series be unity, one of the second
would only be entitled to a weight of one half or more gen;
erally,
Letting/
Then
If
2/
then
= the weight of an observation of the sepond series,

= the weight of an observation of the first series.
we have
the weights
AAA
.*
xn xv etc., of observations of
etc " an ^ consequently
a series
A+A+A +
as the
most probable value
of x,
it is
.--
evident that, whatever
the cause of this difference of weight, we may

consider each value x x^ etc., as derived from /,,/,, etc., in-
may have been
t ,
dividual observations of the weight unity.
Let
LEAST SQUARES.
26
he mean error of an observation of the weight unity

the
etc.,
mean
errors of
# xv
_j_
mean
+A
of observations being equal to /,

[^] observations of the weight unity or of the
we have for the mean error of*, from (25),
error
etc.
The whole number

_|_^ s
8-
e,
(34)
nfl
77^ Probable Error when Observations have Different Weights.
The mean taken according to weights, as in equation

or (32)*, is sometimes called the General Mean. In order
to derive the formula for the probable error in this case, let,
x 6.
as before, 8 be the error of the general mean xn viz., x
18.
(32)
Then, the notation being as before, we have
error
J
The
The
S,
A^
belongs to
3,
v^
x and
l
4,
6,
etc.
therefore appears /, times
error A^ belongs to x^ and therefore appears /2 times;
Therefore
[/^J]
[pvu]
For the same reason as
in
2\_pv\d
[p]d\
\_pv\ may be discomparison with the other
previous cases
regarded as being inappreciable

terms, when we have
in
OBSERVATIONS OF DIFFERENT WEIGHTS.
8.
Substituting for d the
mean error
of
x from
\pvv\
(34),
we- have
6*.
Now, as *! is equivalent to/ observations of weight, unity,

there will be the equivalent of /, errors equal to J, and s
being the mean error of x^ we shall have
:
Whence from
(33),
Similarly,
And m
tions,
being the whole number of quantities, or observaetc., we have

t
Xv x
Our equation therefore becomes
and from
(34),
and from
(21),
zc
= [/^
-j- **,
from which
(35)
(m
I)'
;
in these formulae is the number of individual observations,
or quantities, * xv etc., and must not be mistaken for the
sum of the weights.
It will be evident upon a careful comparison of these expressions with the formulae (27) that we should have reached
LEAST SQUARES.
28
IQ.
by multiplying each quantity * x etc., by

its weight, and then proceeding exactly as
we have previously done with observations of equal weight.
We have therefore established the following rule which we
the
same
result
the square root of
may apply
in
combining observations of different weights
First reduce all observations to a common unit of weight by

its weight, then combine
multiplying each by the square root of
them precisely as if they had originally been of equal weight.
For examples of the application of the formulae see pages
515
and
516.
General Remarks.
We
have hitherto considered only those cases where

is derived in the simplest manner from
observation, viz., by direct measurement or by the sum or
19.
the
unknown quantity
difference of directly
measured
quantities.
Before proceeding to the more complex cases a few general

remarks may not be out of place.
Equation (13), which represents the law of distribution of
error, and on which the subsequent discussion is based, rests
upon two hypotheses neither of which is ever fully realized
in practice, viz., that the number of observations is infinite,
and that they are entirely free from constant errors, i.e.,
errors which affect all alike. The formulas deduced when
applied to the cases which actually arise can give us only
approximate results, although they will be the best attainable
approximations from the given data. This is particularly to
be borne in mind when the number of observations is small.
The probable errors in such cases are apt to be entirely illusory, and in general are only reliable when the number of
observations
is large enough to exhibit

approximately the
law of distribution of error derived from the hypothesis of
an infinite series of observations.
COMPARISON WITH OBSERVATION.
20.
The second hypothesis mentioned above,

stant errors do not exist in
viz.,
our data, can never be
29
that con-
fully realized,
and
this fact is often the source of great annoyance and uncertainty in combining observations taken under different
Such errors arise from a variety of causes, some
conditions.
easy to investigate and others not at all so. It is of very
frequent occurrence that a result derived from a single series
of observations will give a small probable error, and yet differ
widely from that derived from a second series to all appearances equally good. It sometimes happens that computers
who are puzzled by such occurrences attribute the difficulty
to faults in the method, the truth being that they are due to
the presence of a class of errors with which the method does
not profess to deal.
The remedy
for this difficulty
sible the conditions
is
to vary as
much
as pos-
under which the observations are made,
in a manner calculated to eliminate as far as possible

those constant errors which cannot be investigated.
and
Comparison of Theory
witJi Observation,
The test of theory is its agreement with observed facts.

may in this manner test the truth of the law which we
20.
We
have derived for the distribution of errors.

We have the probability that an error falls between the
limits
a expressed by the equation
In accordance with the theory of probabilities, / here is a

which expresses the ratio of the number of errors
fraction
2O.
LEAST SQUARES.
3o
To
If then the number of

a will be
m, the number of errors between
a to the whole number.
between
observations
is
test the
law expressed by
this
we have
formula
only to
of observations under
compute the probable error of the series
consideration by (27) or (28), and then h by (19). The value
of the integral will then be obtained from Table I., and we
shall be in possession of everything necessary for comparing
the number of errors between any two limits as indicated by
formula with the number shown by the series of observaMany such comparisons have been made, and always
with satisfactory results, when the number of observations
compared has been large. A perfect agreement is of course
not to be looked for, as our formula has been derived on the
theory of an infinite number of observations and further, we
are not in possession of the true errors for comparison with
this
tions.
the formula, but the residuals instead, which will always differ
from the errors unless we are in possession of the absolutely
true value of the unknown quantity-
As an
above the following tabular statecomparison with theory of the

errors of the observed right ascensions of Sirius and Altair.
The example is given by Bessel in the Fundament a Astronoillustration of the
ment gives the
result of a
mice.
In a series of 470 observations by Brad lev the probable

error of a single observation wns found to be r
o".2637,
whence h
Therefore for the number of errors less
1.80865.
than ".i the argument of Table I. will be t
hA
.180865.
With
argument we find for the integral .20188, which

multiplied by 470, the entire number of errors, gives 95 as
this
20.
the
number
COMPARISON WITH OBSERVATION.

of errors less than
this the following results'
"
In a
.\.
were found
manner
similar to
This agreement is very satisfactory, but here, as in other

examples, the larger errors occur a little more
frequently than theory would indicate.
This is probably due to the fact that (unconsciously, perhaps) every observer will occasionally let an observation pass
which is not up to the average standard of accuracy. Small
mistakes will sometimes occur, also, which are not of sufficient
magnitude to attract attention. A consideration of the matter
has led to attempts on the part of Peirce of Harvard College
and Stone of England to establish criteria for the rejection
of such doubtful observations.
On the other hand it has been
proposed to overcome the difficulty by determining a system
of weights which should give those observations which show
large discrepancies less influence than those showing small
similar
ones.
This branch of the subject, however, is beyond the scope

of the present work.
It is an exceedingly delicate matter
to deal with, and from its nature is probably incapable of a
mathematical treatment which shall be entirely satisfactory.

Every computer occasionally feels compelled to reject
LEA S T SQ UA RES.
32
21.
observations. This should always be done with extreme cauAs for the criteria for this purpose hitherto proposed,
tion.
probably the most that can be said in their favor is that their
use insures a uniformity in the matter, thus leaving nothing

to the individual caprice of the computer.
Indirect Observations.
21.
We
have
now
determination of the
that
investigated the simplest case of the

quantity by observation, viz.,
unknown
when the quantity to be determined is measured directly.

more general form of the problem the unknown
In the
quantities are connected with the observed quantities

equation of the form
f(x,y,z,
.)
by an
-M,
M being given by observation, and x,y,z,
etc.,
being the un-
known quantities. This general form includes the case which

we have previously investigated, where there was only one
unknown quantity. Each observation furnishes an equation
of this form therefore a number of observations equal to that
of the unknown quantities will
completely determine their
;
value.
This would leave nothing to be desired if the observations

were perfect but owing to the errors to which they are liable,
the values of x, y, z, etc., will be more reliable the greater
the number of observations on which
they depend. If now
we have four unknown quantities, x, y, 2, and w, four observations will give us four
equations from which the values of the
unknown quantities may be determined. If we have more
than four equations, we
may determine values of the unknown
quantities by combining any four of them. As the equations
depend on observations more or less erroneous, we. should
thus obtain a
variety of values for x, y, z, and w, all of them
probably in error to some extent.
;
IN DIRE C T OBSER VA TIONS.
21.
33
The problem then is this Of all possible systems of values

unknown quantities, to find that which most accurately
:
of the
represents
We
of the observations.
all
shall confine ourselves to the consideration of linear
equations; and as the problems in which we shall be more

particularly interested do not give rise to equations of more
than four unknown quantities, we shall limit our discussion to
that number.
It will be obvious, however, that it can be

any number.
Suppose we have the following system of equations
extended
to
ax
~\~
b^y
a**
b,
in
which
x, y, z,
and
-\-
c^z -\-
d^w
n^,
+ cjs + d,w =
are
unknown
n3
now
quantities, a,
are coefficients given by theory, and

quantities given by observation.
etc.,
If
;/
b,
etc.,
(3 6)
c,
d,
are
we should obtain the same

by combining any four of these
Owing, however, to the errors of observation to
the data were perfect
values of x, y,
equations.
2,
and
which #,, n^ etc., are subject, it is not probable that a substitution of the true values of x, y, z, and
we knew them)
(if
would exactly
Let
satisfy
anv one
of the equations.
v etc., be the residuals obtained by substituting

z',, va
equations (36) for x, y, z, and w their approximate values
such that the following equations will be rigorously satisfied
,
in
a^x
-\- 6,
a^x
a 3x
-f-
bn y
-\- c^z -f-
-f-
b3 y
+ c^z
=
=
dw =
-f- c^s -\- d^<,v
d^w
n^
-|-
>,.
(37)
LEAST SQUARES.
54
Now
will
21.
the most probable values of our unknown quantities

be those which make the sum of the squares of these
residuals a
minimum,
v>*
viz.,
+ < + < + etc. = f(x, y,
z,
w)
(38)
must be a minimum.
are supposed independent,

In these equations x,y, z, and
therefore the differential coefficients with reference to each
variable must separately be equal to zero to satisfy the
conditions of a
d\yv\
d\vv\
'
~dx~
That
minimum.
d_\vv\
o,
~dz~
dy
Writing out these expressions
in full,
dw
we have
the following
\
dy
dy
_
~
dv,
dv^
dv,
is,
dy
(39)
dz\
v,1
x, y, z,
and
dv.
1
-r
dw
+ ^ dv*
-H +
dw
.
'
'
dv.
^s -r
dw
w being independent, we
have from -(37),
INDIRECT OBSERVATIONS.
21.
by means
of
which values equations
(39)
35
become
(4o)
^+w+^t;;;=o;[;
Substituting for v lt v
etc., their
values from
(37),
we have
for the first of these
afi^y
-{-
a^c^z
ajj
The second
of (40)
-(-
a^d^w
+ a,d,w -
a^n,
a,n,
\ab~\x
[ac]x
O.
becomes
and similarly for the remaining equations.

symbols of summation, we have therefore
{ad\x
-=
+ \ab~\y +
+ \bb\y
\bc\y +
-j-
-\-
\ac~\z
\bc\z
\cc\z
+ \ad}w =
+
+
Using Gauss'
[an]
-|
These are called Normal Equations, and the values of the

quantities obtained by solving them will be the
system of values which makes the sum of the squares of the
residuals v^ v etc., a minimum, and therefore the most prob-
unknown
able system of values.
Equations
(36) are called
Equations oj
LEAST SQUARES.
36
22.
An inspection of (41)
Condition, or Observation Equations.
gives us the following rule for solving a series of equations
of condition
:
coefficient of x in that equation,

together the resulting equations for a new equation,
then multiply each equation by the coefficient of y in that equation,
Continue
and, as before, form the sum of the resulting equations.
Multiply each equation by the
add
then
of each of the unknown quantities.

The number of resulting Normal Equations will be equal to that
of the unknown quantities, and t/ie values of the unknown quantities deduced therefrom will be the most probable T a lues.
It must be borne in mind that this process supposes the
number of equations of condition to be greater than that of
the process zvith the coefficients
the
us a
unknown quantities. If it
number of equations equal
is
less, this
process will give
to that of the Quantities to be
determined, but they will be indeterminate none the
less
than
the original equations were, as can be easily shown.
Observations of Unequal Weight.

22.
In deriving the normal equations from the equations

we have regarded the latter as of equal weight.
of condition,
more general case the weights will be unequal.

if we
In the equation a,x
b, y -f- cj& -f- dju
suppose,
as in (33), that /, represents the weight of an observation,
is the mean error of
and e the mean error
that
viz., of
In the
of
an observation of weight unity,
we have
Multiplying the above equation by Vp^,
b,
Vp,y
c,
Vp,z
d,
we have
Vp,w
Vp,,
(42)
ARRANGEMENT OF COMPUTATION.
23.
an equation
#1
Â
in
which the mean error
we ight
a "d tne
s f
In the same
unity.
37
of the absolute
term
manner we
multiply each equation by the square root of its weight, thus

reducing them all to the same unit of weight, when we proceed precisely as before in forming the normal equations.
Computation of the
Coefficients.
23. The method of forming the normal equations is now

fully explained; the work of computation, however, is somewhat laborious, especially when the number of equations of
condition
the
is
large.
work so
It will
that the
therefore be important to arrange
numerous multiplications and additions
be performed with the least liability to error, and so

may be applied for insuring accuracy
The multiplications may be performed by
in the results.
logarithms, in which case a four-place table will give the
necessary degree of precision, or Crelle's multiplication-table
shall also show
may be employed with advantage.*
how to perform the multiplications by the use of a table of
may
that convenient checks
We
squares.
Convenient proof-formulas
the
sum
formed
in
subscript.
may
be derived as follows: Let
the coefficients entering into each equation be

succession, and represent them by s with the proper
of
all
Thus
a,
+ + + d, b,
c,
s,
* Dr. A. L. Crelle's " Rechentafeln vvelche alles multipliciren und dividiren mit
Zahlen unter Tausend" (Berlin,
1869).
LEAST SQUARES.
38
24.
Multiplying these sums by their respective a, b, c, etc., in

succession, and adding the products, we shall have the followequations for checking the accuracy of the coefficients of
ing
the normal equations
+
+
+
[off]
+
+
+
M ++ M
[W] [fo]
M M M+
[off]
[dff]
[*]
[dd}
[an]
= []
=
=
M
- M
[to]
\dn\
This requires the computation of the additional terms [as],

and the agreement must come within the limit of
\bs~\,
error of the computation. These additional terms will be
further useful for checking the accuracy of the solution of
the normal equations, as will afterwards appear.
24. If it should happen that the coefficients of one unknown
quantity in the equations of condition were much larger than
.
those of another, considerable discrepancies might exist in

the agreement of the proof-formulae with the sums of the coIt will generally be necessary practically to limit
the computation to a certain number of decimals, when the
products of the large quantities may introduce errors into
the last places, where the products of the small quantities
efficients.
introduce none.
This difficulty is overcome by substituting for the unknown
quantities other quantities which will make the coefficients
This is conof the same order of magnitude throughout.
veniently accomplished by selecting the largest coefficient
with which an unknown quantity is affected and dividing

each of the coefficients of this quantity by it.
Thus, let
y, & be the largest coefficients of the quantities x,y, z, w,
respectively, which occur in the equations of condition, and
let v be the largest of the series of known quantities
,
t,
25.
3,
Then we may
following form
39
place the equations of condition in the
(*)
+ (W + ?) + () =
'
;
where the unknown quantities are (ax), (Py\

and the
values obtained in solving the equations will be in terms of
The equations will be made homogeneous by this proi'.
cess before beginning the work of forming the normal equawill be most convenient for the
The sums s lt st
tions.
purpose to which they are applied, if they are formed from
,
these
homogeneous equations.
For the kind of problems which we
shall
have occasion to
solve in the following pages there will seldom be a systematic difference in the magnitudes of the coefficients of the
different
unknown
quantities of importance
enough
to render
In cases, however, where there is

this operation necessary.
a marked difference in this respect it will be advisable to
incur the slight additional labor involved, and in some cases

becomes a matter of considerable importance.
25. The formation of the normal equations with the accompanying proof-formulas will therefore require the computa-
it
tion of the following quantities:
[aa] [ad] [ac] [ad] [an] [as]

[bb]
[be]
[bd] [bn]
[bs]
[cd] [en]
[];
[dn][ds^
[nn] [ns]
LEAS 7' SQUARES.
40
The
25.
be employed for checking the final compube shown hereafter. As will be seen, there are
twenty of these quantities required in a series of four equalatter will
tation, as will
tions.
In general the
where n
is
the
number
number
of
be*
will
unknown
i,
quantities.
Let a sheet of paper be ruled with a number of vertical

In the first
columns represented by the above formula.
horizontal line will be the symbols of the products written in
and in the last line the
the columns below, viz., [aa], \_ab~\,
sums of the products. If the results are correct the proof.
equations (44) must be satisfied. The algebraic signs of the

various products will demand special attention, as they form
a very fruitful source of error.
If the application of the proof-formulas is postponed until
the conclusion of this part of the computation, the position
of an error is often shown at once, since each sum, with the
sum of the squares, is found in two different

If two of the proof-form ulae fail to be
proof-equations.
satisfied, while the others prove true, the error is in the term
exception of the
common
if
only one equation fails to be satisquadratic term.
Before proceeding further it is recommended that the
reader refer to the example found on page 329. The number of observation equations is twelve, each of which has
been multiplied by the square root of its weight. The num-
fied,
to both
the error
is
while
in the
ber of unknown quantities is three, the coefficients of which

have no systematic difference in magnitude of sufficient
importance to require the application of the process for
The formation of the
rendering them homogeneous.
normal equations is found on page 330. The number of
*
It is
the
ber of terms
sum
of a series of terms in arithmjtical progression
(n
-\- 2);
first
term
i;
last
term
(-)-
2).
minus
i;
num-
26.
41
unknown quantities being three, we require by the formula

It will be observed that the
just given fourteen columns.
proof-formulae are perfectly verified, as they should be in
this case,
no decimal terms having been neglected.
Computation of the
26.
a Table of Squares.
Coefficients by
By whatever method
the multiplications are performed
a table of squares will be found very convenient for the

quadratic terms. Terms of the form [ab] may also be computed with such a table, as will appear from the following.
We
The
have
a,b
quadratic terms
{(<*, -f-
b^
[aa], [bb],
a?
will
b?\\
be computed
in
any
case, so there will only be required in addition the terms of

the form [(a -[- &f~\. In case of four unknown quantities we
terms
shall require the following quadratic
+ Vf\
[(a
\(a
;) ] [(a
+ d}^
[(a
)]
(46)
[dd~]
[ss]
The
last
two
<
general,
we
[].
be employed in checking this and the subThus for the case of four unknown
have sixteen terms of the above form, or, in
will
sequent computation.
quantities
\(d
-H
+ *) +
,.
LEAST SQUARES.
The equations having been
of their respective weights,
multiplied by the square roots
and the
coefficients
made homo-
necessary, the computation will be carried out as

in the following scheme
geneous
shown
26.
[*]
if
[*]
[(<*
+ *)]
In order to derive a convenient proof-formula

both members of equations (43) and add
[>]
+ 3 {[aa] +
we
square
[]} -
f
(47)
For an example of the application of the above method

the reader will turn to page 334, where the normal equations
are computed from the equations of condition before referred to.
This method possesses some advantages over
that by direct multiplication: the most important of these is
is for
in the fact that the liability to error in algebraic signs
the most part avoided. Care being taken in forming the sums
(a -f- b\ (a -(- c\ etc., no further attention need be given to
the algebraic signs until the coefficients of the normal equations are completed.
27.
SOLUTION OF NORMAL EQUATIONS.
Solution of the
27.
43
Normal Equations.
work should
be conveniently reviewed for
In the solution of the normal equations the
be arranged so that
it
may
detecting errors in case such exist, and so that proof-formulae

may be applied at the various stages of progress.
The order in which the unknown quantities are determined
is
generally indifferent except in the case where the nature

problem is such that one or more of them cannot be
of the
determined with accuracy from the equations. We

in advance that we have a case of this kind, or it
be discovered in solving the equations.
know
may
may
It will be shown hereafter that the weight of any unknown

quantity will be determined by arranging the solution in such
a way that this quantity is determined first. The weight will
then be represented by its coefficient in the last equation from
which the others have been eliminated. If now this coefficient
is very small it shows that this quantity cannot be well
determined without additional data, and the solution must
then be arranged so that the uncertainty in this quantity will
have the least effect on the others. In case a preliminary
computation shows that the weight of any unknown quantity

very small, the elimination will be repeated in such a way
that this quantity is first determined. The values of the
others will then be expressed in terms of this one. If then
at any time additional data become available for determining
this quantity, or if it is known from any other source, the
is
other quantities become known also.

As such cases will seldom occur in the problems with
which we shall have to deal, it will not be necessary to enter
more fully into the matter at present.
28. In the elimination it will be convenient to employ the
method of substitution, using a form of notation proposed by
LEAST SQUARES.
44
Gauss. In developing the formulas,
number
we
28.
shall
suppose as before
unknown
It will be a
quantities to be four.
simple matter to extend or abridge them in case of a greater
the
of
or less number.
The equations
to be solved are
+ \ab~\y +
-f \ad~\w =
+ \bb\y + \bc\z + \bd~\w =
\ac\x + \bc\y -f \cc\z + \cd~\w =
\_ad^x+ \bd~\y + \cd]z + \_dd~\w =
\aa~\x
\_ac\z
\ab\x
From
the
first of
x=
these
\an\
[an]
n
I
\bn~\
\cn\
'
\_dn\.\
we have
\aa\
\ab\
\ad\
[oaf
[aa]
[aa]
which value being substituted in the remaining three equawe shall have x eliminated. The first of the resulting
tions,
equations will be
and similarly for the remaining two.

Let us now write
~Vl
\bb i]
\bd}
- f^[^] =
\bd
i]
}
}-
(49)
SOLUTION OF NORMAL EQUATIONS.
28.
and for the
coefficients of the
45
second equation,
M
(49)
Similarly for the third,
Mrwi
Our
_ r^
three equations then
+
+
\bd\\y +
become
+ [î]w
i> + [^ i]w
[î> + [î]w
\bb \\y
[^
\bc \\y
\cc
i\z
=
=
=
[^
i]
\dn
(50)
In these the same symmetry of notation is preserved as in

the normal equations, and it can easily be shown that the
terms \bb i], \cc i], and \dd i], which have the quadratic form,
will
always be positive.
From
the
first of (50)
we have
rî]
\bd\
~
\bdi\
is to be substituted in the second and

lowing auxiliary coefficients computed
This
third,
and the
fol-
LEAST SQUARES.
46
28.
which process gives us the following equations

2\z
\cd2~\z
-\-
\cc
From
the
\cd 2\w
\dd2\w
=
=
[en 2]
\dn2\.
first of these,
Substituting this in the second, and writing
\dd2\
[^2]
= \dd&
we have
\_dn 2]
\dd $\w
[dn 3]
W=[
from which
......
.......
;
(54)
(55)
and x can now readily be found by substituting succesand (48).

The first equation in each of (41), (50), (52), and (54) are
called elimination equations, and are here brought together
for convenience of reference
z, y,
sively in (53), (51),
\ad\x
\ab~\y
\bb \\y
+ \_ad\w =
+
+ \bc i> + \bd i]w =
\cc 2\s + \cd2~\w
\ac~\z
\ddi\w
[an]
\bn
i]
\cn 2]
This is all that will be strictly necessary in case the weights

and probable errors of the unknown quantities are not required.
PROOF-FORMULAE.
29.
47
Proof-Formulas.
29.
Convenient proof-formulas
for
checking the accuracy

from
of the successive auxiliary coefficients may be derived

the summation terms [/], [fa], ... of equations (44).
Referring to these formulae,
let
us write
Substituting for [fa] and \as\ their values, this expression

be written in the form
may
Therefore, writing for the quantities in the brackets their

values,
we have
[fa i]
\bb i]
\bc i]
+ \bd i]
\bn
i],
a formula by which the accuracy of the coefficients in the

second member can be tested, and which requires the additional auxiliary quantity \bs i].
Proceeding in a similar manner,
we shall require for checking the computation at the end of the first stage of the elimination the following auxiliary quantities
:
[fa I]
[fa]
!.=
LEAST SQUARES.
48
when we
shall
\bs i]
\cs i]
[ds i]
In the
30..
have the following proof-equations
=
=
=
\bb i]
\bc i]
\bd\\
+ \bc + \bd - \bn

+
+ \fd - [en
+ [fl] -f [>tf - [dn
i]
i]
i]
\cc i]
i]
i]
i]
i]
same manner we have,
(57)
for checking the next step in
the operation,
\cs 2]
[cs i]
I[fo
i]
[ds 2]
[_ds i]
[^
[fo i]:
,
and
finally,
[_ds 3]
[ds 2]
[^3]= [^3]The agreement
of these
[<*3]..
two values
2]
.....
of [ds 3]
(59)
must be within
the limits of error of the computation, and it furnishes a very

accurate control over the accuracy of the computation up to
this point.
30. After the values of x y, z, w have been determined, a
most thorough proof of the accuracy of the entire computation is obtained by means of the residuals, v v
obtained
by substituting these values of x, y, z, w in the equations of
t
lt
condition, (37), p. 33, viz.
-f-
c^
-f cjs
-\-
d^w
+ djv
n,=
v^,
(37)
PA' OOF FORMULAE.
3-
49
v
v3
in order,
v^
Multiplying these equations by
adding, and writing, in accordance with the notation em.
ployed,
we have
but by equations
[av]
\bv\y
\av\x
[/;]
add,
o,
[bv]
[]
\irJ\
\cv\
O,
\dv]
o.
\vv\
(60)
nv n3
#.,
in
order, and
\bn\y
j/27/];tr
By means
soon as
o,
multiply equations (37) by
viz.
\vv\\
140),
Therefore
Now
\dv~\w
[cv~\z
\ciii\w
\_cn~\s
of this equation \vv\
x, y, z,
[vv\. (61)
also be computed as
But we have
may
become known.
_[*]
S
=[nv]
M Mr M M
Let
\aV\
\ac\
value be substituted in
this
^
r
also write [^
[
i]
i],
[en
-.
\an\ r
(61),
-.
"M
i], etc.,
\bn \\y
\ad-\
and write
r
-.
for their values,
\cn \\z
\dn \}w
when we have
\v~J\.
Let the same process be carried on for eliminating y,
z,
and
LEAST SQUARES.
50
iv in
shall
pute
\nn
^31.
We
succession from this and the resulting equations.

have in all the following auxiliary quantities to com:
I]
= []
|gj[>]
[2] -
Om 3] =
\nn 2]
\nn
i]
4]
3]
[^|][2];
^j^bn i]
f^]^
3]-
Either of the following equations will then give the value of
[mi]
Only the
31.
i]
[ns]
Let us write
and substitute
it
[dn i~\w
\nn 2]
\cn2\z
\dn
2\w
[3] - [dn$\w=
=
\nn 4]
\vv~\\
-^
[vv]
\vv]
\'
(62)
\_vv~]',
[vv]
generally be used.
[vv] can be derived from the
quantities [ns], [ns
We
\_dri\w
\cn i\z
value of [nn4]
tional labor.
\cri\z
\bn \\y
last of these will
The
summation
when
\bn~\y
\an~\x
\nn
i], etc.,
with very
little
addi-
have
[an]
[ns i]
in this
\bn\
[ns]
\cn\
\dn\
- [].
^M,
expression for [its'] and [as] their values,

in the following form
may be placed
32-
or what
is
same
the
[ns i]
Proceeding
thing,
\bn i]
+ \cn +
in a similar
i]
manner
\_dn i]
form
we have the
to
\nn
i].
in succession the
series of equations
following auxiliary quantities,
by which the accuracy of the quantities \bn i], \cn i], . . .
\nn 4]
3]
may be
verified
\ns i]
[5 2]
\bn
i]
[r
2]
-f [en
-f-
i] -|-
[^ 2]
\dn
i]
[# 2]
i]
(63)
Only the
last of these
equations will generally be required.
Form of Computation.
32. In
computing the various auxiliary quantities which
occur in the solution of a series of normal equations, the work

should be arranged so that it may be carried through from
beginning to end in a systematic manner in order to keep a
general oversight of the results at the various stages of progThis will
ress, and to apply conveniently the proof-formulas.
be the more important the greater the number of unknown
The following scheme will be found to answer
quantities.
these requirements.
generally be found expedient to make the computaby the use of logarithms, but in some cases the computer
may prefer to perform the multiplications and divisions by
the aid of Crelle's table. In the following scheme we have
It will
tion
LEAST SQUARES.
52
32
supposed logarithms used. A sheet of paper is first ruled

with vertical columns, the number of which is greater by two
than that of the unknowa quantities. In the first horizontal
line will be written in order the coefficients which are combined with a, viz., [aa~], [at],
[an], [as], and immediately
below these their logarithms. Attention is directed to this
line by means of the letter E in the margin, as it is the first
of the elimination equations (56), and will be used for determining x after/, z and w become known.
.
In the third line are the coefficients \bb\ [be],

that the letters combined with b fall in the
placed
[fa],
same
so
verti-
column with the same letters combined with a, viz., [be]

under [ac], \bd] under [ad], etc.
In the fourth line of the first column is now written
cal
log p-J the value of which, as well as those of

tities in this
all
the quan-
column, must be carefully verified, as an error

may not be detected by the proof-formula.
in this factor
The
log
is
now
written on the lower edge of a card
and added in succession to the logarithms of [aft], [ac],

[as], and as each addition is performed the natural number is
taken from the logarithmic table and written in the place inWith a little practice the computer
dicated in the scheme.
will be able to make this addition mentally, and take from
the table the corresponding number without writing down
this logarithm.
Thus we shall have
.
|>#] written
under
.Sac] written
under
[//];
[bc\;
32.
i.r&i
log
log [a
if*
[Mx]
log \bb
53
[*]
[/;<:
log L^
i]
i]
[ftn]
log [**
i]
<:*a]
log \cd
2]
log
[.
2]
U.
rf]
[rfrfl]
log
.0^3,
[rfrf 3]
log
Prcof-Equati
"
IIP.
IV.
v L
-[!]
{i
X'.
an accent will ordinarily

Practically only those proof-equations which are distinguished by
be employed. The lines marked by an E in the margin give the logarithms of the coefficients
of the elimination equations. The logarithms marked * must be carefully verified, since aa
in one of these may escape detection by the proof-equation.
For the application to a numerical example see page 331.
wor
LEAST SQUARES.
54
33.
and by subtraction,
\bbi\\bci\,\bdi\, \bni\\bsi\.
These are the coefficients of the second elimination equation,

and will be used for determining y after z and w have become
known. The I in the margin refers to the proof-formula
by which the values of these quantities will be verified.
It will
not be necessary to proceed farther with this ex-
planation, as a reference to the scheme in connection with

the formulae for the auxiliary quantities will show clearly the
process. The elimination being completed, the quantities
[4] and [nsj] are computed as shown in the scheme, the

agreement of which with each other and with [vv], obtained
by substituting the values of x,y, z, w in the equations of
condition, furnishes a most thorough proof of the accuracy
of the entire computation.
Weights of 'the Most Probable Values of the
Unknown
Quantities.
33. In case of a single unknown quantity determined by

direct observation, the computation of the weight of the
In the case
arithmetical mean was found to be very simple.
under consideration, where the equations to be solved contain
several
unknown
quantities, the
difficulty
is
greatly
augmented.
In our equations of condition we have supposed the quantietc. We have already shown that
ties observed to be
,
the resulting equations of condition are not of equal weight,

they may be made so by multiplying each by the square
shall therefore in investiroot of its respective weight.
of
the
unknown
the
quantities assume the
weights
gating
if
We
weight
of
each observation to be unity.
WEIGHTS OF UNKNOWN QUANTITIES.
33-
Let
px ,p u ,pz ,p w be
the weights of x,y,z, and
ex , s
z,
y,
be the
Let
As
all
of
w their
,
mean
mean error
55
w respectively;
errors.
of an observation.
our equations are
linear,
unknown
elimination of the three
evident that
it is
quantities x, y,
if
the
and z be
completely carried out, the resulting equation will give w as

;/
# 2 ;/ 3 etc. Similarly, if x, y, and w be
eliminated, we shall have z expressed as a linear function of
the same quantities, and so of each of the others.
may therefore write
a linear function of
We
or
-f a^ n , -f ay* 3
+ etc.n
jiS+S+Sstf
w=
a,
fi,
etc.,
Sn
1
-f- tfjW,
-|-
<J ;/
3
-|-
(64)
etc.;J
being numerical coefficients and functions of
a, b,
etc.
We
have
now from
(31),
-f- a,"
4/^
remembering the above

a,*
+ etc. =
V{aa\.
notation,
(65)
ew
From
(33),
e Vtf,'
A=
tf
tf,
+
.
etc.
A=
(66)
therefore become known when we have the

For this purpose we must make use
values of [aa]
[SS\.
of the normal equations (41), which for convenience of reference are here rewritten:
The weights
LEAST SQUARES.
$6
\_aa\x
\aV\x
\_ac\x
+ \_aV\y + [ac\* +
+ [M] J + \bc\z
+ \bc\y + M*
\ad~\w
[>]
,.
Let us now assume the following system of equations

\_ad\Q
+ [>0] 0' -f
\ac-\Q"
0^]0
//7
/7
\bd-\Q"
\cd-\Q'"
= Pn
=o
=o
I
These equations will be possible, as there are four unknown

quantities, Q, Q', Q", and Q'", and four equations for determining their values; further, as the equations are of the first degree there will only be one system of values for Q, Q', etc.
Now
let
the normal equations be multiplied by Q, Q', Q",
Q'", in their respective orders, and the resulting equations

added. Then in consequence of (67) in the resulting equations
the coefficients of x,y, and z will be zero, and that of
unity.
and
Therefore
we
w=
We
shall
shall
have
\_aii\Q
now show
\bn~\Q'
that
Q" =
\cn\Q"
[#tf],
and
[_dii\Q"
is
(68)
therefore the
reciprocal of the weight of w.

Let us expand the quantities contained in the brackets,
equation (68), and compare the results with the last of
thus find the following values of d it # 2
equations (64).
We
etc.:
(6 9)
34-
57
Multiplying each of these by its a and then adding, then

multiplying each by its b, c\ and d successively and adding,
we have by (67) the following equations
:
=o
+ 4A +
Now
(69)
be multiplied by
(70)
we have
+ *A +
[**]
[dd~\
each of
*A + *A
The
[cd]
Then by
let
added.
'
its
"
"
f
J
d and the results
<2'".
Q- E. D.
(71)
solution of equations (67) therefore determines the
weight of w. In a precisely similar manner the weight of

each of the unknown quantities may be determined. Thus,
to determine the weight of x, we write for the second member of the first of (67) unity instead of zero, and write zero
for the absolute term of each remaining equation.
The rewill be the reciprocal of the weight of jr.
simple enough in theory, but its application
is laborious, as we must solve equations (67)
separately for
the weight of each unknown quantity. This does not involve
so great an amount of labor as may at first appear, as much
of the computation will already have been performed in the
sulting value of
This process
is
It is easy, however, to
solution of the normal equations.
derive a process which will generally be much more convenient.
It is as follows
34. In the solution of equations (41) by successive substitu:
tions
We
is
we found
shall
for the final equations in
now show
see (56)
that the coefficient \dd^\
therefore the weight of w.
and
-^777,
LEAST SQUARES.
58
For
this
purpose
\ad\x
-f-
let
\ab~\y
\ab\x -f \bb\y
54-
us write equations (41) as follows
+
+
\ac~\z
[&]*
+
+
\_ad~\w
[&/]w
-w
[an]
\bii\
[en]
=A
=B
= C;
= D.
;
Let us now suppose the equations solved by means of the

and Q'", determined from (67), when we
shall have
auxiliaries Q, Q', Q",
w=
\an\Q
This will
we make
Let us
now
\bn\Q
\cn\Q" + \dn\Q"
+ AQ + BQ' + CQ" + DQ>".
be the same value of
A==C=D =
w as
(72)
before obtained,
if
o.
now suppose
the equations solved, as before, by

are
Since in this process no new terms in
will not be changed in the
introduced, the coefficient of
substitution.
final
equation for w, and
we
shall
have
= \dn 3] -f D + terms in A, B, and C;

=
w f^3 + ^-- -f terms in A, B, and C.
[dd$\w
from which
Now it is evident that the coefficients of A, B, C, and D must

be the same
equation
equation as in the value before obtained,

Therefore
in this
(72).
Q- E. D.
We
known
therefore see that
we
can obtain the values of the un-
quantities from equations (41), and at the same time

their respective
weights, by arranging the elimination so that
35-
each
in succession shall
unknown quantity
come out
The
last.
59
coefficient of the
equation will be its weight.

system of four equations like the above
it is best to proceed as follows: Let zv be determined, as
above, by substitution in the order x, y, z. We then have
w with its weight from
in the final
35. In solving a
[dd^]w
[dn
3].
Equations (56) then give successively z, y, and x.

Let now the elimination be performed in the opposite order,
viz., w, z,y, when we have x with its weight from the equa.
tion
\aa
3> =
[an
3],
[aa 3] being the weight of x.

This value of x must agree with the former value within
the limits of error of the computation, thus furnishing a convenient check to the accuracy of the computation.
of y and z we need not repeat the eliminabut proceed as follows
Let us suppose the elimination performed in the order x,
We shall then have the same auxiliary coefficients
y, w, z.
as in the first case, as far as those indicated by the numerals
i and 2, and
equations (52) will be the same as before but
as the elimination will now be performed in the order w, z,
For the weight
tion,
instead of
z,
w,
we
write
\dd2~\w
\cd2~\W
From
the
first
them
+
+
\cd2~\z
[cc
2\z
=
=
[dn2]
[en 2]
of these,
fr** 2 3
\dd2~\
\fd2~\
\dd2~f*
LEAST SQUARES.
60
35.
Substituting- this in the second gives us for the coefficient

of.*
But we have
From
And
these
\dd$\
\dd*\
two equations we
in a similar
find
manner,
We
for
therefore have the following precepts and formulae

computing the weights in the case of four normal equa-
tions
First,
perform the elimination

then
pw
order
in the
\_dd-$\
x, y, s,
w,
-(73)
Second, perform the elimination in the order

then
px
[a a 3]
a/,
z,y,x,
6l
The
formulae for the auxiliary coefficients for the second

may be derived from those for the first by simply
interchanging the letters a and d and b and c. The process
elimination
is
so simple that
it
will be
unnecessary to write them out
in
full.
Other Expressions for the Weights.

36. When the equations have been solved, as already explained, and the various checks applied, so that the computer
is convinced that the results obtained are reliable, it may be
undesirable to repeat the elimination merely for determining

the weights of the first and second unknown quantities.
We
may derive convenient expressions

in this case, as follows
for
computing tne weights
Suppose four solutions of the equations to be carried

through so that each unknown quantity in turn is first determined, the order of the others remaining the same we should
7
then have each
determined, as
unknown quantity with its weight completely

we have already seen. The solution of the
equations for which we have given the complete formulas is

in the order d, c, b, a, where we have written the coefficients
instead of the unknown quantities.
Tf now we substitute the
values of w, z, and y in the third, second, and first of equations
we have finally the expression for^r, which will

be a fraction with the denominator
(56) in order,
[aa] \bbi\ \cc2\
In the four solutions
known
which we have supposed made, the un-
quantities last determined will be in succession x,x,x,
LEAST SQUARES.
62
y,
36.
and the denominators of the expressions for their values
be as follows
will
\_aa\\bb
i\ c \_dd2\ e
\aa\\cci\\_dd2\\bb
[dd2\ a \a
\bb\ a \cc i]a
where the subscripts show which unknown quantity is first

As the elimination is performed
in each solution.
by successive substitutions, no new factors being introduced,
determined
it
follows that these expressions are equal to each other re-
spectively.
It is
evident that
changed so that a
when
the order of the elimination
is
determined, the
order of the others remaining the same as before, the values
of the auxiliary coefficients \bb i], [cc2], etc., which do not
contain the coefficient of this quantity will remain as before.
Suppose, as above, the unknown quantities to be determined
Now let a second solution be made in
in the order d, c, b, a.
the order
c,
d, b,
different quantity
a; then
all
is first
of the auxiliary coefficients as
far as those designated by the numerals i and 2 will remain

In a third solution following the order b, d, c, a,
as before.
the coefficients designated by the numeral i will have the

same values as in the first case while in a fourth determination in the order a, d, c, b, they will all differ from the first
;
series of values.
Thus indicating by the subscripts only those coefficients

which have values different from those given by the first
elimination, we have the following equations:
\aa\
\Mi]
[CC2-]
\ddj\
\bb I] \cc2\ \ddj\
\ad\ \bb I] \cc2\ \ddi\
=
=
=
\ad\ \bb
i]
\ad\ \cc i]
[W]
[cc i]
\dd*\ [0:3];
[dd2\ [W 3 ];
\dd2\ [aa 3].
36.
We
x
already have the weight of w. The weights of

are given by these last equations, viz. :
z,
and
y,
(74)
In applying these formulae the following additional auxiliary

coefficients
must be computed
j>]-to-.],
fc
i] a
M
(75)
In case of three
unknown
quantities the formulae
where [^
i] a
has the value given above.
become
(76)
LEAST SQUARES.
64
37.
An
elegant expression for the weights
making use of the determinant

the normal equations (41),
notation.
is obtained
by
Thus, referring to
the reciprocal of the weight of w, given by equations (67),

obtained from the above equathe same as the value of
(2'",
is
o and \dn\ = i.
\cn\
Therefore writing A for the complete determinant which
forms the denominator of the above expression, D'" for the
partial determinant formed by dropping the last horizontal
line and last vertical column, D" for the partial determinant formed by dropping the third horizontal line and third
vertical column, and similarly D' and
for the other two,
we have
tion by
making
[ari\
[bti]
A = 4;
(77)
A
all
number of other forms may be derived for the weights,

of which involve about the same numerical operations as
the above.
In certain special cases different forms
more convenient, but
for
our immediate purposes
it
be
not
may
will
be necessary to develop the subject further.

It may readily be seen fram what precedes that the relative weights of the unknown quantities may be derived, even
when the number of observations does not exceed the number of unknown quantities. No probable errors, however,
can be determined in this case.
MEAN ERRORS
3-
OF
UNKNOWN
QUANTJ7ÎES.
Mean Errors of the Unknown
Quantities.
For determining the mean and probable error
38.
65
of
an
unknown quantity nothing further is required except the expression for the mean error of an observation. It is supposed
that the equations of condition have been reduced to the
common unit of weight by multiplying each equation when
necessary by the square root of its weight.

The values of x.y, z, and w, as deduced above, are the most
When
probable values as deduced from the given data.
substituted in the equations of condition the residuals
z' 2
v 3 etc., will not be the true errors unless the derived
are absolutely the true values, a condivalues x, y, z, and
tion not likely to be realized.
?/,,
Let (x
-\-
6x\ (y -\-
A^ A v ^
We
shall then
dy), (z
4m
...
-)-
8z),
(w -j-
be the true values
dzv)
have two systems of equations, as follows

b
d^v
a^x
-\-
a,x
+ b,y + cj + djv
the true errors.
-\- c^z -\-
=
=
=
(78)
-*,= -2f,K79)
Let us multiply each of equations
(78)
by
its
v and add the
resulting equations. Then by (40) the coefficients of x, j,

and
will vanish, giving us the relation before derived,
z,
LEAST SQUARES.
66
Proceeding
in the
same manner with

\vn\
Therefore
\vA\
=
=
38.
(79),
we
find
........
........
[vA]
(81)
\vu\
(82)
In order to obtain an expression for the
sum
of the squares
of the true errors, viz., \_AA\ in terms of the sum of the

squares of the residuals [vv], let us first multiply each of
equations (78) by its A and add the resulting equations;

secondly, let us multiply each of (79) by its A and add in
The results are as follows
like manner.
:
\aA~\x + \bA\y +\cA\z + \_dA\w

[aA} (x
+ 8x) +
Subtracting the
=
If
we
\vv\
could
[_bA]
first of
=-
\yA~\
fcr)
\nA\
now assume
m? =
\bl\Sy
[cA]dz
dx, 8y, 6s, awrl

\4A~\
by
8w
=-
[vv~]
= -
we
these from the second,
\aA~\Sx
should obtain, since
\nA\
+ \cA] (z +
+ \dA\ (w + dw)
(y+6y)
obtain
[d^Sw.
(83)
to vanish,
we
definition,
This will give us a close approximation to the true value of

e
when
For
is
large.
more accurate determination
of
we must endeavor
approximate values of (ad~\$x, \bA~\dy, etc. The true

values are beyond our reach, but principles already estabto find
means of approximation.
Multiplying each of equations (79) by
we have
lished give us a
\_ad\x
-f \_ad\Sx
+ \aV\ y +
+ \_ad~\w + \ab\Sy + \ac\dz + \ad\1w
\ac~\z
its a,
[an]
and adding,
\
I
,-,
MEAN ERRORS
38.
Comparing
OF
this with (41),
UNKNOWN
we
QUANTITIES.
see that the
6?
first line is
equal
to zero.
Multiplying each equation of (79) by its b and adding,

then in a similar manner by its c and d and adding, we have
finally
+ [aV]dy + [ac\3z + \_ad~\dw =

+ \bb~\6y + \bc\6z + [&/]tfw =
-f [cd}div =
[ac\Sx + [bc}Sy -f
\ad~\6x + \pd^y-\- [cd}dz + \_ddyw \aa~\dx
[oft]6*
[><;]<fcr
[>J]
\bA\
\cA\
n
[
Comparing these with (41), we see that they are of precisely

the same form, the unknown quantities being in this case
6*i 6y, dz, and dw, instead of x, y, z, and w, and the absolute
terms having
If
we now
\bA-\Sy.
solution will there-
see (64)
write these values in
\_aA~\8x, etc.,
The
in the place of n.
fore have the form
(83),
we
shall
have for
the following values:
=
(86)
In regard to these products it is to be remarked that they

positive, as our conditions require \vv\
must necessarily be
LEAST SQUARES.
68
to be a
of values of x. y, z, and TV, therefrom those derived from the normal equations
minimum. Any system
fore, differing
must increase the sum of the squares of the residuals.

Therefore [44] > [z/z/], and the terms following [w] in (83)
must be positive.
Let us now perform the indicated multiplication in (86).
(41)
Confining ourselves to the last equation, since the form

all, we can indicate the result as follows
the same for
\dA-\dw
is
= 4*^,4+ 4V.4
4<WU-
term indicates the sum of
-,..
+ ^(4A).
the terms formed by

The
v ^
multiplying together different values of J, as
Now, since positive and negative errors occur
^m-i^mlast
all
A^
with equal frequency when the number of equations of conis very large, we may assume this term equal to zero.
Writing for (4,4^, (44) etc -' tne mean value of those
2
quantities, viz., f and placing for \dd] its value from the last
dition
of (70), viz., [dd]
i,
we have
-
In a
manner precisely
\_aA~\dx
= -
similar
\bA~\dy
Therefore equation
(83)
me
From which
\dA~\8w
we
= -
s\
find
[cd~\8z
=
=
\/
_-
unknown
quantities
number
of
*.
\vv\ -f 4".
unknown
the
\dA]dw
becomes
In this case there are four

if
(87)
In general
quantities.
we shall have
is //>
-^
(88)
38-
With
have
MEAN ERRORS
the values of
OF L\\'KXOW.\' QUANTITIES.
px p v pz
,
and
p w computed by
"69
(73),
we
finally
;r, y, z, and w will be obtained by

multiplying these respectively by .6745.
We have now developed the subject as far as is necessary
for our purposes.
complete example of the solution of a
series of equations with three unknown quantities, together
with the determination of their respective weights and
probable errors, will be found in connection with article
(191) of this volume.
and the probable errors of
INTERPOLATION.
Almanac are given various quantities,

39. In the Nautical
such as the right ascension and declination of the sun, moon,
and
fixed stars, etc., which are functions of

planets, places of
This is assumed as the independent variable, or
the time.
argument
as
it is
termed by astronomers.
The ephemeris
to
gives a series of values of the function corresponding
of
the
In
case
the
of
values
moon,
argument.
equidistant
which moves rapidly, the position is given at intervals of one
hour; the place of the sun is given at intervals of twenty -four

hours while the apparent places of the fixed stars vary so
;
When
slowly that ten-day intervals are sufficiently small.
any of these quantities are required for a given time, this
time will generally fall between two of the dates of the ephemeris seldom coinciding with one of them the required
value must then be found by interpolation.
;
Interpolation in general is the process by -which, having given

a series of numerical values of any function of a quantity (or argument], the value of the function for any other value of the argument may be deduced without knowing the analytical form of the
function.
shall consider the subject more in detail than will be
necessary for the simple purpose of using the ephemeris,
We
on account of its importance in other directions.

In what follows we shall suppose the values of the function
given for equidistant values of the argument, which will
always be the case practically. Also the intervals must be
INTERPOLATION, GENERAL FORMULA.
39
/I
small enough, so that the function will be continuous between

consecutive values of the argument.
Let w = the interval of the argument.
.
(T-2w\ (T-w\ (T\ (T+w), (T+2w\
(7--/3W),
(T+3w),
the values of the argument.
The
notation for the arguments, functions, and successive

differences will be shown by the following scheme
:
ist
Argument.
Function.
Difference.
ad
Difference.
3d
Difference
4th
Difference.
5th
Difference.
The
notation shows at once where each quantity belongs

scheme. The first differences are forrned by subtracting each function from the quantity immediately following
it, the argument being the arithmetical mean of the arguments
of the two functions. Similarly the second differences are
formed by subtracting each quantity in the column of first
differences from the one immediately below it, and so on for
It will be observed that
the successive orders of differences.
the even orders of differences, /", /"', etc., fall in the same
horizontal lines with the functions themselves, and have the
in the
same arguments, while the odd orders, /', f", etc., fall between those lines. The even differences all have integral arguments, and the odd differences fractional arguments.
The arithmetical mean of two consecutive differences is
indicated by writing
argument.
it
For example
f\ T)
as a function of the intermediate

:
= %[f\ T-\w
INTEKPOLA TION.
72
40.
ment
Suppose now we
is T.
set out
40.
from the function whose argu-
Evidently,
Proceeding
the series;
+f"(T
manner, we readily discover the law of

the coefficients are those of the binomial
in this
viz.,
formula, and each successive function,/',/", etc., is on the

horizontal line drawn under the one which immediately pre-
cedes
Thus we have
it.
nw)
=f(T)
the general formula
+ nf(T+ $w) +
"
f"(T+ w)
(90
If we assign integral values to n we obtain the tabular

values, viz.,f(T-{- w),f(T-\- 2w\ etc.; but the formula is not
used for this purpose, but for interpolating between the
tabular values, in which case n is fractional and must be ex-
pressed in terms of the interval of argument w as the unit.

more convenient form may be given to this expres41.
have
sion (91), as follows
We
(T+ *0
2w)
=f
iv
(T)+ 2f\T+ %w) +f\T)
+f (T+
vii
4!
INTERPOLATION, GENERAL FORMULA.
Substituting these values in (91) and reducing,

obtain
f(T+
w)
=f(T)
we
73
readily
+ nf'(T+ i
The law
of the series is obvious viz., a factor is added to the

numerator of each succeeding coefficient alternately after
and before the other factors, the last factor of the denominator being the same as the order of differences. The successive differences are taken alternately below and above the
horizontal line drawn immediately below the function from
which we set out.
Formula (92) will be used for interpolating forward. For
interpolating backward a better form may be derived by
;
writing ior f\T -\- \w], f'"(T -\- \w],
Changing
;/
at the
same time
into
n,
to be used for interpolating backwards,,
f(T-
nw}
=f(T)
their values in terms
since the formula
we
readily find
- nf(T- *,) + *!L=J->f(T)

-
i-
2
t
1.2.3.4
is
INTERPOLA TION.
74
42. In
to write
applying
them
(92)
as follows
=f(T]
and
42.
be more convenient
(93) it will
+ n f'(T+&) +
F- f"(T)
(92)j
-rnu]
= f(T) -
(93),
In (92), and (93), each difference is used to correct the one of

the next lower order immediately preceding it, and the quantities to be multiplied will generally be small.
In interpolating
a value of the function corresponding to a value of the argu-
ment between Tand (T

If the argument
f(T}.
we use
(93),
and
set
w),
we
use
and set out from

%w) and (T-\-w),
(92),
between (T
out from f(T-\- w).
is
-}-
When
the interpolation is carried to any given order of

differences, as the fifth, it is a little more accurate to take the
arithmetical mean of the last differences, which fall immediately above and below the horizontal line drawn in the vicinity
of the required function.
Thus the
would befv (T\

43. For the quantities tabulated
last
term of
(92),
and
(93),
in the American Ephemeris it will only be necessary to carry the interpolation to

second differences but for computing ephemerides or tables
;
INTERPOLA TION, EXAMPLE.
44-
75
of any continuous function, much labor is saved by computing the quantity directly for a comparatively few dates and
supplying the intermediate values by interpolation. If the

function is of such a character that some order of differences,
as the third, fourth, or any other, vanishes, this gives exact
values for the interpolated quantities, and in fact the process
may then be used for computing values of the function for
any value whatever of the argument. It is on this principle
that "tabulating engines" are constructed.
44. As an example of the application of (90),
(92),,
and
(93),,
we
take from the American Ephemeris the following values

of the moon's right ascension for intervals of 12 hours:
1883,
/=*
July
/"
/'
/'"
/"
/*
3 d,
oh
5' 4*5'
i5
.'6S
29 39.05
I2
6 14 54.73
27.08
29 11.97
h
4th,
o 6 44
h
12 44.68
40 43-77
oh
38.89
oh 8 34 35.42
9
- 42.08
12.46
24 35-94
i2 h
9 50 16.14
-f
.77
.33
-.33
-+- 1.
+3-34
36.52
+ 1.45
39.86
oh 9 25 40.20
.01
.16
+ 1.78
+2.22
O 27.74
25
7th,
+ 1.94
i.oi
25 52.32
I2 h
1.95
2.95
-42.85
1.02
26 34.40
6th,
-f-
-41-84
27 17.25
I2 h 8
.06
4.90
27 59.09
5th,
+ 2.01
33.99
28 37.98
I2
6.91
6.70
12
INTERPOLA T1OX.
76
44.
Example i. As an example of the application of (92),, let

us interpolate the moon's right ascension for 1883, July 5th,
4
'-
Since the interval of the argument

h
in this case nw = 4 or n
-fa
|.
5th,
is
here I2 h
we have
Setting out from July
oh we have
,
ATC/)
.01
.040
=+
=
/"
Corrected,
iv
-f-
VU*+--f"
^y-
!/'"
1.802
=-
.801
42.641
-=+
14-214
=27
Corrected,/'
1883, July 5th, 4
41.840
/" +
11
792
;/
Corrected,/"
f=
I.OIO
Corrected, f"
1
I-94Q
1.900
a
a
=
=
3i .464
8
h
u
7 49 '54 .26
This value agrees exactly with that found

for 1883 (see page 115).
Ephemeris
<<
in the
American
INTERPOLATION, EXAMPLE.
44-
Example
Let us now apply
2.
h
right ascension, July 5th, 2o
As before, n %,f v (T)
(93),
to determine the moon's

set out from
July 6.
Here we
.33.
Corrected,/'
=26 n '2o
.i6o
/= = 8^^4^
m
1883, July 5th, 20
The
8 25
48 .70
algebraic signs of the various corrections are deter-
mined without difficulty, as follows: If a horizontal line be

drawn in the table of functions and differences (p. 75) in the
vicinity of the given argument (in the first of the above
d
h
examples immediately below 5 o ), the successive differences
required will fall alternately below and above this line.
INTEKPOLA TlOtf.
78
45-
Beginning with/" we determine the correction to/" ", which

1'
is
immewhich
therefore the correction must
to be applied so as to bring the value nearer to that

In this case/"'"
-j- 1.94; that
diately below the line.

immediately follows is
+ 1.78
iv
1.90.
giving the corrected f
the value immediately above
i.oi
The value of f" is
The first must be corrected so as to
the line is
2.95.
in this case the corrected
bring it nearer the latter, giving
1.802, and so on for each difference in succession.
be subtracted from
1.94,
f'"=
That
is,
When
the quantity
the horizontal line
is
the correction so as to bring

the
same
vertical
>
it in the direction of the
column immediately
one
in
it.
Special Cases.
Whenever
(92),
(93), can be applied, nothing more
45.
will be necessary
they require, however, a knowledge of
the value of the function for several dates both before and
or
between which the interpolation is made. It is

sometimes necessary to interpolate between values of the
function near the beginning or end of the table: as, for instance, we might require from the tabular values of the
moon's right ascension, given on page 75, to determine the
value between the dates July 3d, oh and 3d, I2 h or between
h
h
In either of these cases the series of
7th, o and 7th, I2
differences terminates with f'\ so the above formulae will
after those
only give the value to first differences inclusive.

We shall consider the two cases separately.
For arguments near the beginning of the table.
46. First.
As before, calling the arguments between which it is required to interpolate the function, T and T -f- w, we may
apply formula (91), setting out from f(T).
INTERPOLA TION, SPECIAL
46.
If the
argument
for
which the value
CASES.
79
of the function
is re-
quired is nearer T-\- w than T, it will be a little simpler to

In this case
set out from T-}- w and interpolate backwards.
the formula requires the following modification:
n, we have
Changing n into
f(T- nw)=f(T)-nf'(T +
n(n
+0( +
2)
*w)
+ 3)
(n
f"( T
+ 4)^,-
+ w)
1.2.3.4.5
From
the
manner
of forming the successive functions,
we
have
'
(T+\w-)=f(T-%w)+f"(T)
f"(T + iw) =
/ - T + 2 w) =
/' 7- + f w) =
/'"( 7*+tH-/"(
r+
/iv( 7-
+
/
Substituting these values in the above and reducing,
have
RT- nw} = f(T] -
nf'(T-
(g^jQ^^-f^l)
(H
&) +
2)
1.2.3.4
I>
+0( + 2) (n +
1.2.3.4.5
f"(T)
we
1XTERPOLA TIOX.
80
For greater convenience
may now
S(T+
in the application, (91)
be written as follows
w) = f(T)
f(T-nw)
=./!T)
+n
and
(941
/'(7-+ia>)
46.
-L
f"(T+ w)
-f'(T~^) + "-=^-
\f"(T)
(95)
Required the moon's right ascension, 1883,

Referring to the series of values (Art. 44), we
have for this case uw = 4'' /. n =
Example
July 3d, 4
3.
-r
H
f
Corrected,/'
Corrected,
1'
y"
-06
-044
_j_
2.010
-j-
2.054
8.279
INTERPOLATION, SPECIAL CASES.
46-
-JT-o;8_
22.481
^T^ {/"= +
/'
=29-39^.050
m
46 .544
{/'...= 9
/=
1883, July 3d, 4",
Example
July 3d,
argument
4.
h
.
is
or
7494
=29
Corrected,/'
or
=
=
55 -5i5
s
5"45 i5 .68o
m
55
uM95
Required the moon's right ascension,

In
case \ve use formula
this
nearer I2
than o
4 599
!/-...=+
/" =
Corrected,/''
h
.
Corrected,/'"
=+
=+
Corrected,/"'
=+
f">
/ =
Corrected,/" =
\.
-06
2.01
2.05
8.082
7/
27.080
23.488
(95),,
1883,
since the
INTERPOLA TION.
82
Corrected,/'
{
=+
"
/'...=
/=
1883, July 3d, 8
4/.
=
=
7-829
29'"3i .22i
9'" 50/407
6h 14'" 54 s 730
.
6"
5'"
S
.
323
the end of the table.

a manner precisely similar to that of the
previous article, we readily obtain the formulae
47.
Second.
Proceeding
f(T -f nw)
Arguments near
in
= f(T)
-_
.2.3
_ |w)
3)
I
second
^
i
.2.3.4.5
tnese a ppli es
^ or
_ 4}
(T
_^
(97)
interpolating in the
INTERPOLATION, SPECIAL CASES.
47-
direction in which the
argument
^cêaS
may
f(T+nw) =f(T)
83
The above
+ n {/'(T + Ja,) + ^=-'
\f"(T)
f"(T-
- m) = f(T)+n -f'(T- *,) + -
"
|
-/'"( r-f
,)
f"(T- w)
|
/( T .
Example
July ;th, 4
/"
5.
(9 8,)
1883,
h
.
= ~ 36-52
/'
= 24 35.94;
Substituting in (98) as above,
Example
h
July ;th, 8
By
zw)
6.
we
/=
find
1883,
substituting the numerical values in formula (98^
we
find for this case
a
It will
9"
42
9 7.
be observed that in the application of formulae
(95)i' (98),
and
(98),
(95),
the algebraic signs of the various correc-
84
I.
\TERPOLATIOX.
tions may be determined in a manner entirely similar to that

explained in connection with formulas (92), and (93),. (See
Art. 44-)
Interpolation into the Middle.
48.
When
the function
the argument half
is
to be interpolated for a value of

dates of the
way between two consecutive
table, this is called interpolation into the middle.

For this case either 192), or (93), may be used,
convenient formula
of n in (92)
obtained as follows.
is
but a more
Write
in
place
yr T
+ to) = A T) + \f\ T + to) + ^, */"( T)

to)
Then
S(T+
in (93) let
to)
J,
and
set
out from
T+
of)
=f(T+ w) - i/'
Taking the mean of these equations, obscrvinjr in the resulting equation that the coefficients of the odd differences,
/',/'", etc., vanish, and writing
'
)}
=-[f(T+
PROOF OF COMPUTATION.
49-
85
- $f"(T+*w)+TfoF(T+tw)
- roW~ \ T + i^) +
l
7.
Let
it
(99)
}}}
')
Example
(99),
be required to determine the moon's
We
h
must interpolate into
right ascension, 1883, July 5th, 6
h
the middle between July 5th, o and July 5th, 12''.
.
/* = -f 1.860
A/" - - -349
/" = - 42.345
Corrected,/''
-\\fTherefore 1883, July
5th,
..
=+
42.694
5-337
6h ,tf=7 h 54m 27 8 .73
Proof of Computation.
The method
very convenient
check on the accuracy of a computation, when, for a series
of values of an argument succeeding each other at regular
intervals, a series of values of any function have been computed.
Suppose an erroneous value of one of these quantiThe
ties, f(T) -(- x, has been obtained, x being the error.
49.
of differences furnishes a
functions, with the respective differences,
follows
would then be
as
(7->+6,
r+I,
INTERPOLATION.
86
50.
Thus the errors in the function has increased to >x in the

fourth difference, the greatest deviation being in the horizontal line where the erroneous value of the function is found.
s
Suppose, for example, an error of 5 had been made in
computing one of the values of the moon's right ascension
The scheme of differences would then
given in Art. 44.
be as follows:
We
see at once without going further than second

ences that the value for July 4th, I2 h is erroneous.
differ-
Differential Coefficients.
50.
When we
have a series of numerical values of a func-
corresponding to equidistant values of the argument,

the numerical values of the differential coEither
efficients from the tabular differences as follows:
form of the interpolation formula is arranged according to
tion,
we may compute
ascending powers of
n.
The
by Taylor's formula, and the
function f(T-\- nw) expanded

differential coefficients,
com-
pared with the coefficients of the different powers of n in the

above expansions, give at once values of these quantities.
DlFl-EREXTIAL COEFFICIENTS.
5-
87
The most rapid convergence, and consequently
the best
formulae, will be obtained by introducing into formula (92)

the arithmetical means of the odd differences situated above
and below the horizontal line drawn through the function
irom which we
set out, using the notation for the arithmeti-
mean given on page 71.

From the manner of forming the
cal
/'
(T + &>)
=f
differences
+ if"(T)
(T)
we
readily see
f"(T+&) = f'"(T} + if(T).

These values being substituted
/
,
1.2.3
(n
+ 2) (n +
i)
n (n
in (92),
m
-
i)
we
readily derive
.-
(n
2)
1.2.3.4-5
Arranging
comes
this
according to ascending powers of
n, it be-
INTERPOLA TION.
88
5 I.
Expanding the function by Taylor's formula,
nW
,M
d*f
dj
"TtfT i.2.3.4~ ~^7" 1.2.3.4.5^
4
Comparing- the coefficients of like powers of n in these two

we have the following values for the differential co-
series,
efficients
51. Formulas (ioi) will not apply to values of the function

near the beginning or end of the table. We obtain formulae
for these special cases by comparing formulas (91) and (97),
respectively arranged according to ascending powers of n

thus obtain
with Taylor's formula.
We
For arguments near the beginning of table :
%w)
- \f"( T+w) + */"'( T+ f
DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENTS.
51-
For arguments near end of table
Example 8. Let it be required to compute the numerical

values of the differential coefficients of the moon's right
da
d*oi
ascension with respect to the time,

-Jr ~dTi
f
July
5th,
'
* or
'
l88 3>
h
.
In substituting the numerical values in (ioi), u>,f',f"

must all be expressed in the same unit. It will be convenient
.
to express them in seconds.

From the numerical values given on page 75
Therefore
This value of
may
= ~
= -
= +
.038391
= ~
-000972.
we have
000
458;
000
20
be regarded as the fractional part of
INTERPOLATION.
90
52.
a second which the moon's right ascension increases in one

In the hourly
second of time at the instant July 5th, o'
ephemeris of the moon given in the Nautical Almanac there
is given in connection with the moon's right ascension the
"difference for one minute," which is simply the value of
the differential coefficient multiplied by 60 i.e., we may sup1
pose the a
minutes.
in
-p^
to be expressed in seconds, and the
Thus we have
ence for one minute"
solar ephemeris there
right ascension,
which
The hourly motion
example above the
"
in
differ-
So in connection with the

given the sun's hourly motion in
2 S .3O346.
is
is
for the
the value of -^multiplied by 60x60.
in declination is
expressed in seconds of
arc.
52. By means of these differential coefficients as given in
the ephemeris, the second differences are taken into account
in the interpolation in a very simple manner*, for we have to
second differences inclusive
The
= f (T +
'
^~
difference of these expressions
* ///(r)
is
and
f(T+nw} =
Thus we have only
tial coefficient
to correct the value of the first differen-
by adding to
it
algebraically the product of
DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENTS.
53-
9!
the difference of two consecutive values by one half the inthen use the corrected differential coefficient,
terval n.
We
we should do
if the first differences were constant.

Required the sun's right ascension and declih
nation, 1883, July 4th, 4 Bethlehem mean time.
As the longitude of Bethlehem from Washington is
as
Example
9.
6m4O s .2, the corresponding Washington time is 3 h 53 m i9 s .8

h
July 4th, 3 .8888 = July 4.162.
From the solar ephemeris for the meridian of Washington
we then find
Date.
$.
Hourly Motion.
Ci.
6h 53 ra 33 8 .7 9
6h 57 m 4i s .02
d*a n
July 4.0
July 5.0
w -^
io s 3 o7
io s .294
2252
.162
Corrected hourly motion

10.306
3 .889
Required a
*
w*
-^
.99
13.27
Required d
=
=
=
&$4
.i
- i3".i 9
- I4".i8
.00105
io s -3o6
40
.o8
m
i3*.Sf.
.162 as .080
Corrected hourly motion
5i
22 47' 22".7
.013
Hourly Motion.
//
3 .8S9
22
I3 .27
= 51" 61
$i' $9".$.
53. If values of the differential coefficients are required

argument between the dates of the table,
for values of the
we may derive the necessary formulas by differentiating the

function developed by Taylor's formula (100), viz.:
<tf(T+ nw]
df( T]
d*f(
~dT~~
~dT~
-dT*~"
nw]
d*f(
T}
~dT~
1.2"
(103)
INTERPOLA TION.
92
Substituting in these the values of
we have
54.
(101),
j-p*-
the values required.*
The Ephemeris.
54. In case the
American Epheraeris and Nautical Almanac
used, most of the quantities there tabulated may be taken

from the tables by the method of Art. 52, an example of the
is
The lunar distances

application of which has been given.
which are given in that part of the ephemeris computed for
the meridian of Greenwich form an important exception.
These distances are given for three-hour intervals, together
with the " proportional logarithm of the difference." This proh
the interportional logarithm is simply the logarithm of 3
val of the table divided by the difference between the two
consecutive distances. It is convenient to suppose the 3 h reduced to seconds of time, and the tabular distance expressed
The proportional logarithm may then be
in seconds of arc.
defined as the number of seconds of time required for the distance
change one second of arc. Thus
to
h
distance between centres
1883, July 6th, o
of sun and moon
,
1883, July 6th, 3
h
,
and moon
of sun
Difference
Proportional logarithm of difference
A very
full
2'
55"
25
32'
29'
44"
49"
24
distance between centres
log
=
=
29 49
io8oo 3
discussion of this subject, with elaborate tables for computing

"
may be found in Vol. II. of Oppolzer's Lehrbuch
the numerical coefficients,
zur Bahnbestimmung."
THE EPHEMERIS.
54-
93
For simple interpolation, disregarding second and higher

orders of differences, we proceed as follows:
h
Let Tând T-\-
= the
two consecutive dates between which
the distance
T -\-
D and D,
distance at time
=D -D
= D' - D.
A'
all
t\
= t 10800;
= log
PLA.
log A'
we
T -\-
being expressed in seconds,

A'
If
D'
Then
to be interpolated
is
= the time for which the distance is required;

= the distances at times 7\'ind T-\- 3
subtract both
members
of this
(104)
equation from log
we have
10800,
10800
log
or
With formula
-37PLA'
=
=
10800
r + PL
log
PLt
(104) only the
are required; with (104),
A,
PLA
(104),
common
we use
logarithmic tables
the tables of proportional
or logistic logarithms given in works on navigation. The latany angle / the logarithm of
ter tables give at once for
if
o"-
ment
Sometimes the
for the argu-
will illustrate
both formulae
--.
The following simple example

(104)
computed
tables are
and
(104),
Example
10.
Required the distance between the centres
INTERPOLATION.
94
and moon,
of the sun
1883, July 6th,
54.
15% Greenwich mean
time.
the ephemeris, 1883, July 6th, o h ,
Difference
From
=
=
=
PL
t =
i5
4500'
log
log A'
D =
For using equation
(104),
in
logarithms given
2'
55"
37'
=- 24
40'
25"
20"
3.6532
Therefore A'
3.3513.
D'
tional
24
.3019
we employ
the tables of propor-
Bowditch's Navigator, Table
XXII:
PL Difference = .3019
== .3802
PL i h i5 m
PL A
=6821;
1
A'
37' 25".
As will be seen, with the proportional logarithms the

quantity A' is given at once in degrees, minutes, and seconds,
without the necessity of reducing t in the first place from
the sexagesimal to the decimal notation, and in the second
place reducing A' from the decimal to the sexagesimal. At
the end of the American Ephemeris for 1871 is given a table
of " Logarithms
of small Arcs in Space or Time," by using

reduction is also avoided.
The foregoing process disregards second and higher
orders of differences. In order to take these into account,
we have in the general interpolation formula (92)
which
this
=
S(T+t) =
nw
w=
/,
f'(T+\w}=A,
In which
A"
values of A.
will
>',
f"(T)
A".
be the difference between two consecutive
THE EPHEMERIS.
54-
22
Then
and formula
Let
(92),
\A
becomes
2f"J
(2
3"
95
-*
6
D'
[z/]
/'^j
-f-
(-^
^"].
corrected tabular difference

[fi]
Then we may assume
<2"J
[?] with sufficient accuracy, (105)
which Q" is the difference between two consecutive values of Q. (Q and A are inverse functions one of the other,
but the algebraic sign of the correction need give no
in
trouble.)
It will be
arithmetical
little
mean
more accurate
of the differences
preceding and following values found
Example
the
11.
if
we
between
take for
Q" the
and both the
in the table.
Required the distance between the centre of

h
Gh.
1883, July 2Oth, ig 20 5
moon and Fomalhaut,
M. T.
From
the ephemeris,
If we had neglected the second differences in this example

we should have found A' = o 26' 51", which can only be
IN TERP OLA
96
7 'ION.
55-
considered a rough approximation. If the interpolation be

extended to third differences, we find A' = 27' 13". 8. This
differs from the first value by a quantity which will be of
very
little
importance
in practical cases.
To Find the Greenwich Time Corresponding
to
a Given Lunar
Distance.
We
may interpolate the time directly from the

55. First.
ephemeris, neglecting- the second differences; then with the
time so found as a first approximation we deduce the corrected proportional logarithm [<2], and repeat the computation.
/
the
being the required quantity, either (104) or

approximation, viz.,
give
(104),
first
log
PLt
or
Then with
12.
Example
(106)
(106),
we determine
this value of /
the corrected pro-
(105),
and repeat the computation.
1883, July 2oth:
determine the Gh. M. T.
portional logarithm
when
.....
= log A' -f PLA,

= PL A' - PL A
[<2]
by
the distance between the moon's centre and Fomal-
haut was 32
14' 5".5.
4536
We
find
log A'
3.2134
PLA =
log t =
By (105),
D =
D =
from the ephemeris that on July aoth, i8 h

Given value of
Therefore A'
.4747
6881
Therefore [0]
=
=
PL A
=.
Approximated
_5<X/ = _ 63.
Repeating computation,
log A'
t
1'
20
06"
log/
'
32
32
41'
14'
20"
5". 5
PL
.4747
-4995
27' 14". 5
2i m i6 9
.4684
= PLA
.4684
3.2134
3.6818
h
m
Required Gh. M. T., July zoth, ig 2o
6'.
THE EPHEMERIS.
55-
97
Table I at the end of the American Ephemeris gives the

correction required on account of the second differences in
the moon's motion in finding the Greenwich time corresponding to a given lunar distance. It is designed to obvi*
ate the necessity for the second computation in the case

The formula for this correction is derived
just considered.
as follows:
T -f-
Let
the time taken from the table
differences are neglected

the time taken when second differences are
when second
T -\-
t'
considered
Q and
Then
[<2]
(io6)log t
log A' -f Q;
log /'= log A' -f [g]
log
Then
treat
the tabular and corrected proportional logarithms.
t'
log
\_Q\- Q
Q", from (105).
as log /'
log t will never be very large,
as a differential, viz.,
we may
it
log
t'
log
M being the modulus =
d log
It'
M(j-J;
.434294.
M(^\ = - ^=--0";
Then
Where
expressed
is
supposed given
in seconds.
The
in
minutes
and
/'
--
is
correction will be applied to
INTERPOLATION.
9
US
/with the] Pminus

.
diminishing
increasing
If the table
(
computed from
sign
the proportional logarithm
[
j
is
not at hand,
may very
t'
readily be
(107).
In the last example,
Q"
Therefore
when
56.
t'
t
/
=
=
=
=
h
i
21'" 16*
8i .267;
230.
h
i
2om
io s .8;
8
5 .2.
56. In the British Nautical Almanac the differential coefficients are not given in connection with the right ascen-
sion and declination of the sun, moon, and other bodies as

in the American Ephemeris.
If, therefore, it is considered
to second differences, it
the
to
interpolation
carry
necessary
must be done by the interpolation formula.
CHAPTER
I.
THE CELESTIAL SPHERE. TRANSFORMATION OF

COORDINATES.
57.
When we
and other
view the heavens on a clear night, the stars

appear to us to be projected on the
celestial bodies
surface of a sphere of indefinite radius, with the centre at the

eye of the observer.
few hours' observation would show us that all these

bodies are apparently revolving about us from east to west,
in such a manner as to make a complete revolution in about
twenty-four hours. This appearance we know from other
considerations is due to the diurnal revolution of the earth.
In addition to this
first
motion we should soon recognize
a second, in consequence of which the sun appears to move

among the stars from west to east, in such a manner as to
complete a revolution in about one year. We know this to

be due to the annual revolution of the earth about the sun.
There are various other motions recognized, some of which
require very long periods for completing their cycle.
Of
ICO
these precession and nutation are examples. Some of these

motions we shall have occasion to consider hereafter.
For our purposes
it
will frequently
be convenient to speak
of the apparent motions of the heavenly bodies as if they

were the true motions. Thus we say that a star passes the
meridian at a given time, when we know in fact that the

meridian passes the star; or that the sun rises above the
horizon, when in fact the horizon passes below the sun. The
reader will never be misled by such expressions, and we are
by this means often able to avoid cumbersome circumlocutions in language.
As we view the celestial sphere all the heavenly bodies

appear to be at equal distances, and with few exceptions to
maintain the same positions relative to each other. We can
measure their directions, but at present are not concerned
with their distances.
The department of astronomy with which we are now

occupied deals for the most part with exact measurements
either of the co-ordinates of the stars, or of the observer's
If we know the latitude and
position on the earth's surface.
longitude of our observatory, we can by observation determine the spherical co-ordinates of any star. If, on the other,
hand, the positions of the heavenly bodies are known, observation furnishes the data for determining our position in
latitude and longitude.
It is with problems of the latter
class that this book is chiefly concerned.
Spherical Co-ordinates.
The
position of a star on the celestial sphere is deterof two spherical co-ordinates, measured with
reference to a fixed great circle.
58.
mined by means
Three
different systems are in
the circle of reference
is
common
use, according as
the horizon, the equator, or the
SPHERICAL CO-ORDINATES.
53.
ecliptic.
follows
For our purposes we
IOI
shall define these circles as
THE HORIZON
is a great circle of the celestial sphere formed

by a plane passing through the eye of the observer and per-
pendicular
to t/ie plumb-line.
THE CELESTIAL EQUATOR
is
a great
circle
of the
celestial
formed by a plane passing through the eye of the oband perpendicular to the earths axis.
THE ECLIPTIC is a great circle of the celestial sphere formed by
a plane passing through the eye of the observer and parallel
sphere
server
to the plane
of the eartJis
orbit.
Either of these circles considered as the basis of a system

is called a. primitive circle.
The great circles
formed by planes perpendicular to the primitive circle are
of co-ordinates
called secondaries.
THE ZENITH
THE
is
the point
where the plumb-line produced pierces
the celestial sphere above the horizon.

NADIR is the point where the plumb-line
produced below
the horizon pierces the celestial sphere.

THE ZENITH and NADIR are the poles of the horizon.
Vertical circles are secondaries to the horizon.

Hour-circles, or circles of declination, are secondaries to
the equator.
THE MERIDIAN
zenith
and
is
the hour-circle which passes through the
nadir.
THE MERIDIAN LINE
is the line in which the plane of the

meridian intersects the plane of the horizon.
TJie north and
south points of the horizon are the points in which this line
pierces the celestial spliere.

is the great circle whose plane is perpendicular to tJic plane of the meridian, and passes through
THE PRIME VERTICAL

the zenith.
^-^L
'71
102
S9-
THE EAST AND WEST LINE is the line in which the plane of the
prime vertical intersects the plane of the horizon. The east
and west points of 'the horizon are the points in which this
line pierces the celestial sphere.
The north and south
points are the poles of the prime
vertical.
The
east
and west points are the poles
of the meridian.
The Horizon.
59. The spherical co-ordinates referred to the horizon as
the primitive or fundamental plane are the altitude and azimuth.
THE ALTITUDE
horizon,
of a heavenly body is its distance above the

measured on a vertical circle passing through that
body.
THE AZIMUTH
of a heavenly body is the distance from the north

or south point of the horizon, measured on the horizon to the
foot of the vertical circle passing through the body.
For astronomical purposes it is customary to measure the

azimuth from the south point through the entire circumference in the order S., W., N., E. For geodetic purposes it is
generally reckoned from the north point. Navigators and
surveyors frequently use other methods, which it. is not
necessary to enlarge on in this place.
Instead of the altitude, the zenith distance of a star is frequently used this is simply the distance from the zenith to
the star, measured on a great circle.
The zenith distance and
;
altitude are
complements
of
each other.
We shall use the following notation

h = altitude
a = azimuth;
z = zenith distance.
z =
:
90
h.
THE EQUATOR.
60.
103
In consequence of the diurnal motion the altitude and

of any star are constantly changing their values.
azi-
muth
The Equator.
60. The points in which the meridian intersects the equator are the north and south points of the equator. The points
in which the earth's axis pierces the celestial sphere are the
poles of the equator, and are called respectively the north

and south pole. This line is also the axis of the heavens.
When the equator is the fundamental plane, the position
of a star may be fixed either by its declination and hour-
angle or by
its
declination and right ascension.
THE DECLINATION
of a star is its distance north or south of

measured on an hour-circle passing through the
When the star- is north of the equator the declination
the equator
star.
is -)-; iv/ten
south,
THE HOUR-ANGLE
is the angle at either pole between

the hour-circle passing through the star ;
the distance measured on the plane of the equator
the meridian
or
it
from
is
of a star
and
the south point
circle passing
of the equator
to the foot
of the hour-
through the star.
The hour-angle
S.,
is reckoned from the south, in the direction

from o to 360, or from oh to 24''. In some
is convenient to reckon the hour-angle towards the
which case it must be considered minus. The hour-
W., N.,
cases
it
east, in
E.,
angle is constantly changing, in consequence of the apparent revolution of the celestial sphere. As this revolution
does not affect the position of the equator, the declination is
independent of the diurnal motion.
The planes of the equator and ecliptic intersect each other
104
6l.
The line in which these planes

at an angle of about 23 27'.
intersect is the line of the equinox, and the points where it
pierces the celestial sphere are the equinoctial points. They
are known respectively as the vernal equinox and the autumnal equinox. The points on the equator 90 from the equi-
known
noctial points are the solstices,
and the winter
The
solstice.
as the
summer
equinoctial colure
is
solstice
the hour-
through the equinoxes. The solstitial colure

the hour-circle passing through the solstices.
The equinoxes are the poles of the solstitial colure, and the
circle passing
is
solstices are the poles of the equinoctial colure.
THE RIGHT ASCENSION
of a star
is
the arc
of the equator
in-
tercepted between the vernal equinox and the foot of the hourIt is reckoned from the vercircle passing througJi the star.
nal equinox, in the order of the signs Aries, Taurus,
from o
The
to
h
360, or from o
right ascension
and
to
24
etc.,
h
,
declination are both
independent of
the diurnal motion.

distance
is
Instead of the declination, the north-polar

It is the distance from the
frequently employed.
north pole to the star measured on a great circle, and

shall let
complement of the declination.
is
the
We
=
=
t =
/ =
6
Declination of a star;
Right ascension
;
Hour-angle
North-polar distance
;
The
61.
When
the ecliptic
is
90
tf.
Ecliptic.
the fundamental plane, the co-
ordinates are called latitude and longitude.
THE
62.
ECLIPTIC.
105
THE LATITUDE
ecliptic
of the
of a star is its distance north or south of the

measured on a secondary to the ecliptic. When north
ecliptic the latitude is -f-;
THE LONGITUDE
of a star
is
when
the distance
south,
measured on the
eclip-
the vernal equinox to the foot of the secondary passing through the star. It is reckoned in the order of the signs
tic
from
from o
to
360.
will be designated by A
Latitude will be designated by /?.
Longitude
These co-ordinates must not be confounded with terrestrial

and longitude, with which they have no connection.
latitude
The system
It
is
much used
in orbit
computation.
preceding definitions.
represents the sphere projected on the plane of the hori-
Fig.
will serve to illustrate the
zon.
Zis the zenith, CVTthe ecliptic,

position of any star.
WVE the
equator,
the
OL = Declination, S
LQ=LPQ= Hour-angle, /;
VEQ WL Right ascension, a;
VTCD = Longitude, A
;
OD
Latitude,
ft
OH
Altitude,
//
SH= Azimuth, a\
OZ =
PO =
62.
Zenith distance, z
N. P. distance,/.
The following diagram
to the symbols
employed
vg
will assist in giving definiteness
in the foregoing.
The
notation
PR A CTICAL A S TRONOM Y.
io6
63-
should be thoroughly memorized, as the symbols will be

constantly employed hereafter.
=
=
a
Altitude
h
[Zenith distance
["Azimuth
Horizon^
Hour-angle
z.
SphericalCo-ordinates
North-polar distance
T-
4.-
Ecll P tlc
Longitude
Latitude^
= p.
A;
ft.
The obliquity of the ecliptic we shall designate by f. Its

mean value for 1881.0 is e = 23 27' i6 .6o. (See American
//
Ephemeris, page
248.)
The
position of the observer on the surface of the earth

shall let
given in latitude and longitude.
is
We
(p
L =
Latitude,
-J-
Longitude,
when north,
when west,
-f-
when south;
when east.
For astronomical purposes longitude in this country

reckoned from the meridian of Washington or Greenwich.
63.
is
In Fig. 2 the large circle represents a section of the celessphere, and the small one a section of the earth, both
tial
formed by the intersection
of the plane of the meridian.

the horizon, EE' the equator,
the zenith, Z'
the nadir, P the north pole.
The latitude of the point O will be equal to the arc EZ,
HH'
is
which by
definition
is
the declination of the zenith of O.
It
also equal to the arc PH', or the elevation of the north

pole above the horizon of O.
is
TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
64.
107
The angle between the equator and

will therefore be 90
<p, q>
the horizon of any place

being the latitude of the place.
Transformation of Co-ordinates.
64.
PROBLEM
Having given
I.
the altitude
and azimuth of
any star, to find the corresponding declination and hour-angle.

Let us refer the star's position to a system of rectangular
co-ordinates in which the horizon shall be the plane of XY,
the positive axis of
positive axis of
to the zenith.
X being
to the
Then
will x, y, z
4,
//,
directed to the south point, the
west point, and the positive axis of
= the rectangular co-ordinates of the

= the polar co-ordinates of the star;
star;
'A being the distance or radius vector.
We then
have*
x
y
z
= A cos h cos a;
= A cos h sin a\
= A sin h.
*See Davies' Analytical Geometry, edition cf

work on analytical geometry of three dimensions.
( IIQ )
>
1869,
p.
302; or any other
IOS
64.
Let the star now be referred to the equator as the fundamental plane, the positive axis of
being directed to the
south point of the equator, the positive axis of Fto the west
to the north pole.
point, and the positive axis of
Let
now
x' y', z'

,
A,
We
d, t
then have
be the rectangular co-ordinates;

be the polar co-ordinates.
x'
=A
y'
A
A
z'
cos S cos /;
cos $ sin /;
sin 3.
(i
1)
The problem now requires these values of x y and z' to

observe that the
be expressed in terms of x, j, and z.
axes of Fare the same in both systems; that the axes of
make the angle 90
and
q> with those of X' and Z'.
therefore require the formulas for transformation of co'
We
We
ordinates from one rectangular system to another having the
same
origin, viz.:
x'
y'
z'
or
x'
y'
=
=
=
cos (90
9?)
-f z sin (90
<p);
sin (90
q>)
+ z cos (90
cp)\
sin cp
r,
=
=
-f-
z cos
cp;
z sin
(p. )
y;
z'
cos
q> -j-
(112)
Substituting in (112) the values of x,y, and z from (no),

and oix',y', and z' from (in), dropping at the same time
the factor A which is common to every term, we have
cos 3 cos
cos 8 sin
sin
t
t
=
=
=
cos h cos a sin

cos h sin a]
cos h cos a cos
cp -f- sin
h cos
<p;
(p.
I
g> -(-
sin
sin
(113)
64.
09
These equations express the required relation, but they

are not in convenient form for logarithmic computation; besides, the required quantities d and t are given in terms of
their sines and cosines.
always best, when practicable, to determine an angle

terms of its tangent. The tangent varies rapidly for all
angles great or small, and consequently if a small error from
any cause exists in the tangent it will have but little effect
on the value of the angle. On the other hand, if the value
of the angle is near 90 or 270 and is given in terms of its
sine, this function will vary slowly with the angle, and a
It is
in
small error in the sine will produce a large error in the

The same is true of the cosine for angles near o or
angle.
1 80.
If the angle is near 90 or 270 it may be determined
with accuracy from its cosine, or if near o or 180 it may be
accurately determined from
In any case it can be

its sine.
determined with accuracy from its tangent.
For the purpose of effecting the required transformation in
(113), let us
introduce the auxiliary equations

sin
cos h cos a
n cos A';
n sin N.
(HA)
This will be possible, for we have the two arbitrary quann and N, and the two equations (114) for determining
them. Substituting these values in (113), we have
tities
cos S cos
cos S sin
sin
sin
N sin
q>
4-
cos
N cos

N)-
((p
cos h sin a;
I (115)
N).
of (114)
by the
we have
tan
N = cot h cos a
(116}
PRA C TICAL A S TRONOM Y.
For determining
and substitute
we
64.
divide the second of (115) by the
first,
cos h cos a
from
tan
(114), viz.,
For determining
S,
tan S
We
ty_ N j
co
tan a
.....
divide the third of (115) by the
tan
N)
((p
cos
.....
(117)
first:
(u8)
may now
obtain a formula for proving the accuracy

of the computation by dividing the second of (114) by the
first of (115), viz.,
sinvV
cos
(tp
N)
cos h cos a
cos
cos
tf
(117), and (118) solve the problem com(119) is a proof of the accuracy of the work.
The proof consists in this equation being satisfied when we
substitute for S and / the values obtained from equations (117)
Formulae
pletely,
(116),
and
and (118). If the work has been correctly performed the

two logarithms should not differ by more than three or four
This proof is not always reliable,
units in the last place.
however.
Collecting together
reference,
these formulae for convenience of
we have
tan
N=
tan
cot h cos #
sin
tan #
sin
cos
((p
cos
tan
#;
(9?
tan
(<p
N)
cos
/;
jryr
)
cos h cos
N)
cos d cos
t'
(I)
64.
Ill
With regard
to the species of these angles it is to be reTV may be taken in any quadrant which satisfies
the algebraic sign of tan N; second, 6 is always less than 90
when tan is
and is -f- when tan 8 is -)-> and
third, for
marked,
first,
the species of
t let
us examine the equation
cos 8 sin
cos h sin
Cos & and cos h will always be

will be the same as that of a.
As an example
a.
therefore the species of t
-|-
of the application of these formulas, take
the following:
Latitude of Sayre Observatory

Sun's altitude
Azimuth
Required
tf
and
40
=
=
36' 23". 9
47
80
23'
N=
ep-N-
46' 33". 2
31
49' 50". 7
<p
h
a
=
=
15'
4 64o'
23
4'
tan a
sin
sec (cp
The computation
t.
= (p =
=h=
=a=
cos a
= 9.9657782
= 9.2228053
tan JV
cot h
i8".3
4". 47
is
40
36' 23".9;
47 15' i8".3;
80 23' 4".47;
as follows
cos h
cos a
= 9.8317007
= 9.2228053
9.1885835
9.0545060
4". 53
24". 33
= 0.7710501
N = 9.1834690
N) =
.0707805
tan t =
.0252996
tan
(q>
N} =
9.7929304
9.8364670
cos
9.6293974
cos
cos
tan S
= 9.8364670
= 9.9637894
9.8002564
sin
~(
N
IT]v)
9-2542495 (proof)
cos h cos a
cog s CQS
9-2542496
112
65.
65. PROBLEM II.

Having given the declination and hourThis
the altitude and azimuth.
to
determine
star,
any
of
angle
In this case we require
is the converse of the preceding problem.
of x, y, z in terms of the values of x' y', z'

formulas (112) for transformation then become
the values
Our
x' sin
y=y
=
z'
q>
cos
<>;
f
.
(120)
x' cos
cp -\-
z sin
[
q>
Substituting in these the values of x, y, z, x',_y', z' from (i 10)

(i 1 1), dropping at the same time the common factor J,
,
and
we have
cos h cos a
cos h sin a
sin
=
=
=
We may now adapt

tion
cos 8 cos /sin

cos 8 sin /
cos 8 cos
sin
8 cos
sin
8 sin

8
t
=. m sin M
= m cos M
like that used in solving equations (113),
find the following formulae
(II)
66.
The remarks
formulae
in reference to the species of the angles in

apply equally to (II).
(I) will
The following example will illustrate the application of

these formulas
:
=
=
=
Given
Required a and
=
=
=
<p
S
t
<p
M=
M=
-
40
4'
24
h.
36' 23". 9
=
=
9.6293972
cos S
9.8364670
cos
4'
24". 3
tan
<5
46
40'
4". 5
cos
31
49' 50". 7
tan
M = 9.7929302
46' 33". 2
80
23'
47
15'
tan
(<p
36' 23
46 40'
23
23
cos
cosec
40
=
=
9.9637894
9.8364670
9.8002564
4". 47
i8".3
o 0252995
M = 9 9292195
M) =
tan a =
.8165310
tan
(<p
M)
cos a
0.7710500
tan A
cos
sin (cp
M =
- T77
M)
9.1885835
=
=
9.2228053
cos a
.0342218
cos h
9.2228053
9.8317007
9.0545060
cos 5 cos /
-7457505 (proof) 777^
cos // cos a
.7457504
66. As may readily be seen, the preceding formulas and

many more may be derived by applying the equa-
Spherical Trigonometry to the triangle

Thus
zenith, the pole, and the star.
in the figure the sides of the triangle are 90
g>,
S =1 p, and 90
h = z. The angles are t,
90
i So
a, and q, the angle at the star, called the
When any three of these quanparallactic angle.
tions of
formed by the
tities
part
are given, the determination of any other

merely a question of trigonometry.
is
1 1
PR A C TICA L AS
'2 'A'
ONOMY
COROLLARY. To find the hour-angle oj a star

horizon, or at the time of rising or setting.
the star is in the horizon the altitude, h,
the last of equations (121) becomes
When
cos S cos
fp -f-
sin
sin
3 sin
(p
8 sin
q>
tan
tf
zero,
and
o,
tan
this
?>.
(122)
equation
it is
then subtract both members from unity, and
--
cos 8 cos
i
-4-
cos
cos
or
is
in the
we may determine / but, as before rebetter to determine the angle from its tangent.
this purpose first add both members of (122) to unity,
From
marked,
For
cos
---^V7^= -
cos*=
or
when
/=
sm
*'
cos
sin
cp -4-
sin cp
cp
(p
sin
o cos
cos^-f-
---;
cp
COS (cp
(?)
^-- ~~
cos tp cos 3
2 cos \t
cos d cos
sin
q>
cos d cos
we have
;
'
S)
'
Dividing the second of these by the

square root,
first
and extracting the
At the time of rising the lower sign will be used at the

time of setting, the upper. This formula may be used to
compute the time of sunrise and sunset at any place whose
latitude is known.
For example, let it be required to compute the apparent time of sunrise at Bethlehem on the morn;
ing of July 4th,
88 1.
ANGULAR DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO
67.
From
the Nautical Almanac, page 329,

<?
22 52' oi'V
(p
y=
latitude
cp -j-
s
6
40
cos
17 44' 22".9
63 28' 24' '.9
=
t
It
find for the
36' 23".9.
cos
tan
we
11$
sun's decimation
The
STARS.
55
^=
tan \t
35' 52". 5
=
=
=
9.9788425
9.6499288
-3289137
.1644569,,
in n'45".o
h
being sunrise,
24
is
47
s
.
minus.
we
If
subtract this quantity
from I2 h the time when the sun is on the meridian

have for the apparent time of sunrise
4" 35
we
13
This differs from the ordinary or mean time by an amount

equal to the equation of time, as will be explained hereafter.
(See Art. 92.)
Required the distance between two stars

67. PROBLEM III.
whose right ascensions and declinations are known.
The two stars and the pole will form the vertices of a trid, 90
#', and d, the
angle of which the sides will be 90
required distance.
a.
be a'
a and
S and
The
angle opposite
will
a' are the right ascensions of the stars.

S'
are the declinations.
In the triangle
two
sides
angle are given; the third side
and the included

is
required.
Il6
We can apply equations

(compare Figs. 3 and 4)
h
cp
t
=
=
=
=
to this case
(121)
go
by writing
d\
6'
a'
a;
- B.
180
Thus we have
sin
sin
cos
d cos
d sin
B=
B=
</
If
sin d cos d'

cos 6 sin
cos 8 sin (a
)
sin d sin <?' -|- cos 8 cos
the quantity
last of these
cos (a'
it
(124)
a).}
sufficient pre-
gives the required
to logarithmic
computation as
Write
/T,,
Then
tan
does not give
we may determine
Thus,
k sin K\
k cos K.
tan
-
d cos (&
A-
(iv)
d with
it
precisely similar to that

(121).
a)
sin
If this
=
=
sin
COS d cos (a'
and
<*)
<T
d can be determined with
from its cosine, the

solution, and we may adapt
cy,
cos (a'
cision
follows
6'
the required degree of accuraterms of the tangent in a manner
in
employed
in
solving equations (113)
let
sin
cos d cos (a
a)
=
=
n cos N\
n sin N.
ANGULAR DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO
67.
When we
STARS.
l\J
readily find
tan
N=
tan
B=
tan
sin
(N +
cos
"
<^
cot S cos (a'

S1
cos
cot
"
a);
(N -\(N 4-
<5
tan
('
a);
Jr
)
7
rf
)
-;
cos ^ cos (a'

sin d cos
or)
Example.
Required the distance between the sun and moon, 1881,

h
July 4th, o Bethlehem mean time.
From the Nautical Almanac for 1881, p. 114, we find, for
,
the moon,
a'
*'
From
p.
=
= -
&
22
The computation then

a'
a
a
3 .22;
23'
i6",7.
329 of the same, for the sun,
<*=
a'
I2 h 39
5" 43
55
32 73;
50' 2I
is
//
.9
<
as follows, using equations (IV):
85
52'
3o'.49
37". 35 cos (a'
22
50'
2i".9
tan
=
=
9.6244585
K=
80
18'
45". 19
tanA'=
.7677470
23'
i6".7
=/T = d>
^=
89 42'
89
52'
i".8g
55". 5
8.8567115
9.5889992
0560^=
.0062374
sin
cos^'-Jr)
cos
=
=
7.7182360
7.3134726
Il8
6/.
Applying formulas (IV), to the solution of the same probwe have the following:
lem,
a'
a
6
=
=
=
=
Ar+S' =
B=
52' 37". 35
85
22
50'
2l"-9
JV
41' 14". 8
d'
23' i6".7
d=
=
=
tan =
cos
8.8567115
cos
COt
.3755415
COS
=
=
8.8567115
9.9645407
8.8212522
9.2322530
o 17' 58".!
66 48' 40". 8
89
5 2'55".5
tan (a'
sin
cos (IV
a)
d')
1.1421632
N = 9.2260154
factor =
tan B =
9.9999940 cot (AT
5')
2.2817621
9.2260214
0.3681846
cos
9.5952317
sin
9.9999991
cos .#=: 9.5952317

tan
2.6865304
9.5952308
sin
proof 9.2260214
9>226 214
CHAPTER
PARALLAX. REFRACTION.
II.
DIP OF
THE HORIZON.
68. The same star may be observed from points on the

surface of the earth separated from each other by several
thousand miles. If the distance to the star is so great that
the diameter of the earth is inappreciable in comparison, it
will appear in the same part of the heavens from whatever

part of the earth it is seen. If, however, the diameter of the
earth bears an appreciable ratio to the distance of the object,
then
when
the observer's position changes there will be an

star.
This difference in
apparent change in the place of the

position
is
called parallax.
in dealing with bodies which have an appreciable parallax to reduce all positions to the earth's centre.
Thus the places of the sun, moon, and planets, which
we find given in the ephemeris, are the places as they would
It is
customary
appear to an observer at the centre of the earth.
we
This which
\\iQdiurnalparallax. With the subject

of annual parallax, which depends upon the position of the
earth in its orbit, we have at present nothing to do. It may
are considering
is
be remarked that on account of the great distances of the

fixed stars their diurnal parallax is in all cases inappreciable.
It is only necessary to consider it in connection with the
bodies of the solar system.
I2O
Definitions.
69.
THE GEOCENTRIC
seen
from
POSITION of a body
position as
is its
the earth's centre.
THE APPARENT*
or
from a point on
THE PARALLAX
is
OBSERVED POSITION
place as seen
is its
the earth's surface.

the difference between the geocentric
and
the
observed place.
It
two
may
lines
also be defined as the angle at the bod)' formed by

drawn to the centre of the earth and the place of
observation respectively.
THE HORIZONTAL PARALLAX
is
the parallax
when
the star
is
seen in the horizon.
THE EQUATORIAL HORIZONTAL PARALLAX

when
seen in the horizon
from a point on
It may also be defined as the angle

by the equatorial radius of the earth.
the parallax
is
the eartlis equator.
at the
body subtended
To find the equatorial horizontal parallax

70. PROBLEM I.
of a star at a given distance from the earth's centre.
Let n
a
=
=
=
=
the equatorial horizontal parallax

PSC;
the equatorial radius of the earth
PC;
SC.
star's distance from the earth's centre
Then from
SHITTY ~;
*The
the figure
....
we have
(125)
terms apparent place and true place are to be considered simply as

When dealing with parallax we speak of the true place as the
relative terms.
So when speaking of refraction the apparplace when corrected for parallax.

ent place is the place affected by refraction, and the true place is the place corrected for refraction, but it may still require corrections for parallax and a va-
When dealing with the places of the fixed stars we use

riety of other things.
the term apparent place in a still different sense, as we shall see hereafter.
PARALLAX.
121
s being the place of the star,/ a point on the surface of the

earth, and c being the centre.
For astronomical purposes the mean distance of the earth

from the sun is regarded as the unit of measure. Then for
the sun we have
A
PROBLEM
71.
sin
i;
(126)
To find the parallax of a star at any
II.
earth being regarded as a sphere.

In the figure, s represents the place of the star, z the zenith,
the centre of the earth,/ a point on the surface.
zenitJi distance, the
Let
z'
the
observed
zenith
distance;
geocentric zenith dis-
=
a =
A =
PSE;
parallax
radius of earth
PE\
SE.
distance of star
tance;
=
=
From
we have
A
SEP
the triangle
sin z'
sin p.
FIG.
From which
sin
from
sin
or,
/ and
poses
it
(125),
will generally
we may
=
=
jsin
6.
sin
z';
(127)
it
sin
(128)
be very small
hence for most pur-
write
sin z'
(129)
122
72.
The foregoing solution is only an approximation, the earth

not being a sphere as we have there regarded it. For many
purposes this is sufficiently exact, while for others, particularly where the moon is considered, it is not so. A more
rigorous solution requires us to consider the true form of the
earth.
Form and Dimensions of the Earth.
The
is in form approximately an ellipsoid of rev72.

olution, the deviations from the exact geometrical figure being so small as to be inappreciable for our purposes.
earth
The dimensions
of the ellipsoid as given
by Bessel are as
follows:
Equatorial radius
Polar radius
A =
B=
Eccentricity of meridian
log
3962.8025 miles;
3949.5557 miles;
.08169683;
8.9122052.
other determinations of these quantities have been

less from the above, but these are
in more general use than any others.
Many
made, differing more or

still
Definitions.
73.
THE GEOGRAPHICAL LATITUDE

surface
normal
of a point on the earth's
the angle made with the plane of the equator by a

to the surface at this point.
is
THE GEOCENTRIC LATITUDE
is the angle formed with the

plane of the equator by a line joining the point with the
earth's centre.
THE ASTRONOMICAL LATITUDE
is
the angle formed with the
plane of the equator by a plumb-line at the given point.
THE DEDUCTION OF THE LATITUDE.
73-
I2 3
If the earth were a true ellipsoid and perfectly homogeneous, the geographical and astronomical latitude would
always be the same. Practically, however, the plumb-line
frequently deviates from the normal by very appreciable

amounts. This deviation is always small, but in mountainous
countries, as the Alps and Caucasus, deviations have been
observed as great as 29". Unless otherwise stated, when
speaking of latitude the astronomical latitude is to be under-
We
shall also assume for present purposes that

coincides in value with the geographical latitude.
Let the annexed figure
z
stood.
it
represent a section cut

the earth's surface
from
by a plane passing through

This section will
Let
be
its axis.
be an
ellipse.
any point on the surf ace, E)

the north and
P and
south poles
Then
respectively.
HH'
will represent
the horizon of the point K.
FIG. 7 .
Let p
(p
<p'
= CK
=
A =
B =
=
=
radius of the earth for latitude KO'E'\

geographical latitude of point K;
KCE'
geocentric latitude of point K\
semi-major axis of ellipse = CE'\
semi-conjugate axis of ellipse = CP.
KO'E'
'
The angle
CKO =(?$>'
is
called the reduction of the
For determining the parallax with precision we

and p, the determination of which for any
require (tp
(p'}
latitude.
latitude
<p
we
shall
now
investigate.
PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY*
124
To Determine
74.
We
(<p
74-
g*').
have for the equation of the
ellipse (Fig. 7)
Ay + B ^ = AW, ......
3
(130)
dx
tan
<?=
-^ .......
(131)
cp being the angle which the normal forms with the transverse axis of the ellipse. Also,
tan<p'=^
By
differentiating (130)
we
........
(132)
.....
('33)
find
~% = &
*"<?
Therefore from (132) and (133)

ni
tan
<p'
-^
tan
<p.
(134)
From equation (134) q>' may be readily computed for any

given value of <p. It will greatly facilitate this computation,
For
g>') in the form of a series.
however, to develop (q>
this purpose we make use of Moivre's formulae, viz.:*
* As
some readers may not be
familiar with these very useful formulae,
we
give their derivation.
Developing
e*
by Maclaurin's formula, we have
r"=
also,
cos
.r
-f
i+--f
^ I~l.t^
= +i
-4-
etc
--
sin
JT
JT
----
1.2.3
etc.;.
1.2.3^1.2.3.4
1.2.3.4.5
.......
etc
(a)
(*)
THE REDUCTION OF THE LATITUDE.
74-
sin
X
x
=
=
tan
2 COS
12$
(135)
V^l
Writing tan
tan
<p'
q>'
= p tan
and tan
where /
?>
~j. substituting for
the value given by the last of (135),
9?
and dropping the common factor
i,
we have
from which
Substituting in
(^)
and
(<) JT*
= z V^l,
whence
s-,
JT
1^^"l,
we have
i.a 3-4-5
.2.3
adding, cos
Writing
x-
or
V=~i
for
-f- JT,
sin
=i+ +
we have
adding and subtracting,
cos
cos
2 cos x
*'
s3
- + ** + etc
J^^
+
.
sin
JT
e~ xV - 1
"
+ V^\ sin = e* y ^\
JT
e *'
'
~ "' ~ *
I
Q.E.D.
126
Writing q
^*^(*' -
whence
becomes
this
-^-.
v~
i((p'
(p)
qe^

we have
74-
of both
^-
log(i
members
2*
v-
(136)
of equation (136),
~
log(i
in the
Expanding the logarithms
......
2*
vir i
).
second member by the
formula
log
(i
x)
=-x-
-- x*
x*
,
etc.,
we have
2
i/^T(^_
(p)=
- qe-^^-ê-^^-tfe-f*^, etc.
2
_|_^ *vzr
_J_^V**
V ^T
H-^V
*^
etc.
This becomes by the second of (135)

2
or
(<p'
q>'
<p)
(p
4/
^sin 2^>
= q sin 2<H~^
p~~
i
In this equation
Substituting for
/+i
/4
and
sin
-f-
2 I/
-f-
49)+ 1^
^- ^
\q* sin
3
-J^
4^
sin 6^>, etc.,
sin 6<p, etc.
(137)
& -f ^'
'
their values giv en in Art. 72 r

r
THE EARTH'S RADIUS.

and dividing by sin
of arc,
we
"
i
I2/
order to express the result in seconds
in
readily find
= -
690^.65;
3
i?
".003.
Therefore we have the very convenient and practically rigorous formula

cp
<p'
//
69O
i".i6 sin 49?.
.65 sin 2g>
To Determine
75.
x and y being
(138)
p.
the co-ordinates of the point K,
we have
.....
(139)
(130)
tan
Combining
q>'
and
(130)
or
x\\
Combining
this
(134),
tan
cp
......
eliminating j,
+ tan ^ tan
<?')
we have
=^
2
.
with (139) and (134) to eliminate x,
^^
cp'
-f tan
=^
(134)
cos
we
find
q>
cos ^' cos (>'
^)'
The computation of p from (140) is very simple, but it

or log p
may be rendered much more so by developing p,
128
For
into a series.
this
secy
+ tan
'
shall
+ ^ tan
+
-g
regard
the
when we have
'
B'
Let us write
~
=
tan
we
purpose
as unity,
equatorial radius
;6.
& tan
B*
;
-,
= cos>4-|
~~J?
cos" cp -f
(p
sin>
sm>
e\
we have
2
log p
of both
members,
log
g' sinV)
(i
log
e*
(i
sin ^)-
Developing the second member by the logarithmic formula,

2
lo<rp=
g
M\~
L+
t*
or log
p=
\M(f
sin
sin
g*}
^ ~ *^"
2
-|-
sin>
sin '^
~ ^*
sinV
-f-
+ \M(?
(e*
-J/
g'}
sin "^
sinV
+ etc.J'
etc
'l-
sin>
g*) sin>, etc.
their values, J/being the modSubstituting for e, g, and

ulus of the common system of logarithms
.43429448,
we
readily find
log p
76.
From
better series
j
.00143968 sin (p
6
.00000015 sin (p.
of log p
is
of functions of the multiple angles, instead of
sine as here.
(141)
computation
very simple. A
however, obtained by expressing it in terms
this the
is,
4
.00001438 sin <p
powers
of the
THE EARTH'S RADIUS.
/6.
129
For effecting the required transformation,

log p
sin 
sin <p
let
sin
<p;
'
x\
e -$f
+ ~~\:
^-
[^
+ |/? + -| r +
^* v=r ^
^4*^-
^^^=^ -f*-
+ e-
_|_
2*
i/:r^
^- 4*^^
^^^ =
etc.];
cos
2 cos
2 COS
130
/8.
Substituting these values with the numerical values of a,

ft,
and y as given
log p
77.
9.9992747
We
-f-
and we
find
.0007271 cos 2cp
.0000018 cos 4^. (142)
therefore have for computing

q>
log
in (141),
tp')
and log
[2.839258] sin
q>'
9.999 2747
(tp
+ [6.861594] cos
2(f>
+ [4.25527] c6s
4<p. F
p,
(V)
In which the quantities in brackets are logarithms of the coefficients.
Let us apply formulae (V) to the determination of

and log p for latitude 40 36' 23".9.
We
have
2<p
49?
[2.839258] sin 2<p
[o.o6446 n ] sin 4<p
Therefore
78.
<p
We
problem
are
<p'
=
=
81
162
= -f 682". 54
= ".35
= n' 22". 19
now prepared
of parallax.
12'
<p
cp
48";
25' $6".
[6.861594] cos 2cp
[4.25527] cos 4^
log
=
=
=
9.9992747
mo.6
17.2
9.9993875
for the complete solution of the

is that of Olbers
The following method
(see Bode's Jahrbuch, 1811, p. 95).

shall consider four cases, viz.:
We
To determine the parallax in zenith distance and

azimuth, having given the geocentric zenitJi distance and
azimuth.
First
Second
Parallax in zenith distance and azimuth, having given

and azimuth.
Parallax in decimation and right ascension, having
the observed zenit/i distance
Third
given the geocentric declination and right ascension.

Parallax in declination and right ascension, having
given the observed declination and right ascension.
Fourth
PARALLAX IN AZIMUTH AND ZENITH DISTANCE.
79-
131
Case First.
Let the star be referred to a system of rectangular
79.
axes, the horizon of the observer being the plane of XY, the
being directed to the south point, the
positive axis of
positive axis of Fto the west point, and the positive axis of
Z to
the zenith.
Let
if,
,'',
8,'
A', 2', a'
Then
= the rectangular co-ordinates;

= the polar co-ordinates.
=
=
=
B,'
jj'
<?'
A' sin
A' sin
z'
cos
a'\
2' sin a';
A' cos
*'.
>
(H3)
Next let the star be referred to a system of co-ordinate

axes parallel to the first, the origin being at the centre of
the earth.
Let
?/, B,
A, a, 2
and we have
=
=
the rectangular co-ordinates;

the polar co-ordinates;
$
rj
2,
=
=
=
A
A
A
sin z cos a\
cos
Let the co-ordinates of the

second be
<
p, (cp
With the
ô
cp'\
*?o
=
=
sin z sin a; \
z.
first
( J 44)
origin referred to the
rectangular co-ordinates;
polar co-ordinates.
co-ordinate planes situated as in the present case,
a will be zero. We shall write a a = a

a, as this form will
be found convenient in a future transformation.
132
We then
have
p sin
p sin
p cos
-n
<?
The
79.
(<p
(p'}
(cp
tp')
(cp
(p').
cos (a
sin (a
a);
a);(.
(145)
formulas for passing from the
first
system (143) to the
second (144) will be
'
?/
/;
?;
<?'
<?
(146)
Substituting for these quantities their values (143), (144),
and
(145),
we have
:os
a'= A
>in
#'
sin z cos a
= sin s sin
= ^ cosz
//
p sin (tptp'} cos (#

p sin (cptp ) sin (0
0);
#);
pcos(<p(p').
These equations express the required
!-
relation
between the
quantities given, viz., a and z, and those required, a' and z'
It remains to transform them so as to render their application
.
convenient.
Let us divide the equations through by A and write from

(125)
sin
/* =
also
/sin
/sin
/cos
js/
cos
sin a'
a'
in this case.)
=
=
=
viz.:
sin 2 cos a
sin z sin a
cos z
In these equations let
*As/is
being unity
A'
-T
of
z'
(a
all
p
p
p
sin
it
cos (a
?r
sin (<p
sin (<p
/)
sin
<p')
sin (a
sin
cos
^j
(9)
).
a);
-*);)
a); ^-(148)
-*]
horizontal angles be diminished
eliminated from our formulae,
we
are not concerned with
its
value.
79-
133
by a; the resulting equations will be what we should have

obtained if our original axes of
had been directed
<?', and
to a point whose azimuth was a, instead of zero as in the
present case. We thus obtain
,
cos
/sin
z'
(a'
a]
/sm
z' sin (a'
a)
sin
p sin # sin (q>

p sin TT sin (^
sin
sin (cp
sm
Then
(149)
cos a-,
q>')
sin a.
qj\
become
/sin
/sin
and by
cp')
cos ('
a)
z'
sin
a)
= sin # (i m cos #);

= m sin * sin #;
a]'
(V
division,
tan (a
m sin #
m cos a
and (151) determine the parallax in azimuth.

determine (z'
z) we proceed as follows
a), and the second
Multiply the first of (149) by cos \(a'
add, and divide the result by cos \(a!
a)
a).
by sin %(a!
(150)
To
simple reduction then gives
/sin z
sm
p sm
.^
TI
sin (cp
cos Ua'
-4-
(p) COS 7^-7

'2\#
a)
(.
(152)
1)
Let us write
,
or
tan
cos \(a!
-f-
a)
..
tan
(g>
tp )
,\
cos %(a! +
,
a)
(153)
134
(152) then
becomes
f sin z
and the
sin
7t
cos
sin
TT
cos
(9?
<p')
tan
of (148),
last
y cos
=. sin
cos
z'
(154)
\
.sr
(<p
<p').
Multiplying the first of (154) by cos z and the second by sin z,

and subtracting, then multiplying the first by sin z and the
second by cos z and adding, we find
y
/sin
(*'
/cos (XWriting now
z)
*)
sin
;r
cos
(tp
c^"
<p')
COS
-psin7rcosO-y/)
Sin
= p-
7T
COS
(q>
v)
(.2
CQS
^
.
q>'}
CQS
(i55)
and we have
/sin
(z'
z]
/cos
(z'
z)
ta "(g '-')
n sin
(z
y)\
n cos (z
y)\
v\
n sin (s
= .-.
cos (,-Vy
'
'
'
(I56)
(155) and (156) now determine the parallax in zenith distance,

and the problem is completely solved.
80. Formulae (150), (151), (155), and (156) may be placed in
a form more convenient for logarithmic computation, as follows
Write
:
sin
= m cos a =
p
- sin
7t
~-
sin (a?
a/) cos
~-
57)
80.
135
Then
sin
=
=
tan a
sin
tan a
-^^
cos
3
&
sin
tan a
= tan
cos
3-
+ sn'
cos
5
sin
sin
tan a
sn 3
3)*
5
sn
-cosj3-f sinj3
sn
cos
tan ^3-
tan
therefore
tan
(a'
a)
= tan a tan 5 tan
(45
-f-
13).
(158)
In a similar manner writing
p
= cos(^-r)--
sin3'
we
sin
TT
cos
<?>')
cos (^
cosy
v)
"'
find
sin 5' tan (g
tan 3' tan (45
For computing y we have

tan
(a)
^)
tan (*
- y).
(160)
136
80.
Therefore
tan y
tan
C cos
9')
(9>
we
Therefore
if
in y, (tp
</),
tan
a tan
sin
^(a'
a)~\.
we have
Maclaurin's formula
By
-\-
^x*, etc.
neglect terms of the third and higher orders

(a'
a), all of which are small quantities,
and
we have
y
[cos a
-sin
From
we
(p )
(g>
tan (a
a)'
a \(a!
(161)
sin
#)].
cos a
have, by neglecting terms of the higher orders,
(a'
a)
This
<?'}
Substituting this in (161),
y=(g>-
-- - ---
sin
cos a
sin n(')
-
sin
we have
- P
sin
n sinW^
90* sin i"
2sin ^
accurate to terms of the second order of
is
sin z
(<p
(162)
<p'}
in-
clusive.
readily appear that for any value of z not less than

the second term will always be inappreciable.
z is very near zero the formula is apparently inappli-
It will
(cp
When
(/)
As we
cable.
cases,
it
further.
will
We
shall not have occasion to apply it to such

not be necessary for our purposes to discuss it
may
therefore
compute y from the
practically
rigorous formula
(9
9'} cos
......
(163)
81
PARA LLA X IN A ZIM U TH A ND ZENI TH DIS TA NCE.
3/
We have therefore the following complete formulse

computing the parallax in zenith distance and azimuth,
having given the geocentric zenith distance and azimuth.
81.
for
Sill *J
p
^^ ~
n cos a
sin
sin (q>
<p')
'
sin s
tan
~f
=
=
_
z)
a)
(a'
Y
.
sin
tan
(z'
tan a tan
(<p
tan (45
cos a;
cos (z
-\-
3);
f(VI)
<p')
sin
y} cos
(cp
<p'}
!
cos y
y} tan 3' tan (45
tan (z
= a' = o.
In the meridian, #
-f |3';
Therefore for this case (VI)
become
y
sin 3'
tan
(z'
z)
"
(T)
(I)
= p sin
= tan
(q>
\_z
As an example
cos [z
(cp
(p'}~\
>
tp')~]
tan 3' tan
(45+ ^-3').
(VI),
of the application of (VI) let us take the
following:
h
1881, July 4th, 9 ,

position of the moon
mean Bethlehem
was as
Zenith distance
Azimuth
time, the geocentric
follows:
=2=
=a=
65
40' 46".$;
48
19' 49".8.
Required the parallax in azimuth and zenith distance for

Bethlehem.
We have found for the latitude of Bethlehem (Art. 77)
cp
q>'
log p
From
=.
1'
22
//
.I9;
9.9993875-
the Nautical Almanac, page 113,
Our computation
is
now
56' 2o".4.
as follows:
38
=
=
2 =
r =
a
n'
(p
22". 19
sin
cosec
40' 46".$
65
logp
=65
sin
Q2
4 ".07
=45
<?>')
tan a
9.8227125
tan
2.8339053
tan (45
logy
iS)
-f-
2.6566178
1
tan (a
(a
a)
a)
9.9993875
8.2145238
tan (45
tan
tan
(z'
(z'
thus have for the apparent place
a'
z'
=
=
0.0506037
5.5964625
.0000171
5.6470833
9". 152
y)
z)
z)
=51'
+ IS')
(z
=
=
=
=
=
=
tan 3'
We
.0403593
38"-46
45
it
=
=
= 9.6168344
= 99999976
sec?' = .0000009
sin 5 = 5.5964625
sin $' = 7.8307442
8". 145
log(<p-
7.5194794
<p')
I6
cos a
9.8227125
cos
33' i2". 9 6
cos(<p
45+i3' =
=
=
=
33". 54
56' 2o". 4
TI
z-y
cos a
19' 49". 8
48
<p
81.
=
=
48
66
7.8307540
0029412
.3423734
8.1760686
33". 58
19'
5g".o
32' 20". I
Take the following example of application of (VI),

9.9993875
.2138035
moon
_
=
5' =
+ $y = 45
Equatorialhorizontalparallax,
45 "- 5
,,
,/
9 79959 3
-
(p
45
cp'
-gm
n'
22". 19
35' 24". 29
17'
42". 15
44'
3". 13
tan
(z'
z)
8.1077169
82.
39
Case Second.
To compute
the parallax in azimuth and zenith distance, having given the observed azimuth and zenith distance.
To obtain the expression for (2'
z) we multiply the first
82.
of (154)
by cos
and the second by
z'
sin
z',
and subtract.
thus have
We
..
(I64)
For (a'
a) we multiply the first of (148) by sin a', the
second by cos a' and subtract, recollecting that cos (a
a)=i,
sin (a
sin
a)
(V
We
o.
a)
thus find
= -p sin
sin (cp
cp'}
sin a'
.
sm z
(165)
We thus have for the parallax in zenith distance and azimuth, having given the apparent zenith distance and azimuth,
y
(cp
(p'}
cos
p sin n cos
a;
((p
sin (z'
(p')
~^^V~
sin (a
a)
--sin
7t
sin (cp
=
y)
"
sin a'
cp'}
sin z
To compute y we may
(vii)
substitute a' for a without appre-
ciable error.
To compute
(a!
a)
we must
first
obtain z by applying
the correction (*'

z] to the observed zenith distance.
a'= o, whence y
a
In the meridian, a
cp' a'
cp
= o,
and (VII) become

sin
For
all
0'
z]
sin
bodies except the
plified, as follows:
sin
moon
\_z'
(VII)
(cp
may be
?/)]
(VII),
greatly sim-
140
1
(z'
z\ (a
a],
82.
and n being very small, we may write

<p') and y being small,
We then have
the arcs in place of their sines. (<p

we may write for their cosines unity.
=
=
=
y
z'
a'
(<p
np
cos
<p')
sin (z
rtp sin (cp
a'
These
-z=n sin
'
z.
,';
o.
what we obtained when we treated the
last are
earth as a sphere.
Application of Formula (VII).
Latitude of Bethlehem
Apparent azimuth of moon
Apparent zenith distance of moon
Equatorial horizontal parallax

q>
log
(')
cos
66
9.8226904
= tp =
= a'
= =
=
=
z'
36' 23". 9
32' 20". i
n'
=
y) =
sec y =
<p')
(z'
log p
453"- 52
sin
24' 46". 58
a'
51'
65
9". 152
48
9.9621103
.0000009
9.9993875
8.2145238
(z
*)
8.1760201
(a!
a)
5.6470833
7.5194794
9.8733333
.0403593
40' 46". 52
a
a
33"-58
22". 19
9.9999976
=
=
=
cosec
sin
it
<f/)
sin a'
-z=
z =
19' 59". o
56' 20". 4
it
cos (p
sin
40
48
66
q>'
sin(<p-
z'
(VIII)
use a and z or a' and z' inIt will often be

sufficiently
differently in the second terms.

accurate to use
cosec
sin a'
<p'}
we may
In computing these
a;
7);
19'
49". 85
sin
82.
141
Application
Apparent zenith distance of the moon
at meridian passage
_
""
..
=
=
=
logp
sin
sin
[>'
(0j
sin
=
=
it
qJ
q>
TT
-<?')]
2)
(if
2'
56' 14". 8
n'
22". 19
9.9993875
8.2138035
9.8944903
8.1076813
44' 3". 13
Application of (VIII).
Find the parallax in azimuth and zenith distance of

as seen from Bethlehem, having given the following:
a
2
it
=
=
=
271
56'
21"
log
(<p
Y =
2.83390
y =
1.36331
y)
9.96312
log
9.99939
log
it
sin (z
8.52941
I3".6l
log
=
=
<p')
0050
66 43' 35"
23".!
66 43' 12"
sin (<p
<pt)
sin a
cosec
=+
For
this case
I2".48
log
".05
log
sin 2
=
=
9.96314
log
(s'
2)
1.09700
(2'
2)
a)
1.13386
2'
-|-
(a'
formula (VII IJ gives

log
Venus
12". 50
1.13386
=
=
=
=
=
7.51947
9.99975,,
.03686
1.09637
8.68933,,
83.
Application of (VII),.
=2=
= =
- =
Zenith distance of Venus at time of transit

24
15'
35"
ii'
i3"-57
22"
it
<f>
it
log
log
=
=
<p<
1.13258
9.99939
sin [z
(p )}
(ip
1
log
(z
- z)=
9.61051
.74248
z'
5". 53
Case Third.
83.
tion,
Required the parallax in right ascension and declinahaving given the geocentric right ascension and declina-
tion.
Let the equator of the observer be taken as the plane of

x being directed to the vernal equinox, the positive axis of y to that point on the equator whose
right ascension is 90, and the positive axis of z to the north
x, y, the positive axis of
pole of the heavens.
Let
x', y', z'
A', a', d'
We
then have
=
=
x'
y'
*'
the rectangular co-ordinates

the polar co-ordinates.
=
=
=
A' cos 8' cos a'

A' cos 8' Sin a'
A' sin 8'.
In the second system let the origin be at the centre of the

earth, the axes being respectively parallel to those of the
first
system.
Let
x, y, z
be the rectangular co-ordinates
A, a, d be the polar co-ordinates.
PAKALLAX IN
83.
RT.
x
y
Then
Let
f
,
= A cos 6 cos
= A cos d sin
= A sin #.
a
a
143
now
Xt>y<z<>
p, cp
ASCENSION AND DECLINATION.
= rectangular co-ordinates
of the observer's position

referred to the eai th's
polar co-ordinates
centre.
Here p is, as before, the line joining the observer's position

with the centre of the earth, and <p' and 6 are respectively
the declination and right ascension of the point where this
line produced pierces the celestial sphere
or in other words,
;
of the geocentric zenith.
we have
seen (Art.
63), is
The
declination of the zenith, as

f
cp in this
equal to the latitude
case.
The right ascension of the zenith, 6, equals the right ascension of the observer's meridian all points on the same meridian having the same right ascension. This we shall see
hereafter is equal to the observer's sidereal time.
We
have then
x^
y
z
and
for passing
x'
= p cos <p
= p cos
= p sin
cos
sin
(p'
(p'
from system
x,
y'
(166) to (167),
=y
y.
z'
(169)
z*.
Therefore
A' cos d' cos a'
A' cos tf' sin a'
^' sin 6'
= J cos # cos
= A cos # sin a
= A sin d
/o
cos
p cos
p sin
<p'
cos
<p'
sin
?/.
>
)
(170)
144
As
before, let us divide through
/=
--
sin
by
and write
/^,
84.
Then
/cos
/cos
8'
tf'
/sin
d'
'
=
=
=
ar' =. cos d
a8 cos a
cos a'
cos <? sin of
sin a'
sin
p
p
p
tf
n cos
cp'
<p'
<9
cos 6
TT
cos
<p'
sin
TT
sin
<p'.
sin
?r
sin
sin
(170
Let us diminish all horizontal angles by a, which will

be equivalent to transforming our rectilinear systems to
others in which the axes of x and x' make respectively the
angle a with the original axes. We thus derive
/COS
/cos
6'
cos (a
6' sin (a'.
a}
which substituted
we
m =
Let us write
first,
p sin n cos
sin n cos
=cos d
a]
TT
cos
cos (0
<*);
cp'
sin (6
a).
Then
'
'
(173)
and the second divided by the
in (172)
find
As
*
)
<z/
-=;
in case first,
m'
sin (a
(174)
m' cos (a
we may
0}
Q\
^^^-L-
= psinn cos
-a} =
(.74)
give this a form better adapted
tp'
cos
Write
cos (a
^
tf
becomes
tan (a'
to logarithmic computation, as follows:
sin
tan('_) =
84.
sin
cp'
tan (a
8}
--^"^ y
0)
-.
(175)
PARALLAX IN
84.
ASCENSION AND DECLINA TION.
RT.
45
But
sin
sin
sin
~~
cos*
_
~~
sin
3-|- sin
sin
3 -f- sin 3)
3 sin3) (cos3
3 -)- sin 3
3(cos
3) (cos
cos
sin
|3)
"
3)'
sin
~~
(cos
sin
sin
(cos
^3 cos 3 -|-
2 sin
sin ^3) cos

cos ^3
tan 3 tan (45 -f 3).
sin ^3^
^3
Therefore
tan (a
r)
tan
(or
which determines ('
0) tan
tan (45
-f
For determining
).
3),
(176)
(^
tf)
we
or), the second by

multiply the first of (172) by cos ('
f
add the products, and divide the result by
sin %(a
or);
cos ('
By this process we obtain
or).
/ cos
The
cos o
sin
it
cos
q>
COS \(a'
"
-\- a]
rcos ^(a'
or)
1
\( 77)
last of (171) is
/sin
d'
sin
p sin n
sin 9'.
Let us write
tan v
Then
(177)
tan o/ cos \(a'

1./
x
cos [(<*' -j- or)
/
of]
s^
0]
....
(178)
become
'
sin
cos
3'
=
=
sin
cos d
p sin
p sin
zr
sin
TT
sin <p cot y.
<?/
x
17
146
84.
Multiply the first of these by cos tf, the second by sin tf, and
subtract then multiply the first by sin 6, the second by
cos #, and add. We thus obtain
;
/ sin
(<*'
/cos
(<T
d)
tf)
sin
'
Let us write
n
p
sin
sin
<p'
7f
^fa
sin
= p- sinsinn sin
we
(S>
5)
*
'
^n y
first
(181)
equation by the
find
this equation
tan
......

sin
sin
-- -
<?'
cos
(tf
a
sin
y)
".
(182)
becomes
Si "
Equations
y}
"
r)
= ^n
(5
-r
(175), (176), (178), (182),
tan 3' tan (45
and
(183) give the
(183)
com-
plete solution of the problem.
We
thus have for computing the parallax in right ascension and declination, having given the geocentric right ascension and declination, the following formulae:
84-
PARALLAX IN
RT.

n cos
sin
cos (0
(p'
147
a)
COS 8
tan (a
a')
tan
sin
tan (9
tan
cos
/>
a) tan
cos
<p'
sin
TT
sin
d')
In the meridian,
a'
cp'
cos (v
#)
sin
TT
-;
+ ^).
6) tan $' tan (45
3);
0]
tan (y
-f
or')
sin
tan (d
tan (45
a'}
(or
[(
6.
Therefore y
cp',
and the
above become
B7
sin
tan
(tf
tf')
=
=
tan
(cp
cos
(cp'
#);
6) tan 3' tan (45
+ A3').
cnr\^ l
^
Application of Formula (IX).
Required the parallax of the moon in right ascension and

h
declination, 1881, July 4th, g Bethlehem mean time, as seen
,
from Bethlehem.
h
Converting g mean time into sidereal time by the
to be explained hereafter (p. 170), we have
Bethlehem sidereal time
From
the Nautical Almanac, p. 114,
we
find
a
S
Astronomical latitude of Bethlehem
=
=
= -
cp
=
=
Geocentric latitude of Bethlehem =
=
Nautical Almanac, p. 113, equatorial horizontal parallax =
6 - a =
=
q>
I5
52
i2 h 57
5o'.2
io".56
11
3'48"-4
40
36' 23". 9
n'
22". 2
40
25'
i' .7
q>
cp'
method
56' 20". 4
it
43
55
3Q-.64
54'
54"-6
148
cos
(8
a)
sec S
cos
q>
log
sin
Tt
sin
<p'
cos (y
S)
cosec y
sin
45 -f
3
3
t3
= 9.8575542
= .0081471
= 9.8815812
= 9.9993875
= 8.2145238
=
=
~
=
=
=
tan
sec [i(a
-f-
0]
9.9302268
=
=
9.9999957
.1443121
y =
tan
Y -
-f-
3')
tan (y - d)
tan 3'
7.9611938
31'
a')
a')
9.8118080
9.6861710
.1164301
26".3&
tan (45
is'43".2
45
cp'
cos |(
S4
5'
'
=
=
- 8') =
- S' =
- a) =
(6
tan 3 =
+ 3) =
8
7.8283204
=45
tan
9". 15
23'
n'34".6
tan (45
tan (a
a')
a'
a-
therefore a'
J(a
-)- a')
ot
We
+ a) -
1881,
a'
d'
July 4th, 9
=
=
I2 h 55 m
11
mean
33"-56
53'
8.0867188
4i'58".39
9.9835502
7.9612118
.0039719
=
=
7.9487339
o 30' 32".94
=
=
=
=
=
therefore have for the position of the
from Bethlehem,
.0745346
49
= 60 57' 2i".96
= 0.2554636
= 7.8283302
= .0029250
tan (8
sin 3'
194
17' 38". 4
193
47'
5". 5
194
2'
2i".9
238
12'
33".o
315
49' 48".9
moon
as seen
time,
8 S .36;
45' 46"./9.
Application of (IX,).
At
the time of meridian passage at Bethlehem, 1881, July
85.
4tli,
lax
PARALLAX IN
RT.
ASCENSION AND DECLINA
TION.
149
the moon's declination and equatorial horizontal paralwere as follows:
10
<p'
40
fj
Sill 7T
8)
(9)'
(tf
d').
3'
+ 43'
'7
25'
9 9993 s 7s
=
=
9.
=
=
=
sin 3'
45
Required
56' I4".8
log
cos
30' 2i".6
8.2138035
tan
799593
35'
45
8)
(q>
tan 3'
8.0127813
tan (45 -f 43)
24"-2 9
=
=
.0904399
8.0128043
.0044726
i?' 42". i
tan (d
8.1077168
8')
d'
44'3"-i3
Fourth.
85. Required the parallax in right ascension and declination, having given the apparent right ascension and declina-
tion.
Multiply the first of (r/i) by sin a

subtract and reduce. The result is
-*= p
sin
To
obtain d
by cos
thus have
first
6',
sn
We
6'
sin
TT
we make
the second by sin
cos
',
(p'
the second by cos
sin (0
a';
a'}
(184)
use of (1/9). Multiply the

subtract and reduce.
#';
We
have therefore the following formulae for the parallax

and declination, having given the appar-
in right ascension
ent co-ordinates:
PRACTICAL ASTROXOMY.
Sin (a
')
tan
sin
p
-
tan
cos
TT
sin (9
<p'
a'}
~\
cos 3
COS
-
cp'
COS [frr
(or
a')
(or
^TT
(X)
gf;
flu
-[-
#J
sin
To compute
<n
the
sin
sin
TT
cp'
sin (7
')
sn
of these
first
we
require
which
8,
will
be unknown until after we have computed the last, which

in turn -requires a knowledge of a obtained from the first.
We
(or
must therefore proceed indirectly as follows: Compute

using in the denominator d' instead of #. With the ap-
a-'),
proximate value of of so obtained compute (#

us #, with which we recompute (a
or').
necessary to repeat the computation of d
value of a.
In the meridian, a
formulae (X)
all
a'
6'
Therefore y
9.
d')
sin
sin
(cp'
8'}.
moon we may
bodies except the
sin
7t
cp',
and
(')=<?<
cos
n\
6'
cos
cos
(X)
write, without
appreciable error,
sn
never be
with this new
become
sin (d
For
this gives
');
It will
$=
i;
%(a-\-a')= a'
giving the following approximate formulas:
np cos
<p'
sin (6
cos
tan
~/
a')
tf'
tan
.
(xi)
PARALLAX IN
85.
RT.
!$!
In these formulas we may use either the

geocentric coordinates (or and d) or the observed (a and
In the meridian, where 6
d'
=a=a
np sin O'
d')
',
cp'
indifferently.
and (XI) become
....
6').
(XI),
Application of (X).
Required the geocentric place of the moon, having given
the apparent place as seen from Bethlehem, 1881,
July 4th,
h
9 Bethlehem mean time, as follows
:
Apparent right ascension

Apparent declination
From
=
=
a'
d'
=
=
Nautical Almanac, p. 113,
it
Geocentric latitude,
<p'
Sidereal time,
6
sec 6"
*sec 5
cos
sin (6
<p'
a')
log
sin
TT
=
- 6") =
(y
cosec y =
sin (5
d')
d'
=
=
=
a'
=
=
=
=
46". 79.
40
25'
i".7
15'-
$2
50" .2
44
25'
27".6
56'
Approx.
(cr
Approx. (a
2o".4
')
a')
a
Approx. a
'
9.845 0774
9.999 3875
|(a -f
8.214 5238
[l(a
a')
-Ktt
a')
0]
a')
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
7.9497875
30' tf'.s
193
47'
194
17'
5 ". 4
43
'
i g4
2 24".z
315
49' 5 i". 3
15'
i8".8
9.811 8080
tan
9.944 5358
.116 4320
cos(
sec [|(a
<p/
a')
a')
- 0]
=
=
=
9.9302268
9.9999957
.1443074
8.086 6871
tan
41' 58". 39
11
3'
4 8".4
Corrected sin
(or
a')
True (a
a')
This value
8 8 .36;
45'
sin
9.881 5812
=
=
sin <p
sin
.009 2176
.008 1471
=
=
=
i2 h 55 m
11
is
=
=
y =
y =
.0745299
f=
9487170
49
53'
61
39' i 9 ". 3
32 ". 5
30' 32". 94
194
17'
38". 34
inserted after the computation of the parallax in declination.
PRA C TICA LAS TKONOM Y.
85.
Application of (X)j.
1881, July 4th, at meridian passage, Bethlehem, the moon's
apparent declination and equatorial horizontal parallax were
#s follows
:
d'
7t
=
=
11
14' 24".7
Required the parallax
in declination.
56' i4".8
'
sin (tp
40
8')
=
=
=
9.8944903
5')
8.1076813
log
sin
?r
sin (5
25'
"7
9-9993875
8.2138035
S'
= 44'
3". 13
Application of (XI).
Bethlehem mean time, the right ascenand equatorial horizontal parallax of Venus
1881, July 4th, i6

sion, declination,
!l
were as follows:
From
Nautical Almanac,
p. 355,
a
d
From
Nautical Almanac,
p. 388,
it
Sidereal time,*
* See
p. 170.
=
=
h
1
I2 S .25
46
18' 2 3 ".3
i3"-6i
22 h 53 m 59" .2
REFRACTION.
86.
The computation
is
153
then as follows:
Application of (XI),.
To compute
the parallax of
Venus
in declination at the
time of meridian passage, Bethlehem, 1881, July 4th.

The data are as follows
:
=
=
/ =
?
20' 4S".5
40
25'
".7
5".53
log
log p
i3"-57
sin (<p
log (d
6}
=
=
1.13258
9.99939
9.61051
.74248
Refraction,
When
a ray of light passes obliquely from a rarer

into a denser medium, it is bent or refracted out of its original course towards the normal drawn to the surface separating
the two media, at the point where the ray pierces this surface.
86.
The angle which
the original direction of the ray makes with

normal is the angle of incidence, and the angle formed with
the normal by the bent or refracted ray is the angle of refracthis
tion.
154
86.
According to Descartes, refraction takes place
in accord-
ance with the following laws

I. Whatever the obliquity of the incident ray, the ratio ivJiich the
sine of the angle of incidence bears to the sine of the angle of
refraction is always constant for the same two media, but
:
varies with different media.

II.
The incident and refracted ray are
in the same plane, which

perpendicular to the surface separating the two media.
the density of the air were uniform and constant, the
is
If
determination of the effect of refraction would be a comparatively easy matter in accordance with these laws. Neither
condition
The
earth,
is
realized,
however.
density of the air
and
it
is
maximum
continually decreases as
at the surface of the
we ascend above the
surface, until it practically disappears at an altitude of 45 or

50 miles. It is also continually varying in density, as shown
by the readings of the barometer and thermometer.

In consequence of the decrease in density of the air as we
ascend above the surface of the earth, it follows that the
,*
path of a ray of light through

the atmosphere is not a straight
but a curve, as shown in
the figure.
see a star in
the direction of a tangent
line,
We
'drawn to the curve at the

point where it enters the eye.
In consequence, the altitudes
all celestial bodies appear
of
to us greater than they really
are
but in accordance with
Descartes' second law, the azimuths are not affected at all.

FlG 3.
It sometimes happens that there are lateral deviations of
an anomalous character, but these are beyond the scope of
.
REFRACTION.
86.
155
theory, and when they
exist are generally to be counted

the accidental errors to which observations are liable.
among
The complete
investigation of the laws of astronomical rea very complex and difficult problem, and one
which has never been solved with entire satisfaction.
fraction
is
We
theory here, but confine ourselves to

the explanation of the use of our refraction tables based on
those of Bessel.
Bessel's formula for the amount of refraction at any zenith
distance z is
shall not enter into the
A
.
j3
y* tan
jg
(186)
the refraction a varies slowly with the zenith

and A. also vary with the zenith distance, and
differ but little from unity.
This difference is never appreciable except for large zenith distances for our purposes it
will generally be sufficiently accurate to regard them as
ft is a factor depending on the barometer reading.
unity,
As this reading depends on the pressure of the air and the
temperature of the mercury, it is tabulated in the form
In which r
distance;
is
/T=
B.
In which B depends on the reading of the barometer, and t

upon the attached thermometer.
y depends upon the temperature of the air as shown by the
detached thermometer.
We
may
therefore use the formula

r
In which jR
tan
z is
=R X BX
XT.
.
...
(187)
given in table II A;
depends upon the barometer and is given in table II B;

/ depends upon the attached thermometer and is given in table
T depends upon the detached thermometer and is given in table
j9
II
II
C;
D.
156
As an example
take the following:
Apparent altitude = ti
Barometer reading
Attached thermometer
Detached thermometer
Table
II
A,
II
B,
II C,
II
86.
D,
R=
B=
=
t
T=
i'
49' 48"
29.51 inches
31
78.2
82. i
.997
log
.941
log
=
=
=
=
log r
//
93
.6
.983
26". 4
For many purposes,
log
.log
1.9713
9.9928
9.9990
9.9736
1-9367
especially for small zenith distances,
will be sufficiently accurate to use the mean refraction

without correcting for barometer and thermometer.
it
An
approximate value may be obtained by the formula

r
57".7 tan
......
z.
(188)
This will be accurate enough for many purposes, and may

be of service in cases where tables are not available. This
would give for our example above
r
When
i'
32".95.
the greatest precision is demanded, table III must

For the above example we have
be employed.
Table III A,
III C,
log
III D,
i'
26". 43
.=A. log
y =
tan z =
log r =
A =
1.76021
.00306
.02757
.20709
1.93667
log
log
i.oo
.00179
-02746
1.004
87
REFRACTION.
157
In the volume of astronomical observations of the Washington Observatory for 1845 ma } be found refraction tables
carried out much farther than those given here. They are
convenient when many computations are to made with great
7
precision.
Refraction in Right Ascension and Declination.
As our tables give the refraction in zenith distance or

if we require the effect in right ascension and decli-
87.
altitude,
nation
it
will be necessary to express the
increments of these
quantities in terms of the increment of the zenith distance.

Differential formulas will be accurate enough for any case
which is likely to arise. Such formulae are given in works

on Trigonometry. Those required for this particular purpose are derived as follows:
Let us assume the general formulae of spherical trigonometry, viz.:
=
B=
B=
cos a
sin a cos
sin a sin
cos b cos c
-\-
cos b sin c
sin b sin c cos

cos^r sin b cos
.
sin b sin
A;
A;
A.
>
(189)
Applying these formulae to the triangle formed by the zenith,

the pole, and the star, we have
sin tf=sin 
sin
cos
sin z cos a;
<?>
^+ cos 9 cos z cos

cos
<?>
'i
sin a.
Also,
sin
.3
cos ,sr=sin
(p
sin d-\- cos
(p
cos <7=sin
q>
cos d
cp
sin 2 sin q
cos
cos d cos
sin d cos
cos
(p
sin
/;
/;
/.
FIG.
9.
158
Now
differentiating the
as variables,
cos ddS
this
Combining
first
of (190), regarding 8
(sin cp sin z
cos
-\-
with the second of
dd
Differentiating the
first
87.
<p
and .sonly
cos z cos a)dz.
(190),
we have
cos qdz
of (191), regarding
z, 6,
(J
92)
as
and
variables,
sin zdz= (sin <p cos
we
cos
this with the
Combining
(192),
cp
sin
tf
cos f)d$
cos
(p
cos #sin
tdt.
second and third of (191) and with
readily derive
cos ddt
=+
sin
qdz
093)
In (192) and (193),
dz
t
Our
= the
= &
formulas then
refraction in zenith distance

a-,
therefore
dt
r\
da.
become
<jW
cos 6da
=
=
-rcos?;)
r sin
q.
For applying these formulas we must compute q, and we

require z for taking from the table the refraction in zenith
distance.
Equations (191) give these quantities, the solution of which

is
as follows
Let
n sin
n cos
N=
N
cos
(p
sin
<p.
cos
/;
REFRACTION.
87.
Then
=
=
cos z
sin ^ cos q
sin
sin q
A =
n sin (d
?z cos
(#
cos
,sr
159
<p
A
A
-f-
");
-(-
sin
");
t;
"
and
tan
finally,
cot
n=
tan z
sin
cos
As an example
/;
"
cos
cot ($
A7")
cos q
cos <p cos t
(rf -j-
<p
sin
sin
")
^ cos ^
(XII)
'
of the application of formulas (194), take
the following:
Given the
sun's right ascension
Declination 3
Latitude
Sidereal time
(p
=
=
=
=
2i h 47
From
(XII)
61
we
40
oh
36'
-9 2
38". 7
65. i
7o.o
find
cos q
58'.o;
table II A,
if
24"
om os
29.5 inches
Barometer reading
Attached thermometer
Detached thermometer
From
13
S9
R=
i'
sin q
9.94620;
49". o
log
9.67068.
2.0374
II
B,
.983
999 2 7
II
C,
.998
9-9994
II
D,
.962
9.9834
log r
cos q
sin q
dd
cos fofa
91 ".o
log
48".3
log
2.0129
9.9462
9.6707
=
=
1.9591
1.6836
PR A C 7 'ICA LAS TRONOM Y.
i6o
Dip
At
88.
of the Horizon.
sea, altitudes of the heavenly bodies are measured

from the visible horizon, which
is generally a clearly defined
line.
is
As
the eye of the observer
elevated above the surface of
the water, this visible horizon,

owing to the curvature of the
earth,
will
be beloxv the true
horizon.
Thus, in the figure, let the

circle represent a section of the
earth made by a vertical plane
passing through the eye of the
will be a section of the true horiobserver at A. Then
zon; AC will be a section of the visible horizon; the dip will
= AOC.
be the angle
AH
HAC
Let
D=
a =
the radius of the earth in feet
AB,
the dip;
Then from
the triangle
AC=a
or
As
D=
V(
V'2ax -f x*
be very small in comparison with 2ax, we may

without appreciable error. Also,
being a small
x* will
neglect
angle,
it
feet.
A CO,
*- CO*
tan
the height of the eye above the water in
we may
write
tan
D tan
i".
DIP OF THE HORIZON.
88.
Therefore
we have
D=
l6l
t3.Il
or
Z>
6s".82
f*
in feet
(195)
This formula would give us the true value of the correcthere were no refraction, the effect of which is to diThe refraction very near the horizon is always a
somewhat uncertain quantity, but for a mean state of the
air the dip corrected for refraction will be found by multiplying the value given by (195) by the factor .9216,
tion
if
minish D.
D" =
or
58' .82
Vx
in feet.
....
(196)
An approximate value sometimes used by navigators is

obtained by taking the square root of the number of feet
above the water and calling the result minutes. Thus if the
eye is 25 feet above the water, this process would give for
the dip
5';
formula (196) gives
4' 54".
The dip must be subtracted from

obtain the true altitude.
the observed altitude to
CHAPTER
III.
TIME.
89. For astronomical purposes the day is considered as
beginning at noon instead of at midnight; the hours are
reckoned from zero to twenty-four, instead of from zero to
twelve as in civil time. Thus, July 4th, 9 h A.M., civil reckonh
ing, would be July 3, 2i
astronomically.*
In all operations of practical astronomy the time when an
observation is made is a very important element. There are
,
various methods of reckoning time, of which three are in

common use, viz., mean solar, apparent solar, and sidereal time.
Before entering upon the relations between these different
kinds of time, some preliminary considerations are necessary.

90. The transit, culmination, or meridian passage of a heavenly body at any place is its passage across the meridian of
that place.
Every meridian
the course of
its
is bisected at the poles; and as a star in

apparent diurnal revolution crosses both
branches, it is necessary to distinguish between the upper

culmination and lower culmination.
The Upper Culmination of a heavenly body is its passage

over that branch of the meridian which contains the observer's zenith.
The Lozvcr Culmination
is
the passage over that branch
which contains the observer's
Any
star
nadir.
whose north-polar distance does not exceed the
The prime meridian conference which assembled at Washington October

recommended the adoption of a universal day for astronomical and
other scientific purposes, to begin at Greenwich mean midnight and to be
reckoned from o h to 24*". The Astronomer Royal of England has adopted the
Whether it will be generally
suggestion for the Greenwich Observatory.
ist,
1884,
adopted remains to be seen.
TIME.
163
north latitude of the place of observation is constantly above

the horizon, and may be observed at both upper and lower
culmination. Any star whose south-polar distance does not
exceed the north latitude of the place of observation is al-
ways below the horizon, and therefore cannot be observed

Stars between these limits can be observed at upper
at all.*
culmination only.
The rotation of the earth on its axis being uniform, it

follows that the intervals of time between the successive
transits of a point on the equator over either branch of the
meridian will be of equal length. Such an interval is a sidereal day, and the point with the transit of which the sidereal day is regarded as beginning is the vernal equinox.
SIDEREAL DAY
is the interval between two successive transits

of the vernal equinox over the upper branch of the meridian.
THE SIDEREAL TIME at any meridian is the hour-angle of the
vernal equinox at that meridian.
The
nox,
it
right ascensions being reckoned from the vernal equifollows that a star whose right ascension is a will
culminate at a hours, sidereal time.

Therefore the sidereal time at any
meridian
is
equal to the right ascension
of that meridian.
In the figure let EE' be the equator,
the meridian of any
pole,
P the
place,
S,
PM
PN the
hour-circle of any star
T the vernal equinox.
MPN =
Then from our
hour-angle of star
definitions,
= right ascension of star S a

= the sidereal time at the meridian PM =
*
If the latitude of the place of the observer
ditions will be reversed.
is
&.
south, obviously these con-
164
Therefore
Thus,
if
91.
-\- t
(197)
we have by any method determined
the hour-
angle of a
star, this equation gives the sidereal time: a, the

ascension,
being taken from the ephemeris, or from a
right
star catalogue.
The interval between two successive transits of the sun over the
upper branch of the meridian is an APPARENT SOLAR DAY.
The hour-angle of the sun at any meridian is the APPARENT
TIME
Owing
at that meridian.
to the annual revolution of the earth, the sun's
right ascension is constantly increasing therefore it follows

that the solar day will be longer than the sidereal day.
Thus in one year the sun moves through 24 hours of right
;
ascension.
365.24222
In one year there are, according to Bessel,

solar days; therefore in one day the sun's
mean
24h
= 3 $6*.$$$.
= 9 .8565.
right ascension increases -?

305.24222
In one hour
one twenty-fourth of this amount

These figures represent the mean or average rate of change.
The actual change, however, is not uniform, and in consequence the apparent solar days are not of equal length. This
want of uniformity results from two causes, which will now
be explained.
S
First Inequality of the Solar Day.

91.
lipse
The apparent
is an elLet the ellipse, Fig. 12,

When the sun is at A the
orbit of the sun about the earth
with the earth in one of the
foci.
represent this apparent orbit.

right ascension is increasing more rapidly than when it is at
A'; therefore in the first case it will have a larger arc to
two successive meridian passages than

This inequality alone being considered, the
pass over between

in the second.
INEQUALITY OF SOLAR DA
92-
maximum when
length of the solar day will be a
in perigee, and a minimum when it is in

imagine a fictitious sun to move in
the ecliptic in such a
way
on January
ist,
apogee.
the sun
We
is
may
that the an-
gular distances AEP, PEP^ PEP,',

etc., described in equal times, shall
be equal. Let both start together
from
I6 5
VS.
moving
the direction of the arrow.
A
|
in
On Jan-
uary 2d the true sun will be in advance of the fictitious sun, and will
FIG.
12.
continue so until June 3Oth, when they will be together at

A'.
Therefore from January ist to June soth the fictitious
sun, having the smaller right ascension, will always pass the
meridian in advance of the true sun. From A' to A the
fictitious sun will be in advance of the true sun, and will consequently pass the meridian later, until they both reach A,
when they
will again be together,
January
ist.
Second Inequality of the Solar Day.
The
figure represents a projection of the sphere on

is the north pole, P'
the plane of the equinoctial colure.
the south pole, T 0^= the equa=c:V3 the ecliptic.
tor, v
the fictitious sun before con92.
Now
sidered
moves
in the ecliptic
describing the equal arcs fA,

AB, BC, etc., in equal times.
Let
the hour-circles
PBP',
etc.,
PAP,
be drawn; then
the distances pa, ab, be, etc.,

intercepted on the equator,
will not be equal, but the
distance
TO = TO, both being
quadrants.
PRACTICAL AS 7'KONO M Y.
66
92.
We
may now suppose a second fictitious sun to move in

the equator in such a way as to complete the circuit of the
equator in the same time that the first completes the circuit
of the ecliptic.
from the vernal equinox <? together on

on March 2ist the second fictitious sun will be
in advance of the first, and will continue so until June 2Oth,
when they will both have completed a quadrant and will be
on the solstitial colure at the same instant, the first at
and
the second at o. Therefore from March 2ist until June
2Oth the right ascension of the first fictitious sun will be less
than that of the second, and it will always pass the meridian
Let both
March
2oth
start
first.
From June
2Oth to September 22d the first fictitious sun

advance of the second, at which time they will
will be in
both be together at ===. From September 22d until December 2ist the second will be in advance of the first, at which
time they will both again be on the solstitial colure at the
same instant, the first at V3 and the second at o. From this
until March 2oth the first will again be in advance of the
second, when finally they will again be together at f, having
completed an entire revolution.
As the second fictitious sun describes equal arcs of the
equator in equal times, it follows that the intervals of time
between each two successive transits over the same branch
of the meridian will be equal.
A MEAN
SOLAR DAY
is the interval between two successive

of the second fictitious sun, or the mean sun over the
upper branch of the meridian.
THE MEAN SOLAR TIME at any meridian is the hour-angle of
the second fictitious sun or the mean sun at that meridian.
THE EQUATION OF TIME is the quantity which must be added
algebraically to the apparent time to produce the mean time.
transits
92
EQUATION OF TIME.
67
The equation of time is given in the Nautical Almanac, p.

326 and following, for Washington apparent noon of each
day in the year. If we require its value for any other time,
we must interpolate between the values there given. It is
the algebraic sum of the two inequalities explained above.
From the foregoing we readily see that the equation of time
will be zero four times in the course of the year
also that
there will be two maxima and two minima values.
By referring to the ephemeris for 1881, we find the value
to be zero on April I4th, June i3th, August 3ist, and December 23d. The maxima values -f- 14'" 28 s and -j- 6m 15*
occur February loth and July 25th respectively the mini;
ma
values
51"
and
i6 m i8 3
on
May
I4th and
Novem-
ber 2d.
We
have the following simple precepts

To convert a given instant apparent time at any meridian
:
into
the corresponding mean time, add algebraically to the apparent

time the equation of time taken from the ephemeris.
To convert the mean time at any meridian into the corresponding apparent time, subtract the value of the equation of time
taken
from
Example
time
the ephemeris.
i.
1881, July 4th,
find the
Longitude of Bethlehem
Bethlehem apparent time
Washington apparent time
From
7'"
6 s Bethlehem apparent
,
corresponding mean time.
the Nautical
Almanac
6m
40". 3
5''
7'"
i6 s
5''
o m 35 7
(p.
Eq. of time July 4
July
Difference
329)
we
= 4m
= +4m
-+-
Jujy 4.21
find
ii".3O
2i s .69
io s -39
PRA CTICAL A S TRONOM Y.
68
.21
io -39
Eq. of time July 4
July 4.21
Apparent time
=
=
Mean time
Example
2.
1881,
93.
2S 18
-
ii .3O
4'"
I3 .48
7"'
16".
5''
November
29*48
i2th, io
I5
Bethlehem
mean
time; find the apparent time.

From the Nautical Almanac we find
Equation of time
Mean time
Apparent time
=
=
I5
ioh 15
io
Owing
.7i
8
7 .oo
30'"
Comparative Length of the Sidereal and

93.
34
41 '.71
Mean
Solar Unit.
to the annual revolution of the earth
about the
number of sidereal days in a year will be greater by

one than the number of mean solar days. According to
sun, the
Bessel the year contains
mean solar days;*

366.24222 sidereal days.
365.24222
Therefore
One mean
One
366.24222
= ^j
sidereal days
365.24222
= 1.00273791 sidereal days;
= ^gt
mean solar days
= 0.99726957 mean solar days.
.
solar
day
J
'
sidereal
day
* These values
given for 1800 are not absolutely constant; the length of the
is diminishing at the rate of
o'.$()5 in 100 years.
year
SIDEREAL AXD
93-
Let
/o
ly.
>u
=
=
=
MEAN
mean
SOLAR TIME.
169
solar interval;
sidereal interval;
1.00273791.
Then
/#
/0
=
=
By
It
is
//<
=
=
+ 7oO
7*
!)
/ +.00273791/0;
the use of these formulae the process is very simple.

still more so by the use of tables II and III
rendered
of the
appendix to the Nautical Almanac.
the quantity
gives
with the argument

j/^,
Table
/^,
II
gives
and table
III
i)/o, with the argument 70.

or two examples will illustrate their use.
(ft
One
Example
i.
/o
Table
Table
III gives for

III gives for
2.
4 40
30".
interval.
4 4o
s
30 .ooo
+ 45 -997
s
4 40
30*
.082
-j-
i6 .o79
4 41
Given the sidereal interval 7^ = 4h 4i m i6 .O79.

Find the corresponding mean solar interval.
s
7*
Table
Table
7*
Example
Given the mean solar interval /

Find the corresponding sidereal
II gives for
II gives for
4 4i
4 41
i6 s .o79
46
.O35
-44
i6".o79
70
4 40
s
3O .ooo
I/O
$94.
To Convert the Mean Solar Time at any Meridian
into the Cor-
responding Sidereal Time.

94.
Referring to Fig
S represents
the
MPN =
=
mean
11
and formula
(197),
we
see that
if
sun, then
the mean time

T;
the right ascension of the
Then we have
or
71
mean sun
or.
......
(199)
The right ascension of the mean sun, <*, is given in the

solar ephemeris of the Nautical Almanac, for Washington
mean noon of each day. It is there called the sidereal time
of mean noon, which it is readily seen is the right ascension
of the mean sun at noon, since at mean noon the mean sun
is on the meridian when its right ascension is equal to the
sidereal time.
If L
the longitude of the meridian from which T is reck,
the time past Washington mean noon.
oned, then (T-\-L)
Let Vc,
sidereal time of mean noon at Washington.
Then
ao
= V + (7+
9=
and
7*+ Fb-f (r-j-ZX/t-
The last term may be taken from table

we may compute it by the method given in
I).
(200)
III before used, or
Art. 90.
We there
found the hourly change in right ascension of the mean sun

to be 9".8565.
If we express (T -\- L) in hours, we have
ao
= F + (r+Z)
93.8565.
When this operation has frequently to be performed at

any meridian other than Washington, it is a little more convenient to use the sidereal time of mean noon at the meridian
itself.
Let
V=
the sidereal time of
mean noon
at
meridian whose
SIDEREAL
94is
V = Fo
V = FO
Formula
I/I
if
+ L (v + 9 .8s65Z;
i),
(200) then
becomes
Longitude
i.
in hours.
being expressed
\,u
Example
TIME.
we consider L as reckoned towards

Washington time of mean noon at the given
be L, and we shall have
Then
L.
longitude
the west, the
meridian will
or
AND MEAN SOLAR
of
Bethlehem
i)
.....
6m
4O
(201)
.3
88 1, July 4th, ph oom oo s

Required the corresponding sidereal time.
From the Nautical Almanac, p. 329, we find
Mean solar time,
FO
.1112
N.
A.,
O-
.8565, or
from table
6h
5i
m 22 8
.6io
III,
\]L
V=
Mean
solar time
Table
III,
O-
.ni2;
.
T=
-.096
m 2i s
5i
.5i4
s
m
9" oo oo .ooo
m
i
28 9 .;o8
6h
i)2"
O=
Sidereal time
9
5o .222
52
i5
h m S
Example 2. T = 1881, July 4th, 2i 7 3 .2, Ann Arbor mean
Required 0.
m
_ ''.4453
Longitude of Ann Arbor = -f26 43*. :
time.
4453
.8565, or table III,
Table
III, (^
Sidereal time
(/*
Fo
i)
+4
T=
i)r
6 h 5i m 22 3 .6io
@=
2i h
m
m
m
4 oi
h
389
3 .2oo
28M45
I7 2
To Convert Sid. real into

95.
Mean
95-
Solar Time.
This process, the converse of the preceding,
may be
briefly stated as follows:
Subtract from the given sidereal time the sidereal

First.
time of mean noon; we then have the sidereal interval past
V.
noon, viz., &
Convert the sidereal interval (0
Second.
V) into the
corresponding mean time interval, by subtracting the quantity
(&
F)(i
The formula
-)
i.
in table II,
N. A.
as follows:
is
T=
Example
found
(0
Given
V)
(0
F)(l
1881, July 4th, I5
I).
(202)
8
5O .222 Bethlehem
52
sidereal time.
Required the corresponding mean solar time.
=
V=
V=
4s before,
Table
II,
(0
- F)(i -
2.
52
6h
m
s
b
9 oi 28 .;o8
m
T=
Given
1881, July 4th, 4

sidereal time.
S
50 .222
s
51'" 2i .5i4
-)
Mean time
Example
I5
9''
m
i
28 s .;o8
oo m oo
a
58 .344
s
.
Ann Arbor
Required the mean solar time.
&=
As
V=
V
before,
Table
Mean
II,
(0
time
-V}(\-
4
6h
51"'
26^999
2i h iom 3i s -345
28M45
-)
58 -344
2i
O3
.2
SIDEREAL AND
95-
MEAN
SOLAR TIME.
1/3
It is sometimes necessary to convert mean solar time into

sidereal, or vice versa, in reducing old observations made
before the publication of the solar ephemeris in the form now
employed. Bessel's Tabula Rcgiomontance furnish the data
necessary for solving the problem for any date between 1750
and
The method of using these tables for this purpose

explained in Art. 362 of this work.
1850.
is fully
CHAPTER
IV.
ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS. THE SEXTANT. THE CHRONOMETER AND CLOCK.

96. The circles of astronomical instruments are graduated
continuously from zero to 360. With ordinary field-instru-
ments the smallest division is commonly 10', though sometimes

less.
The large circles of fixed observatories are graduated
much finer. Fractional parts of a division are read by means
of the vernier, or reading microscope.
The edge of the circle on which the division
The
called the limb.

is
circle or
arm which
is
marked
is
carries the index
called the alidade.
The
vernier, also called the nonius, is
an arc carried by the
alidade, and graduated in the manner described below, for

measuring fractional parts of a division.
Let
AB
Each
(Fig. 14) be a portion of the limb of a circle.
division is supposed to be one
_^ degree of the circle. The arc

J\Jf CD, carried by the alidade and
graduated as shown, forms a
}
FlG
14>
vernier.
In this case there are ten divisions on the vernier, covering a space equal to nine divisions of the limb. Each space
on the vernier
is therefore shorter by -fa of one degree (equals

than a space on the limb. In the figure the index coincides with the zero-point of the limb; division one of the vernier falls behind division one of the limb, 6'; division two of
6')
THE VERNIER.
the vernier
falls
X 6' =
behind division two of the limb, 2
75
12',
etc., etc.
The method
of using the vernier will
now
In this
ferring to Fig. 15.
case the index falls between
is
re-
to
The
42 and 43 on the limb.
reading of the circle
be clear by
there-
&~~ ~ii
'
'
43
46
FlG
IS
fore 42 plus a fractional part
This fraction is given by the vernier as follows
of a degree.
Looking along the scale until we find a line of the vernier
'
which coincides with a
line of the limb,
we
find this to be the
Therefore, following down the

vernier scale towards the zero-point, it is evident that
case with the one
marked
4.
6'
to the right of 45
Line 3 of the vernier is
Line 2 of the vernier is 2 X 6'= 12' to the right of 44
Line I of the vernier is 3X6'= 18' to the right of 43
Line o of the vernier is 4X 6 =24 to the right of 42
/
of the limb;
of the limb;
of the limb;
of the limb.
The reading is therefore 42 24' or 424, the number on the

vernier where the line of the latter coincides with a line of
the limb, giving the tenths of a degree at once.
In general let
d
d'
=
=
=
the value of one division of the limb

the value of one division of the vernier
;
the
Then
and
number
i
of divisions of the vernier corresponding to

of the limb.
(n
i)d
d'
=
=
nd',
-d.
dd'is the least reading of the vernier. We

the following very simple rule
(203)
have therefore
PR A CT1CA LAS TROXOM
/6
To find the
least
reading of a vernier
97-
".
Divide ike length of one
number of spaces of the vernier.

For example, suppose the limb graduated to 10', and the
division of the limb by
number
least
tJie
of divisions of the vernier-scale to be 60.
Then the
reading of the vernier will be

10'
60
600"
oo
=-7
10".
is a very common arrangement.

In the vernier just described n divisions of the vernier
I of
the limb. Verniers are sometimes
were equal to n
I of the limb.
made in which n divisions are equal to n
This
Then
It is to
(n
-\-
\)d
= nd
and
-d,
as before.
be observed that in this case the reading of the ver-
nier proceeds in a direction opposite to that of the limb.

Many different forms of division and arrangement are
found
in verniers,
but they
all
same general princimakes the reading of
follow the
ple, a practical familiarity with which

any form of vernier very simple.
The Reading Microscope.

97. Instead of the vernier, in very fine instruments the
alidade carries a microscope the optical axis of which is per-
pendicular to the plane of the circle. This is a compound

microscope with a positive eye-piece. In the common focus
of the object-lens and eye-piece are the micrometer-threads
for reading the circle.
a frame of brass, across
The micrometer (Fig. i6a] consists of

which are stretched two spider-lines.
Sometimes these lines make an acute angle with each other,

shown in the figure sometimes they are made parallel and
as
quite close together.
The plane
of the
frame
is
parallel to
THE READING MICROSCOPE.
77
the plane of the circle MN, and it is moved parallel to a tangent to the circle by the screw G. Attached to the screw and
revolving with it is the cylinder FE, graduated, as shown in
the figure, for recording the fractional parts of a revolution of
the screw. The cylinder is generally graduated into either
60 or
oo parts.
Suppose now the distance between two

5', and that five revolutions of
divisions of the circle to be
the screw are just sufficient to move the cross-threads over

this distance: then evidently one revolution moves the threads
over i'. If the head is divided into 60 parts, then each division of the head corresponds to a motion
of the cross-threads over i". By making
the screw sufficiently fine and increasing

the number of divisions of the head, at
the same time increasing the power of
FIG. i6.
THE MICROMETER.
FIG.
16.
THE READING
MICROSCOPE.
the microscope, this division of space may be carried to an

almost unlimited extent. For the purpose under considera-
however, we should soon reach a limit beyond which

nothing would be gained by increasing the delicacy of the
microscope.
For reading the entire, number of revolutions of the screw
there is sometimes a scale attached to the outside of the box in
which the slide moves. More frequently the scale is inside
the box, placed at one side of the field of view. When so
placed it consists of a strip of metal in the edge of which
tion,
I7
98.
notches are cut the distance between two consecutive notches

being equal to one revolution of the screw. Every fifth notch
is made deeper than the others for facility in counting.
Suppose now the cross-threads to stand opposite the centre
notch (which is generally distinguished in some manner), and
the zero point of the head to be exactly at the index-mark.
;
The point in the field now occupied by the cross-threads is

the fixed point to which all angular measurements are referred it corresponds exactly to the zero-point of the ver;
Suppose, further, the zero-point of the circle to be

exactly under the intersection of the threads. Now let the
instrument be revolved on its axis through any angle the
nier.
number
which pass by
then be the measure of the angle.
of divisions of the circle
of reference will
For the purpose
this point
of fixing the idea, let the arrangement be

viz., the circle graduated to 5', and the
that described above,
micrometer reading to single seconds. If now the revolution of the instrument has brought the scale into the position
in Fig. 17, we see from the position of the threads
that the entire angle passed over is between 45 15' and
45 20'.
By means of the screw let the cross-threads be
shown
moved
so as to coincide with division
number
15'.
Then
the entire
screw will
lve t îe number of minutes to be added
ill
to 45 15', and the fractional part of a
M'lNu M' JJ revolution given by the head will be
1
46
expressed in seconds. Thus if the whole
number of revolutions were two, and the reading of the head
In making the bisection,
53, the angle would be 45 17' 53".
the screw should always be turned in the same direction, to
guard against the effect of slip or lost motion in the screw.
If the thread is to be moved in a negative direction it should
be moved back beyond the line, and the final bisection made
by bringing it up from the other side.
98. When everything is in perfect order a whole number
I
-"
of revolutions of the
THE READING MICROSCOPE.
1/9
screw is exactly equal to the distance

between two consecutive lines on the circle. This is pro-
of revolutions of the
vided for by an arrangement for changing the focal length

of the microscope, and for moving the object-lens nearer to
or farther from the plane of the circle. This adjustment is
subject to small disturbances, on account of changes of

temperature and other causes. The error caused by an imperfect adjustment is called the error of runs. The correction for runs is found by reading the microscope on two conIf this does not
secutive divisions of the circle.
correspond
to the exact
or deficiency
to
number
of revolutions of the screw, the excess
to be distributed in the
proper proportion
measurements made with the screw.
For determining the correction a number of readings
is
made in different parts of the circle in order to

eliminate from the result the accidental errors of graduation.
Some observers in certain kinds of work always read the
should be
micrometer on both divisions of the limb between which the

falls.
For example, in Fig. 17 the micrometerthread would be set on both division 15' and 20', thus eliminating from the resulting reading the effect of runs, and to some
extent the accidental errors of graduation and of bisection.
For insuring greater accuracy two or more microscopes
zero-point
When there are two they are placed

opposite each other, or 180 apart. When there are three
or more they are placed at uniform distances around the
circle.
If the probable error of the reading of one microor verniers are used.
scope be
i", that of
the
\"
that of four will be
r1/4
mean
of
two
will
be*
''
'.71
".5.
principal value of two or more microscopes, however,

for eliminating the error of eccentricity.
The
is
\"
* See
Introduction, Art.
14,
Eq.
(25).
I8o
99-
Eccentricity of Graduated Circles.
The
centre of the alidade seldom coincides exactly

with the centre of the graduated circle.
This deviation
from exact coincidence is called ec99.
centricity.
In order to understand the effect

of eccentricity, let
be the centre of the circle
C', the
centre of the alidade
O, the zero-point of the limb
the point on the limb where it

intersected by a line joining
a,
FIG.
and C'
18.
is
C'n, the direction of the line drawn from the centre of the
alidade to the zero-point of the vernier when the
telescope is directed to any object.
The true position of the object is given by the direction

of the line C'n, while the reading of the circle gives the
direction Cn, differing from the former by the small angle
n'Cn
Let
CnC'.
now
CnC = p
Angle OCn
CC = e
Cn = r
Cn = r'
From
th? triangle C'Cn

r' sin
r'
Then C'Cn
a.
a.
we have
cos/
tan/
e sin (n
at)
cos (n
sin (n
from which
OCa =
at)
n)
.
cos (n
a)
(204)
ECCENTRICITY OF GRADUATED CIRCLES.
100.
The
angle
always be small, and the denominator of

from unity. We may therefore write,
will
iSl
(204) differs but little
without appreciable error,
/ = 100. It
is
of ascending
more elegant
powers of
.
is
Equation (204)
sin
-.
a).
expand the above expression into a
to
-.
sin (n
(205)
series in
terms
a cos x
form
of the
a sin
cos p
'
from which we readily find

sin
Now
add
sin (/
both members
-(-
x) to both
a sin (/
members
of (206)
finally, divide the first
x)
-j-
(206)
then subtract sin (/
-}-
r)
from
expression by the second:
sin
+ sin (p
-\-
x)
_ (a
-\- i)
sin (p
+ x)
sin
sin (/
-|~
x)
(a
i)
sin (/
-j-
_
'
tan (/
from which
Applying
we
%x)
-|-
tan
$x
in Art. 74, Eq. (137),
find
a sin x
-\-
2
|a sin zx
-\-
3
fa sin $x,
Writing for a and x their values and dividing by sin

seconds of arc, we find
(207)
development made use of
to this the process of
x)
The
first
i", in
77
sin
a)
term
is
-]
2r* sin i
identical with (205),
order to express/ in
e3
el
r sin
etc.
sin z(n
and
will
a)
-\
sin
sin
3(na).
(208)
always give the necessary accu-
racy without using the following terms.
101. Besides the eccentricity
similar effect
due
above considered there
is
to the play of the axis of the instrument in
182
IOF.
This is not a determinate quantity like that we

socket.
have been considering, but when two verniers or microscopes
180 apart are used, the effect of both will be eliminated, as
appears from the following:
its
Let
n'
and n" be the readings of the two microscopes
n,
the true value of the angle.
Then from the
first
Similarly,
microscope
=
=
'-{- e" sin (V

-f- e" sin (n"
n"
).
a).
Jn which e" has been written for
Now
n"
differs
Uttle
very
from 180
ciable error will be introduced
-(- n', so that no appreby writing the second of the
above equations
n
n" -f e"
Therefore n
sin [180
\(n'
-f-
(n'
n"},
or)]
n"
e" sin (n'
a}.
from which the correction for
In a similar manner it may be

eccentricity is eliminated.
shown that the mean of three microscopes will be free from
the effect of eccentricity.
each pair 180 apart
is
free
In case of four, as the mean of

from this error, it follows that
mean of the four will be.

The constants e" and a may be determined very
the
readily
by
taking readings in different parts of the circle; but with a

complete circle they will not be required. It is only in
the case of the sextant, where we have a limited arc of the
circle read by a single vernier, that this becomes a matter of
importance. The application to this case will be considered
in the
proper place.
102.
THE SEXTANT.
The Sextant.
102. In the determination of time and latitude when extreme accuracy is not required, the sextant is one of the most
convenient and useful of astronomical instruments.
It is
in observing it is
light and easy of transportation
simply
held in the hand, and consequently entails no loss of time in
;
FIG.
mounting and adjusting
19.
THE SEXTANT.
therefore especially adapted to

the requirements of navigation and exploration. For use on
land the sextant is sometimes mounted on a tripod, which
;
it is
adds something to its accuracy. When the instrument is

used by a skilful observer, however, the advantage is not
In most cases where such an arrangement could be
great.
made use of the sextant will not be employed at all, but will
give place to an instrument of greater precision.
84
The
principal features of the sextant
may
be seen from
The graduated arc is about 60 in extent, hence the

Fig. 19.
name, sextant. This arc of 60 is divided into 120 parts,
called degrees for reasons which will soon appear.
The arc
commonly reads directly to 10', and by means of the vernier
A mirror,
to 10".
arm carrying the
C, called
the index-glass,
is
attached to the
and revolves with it about a pivot

at the centre. A second mirror, N, is attached to the frame of
the instrument, and is called the horizon-glass.
Only half of
vernier,
is silvered, viz., that next the plane of the instruan arrangement which makes it possible to see an object directly through the unsilvered part by means of the
telescope, and at the same time the image of the same object,
or of a second one, reflected from the silvered part of the
mirror.
In order to make these images equally distinct an
this glass
ment
adjusting-screw is provided (not shown in the figure), by

which the telescope can be moved nearer to the plane of the
instrument or farther from it. Attached to the frame are sev-
E and F
which may be brought into a

eye when observing the sun. These
are sometimes attached to an axis so that they can be at once
reversed, the object being to eliminate any error due to want
eral colored glasses,
position to protect the
of parallelism of the surfaces
by taking half of a series of

There is also a revolving
disk attached to the eye-piece of some instruments containing
a number of colored glasses of different shades. Other minor
measurements
in
each position.
features can best be learned
ment
by the inspection
of the instru-
itself.
103. The principle which lies at the foundation of the sextant and instruments of like character is the following: If a
ray of light suffers two successive reflections in the same
plane by
and
rors.
two plane
mirrors, then the angle between the first

the ray is double the angle of the mir-
last direction of
In Fig. 20
let
M and
be the two mirrors supposed
THE SEXTANT.
103-
85
AM
be the first
perpendicular to the plane of the paper let
direction of a ray of light falling on the mirror M; it will be
reflected in the direction Mm, and finally from in in the direc;
tion
Mp
mE.
Draw MB
mE* MP perpendicular to M,\

The angle between the first and
parallel to
perpendicular to m.
FIG. 20.
ray is equal to the angle

angle between the mirrors is equal to PMp.
last direction of the
AMB. The
We
to
show
that
A MB =
2PMp.
Consider first the mirror m.

with the normal the angle
Mmp'
Consider now M.
The
incident ray
have now
Mm makes
mMp = pMB = pMP + PMB.
(a)
The angle
mMP = PMA = AMB + PMB
(6)
86
Subtracting
(a)
from
104,
(#),
mMP - mMp = AMB - pMP,

2pMP = AMB.
from which
Q. E. D.
If now the angle between two objects is to be measured,

the instrument is held so that the plane of the graduated arc
passes through both. The telescope is then directed to one
of the objects, which is seen through the unsilvered part of
the horizon-glass, and the index-arm

flected image of the second object is
revolved until the rein contact with

The reading of the limb will
is
brought
the direct image of the firs*.

then be the required angle the graduation before explained,
viz., each degree being divided into two, gives the angle
between the objects, which is twice that of the mirrors.
;
104. In the prismatic sextant of Pistor & Martins (Fig. 21)

the horizon-glass is replaced by a totally reflecting prism.
The arrangement has this advantage, viz., that by its use
all sizes from o
to 180, and even larger, can be
measured, while the common form of sextant is not adapted
to the measurement of angles much greater than 120.
In using the instrument the prism B interferes with the
rays of light which should reach the index-glass, A, when
the angle is about 140; but angles of this magnitude may
be measured by turning the instrument over and holding it
in the reverse position.
If, for instance, the double altitude
of the sun is being measured, the instrument, will ordinarily
be held in the right hand, with the arc below and the telescope above. If, however, the double altitude is about 140,
the instrument must be held in the left hand, with the telescope below and the arc above. In case the head of the observer interferes, as will be the case when the angle is near
angles of
80, the
difficult}
is
overcome by means
of the
prism
PRISMATIC SEXTANT. REFLECTING
105-
CIRCLE.
IS 7
placed back of the eye-piece so as to reflect the rays of light

in a direction at right
angles
coming through the telescope

to
its axis.
The arc of the sextant may be extended to an entire

circumference, and the index-arm produced so as to carry a
105.
FIG. 21.
THE
PRISMATIC SEXTANT.
vernier at each extremity. The instrument then becomes

the simple reflecting circle. As previously shown, this arrangement possesses the advantage of eliminating the eccentricity,
and
to
ment
some extent the errors of graduation.
is
used precisely like the sextant.
This instru-
88
Other forms of reflecting
circles
IO/.
have been made possess-
ing advantages in certain directions, but they do not seem

to have met with great favor, although they are theoretically
much more perfect instruments than the sextant practically,
however, this superiority is not so great. This is no doubt
due in part to the fact that, except in the hands of an observer of more than usual skill, the errors of observation are so
;
great as practically to neutralize their greater theoretical

advantages.
Adjustments of the Sextant.

106. First Adjustment.
tJie
reflecting surface
sextant.
must
THE
INDEX-GLASS.
The plane of
of the
be perpendicular to the plane
To ascertain whether this is the case, place the index near

the middle of the arc, then look into the glass so as to see
the image of the arc reflected. If the adjustment is perfect,
the arc seen directly will be continuous with
image.
This adjustment
liable to
is
its
reflected
attended to by the maker and is not

this reason no provision is com-
derangement; for
monly made
for correcting a want of perpendicularity.

It
corrected when necessary by removing the glass
from its frame and filing down one of the points against
which it rests, or by loosening the screws holding the frame
to the index-arm and inserting a piece of paper or other thin
substance under one side.
may be
The plane
107. Second Adjustment. THE HORIZON-GLASS.
of this mirror must also be perpendicular to the plane of the
sextant.
The index-glass must first be in adjustment; if then it is

possible to place it in a position parallel to the horizon-glass
by moving the index-arm, then the latter will also be perpendicular to the plane of the sextant.
To
test this adjust-
ADJUSTMENT OF THE SEXTANT.
189
meat proceed as follows

Bring the index near the zeropoint apd direct the telescope to a well-defined point a star
If then the index-arm be moved
is best.
slightly one
:
way
and then the other
the plane of the instrument being verticalthe reflected image of the object will move up and down
through the field. If the adjustment of the two glasses is
perfect, the two images may be made to coincide exactly,
otherwise the reflected image, instead of passing over
the direct, will pass to one side or the other of it. Two
small capstan-headed screws are provided for making this
adjustment when necessary.
pair of adjusting-screws
is
also provided for correcting the position of the glass in the

opposite direction, viz., to make it parallel to the index-glass
when the vernier is at zero. If the direct and reflected
image
means
of the star are
brought into exact coincidence by
of the tangent-screw, the reading of the vernier, if

not zero, is called the index error. The screws just menIt will be found better
tioned are for correcting this error.
in practice not to attempt this adjustment, but to determine
the error and apply the necessary correction to the angles
measured," as will be explained hereafter.
Tlie axis of tJie telescope must be
108. Tliird Adjustment.
parallel to the plane of the instrument.
Two parallel threads are placed in the eye-piece to mark

approximately the middle of the field: they should be made
parallel to the plane of the instrument by revolving the eyeThe axis of the telescope will now be the line drawn
piece.
through the optical centre of the object-glass and a point
midway between these lines. To determine whether this
plane of the instrument, select two
or more apart, and bring the reflected image of one in contact with the direct image of the
other, making the contact on one of the threads; then move
the instrument so as to bring the images on the other thread.
line is parallel to the
well-defined objects 100
igO
09.
If the contact still remains perfect, the line is in adjustment

if any correction is required, there will be found a pair of
;
screws for the purpose on opposite sides of the ring which

holds the telescope.
The above
if
test will
be found
difficult to apply, especially
the observer has not a considerable
in the use of the instrument.
One
amount
of experience
less difficult is the follow-
Place the instrument face upward on a table, then lay

on the arc two strips of metal or wood, the width of which
must be the same and equal to the distance of the axis of the
telescope from the plane of the instrument. Now sight
across the upper edges of these strips, and have an assistant
mark with a pencil on the wall of the room (which should be
ing
or 20 feet distant) the place where the sight-line interit; then, without disturbing anything, look through the
telescope, which has been previously directed to this part of
15
sects
the wall and properly focused, and see whether this mark
found in the middle of the field if so, then the adjustment
is
is
satisfactory.
Method of Observing with
the Sextant.
To Measure the Distance between Two Stars.
109.
Direct
the telescope to one of the stars, then revolve the instrument

about the axis of the telescope until its plane pusses through
the other (taking care to have the index-glass on the right
move the index-arm until the image of the second

brought into the field, clamp the instrument and bring
the two images into perfect contact by means of the tangentside),
star
then
is
The reading of the vernier corrected for index error

be the required distance. Unless the two stars are quite
near each other it will be expedient to compute the distance
approximately before attempting the observation. The index may then be set at the approximate distance, which will
screw.
will
METHOD OF OBSERVING WITH SEXTANT.
IO.
IQI
common obsergreatly facilitate finding the two images.

vation of this character is that of observing the distance of
the moon from the sun or a star for determining longitude.
In the Nautical Almanac will be found given for every day
throughout the year the distance of the moon from the sun,
and certain stars and planets, which may be used for this
purpose. The index may at once be set at the approximate
angle without any preliminary computation. If the distance
of the moon from a star is measured, the image of the star is
brought into contact with the bright limb of the moon, the
contact being made at the point where the great circle joining the star with the centre of the moon intersects the limb.
To ascertain this point the instrument must be revolved
through a small arc back and forth about the axis of the
telescope (supposed to be directed to the star); the image of
the moon's limb will then pass back and forth across the
field,
and should appear to pass exactly through the centre

which will in general not be reduced to
of the star's image,
a simple point by the feeble telescope of the sextant.

This distance is to be corrected for the moon's semidiameter in order to give the distance between the star tfnd the
centre of the moon.
In measuring the distance' between the moon and sun, the
bright limb of the moon is brought in contact with the nearest limb of the sun.
The measured distance must then be
moon and sun.

HO. Measurement of Altitudes. At sea altitudes are measured by bringing the reflected image of the body in contact
corrected for the semidiameters of both
with the line of the horizon as seen directly through the

In order that the result may be correct the
telescope.
plane of the instrument must be held exactly vertical To
accomplish this the instrument is revolved or vibrated
slightly
moving
about the axis of the telescope, at the same time

it so as to
keep the image in the centre of the field.
192
IH-
The image will appear to describe an arc of a circle, the

lowest point of which must be made tangent to the horizon
by moving the index-arm. If the sun is observed, the lower
limb must be made tangent to the horizon. As the altitude
of the sun's centre is required, the reading of the vernier
must be corrected for index error, refraction, parallax, and
semidiameter. If a star is observed, there will be no correction for semidiameter or parallax.
in. For observing altitudes on land the artificial horizon
must be used. This is a shallow basin, about 3 inches by 5,
It is provided with a roof formed of
for holding mercury.
two pieces of plate glass set at right angles to each other in
a metal frame, for protecting the mercury from agitation by
the wind. The surface of the mercury forms a mirror from
which the image
of the sun or star
is
reflected
and as
it is
perfectly horizontal the reflected image will appear at an

angular distance below the horizon equal to the altitude of
above the horizon. If now the image of a

from the mirrors of the sextant is brought into
contact with the image reflected from the mercury, the angle
which will be measured is evidently twice the altitude of the
the body
itself
star reflected
star.
The opposite sides of the glass plates forming the roof to

the horizon should be exactly parallel, otherwise the prismatic form introduces an error into the measured angle. It
possible to derive a formula for the correction necessary
to free an observation from this source of error, but it will
is
be better in practice to observe half of a series of altitudes

with one side of the roof next the observer and then reverse
taking the remaining half in the opposite position.
freed from the particles of dust and
impurities which will generally be found floating on its sur-
it,
The mercury must be
It may be strained through a piece of chamois-skin

or through a funnel of paper brought down to a fine point
face.
METHOD OF OBSERVING WITH SEXTANT.
113-
at the end.
Another method
is
to
add a small amount of
193
tin-
the mercury, when the amalgam which will be formed

will rise to the top and may be drawn to one side with a
card, leaving the surface entirely free from specks of any
foil to
kind.
be
112. In measuring altitudes for any purpose, a

made in quick succession and the mean taken.
errors of contact
and reading
number
In this
of
measures should
way
the accidental
will be greatly diminished.
Thus, in taking the

altitude of the sun for determining the time, a series of not less than three altion
each
limb.
tudes should be measured
Suppose the observations made when
is east of the meridian, and the altitudes therefore to be increasing; the
readings on the upper limb will be made first, as follows: Set the index on an
even division of the limb at a reading 10' or 15' greater than the double altitude
the sun
upper limb. When the two images are then brought into the field they
appear separated, but will be approaching each other. The observer
watches until they become tangent, when the time is carefully noted by the
chronometer. The index is then moved ahead 10', 15', or 20', and the same proA little practice will enable the observer to take the altitudes in
cess repeated.
this manner at intervals of 10' without difficulty, in which case five readings
may be taken which will correspond to an increase of 40' in the double altitude
As the sun's diameter is about 32' of arc, the index
or 20' in the actual altitude.
may now be moved back to the first reading, and five readings on the lower
of the
will
limb taken at the same altitudes as before.
and
will gradually separate, the
are tangent.
If the sun
will
be
113.
In this case the images will overlap

time to be noted being that when the two disks
observed west of the meridian, the readings on the lower limb

of course be decreasing.
find difficulty in bringing the two images
A convenient way of accomplishing this is as follows:
together.
is
made first. The altitudes will

The beginner will sometimes
into the field
Bring the index near the zero-point and direct the telescope to the sun, when
will be seen; then bring the instrument down towards the mercury
horizon, at the same time moving the arm so as to keep the reflected image in
the field until the image reflected from the mercury is found, when both will be
two images
A little practice will make this process very easy.

In observing stars care must be taken to avoid bringing the direct image of
one star in contact with the reflected image of another. Sometimes a small
level is attached to the index-arm to facilitate finding the reflected image, and
in the field together.
same time for preventing mistakes of the kind just mentioned. It may
be shown geometrically that when the two images of any star are brought in
contact in the manner we have been describing, the angle formed with the
at the
194
14.
horizon by the index-glass will be equal to that formed with the horizon-glass
by the axis of the telescope. As both telescope and horizon-glass are fixed to
If then the level
the frame of the instrument, it is therefore a constant angle.
above mentioned is adjusted so that the bubble will play (the plane of the inthis
constant angle with
strument being vertical) when the index-glass makes
The method of finding
the horizon, it may be used for the purpose mentioned.
Look
reflected
will
then
be
as
follows:
the
through the telescope at the
image
image reflected from the mercury; then, holding the instrument in the same
If the reflected image is
position, move the index-arm until the bubble 'plays.
not then
in the field also, the
not vertical.
and
It will
reason
will
be brought into the
be that the plane of the instrument is

by revolving the instrument back
field
forth about the axis of the telescope.
To
adjust this level, bring the two images of the sun or a known star into the
centre of the field and move the tube until the bubble plays.
Errors of the Sextant.

114.
Among
the various theoretical errors to which sex-
two which call for a

index error and eccentricity.
To Determine the Index Error. The arc is graduated a short
when the reading
distance backward from the zero-point
falls on this side of the zero-point the reading is said to be
tant observations are liable there are
detailed investigation,
viz.,
off arc ; a direct reading being on arc.

First Metliod of Determining the Index Error.
By
a Star.
and by means of the tangentscrew bring the direct and reflected images into exact coDirect the telescope to a
incidence.
The reading
star,
of the vernier will then be the index
and it must be applied as a correction to

measured with the instrument.
error,
The correction
The correction
The mean
will
will
be
be
-|-
when
when
all
the reading
is off
the reading
is
of several readings should
angles
arc;
on arc.
always be taken so as
to diminish the effect of errors of observation.
INDEX ERROR.
US-
195
The following readings were made with a
&
Pistor
Example.
Martins sextant for determining the index correction
On
arc.
45"
60"
70"
70"
75"
60"
30"
75"
70"
65"
Mean
The index
of ten readings,
correction being
7,
i'
we have
i'
//
.o.
therefore
'.o.
115. Second Method.

By the Sun. Measure the apparent
diameter of the sun by bringing the direct and reflected
images tangent to each other and read the vernier then
bring the opposite limbs into the position of tangency and
again read the vernier. If the first reading is on arc, the
second will be off arc, and vice versa.
;
Let
=
=
/=
5=
r
r'
Then
the reading on arc
the true diameter of the sun.
=r
=
/ =
S
from which
the reading off arc

the index correction
r'
-f /;
\(r'
/;
r)
(209)
196
When
observations are
made on
1 1
6.
the sun for any purpose,
the gradual heating up of the instrument sometimes changes

the value of the index correction. For this reason some observers determine its value both at the beginning and end of
such a series of observations. The following example taken

from the Astronomische NachricJiten, Band 23, No. 548, will
illustrate this, and at the same time the application of formula (209)
:
SECOND DETERMINATION.
FIRST DETERMINATION.
On
32'
20"
20"
30'
25"
20"
r=$2
2i
On
Off arc.
arc.
60"
60"
//
.2
r'
30'
31' 15"
'
o"
o"
o"
50"
50"
Off arc.
arc.
32' $"
55"
32' \" .2
10"
20"
10"
r'
/= -
-43". i
31' i3".8
23".;
Eccentricity of the Sextant.

Il6.
As
the arc of the sextant
is
limited and
is
read by a
single vernier, the effect of eccentricity is not eliminated; it

should therefore be investigated. This can only be done by
comparing the values of angles measured by it with their
known
values determined
between
theodolite,
or,
what
in
terrestrial objects
is
some other way.
may be measured
and the same angles measured with the sextant,

better, stars
may
be used.
In using stars for the purpose

of
The angles
with a good
we may proceed
in either
two ways.
The
First, by measuring the distances between known stars.
right ascensions and declinations of the stars will be taken
from the Nautical Almanac (it will be best to use none
except Nautical Almanac stars for the purpose).
The
posi-
ECCENTRICITY OF SEXTANT.
Il6.
iQ/
tions of the stars as they seem to us will differ from those

given in the Nautical Almanac by the amount of refraction
in
a and
by
(194),
<?.
The necessary corrections must be computed
and the apparent distances of the stars by (IV) or
(IV),, Art. 67.
The latiSecond, by measuring the altitudes of known stars.

tude of the place of observation must be known and the true
Then from (II), Art. 65, the true altitude of the
time.
star may be computed, or, if it is very near, the meridian
formula (244) may be used. This altitude must be corrected
make it comparable with that measured by
Whatever plan is adopted, the angles chosen
for refraction to
the sextant.
should be such that the measurements will be distributed

with some approach to uniformity over the entire arc of the
sextant.
Let
ri
=
=
=
the value of the angle given by the instrument

the true value of the same angle
the correction of zero-point for eccentricity.
Then since in the sextant the reading of the arc is double

the actual angle passed over by the index-arm, we shall have,
from formula
/
and
208,
[n
(n
for the zero-point,
Subtracting,
n'
from which
n'
When
2e" sin (%n
s)\
=
=
2/'[sin (%n
a)
2e" sin a.
)-(- sin a]
ê" sin \n cos (\n
a).
(210)
a are to be determined from obmust be transformed as follows:

a], the equation becomes
the constants e" and
servation, equation (210)
Expanding cos (^n

(4*" cos
or)
sin
\n cos \n
-f-
(ê" sin a] sin
\n
n'.
Let
Il6.
4*"cosr=;ir;)
...
4^ sin a = y
;
z
sin
/".*
198
\n cos \n
sin
ft
n'
the
^l
sum
any outstanding constant errors
of
= A, a known coefficient
= B, a known coefficient
= N, the quantity given by
observation.
Then each measured angle gives us one equation

mining the unknown quantities x, y, and z, viz.,
for deter-
Ax^By + z = N.
(212)
If everything were perfect, three such equations would

completely solve the problem. In order to obtain a result of
practical value, however, a considerable number of angles
must be measured and the resulting equations combined by
the method of least squares.
Having determined x and y, we have e" and a from (211).

With these values a table of corrections is then to be computed by (210).
These corrections may be computed, for intervals of 10,
from zero up to the largest angles ever measured with the
instrument. The correction for any intermediate point may
then be taken out by interpolation.
Example*
"
We give as an example
the investigation of the eccentricity of sextant

StackThe
pole 4152," made by Prof. Boss of the U. S. Northern Boundary Survey.
observations were made 1873, August 20, at the U. S. Astronomical Station
No.
8.
Latitude
Longitude
* For a
full
= <p =
=L=
49
i
i' 2''.
41'" 18'
determined by zenith telescope. f

west of Washington.
;
understanding of the details of
this
quired of some principles which are explained

read Chapter V. before attempting it.
f
See Chapter VIII.
example a knowledge
later.
It
will
is
re-
be advisable to
l6.
199
Eleven angles we.re carefully measured, each measurement consisting of ten

All except two were measurements of double altitudes of stars.
All
readings.
were north stars except one, viz., a Aquiloe, observed on the meridian. The
north stars were in most cases observed both before and after meridian passage by this arrangement any small undetermined error of the time is practi;
cally eliminated.
The chronometer
correction
was determined by measuring the altitudes of

a Andromeda east, both being observed at
Bootis west of the meridian and
same altitude.*
The two angles which form
exactly the
the exception above referred to were measurements of the distances between a Andromedte and
Pegasi, and a f/rsce Minoris
and y Cephei respectively.
The index correction, determined both at the beginning and end of the series,
was as follows
:
Beginning,
End,
The following
reduction.
The
7
7
=
=
3'
43".
3'
42".
5.
a specimen of the form of re-cord and method of

series of ten readings is divided into two parts so that one may
will serve as
serve as a check on the other.
Double Altitude of a. Urste Majoris.
The
true altitude of the star at the instant of observation
formulae
(II),
Art. 65
See Articles
125, 126,
and
127.
is
then computed by
H6.
20O
<p=
* d
t
M
^7
<p
2". 4
26'
1 1 '.3
50'
7". 4
= 124^ 51'
9". 8
75
=151
29' 58". 3
31
31' 28". 7
2/*'
n!
cos
cosec
.Af
^/)
(93
tan a
2'
57". 4
cos 5
3'
43"-O
cos
63
6'
40" 4
63
6'4s".o
63
= 0.25 77&9n
= 9. 388649
= 0.085856
= 9.732274,t
Proof
i'3o"-4
9.474505
=
=
= 9.944463,,
= 9.930768
Proof
26'
8'
1".
152
7'
51". 6
31
7'
i6".s
r=
A'=
cos
tan
2/s'=
/=
3'43".o
n'
^
=
Computed
0.282349
9.700792,!
cosec
62
tan
cos
0.581557,!
M) =
(<f
0.236128,,
M = 9.404017
tan a
Proof
i'3i"-7
31" 8' 48". 2
62 I7'3&".4
Index Cor.
cos d
cos
t=
0.083130
9.723275,,
9.48/147.
9.665329
9.700792,
21' 19". 4
62 21' 33". o
tan
=
=
tan S
19' 52". 5
Measured
2i".o
M 75i8'5o".i
M = 124
a
9.474505
01' 02".
M)=
'
tan
38' 15". 2
31
Index Cor. /
Computed n
cos
54'54".o
=
=
=
=
A'
= 0.282349
= 9.684407,!
tan M = 0.597942,!
tan S
A=
Refraction r
Measured
49 01'
= 62
= n8
3". 6
cos a
tan
-4
=
=
=
9.366121,,
0.165609
9.946462
cos a
9.780853
cos h
9.946462,;
9 932512
9.878g74 n
Mean
The computation
*
for
The
r=
TV
determining
declination,
S, is
Proof
g".i.
the
true
angular
taken from the ephemeris.
9.487147
distance
between
1 1
6.
a Andromeda and a
for 1873,
Pegasi
also given in
is
Andromeda
= oh
= 28
The observed
was 20
distance
Chronometer time 2Oh
first
determine q and
=
=
/= / =
S
s
.
22 h 58
a.
14
28".
31'
50
33".2
6.
[See Eq. (187).]
.960.
in right
(194).
50
20
13 .6
51 .8
59
39'
49
23
= 23
=52
q
s
3 "5S-3S'.2
<p
6"4- A"
20"
Pegasi
3.6
22
15'
26'"
a.
78
3(y'.8
a ANDROMEDA.
20h 26 m
AT =
51".
by equations (XII); then the refraction
ascension and declination by
23'
B X tX T=
Refraction factor
A"
take from the ephemeris
August 20
a.
We
We
full.
2OI
cos
33"
cot
2.4
41
39
23
31
10
48
10
21
49
25
46
=
=
tan
sec
(f>
tan
9 70341
sin
9.64231
4~ A =
tan ^ =
")
"
0.23262,1
cot
.21150
.04819^
cos
cos
(p
=
=
9.89147
9.82405 cos q
.06742
9.70341
9.81679
9.52020
9.60407
=
cos^ =
tan? =
(<5
9.93890
sin z
=
=
9 82405
9.88059
9 70464
Proof
9.81557
From
T=
cr
=
=
mean
refraction
Factor
9.81556
68". I
Therefore r
.960
65". 4
a PEGASI.
20" 26 m
AT =
f
J
table,
22
20
22
58
50
13 .6
28
.5
2 h 55 m I4 s .g
=
N~
S =
q>
cos
44"
43
48'
49
2 .4 cot (p
32
14
31
33
35 sec
=-
46
36
36
34
49
39
tan
(<5
= 9.85830
= 9.93890
9.79720
+ A^ =
tan q
/=
tan
g.gSigg n
cos
cos
sin
.16307
JV
cot
9.87029,, cos
tan z
t=
=
$"<)
(194)
cos q
logr
9.82405
sin q
1.81558
9.87225,,
log dS
cos Sda
=
15 cos d =
log da =
1.63963,,
1.68783
1.12043
.56740
These values of the

to be
in
employed
right ascensions and declinations of the stars are the ones

computing the apparent distance between the two stars by
equations (IV)i.
48".09
25 .80
s
22 29
34 .35 cos (a'
a)
26 .1
cot 8
.
50'
= 9.983181
= .586075
A = .569256
tan (a
a)
sin
39
tan
.6
14 -4
"
54 .o
cot (A
43
22
5')
cos
5 .9
39
tan
.8
B=
d=
9.452982
N = 9.984762
=
B=
"
sec (A "-}- 5')

tan
Proof
9 808504
g 565632
cos (a
.8
a)
cos 8
.622460
9.983181
9.985862
20.5
2". 3
.075442
9 374136,,
.637698,,
9-969043
N.
cos B =
sin d =
9.808504
9.538079
Proof
The value
in
of
our equations,
is
cos \n,
now the
"
obtained by the original computation, and which
is 2". 2.
The
difference
is
of
no importance
is
.622460
employed
here.
sin \n,
absolute term of equation (212). For the coefficients A
2
J we must employ for n not the above angles, but the angle
and B = sin
corresponding to the point on the limb which coincides with the vernier-scale. For
example, the first measured angle of the first series is 63 25' 50". The limb
I 1
6.
was graduated directly to 10'; these

The zero-point of the vernier
10".
203
were subdivided by the vernier to

between 63 20' and 63 30'; then read-
intervals
falls
ing along the vernier to the point where coincidence takes place, we find this to
be at the reading 69 10' of the limb. It is therefore the eccentricity of this
point by which our angle is affected, and not that of the point 63 25' -J-.
In this way we find the point of contact for each reading of our series as
follows
Mean
Therefore from
this series
68
we
47'
derive the equation
0.2824*
+ 0.08747 + z =
9"-
1-
a similar manner with each of the eleven angles measured,

By proceeding
the following equations of condition are obtained
in
+ .00507 + =- 5.5;
2
-01237 + z = +
- 7-3;
.2019* + .04257 + z =
.2341* + .05827 + z = - 17.5;
.2824* + .08747 + z =
9-1;
.3295* + I239V + z =
.3586* + 15157 + z = - 10.5;
- i4-o;
3933-* + -19137 + 2 =
= - 24-0;
3997-* 4- .19967 +
.4244* + .23577 + z = - 46.2;
~ 28.6.
.4423^ + .26687 4~ z =
z
.0703.*
.no4jc
-|-
2-
18. 5
It will be seen that the coefficients of x and

7 are much smaller throughout
than those of z, while the absolute terms are relatively large. It would there-
fore be a
little
more systematic
to render the equations
homogeneous, as ex-
204
This has not been

plained in Art. 24, before forming the normal equations.
done, however.
The details of the formation of the normal equations (Articles 21 and 25) are
as follows
into
(3
As
the
+ 2H3 +
number
3)
i
added two columns

filled in after
The
the
of
unknown
14 vertical
for the residuals (v)
unknown
correctness of the
quantities
columns
and
is
three,
we
(Art. 25), to
their squares (vv).
These
will
be
quantities have been determined.
work up
to this point is
now
verified
in proof-formulae (44).
Therefore the normal equations are as follows

.5i6Sj/4-
1.1197-r-f-
.5168*+ .2544/4
3.2469.* 4-
rule our sheet
which we have
-374 2.)'
3.24693=
1-37422
4- n.ooooz
==
65.5013;
3I-9958;
179.0000.
by substitution
6.
For the solution of these equations we make use of the form given
The
205
in Art. 32.
elimination equations (56) are here rewritten for convenience:
By substituting in these the coefficients, the logarithms of which are in the

horizontal lines marked E in the foregoing scheme, we find
= -
147 -47;
+ 23".
12.
These values substituted in the equations of condition give the residuals v.

For the final proof of the accuracy of the entire computation we have, Eq. (62),
[
3]
\vv\-
The agreement, though not exact, is sufficiently close for our purpose, and as
close as could be expected when the magnitude of some of the numerical quantities
involved in the equations
is
considered.
206
For determining the weights of x,y, and

of which
we
py
.6114;
The mean
error of an observation
The mean
errors of x, y,
ex
we employ equations (76), by means
find
fZ
116.
and
we
z are
.01196.
obtain by formula
(88), viz.,
then given by equations
80 .21;
PX
.006l35;
ey
=112
fz
.00;
These quantities multiplied by .6745 give the probable errors.

Collecting our results, we have the following values of x,
(89):
^7
y,
= n" .22.
z,
with their
probable errors:
x - + 23".!
y= - 147".
=
4"- 7
52".g;
75"-s;
7"-6.
We
next compute a table of corrections, to be employed with this instrument,

by formulae (211) and (210), viz.
:
4?" cos
4e" sin
We
find
4<r"
ri
149". 3;
ê" sin
(i
=
= y;
JT;
\n cos (&n
Substituting for n successively 10, 20, etc.,

corrections:
81
a).
6'.
we have
the following table of
OTHER ERRORS OF SEXTANT.
II/-
2O/
Other Theoretical Errors.

117. In a complete theoretical discussion of the sextant there are several
The more important of
other sources of error which require consideration.
these are the following: prismatic
form of the index-glass, of the colored glass

and of the horizon-roof; want of perpendicularity of the planes of the index and horizon glass to the plane of the instrument; inclination of line of collimashades,
of telescope to plane of instrument; errors of graduation of the limb.

a good instrument well adjusted the effect of any one of these will be
small, although they may combine together in such a way as to produce a very
Not much can be gained,
appreciable effect on the value of a measured angle.
however, practically by investigating in detail the forms of the corrections reThe experienced observer will avoid these errors as far as can be
quired.
done by careful adjustment, and then will arrange his observations wilh a view
to eliminating from the results such of them as remain undetermined.
See
tion
With
Art. 127.
The Chronometer.
118.
care,
is simply a watch made with special

which the balance-wheel is so constructed that
The chronometer
and
in
changes of temperature will produce the least possible effect

on its time of oscillation. The test of a good chronometer
It is impossiis the uniformity of its rate from day to day.
h
make an instrument
so perfect that 24 as shown by it

correspond to one day, but its excellence is indicated by the uniformity with which it gains or loses.
The daily rate of a chronometer is the amount which it
ble to
shall exactly
gains or loses in 24 hours.

The error of the chronometer
\%
the difference between the
time as shown by the face of the instrument and the true

time.
The chronometer correction
is
the
amount which must be
added
to the reading of the chronometer-face at any instant

to give the true time; it is equal to the error with its sign
changed.
It is a
convenience to have the error and rate small, but
it
2O8
is
Chronometers are made in two different

and pocket-chronometers.
not essential.
forms,
The
box-chronometers
form of instrument
viz.,
is
generally suspended by
box, in such a manner that,
whatever the position of the box, the face of the instrument
will maintain a horizontal position.
This arrangement is
first
means of gimbals
in
wooden
useful at sea, but for transportation on land the instrument

must be securely fastened, as otherwise the violent agitation
produced by sudden shocks would be injurious. The balance-wheel of this form of instrument oscillates at half-second
intervals.
The pocket-chronometer is generally somewhat largei

than an ordinary watch. The oscillation or beat is a little
more rapid than with the box-chronometer; thus the pocketinstruments of T. S. and J. D. Negus beat five times in two
seconds.
chronometer regulated to sidereal time is more convenient for observation on stars.
With the sun a mean time
chronometer
is
preferable.
more iu\\y in connection with the subject of determining time. Most chronometers require winding every 24 hours. This should be
done at about the same time each day, as if they are allowed to run much longer than the usual time a different
The
error and rate will be considered
comes
Such instruments
part of the spring
into action,
which may
affect the
run for 48 h or more before

stopping, so that in case the winding should be neglected
for one day they will be found running the next; but for
the reason just stated this should not occur.
rate.
will
Comparison of Chronometers,
are to be
119. When the errors of several chronometers
determined at the same time, the error of one of them is ob-
THE CHRONOMETER.
19.
209
tained by observation, and of the others by comparison with

When two sidereal or two mean solar chronometers
this.
are compared together the beats will be sensibly of the same
two will not beat exactly together;

by which the beat of one falls behind that of the other must therefore be estimated. With
some practice this can be done so that the error in the estilength, but generally the
the fraction of a second
mation
will not
much exceed
o'.i.
When
a sidereal is to be compared with a mean time chronometer the error of comparison will be much smaller.
Since I s of sidereal time is equal to o s -99727 mean solar time,
it
follows that the sidereal gains o s .oo273 on the mean time

in one second; this gain will amount to one
chronometer
s
m
Therefore
entire beat, or o .5, in 183*, or approximately 3
practically once every three minutes the beat of the two will
.
It is found that with a little practice the ear can

detect a discordance in the beats as long as they differ by
o .02 or o s .O3, and therefore the comparison can be made
coincide.
s
within this limit of error.

When a number of chronometers are to be compared with
a standard clock, it may be done very conveniently by means
The clock being connected with the
of the chronograph.*
chronograph, the observer taps the signal-key in coincidence

with one or more even beats of the chronometer, and thus
the time by both clock and chronometer are recorded on
the same sheet.
The Astronomical
Clock.
120. In a fixed observatory the clock is an instrument of

It is generally regulated for sidereal
great importance.
time.
The only part of the mechanism which requires notice
* See Art. 121.
210
here
is
the pendulum, which
made
is
I2O.
of the necessary length
to beat seconds.
The rate of the clock depends upon the length of the

pendulum; and since a rod of metal changes its length with
every change of temperature, some method of compensation
is necessary in order to keep the centre of oscillation at a
constant distance from the point of suspension. For accomplishing this two different forms are used, viz., the gridiron
and the mercurial pendulum.
In the gridiron pendulum the rod is composed of a number of parallel bars, alternately of brass and steel. These are
so arranged that the expansion of the steel bars tends to increase the length, while that of the brass bars tends to diminish it.
As these metals expand and contract by different
amounts when subjected
to
changes of temperature, the
relative lengths of the two may be so adjusted as to maintain

a constant length for the system.
With the mercurial pendulum the rod consists of a single

bar of steel. The " bob" is a cylindrical vessel of glass or
metal filled with mercury. The expansion of the rod depresses the centre of oscillation, while that of the mercury
raises
it.
tions, as
is
Thus by making the cylinder of proper proporcompared with the rod, the necessary compensation
effected.
With a clock which is exposed to sudden changes of temperature the gridiron pendulum will give a more uniform
rate than the mercurial, as the comparatively thin bars of
metal will accommodate themselves to the temperature of
the air much sooner than the comparatively large mass of
mercury.
The
density of the air as indicated by the barometer also

by its variable resistance to the
motion of the pendulum. Struve found for the standard
affects the rate of the clock
clock of the Poulkova observatory a change of o s .32 in rate
THE CHRONOGRAPH.
121.
for a variation of one inch in the barometer.
21
It is
therefore
very important to protect the standard clock from sudden

and extreme atmospheric changes. In some observatories
this is done by placing it in an air-tight compartment below
the surface of the ground.
The Chronograph.
121.
The chronograph
is
used
in
connection with the clock
for registering graphically on a strip or sheet of paper the

beats of the latter.
Fig. 22 shows a common form of this
The
instrument.
be made
strument
is
is
sheet of paper on which the record
is
to
cylinder, which in this in14 inches long and 6 or 7 inches in diameter.
wrapped around the
given one revolution per minute by means

The pen which is shown above the cylinder is supplied with aniline ink, and being moved slowly
along in the direction of the axis of the cylinder it traces a
continuous spiral on the surface.
The apparatus is placed in an electric circuit passing
through the clock, and so arranged that the pendulum breaks
the circuit for an instant at the beginning of each second.*
By means of a spring which acts in the direction contrary
The cylinder
is
of the clockwork.
shown in the figure, the pen is

thus given a slight lateral motion at each beat of the clock,
producing instead of a continuous line a line graduated as
shown in the folding plate, Fig. 2.2a.
to that of the electro-magnet
The arrangement may be such
that the circuit will be closed for an instant

beginning of each second, remaining open during the remainder. The
break-circuit plan is the one more commonly employed.
Various mechanical
at the
devices are employed by different makers for causing the clock to open or close
the circuit.
212
121
THE CHRONOGRAPH.
121.
213
Each of these spaces is the graphic record of one second of

time as shown by the clock. The beginning of the minute is
marked by the omission of one of the points. The instrument here shown will run 2- hours. When the paper is
removed from the cylinder and spread out it is marked with
parallel lines, each line being the record of one minute of
clock time.
In order to make use of this apparatus for recording the
time of the occurrence of any phenomenon, the wire which
forms the circuit, passing from the battery through the
clock and chronograph, is made to pass through a signal-key

held in the hand of the observer, and by means of which the
circuit can be instantly broken.
In Fig. 23, aa is the wire through which the circuit passes.
the point b touches the metallic plate c
When
the circuit
closed.
is
key
is
so arranged
that by tapping it with the finger this point

"
FIG. 23
is raised and the circuit broken;
this produces a mark on the chronograph-sheet similar to that made
.
by the
clock,
instant
when
Fig. 220
is
and the position of which is the record of the

the key was pressed.
a reduced copy of the chronograph record of
transits of the stars
Lacertcz,
and
77
Aquarii, y Aquarii,
n Aquarii,
ff
Aquarii,
Aquarii observed with the transit-circle of
the Washington observatory, 1884, December 7.

Each star is observed over eleven threads.* The record
begins by striking the signal-key several times in quick sucfirst thread, in order to
the beginning of the series; then it is tapped in exact
coincidence with the star's passage over each thread in suc-
cession before the star reaches the
mark
cession.
* See Art.
170.
rK'ACTlCAL ASTRONOMY.
214
Taking the
first of
the above stars, 6 Aquarii, our chrono-
graph-sheet gives the following record

22
I0m
121.
23.4
s
36 .o
22
iom 47 8 -9
5O
.o
54
37".6
43
4i
-7
55 -7
.8
22 h iom 58 8 .3
22 h io ra 45 8 .8
For reading the record a
scale long
enough
to reach the
entire length of the sheet is used, the spaces of

the same as those of the sheet. These spaces are
which are
numbered
continuously from o up to 60; each space being divided to

tenths, the fractional parts of these subdivisions may be esti-
mated.
While the paper is on the cylinder it is necessary to mark

somewhere on the sheet the hour and minute shown by the
clock
this serves as a starting-point for
reading the record.
For the purpose of determining longitude, chronometers

are sometimes provided with a break-circuit attachment,
when they can be used with a chronograph in the same manner as a clock.
The main advantages which the chronograph possesses

over the methods employed before its introduction are,
first, a comparatively inexperienced observer can record
astronomical phenomena by its use with a degree of accuracy
which it would take months or perhaps years of practice to
acquire without.it and second, the record is made by simply
pressing a key with the finger: thus man}'- more observations
can be made in a given time than is possible when everything
must be written down with a pencil
;
CHAPTER
V.
DETERMINATION OF TIME AND LATITUDE. METHODS

ADAPTED TO THE USE OF THE SEXTANT.*
when three parts are known any

be determined. Let us consider the triangle
is the pole of the heavens,
122. In a spherical triangle,
other part
may
PZS, where
the observer's zenith, and

(the
word
known
star here including the sun,
star
moon,
or a planet).
If
we measure
SZ of our triangle
the altitude of 5, the side

is known. The declination
d is taken from the Nautical Almanac. If

then we know the hour-angle /, we have the
data for determining the latitude (p. If <p is
known, we have the hour-angle / bv computation,
and therefore the true
local time,
from
(197).
We
have then simply to give the solutions of this triangle

which will be considered,
and to determine what conditions will be most favorable to
best adapted to the different cases
accuracy.
Determination of Time.
123.
Let
h!
By
a single altitude of the sun.
the observed altitude of the sun's limb, corrected

for index error;
* The methods
of this chapter are of course equally adapted to the use of any
instrument for measuring altitudes.
2l6
124
the true altitude of the sun's centre

z .= the true zenith distance of the sun's centre
r
/
s
=
=
=
the correction for refraction
h;
the correction for parallax

the correction for semidiameter.
;
Then
/*
when
s is
= 90
//'
r -f
limb
the
is
......
(213)
observed.
The required
from the
solution of the triangle
last of
equations
cos z
sin
cp
may now be deduced
(121), viz.,
sin
-\-
cos
(p
cos # cos
from which
cos
In
some cases
cos z
- .......
sin cp sin
cos
(p
z-j
cos o
this equation
may be
(214)
conveniently employed
for computing- /, as when the same star is observed on several

successive days at the same place, sin cp sin d and cos (p cos 8
may then be considered constant for a week or more in

ordinary sextant work. The numerator will be computed
with addition and subtraction logarithms.
As t is given in terms of the cosine, this equation should
not be used when the angle is less than 45.
To place (214) in a form more generally applicable,

subtract both members from unity, then add both mem-
124.
first
bers to unity,
cos
-f-
cos
viz.:
cos
cp
cos d
-\-
sin cp sin
cos z
cos
cos
cp
cp
cos d
S
--
cos S
sin cp sin
<
cos
cp
tf
cos 3
-jL
cos z
;
DETERMINATION OF
124.
from which we
cos
sn
<
JQ + (y +
*)]
s
/sin j|>
cos \\z
+ (y + (^ +
For most purposes equation

degree
21 f
easily obtain
TIME.
tf)|
0')]
"-

cos
sin j[>
cos i[*
~5
< 2I 5)
<?)]
2l6)
- (y - d)]
- (<p + d)]-
(215) will give the necessary
of precision.
When
the extremest accuracy
is
required (217) should be
used.
These equations give

For our purposes
arc.
ing by
Then
degrees, minutes, and seconds of
must be reduced
to time
let
the chronometer time of observation;

the chronometer correction
;
the equation of time.
the apparent time of observation
is t
E= T
Mean time of observation = /
AT = t + E - T
from which
(Art. 90).
-J-
-f-
4Tis
by divid-
15.
AT =
E=
Then
/ in
it
AT\
I*
( 2 i8\
;
V
the quantity required.
In the above, where the object observed was the sun, we

have supposed the chronometer to be regulated to mean time.
If a sidereal chronometer has been used, the mean time
sidereal time by (200) or (201)
) must be converted into
(/ -+and the resulting value compared with the chronometer time.
21 8
Example
124.
West Las Animas.
I.
Observation of sun for time.

Sextant.
88 50' oo"
o
89 oo
10
o
20
o
89
88
30
89
O"
O
o
o
o
50'
20
89
30
89
10'
o"

<5)
^[z
-f- (<P
<5)]
-j[z
(cp
8)]
\t
t
30.5
56.5
37
38
38
39
39
3 -5
in
37
553.5
22
48
14.5
41 .o
.
26". 3
4"
34 32
49
6
45
=
=
=
=
38
18
19
45
64
26
32
33'
49"
26
ii
zenith distance of sun's centre.
42
17
21
43
26
ii
and
(218).
A*
sec
sec
0.10386
.02357
9.9
4-3
sin
sin
sin 2 \t
sin \t
=
=
=
=
9.72901
9.35331
9.20975
9.60487
19.9
54.6
47
23
44'
28"
47
28
56
3"
9'"
20
+ 20
AT=
(215)
=
=
o"
13
E=
E
T=
4'
54
4 28
23 57
2 14
t -\-
36
36
36
9'
have now the data for applying formulae

g)
39.5
45
= 89
A = 44
Refraction r =
Parallax/ =
h = 44
zA
2s.
35'"
35
ii
Eccentricity
We
1'
10
Means
Chronometer.
= S
=D
28.7
50
6
56
37
41
55 -7
.3
13 .o
17.3
26
.3
9 .o
=
=
=
mean
solar time.
observed time.
chron. correction [Eq. (218)].
This value differs but little from the value assumed above. If the difference
had been large it would have been necessary to take from the ephemeris the
value of d for this more correct time, and to repeat the computation for a more
correct value of A T. Or, if the difference were not too great, the necessary
correction could be determined by a differential formula.
*
case
These values are written down

it is
thought desirable.
for the purpose of computing the differential formulae in

See Articles 128-131.
TIME BY ALTITUDE OF THE SUN.
124.
2\g
Colorado, 1878, July 28.9.
Mean
solar chronometer.
Negus
Observer B.
1326.
Latitude
q>
Longitude
L =
Assumed A
Thermometer 78.
38
i
T=
4'
h
o"
Barometer
44"' 41*
6 41
On
Arc.
Off Arc.
359" 28' 45"

28 40
28 40
50"
31 30
31 40
31'
40"
7
31'
Index correction
From
the refraction table
we
26.05
w. of Washington.
INDEX CORRECTION.
Mean
find
359
28'
u"
refraction
42"
= 59". i
= .880
= .946
r = 49". 2
Barometer factor
Thermometer
Therefore
From
the
American Ephemeris we
p. 248, eq. hor.
find
parallax
is
p. 327,
equation of time
p. 327,
semidiameter
8". 72
42' 16". 7
6 m 12 s .99
it
p. 327,
E
s
+ 18
-j-
15'
47". 7
interpolated from the ephemeris by the method explained
The ephemeris
in Art. 52.
given for the meridian of Washington; therefore

the Washington time of our observation.
is
Time
of observation
Approximate correction
Approximate local time
T=
AT=
Washington time, July 28
18
35". oo
35"-77
Therefore the correction to 6
29,
Hourly change July 28 =

Hourly change July 29 =
At time of observation
At noon July 29. eq. of time
Correction for
d
.
055
=
=
=
1 '
we
require
26 8 .3
7
20
56
44
19
41
41
22
=
At noon, July
,37"'
641
=
=
=
Longitude
9
ig" o before noon of July 29
1
41' 29".
.3i7[
35.77-H.77X
.O55]
+ 47"-i
18
42' 16". 7
6'"
6m
I2 S .89
.10
1 2".
99
In taking
from the ephemeris, second differences need not be considered for
this purpose, though it has been done in this case.
220
125.
If a sidereal chronometer had been used we should have had

only to convert the mean time t -j- E into sidereal time, when
we should have had A T by comparing with the observed time
It may be remarked also that in using a sidereal
as now.
chronometer the observed sidereal time must be converted
from
into mean solar time for the purpose of taking d and
the ephemeris, since these are given for mean solar time.
In reducing such a series as this it is perhaps a little better
to reduce the readings on the two limbs separately; the two
reductions will then mutually check each other. Of course
If a conthe altitudes must be corrected for semiciiameter.
number
siderable
of series
have been reduced
in this
way
the observer can see, by comparing results, whether his personal equation is the same for both limbs.
125.
By
It will
a single altitude of a
star.
be convenient to use a sidereal chronometer
when
practicable.
Let
&=
=
A& =
the true sidereal time of observation

the chronometer time of observation
the chronometer correction.
Then t is computed the same as above recollecting that for

a star the semidiameter and parallax will be inappreciable,
;
we have
z
-(h 1
cp
+ a) =
= + a) -
G =
(t
r);
(219)
+ //;
@
(220)
TIME BY ALTITUDE OF A STAR.
125.
Example
West Las Animas, Colorado.
2.
221
1878, July 29.3.
Observation of Arcturus for time.
Observer B.
Sidereal chronometer.
Negus
or
Observed
=
=
=
M=
It will
14
17
18
10
8 .2
28
4.7
12 20.9
44'i6 8 .2
= sidereal time
= chron. reading
= chron. cor. [Eq.
1590.
(220)].
be seen that the numerical
work
is
somewhat
less
in case of a star than of the sun.
mean solar chronometer has been used, the side-f a) must be converted into mean solar time by
(202), and the resulting value compared with the chronometer time.
In case a
real time
(t
222
Example
West Las Animas, Colorado.
3.
Observation of
a Corona Borealis
=
=
V=
6
V=
M. S. time =
Chronom. =
6
AT= -
15
18
29 34.1
45 55 .8
&
10
21
15 .7
24 40 i
i 42 .3
22 57.8
17
4 6.2
6 41
8.4
1878, July 27
3.
Observer B.
for time.
Mean
rt
I2O.
solar chronometer.
sidereal time.
This is now converted into mean
solar time by equation (202).
sidereal time of mean noon from ephemeris
Table
II,
Appendix
to
Ephemeris.
10
126. Conditions most favorable
to
accuracy in determining time by a single
altitude.
As our data will always be liable to more or less uncertainty it becomes a

matter of great practical importance to so arrange our observations that small
errors in the quantities regarded as
computed value of /.
*
tial
known
shall
have the
These quantities are written down so that we may employ them

formulae
when
desirable.
(See Articles 128-131.)
in
least effect
computing the
on the
differen-
DIFFERENTIAL FORMULAE.
128.
As we
require equations (121),
erence.
cos A cos a
we
cos 6 cos
cos h sin a =. cos S sin
cos 6 cos
dt
them here
rewrite
t
sin <p
sin
6"
22$
for convenience of ref-
cos
(f) \
<p;
(f) v
/;
(121)
sin S sin <p.

 sin
(221)
we
see that for a given latitude cp a small error dh in the altitude

will produce the least effect when sin a has its greatest value, viz., when the star
is on the prime vertical.
Also, that for a constant positive error dh the error
this
in / will
produced
be
T when
the star
is
of the meridian,
and may
therefore be eliminated by observing both east and west stars.

(221) also shows that dt will be least when cos <p is greatest, that is, when
of the earth's surface for this kind of deter<p is small; the most favorable part
mination being the equator.

Effect of a small error in the assumed latitude
spect to
<p
and
and reducing by means of

dt
from which
tan a cos
appears that when the star
it
If the star is
tively small.
(e)
<p.
and
Differentiating (g) with re(/),
we
find
dtp;
(222)
cp
near the prime vertical dt

on the prime vertical, dt is zero, as tan a
is
is
rela-
is
then
infinite.
mean
not observed on the prime vertical, dt will disappear from the

of two observations at the same distance east and west of the meridian.
Also,
we
If the star is
see that an error dcp will have the least effect on
when
the latitude
is
near zero.
In the
same way we may discuss the
effect of
a small error in S, but as no
stars will ever be likely to be used for this purpose whose declination is uncer
tain to any appreciable amount, this is not practically a source of error.
127. From this discussion we see that a determination of time should always
depend on observations of
vations should be
made
stars
both east and west of the meridian; the obsersame azimuth as possible east and west,
at as nearly the
and if two stars are employed it will be belter if the declinations are nearly equal.
dh may be regarded as including all of the undetermined errors of the instrument see Articles 115, 116, and 117 as well as constant errors of observation
and refraction.
Differential Formula.
128.
<p,
d,
The numerical values
and
2/1
of the differential coefficients of /with respect to

are often convenient where the time has been determined in the
'
224
manner just explained. Sometimes values of <p, 5, or zh are employed in the

computation which are afterwards found to require small corrections. If these
are so small that the second and higher powers may be neglected, the necessary
correction of the hour-angle may be found by the differential formula.
Otherwise the computation must be repeated.
Let Acp, AS,
Azh
small corrections to the values of the latitude, declina-
At
the resulting correction to the hour-angle.
and double
tion,
altitude
employed;
Then, neglecting terms of the second and higher orders,
The
may be computed by the formulae of the previous

but they are not convenient since they require a knowledge of the azi-
differential coefficients
article,
muth.
129. For practical purposes a more convenient process is the following,
where the numerical values of these coefficients are expressed in terms of the
Taking logarithms of both members
differences of the logarithms employed.

of (215), we have
=
=
D=
2 log sin \t
where
log sin
*[*
*|>
+
-
S
(
We
d\t
Als'm S
5).
(224)
dzh
'
lizh
</Z>
~d~\(
I
-.
sin \t
-\-
find
'
'
~d~\t
S);
D dD
dl sin
'
^z/i
dS
Therefore we nave, writing
2/i
\t.
dD = ^=^
(225),
\zh
and
Als'm
J/sin
a?)
4^7si^l/
~dzl
are the rates of change of the logaquantities Al sin S, Al sin

It requires, therefore, very little
rithms for the values of S. D, etc., employed.
time to take these from the tables while computing t, as we have done in the
The
in the foregoing pages.

Thus, in example i we have found ///sin 5=19.9, which is the change expressed
in units of the last decimal place of log sin S produced by a change of i' in 5.
In practice the /sin of the angle 5' less than 5 is subtracted from that of the
angle 5' greater, and the difference divided by 10. This is a little more accu-
examples
rate than to take the difference
between consecutive logarithms.
DIFFERENTIAL FORMULM,
131In our example
32
29'
= 9.72803
= 9.73002
Difference for
10'
Difference for
i'
/sin 32
/sin 32
In like manner
22$
24'
19'
Als'\nD
J/sin \t
we have found
199
=// = ig.g
=
=
54.6
28.7
A correction to the assumed value of zh may result from a variety of causes,

such as the employment of values of the refraction, parallax, index error, or
eccentricity, which are only approximately correct, or from errors in the preliminary computation.
Suppose the value of zh employed in example i was found to require the corThen the resulting correction to the hour-angle would be
i'.
rection Azh
At
130. For the value of
zdl sin It
~
_ dl sec
<5
'
dS
.649
we
dS
~dt
2 s . 596.
differentiate (224) with respect to t
S dS
dl sin
d$
dl sin
~"
'
ZS
and
D ~~
dD
'
'
d, viz.,
dS
'
'
<7<5
<//
^=
Therefore
2///sec5
4ls\n
Substituting the numerical values of ///sec

ple
i,
we
5+ J/sinZ)
~.....
-^înT^
6",
^/sin
5, etc., given in
<
22 7)
exam-
find
_
-
dt
dS
8.6
19.9
+ 54.6 _
~ 754
'
-57-4
now, for example, the S with which the reduction

require the correction AS = i', we should have
If
131. For
we
d
differentiate with respect to
<z>
and
t,
'
made were found
is
viz.,
cp
Zdl sin \t
î/
_ <z7sin 5
dS
dS
dl sin
dq>
'
'
'
~d
'
?i/
'
dq>

dt
Therefore
zAl sec cp
-
For our example
we have by
dt
Al sin S
zA sin T /
-j
dq>
19 8
D
(228)
formula
this
-j-
Al sin
-.
= -
54.6
19.9
.260,
57-4
and a correction of
assumed
to the
latitude produces a corresponding cor-
rection to the time of
At
.260
.04.
Probable Error.
132. By means of formula (226) we may reduce the time of each altitude to
the time of the mean altitude for the purpose of comparing the individual meas-
urements and computing the probable
error.
The
application to example
will sufficiently explain the process.
The mean
value of
2/1 is
89
10'.
so that each time will be reduced to the time
Further, as one half the readings were made on

corresponding to this altitude.
the lower limb and one half on the upper limb, we must add to the latter and
subtract from the former the time required for the sun to move in altitude over
an arc equal to the sun's semidiameter, or
in
double altitude a space equal to
the diameter.
Thus we have
see example
Semidiameter of sun
Diameter of sun
From
previous article,
dzh
Therefore reduction for semidiameter
The
reduction
is
now
= S = 15' 47". 7;
= 31'. 590.
= .649.
=
.649
3i'.S9QX6o
as follows:
Mean
3" 37
2 6". 3
[] = 4 04
.
DIFFERENTIAL FORMULAE.
134-
Then by formulae
(27),
The reader must not
22/
probable error of single observation

probable error of mean
=
=
'.43;
'.14.
into the error of supposing that this quantity represents the actual probable error of a determination of time by this method, since
no account is here taken of the relatively large constant errors to which observafall
tions of this kind are liable.

hereafter.
The
subject will be considered
more
at length
(See Art. 156.)

Corrections
for Refraction and Motion in Declination.
133. The refraction of the atmosphere and the sun's motion in declination
affect the computed value of At by small quantities, which it may be considered
desirable to take into account in a

Correction
more
refined discussion.
Since refraction decreases with the altitude, it fol10' for example

the sun's altitude increases by a given quantity
for Refraction.
lows that when
measured with the instrument, the actual space passed over is greater than
by the difference of refraction for the first and last position. Thus, instead
of simply Aih as used in our formula, we should employ Azh
lAr, Ar being the difference between the refraction for altitude h and that for h -f- Ah.
For our example we find for the mean altitude of the sun, viz., 44 34',
as
10'
Change
in refraction
corresponding to
10' altitude
Therefore the correction to At corresponding to
.649
This must be added to the computed interval,
Azh
=
=
'.013
=
At =
25-.Q73
-^
viz.,
o".3o
At
zAr.
10' is
25*.g6
134. Correction for Sun's Motion in Declination. Since the sun's declination is
is ever increasing or diminishing, the time required for the
not constant, but
change by a given amount will be slightly modified by this cause.

For our example with Aih = 10' we find At = 25". 97. Referring to the
35".?; thereexample, we have found the hourly motion in declination to be
altitude to
fore in the interval 25". 97 the change
By formula
(227)
we have found
Therefore correction to At
Therefore the
final
is
for this
.754
".26.
example
value of At corresponding to
Aih
'
.754.
013.
10' is 25'.986.
PRA CTICAL A STRONOM Y.
228
'
35
If both limbs are reduced together, as in our example, the reduction for semidiameter should be corrected for motion in declination, but not for refraction,
since both limbs are observed at the same altitude.
Determination of Time by Equal Altitudes.
By a
135.
star observed at equal altitudes east
and west of the
meridian.
When
the star is at some distance

nearer the prime vertical the
better), measure with the sextant a series of five or more
altitudes in the manner already explained (Arts, in, 112,
and 113); then, a short time before the star reaches the
Method of
observing.
east of the meridian (the
same
altitude in the west, set the vernier at the reading
of the last altitude and observe the same number of alti

Some observers
tudes as before at the same readings.
prefer to take only one reading east and then lay the in-
strument where nothing

the west observation.
will disturb
In this
it
until
way both
it
is
time for
observations are
secured at absolutely the same altitude so far as it depends

on the reading of the instrument but there is the objection
that only one reading can be made, which more than neutral;
izes the advantage.
No
correction for index error, refrac-
tion, or parallax is required.
Now, as the declination is constant and the altitudes the

same, the numerical values of the hour-angle measured east
and west of the meridian will be equal. Suppose a sidereal
chronometer used. Let
& = the chronometer time of the

"
A
Then
its
=
=
first observation;
the chronometer time of the second observation;
the chronometer correction.
the sidereal time of the star's meridian passage equals
right ascension a.
EQUAL ALTITUDES OF A STAR.
136.
=
=
a
For the first observation
For the second observation a
J0 =
From which
('
or
0'
-{-
22g
AQ
-|-
0"-|- ^/0
t\
/.
0")
-(-
(229)
March
1856,
igth, equal altitudes of Arcturus
Example
east and west of the meridian were observed as follows:
i.
West
=
=
From
=
=
East of meridian, 0'

of meridian, 0"
i('+
0")
ephemeris,
ex
Therefore
136. If a
ii
!l
4'" 51". 5
17
21
30.0
14
13
10.75
14
7.11
4'"
3 .64
^0 =
mean time chronometer
is
employed, the sidereal
culmination (which is equal to the right

ascension) must be converted into mean time, and this compared with the mean of the observed times as before.
time of the
star's
Example 2. 1856, March I5th, equal altitudes of Spica were

observed as below, the time being noted by a mean time
chronometer:
Latitude
cp
Longitude
CHRONOMETER.
56'
13' 56* from Greenwich.
104
CHRONOMETER.
20 p 28
IO
20
20
55
West.
2h
o'
T"
io h 20ni 27 8 .83
T'
")
s
.
33
SEXTANT.
Double Alt.
East.
IO h 20ra
=
=
12
30
39
42
40"'
io8 17
37 92
19.0
13
17
V=
23
32
53 .22
O- r=
13
44
44.70
15.12
13
42
12
30
12
29.58
19.00
10.58
From ephemeris, a
Then
2''
40' 38'.
40 IO .5
Art. 95
from ephemeris
Table
II,
ephemeris,
=
\(T- + T"} =
Therefore J T =
Mean
time
-f-
230
137. By equal altitudes of the sun.

This method is less simple when applied to the sun, for the
reason that the sun's declination cannot be considered constant for the interval of time between the morning and afternoon observations. The mean of the observed times will not
therefore be the time of meridian passage as in case of a star.
The correction due to this cause is called the equation of equal
altitudes.
To determine its value we proceed as follows
:
Let AS
=
dt =
Then tAd
Then
since
the hourly change in declination taken from the
Nautical Almanac.
the total change in S in the time /
change produced in / by the increment tAd of
;
+ dt
f(S -f tAd}
and neglecting terms of higher order than the

3*
To
determine
with respect to
dt
dS
_
~
tf.
= f(6\
-^
/
we
and
sin (p cos
%'*^
(230)
differentiate the last of equations (121)
d, viz.,
cos
first,
cos cp sin d cos

cos 8 sin t
(p
_ tan
sin
cp
tan S
tan
'
this value in (230), and dividing by

required in seconds of time, we find
Therefore substituting
15, as St is
'
ftan
*'==
Now
7"'

Lsif-ss7_N
suppose a mean time chronometer used, and
and T"
= chronometer times of east and
let
west observation.
EQUAL ALTITUDES OF THE SUN.
138.
Then
2$l
will
=
=
E=
E=
dt
t -f-
dt
Then
the hour-angle of the A.M. observation

the hour-angle of the P.M. observation
equation of time.
T'
-f-
X"
-\-
AT
AT
-{- (t
(t
dt}
dt)
from A.M. observation;

from P.M. observation.
From which
AT=EExample
1856,
3.
\k(T
March
T")
5th, at the
df\.
U.
S.
.....
(232)
Naval Academy
the sun was observed east and west of the meridian as

follows:
East,
7*'
West,
T"
i(T"
K?"
T')
=
=
=
=
=
E=
r")
dt
=-
8 m 26'.6
45
57
4S
37
.5
From ephemeris, S
Equation of time E
g'
3 .8io
57
-f-
ii
J5
4M5
15.18
35-11
tan q>
sin
m
4 45
h
<p
38
Longitude L =
from Washington
-|-
Latitude
41 .7
=
=
59'
2'" 16'
46'
+ n m 35'.n
=+
58". 10
=
=
*B
1.1980
AS =
1.7642
8.8239
9.9081
tan S
9.9243
tan
g.oo42n
.1900
i3'.86
*A
9.9838
1.1696
log
log
log
log dt
.5809
1.1812
138. Equal altitudes of the sun observed in the afternoon of

one day and the morning of the day following.
In this case the mean of the observed times plus the neces* See tables of addition and subtraction
logarithms.
232
138.
sary corrections will be the time of the sun's passing the

lower branch of the meridian, or midnight.
Let
Then
t'
/'
the sun's hour-angle, reckoned from the lower

branch of the meridian.
= +
t
180
sin t
sin
t'
tan
tan
/'.
Therefore for this case (231) becomes

(p
and the clock correction

except that for
E we
will
write I2 h
+'
tan
<T~|
AS
;
be given by
E.
(232), as before,
-(-
Example 4. 1856, May 3d. The altitude of the sun being

observed on the afternoon of the 3d and the morning of the
4th as follows, required the correction of the chronometer
at midnight.
T'
T" =
t'
T')
/'
/'
\(T"
I2
T')
8t
h
-(-
=
=
=
6 h 54 ra
21
io".
7"
106
h
Longitude
W.
of
Wash.
53'
= (p =
=L
21'
43
-\-
ra
40"
= 15 15'
AS = + 43". 76
m 8
time E =
67
3
From ephemeris, S
34".
.i26
= 14"
=
= it 56
2h
Latitude south
17.5
Equation of
43 -9
tan
q>
22.2
sin
/'=
t'
=
=
.#
1.1114
JS =
1.6411
8.8239
1.3469
tan 5
9 9750*
tan
9.9809
9.4356
.5179,2
41 .33
40'.4
A =
9994i
1.0764
log
log
log
(-
8t)
.8528
LATITUDE.
140.
233
139. The chief advantages possessed by the method oi

determining time by equal altitudes are the following: the
computation is very simple, and no corrections are required
for parallax, refraction, semidiameter, or instrumental errors,
nor is a knowledge of the latitude required, except very roughThe disadvantages are the diffily, when the sun is employed.
culty and oiten impossibility of obtaining the observations at
exactly the same altitude, owing to clouds or other hinderances also, the changes which often take place in the refraction between the morning and afternoon.
A correction
for this last mentioned source of error may be computed by
means of a differential formula, but it has not been thought
;
necessary to develop
it
here.
Latitude.
140.
We
have seen (Art. 63) that the astronomical latitude
of any place is equal to the declination of the zenith of that

The
place, or to the elevation of the pole above the horizon.
between the different kinds of latitude, as denned

must be borne in mind. We are at present only
distinctions
in Art. 73,
dealing with the astronomical latitudes there defined. It is

perhaps unnecessary to state that all formulae derived will
be applicable to either north or south latitude, care being
taken to use the proper algebraic signs
n
:
latitudes
j|
and declinations being
First Method.
141.
By the
Resuming
zenith distance of a star observed on the meridian.
the last of equations (121),
234
cos z
we know
that
sin
when
/
Therefore
q>
sin
the star
-f-
is
cos

and
ES =
<p
,-
z.
(234)
3, zS
z, and we readily
referring to the figure,
that in the above formula the sign will be
for a
By
see
141.
of the zenith.
The same formula applies to a star S" observed below the

If we reckon the declination on that branch of the mepole.
ridian which contains the observer's zenith, or, what is the
LATITUDE.
142.
same
thing,
if
we
235
replace d in formula (234) by (180
d), it
then becomes

=
=
180

d
S
\(z
z\
9
-f-
z'\
(236)
The method has this advantage, viz., that the latitude

in this way does not require a knowledge of the
determined
place of the star; it is therefore especially adapted to the

determination of the latitude of a fixed observatory, where it
is desirable to make the results independent of what has been
done at other places.
As
will
appear hereafter, when extreme
required there will be a small correction necessary for the change in d between the first and second observation.
The result is also affected by whatever error there
may be in the tabular value of the refraction used.
The following example will illustrate both the above
is
accuracy
methods
1875,
November nth,
Washington observatory the

was observed as follows
at the
zenith distance of Polaris
Upper culmination z
Lower culmination #'
//
49 45' 22 .2
//
52 27' 2O .o.
PRACTICAL ASTRONOMV.
236
From
Almanac we
the Nautical
find for the declination of
Polaris at the time of upper culmination at

Nov.
11.4,
88
Therefore, formula (234),

Also for lower culmination,
cp
Nov.
11.9,
8
Z
3
Then formula (236) gives 
Washington
2". 8
39'
22
49 45
.2
38
88
53' 40". 6
39
3.0
52
27
20 .O
38
53' 37". o
38
53' 38". 8
Third Method.
143. By an altitude of a star observed
being known.
any position,
tlie
time
the sidereal time, is known <*, the right ascension, and

the declination, are taken from the Nautical Almanac.
;
S,
in
We
then have
This will be given

to reduce
it
to arc.
sin
=&
in time,
We
sin
cp
a.
and must be multiplied by
15
then have
sin
3 -f cos
cos 3 cos
(p
which q> is the only unknown quantity.

For solving the equation introduce two auxiliaries, */and D,
determined by the equations
in
d sin
D=
d cos D
sin
tf
.......
.....
cos d cos
The above equation then becomes, by

of d from (a),
cos
<
/?
sin
sin
(a)
(a'}
substituting the value
D cosec
$.
143-
ALTITUDE OBSERVED AT ANY HOUR-ANGLE.
Dividing
(a)
by
(rt')'to
determine D,
formulae for determining

tan
cos
Z> is
<>
the following
(p:
D=
D =
taken less than 90,
we have
237
tan # sec
sin / sin Z> cosec
+ or
according to the algebraic
sign of the tangent. (q>

the cosine, may bo either
D), being determined in terms of

There will therefore be
-|- or
t\vo values of the latitude
which
will satisfy the
above condi-
Practically an approximate value of the latitude will

always be known with accuracy sufficient for deciding this
tions.
ambiguity.
Example. On March 4th, 1882, I observed the following

double altitudes of Polaris with a Pistor & Martins prismatic
sextant and artificial horizon
:
From
Nautical
a=
88
cosec 5
sin
(

D] being
negative, the angle must be in the second or third quadrant.
If we had taken it in the third quadrant we should have
:
found
is in
(p
141
+.
As
144. Effect of Errors in the
of a
q> is
never greater than 90,
Data upon
the Latitude determined by
an Altitude
Star.
Differentiating equation (g), Art. 126, regarding h
reducing by equation
From
this
we
(e),
we
and
on the
we
as variable,
and
see that a small error in the measured altitude will have the least
latitude
readily find
dq>
from which
(p
readily find
when the star is on the meridian.

Again, differentiating the same equation with respect to
effect
ing,
this value
any case excluded.
tan a cos tpdt
appears that the effect upon

angle will be least when a is zero or 180.
it
(p of
<p
and
/,
and reduc-
.......
a small error,
dt, in
(239)
the hour-
It appears, therefore, that the latitude will be determined with greater accuWhen the star is very near the
racy the nearer the star is to the meridian.
meridian the method which follows will be preferable.
Fourth Method.
145.
By
circummer idian
altitudes.
When
the latitude
is
determined by the altitude of a star observed on the meridian,

the accuracy is greater than in any other position, and at the
same time the computation is extremely simple. We can,
however, only measure one altitude when the star is on the
meridian and frequently at the time when the observation is
made we shall not know the chronometer correction with
;
accuracy for determining the exact instant when

If, however, altitudes are
measured near the meridian (how near we shall discuss later),
the observed altitudes may be reduced to the meridian altitude by a simple computation. It will thus be possible to
sufficient
this observation should be taken.
LATITUDE BY CIRCUMMERID1AN ALTITUDES.
145-
239
a considerable number of measurements instead of relying on one alone. When this method is applied observation
is begun if possible a few minutes before culmination, and a
series of altitudes measured in quick succession so as to have
about the same number on each side of the meridian.
Altitudes measured in this manner are called circumme-
make
ridian altitudes.
It is not essential, however, that the series should be
symmetrical with respect to the meridian the method is
equally applicable to the reduction of one or more altitudes
taken on either side of the meridian if sufficiently near.
;
Let h
of a star
any altitude
angle /
the altitude
corresponding to the hour-
//
2g
=
=
when
the star
the zenith distance
is
90
on the meridian
= cp 8
//
Then
sin
Let us write for cos
Then
t its
-f-
cos
value,
cp
cos d cos
/.
2 sin't^.
the above equation becomes
sin
cos z
Let us write
Then
sin cp sin
(a)
cos
cos
becomes
cos
cp
a
cos 8 2 sin
/.
(a)
= y-
(^)
= cos ^
= f(y).
y,
(c)
This expression
cos d 2 sin"^
cos z
or
of ascending
<p
6)
(<p
may now be expanded into a series in terms

of y, and when t is small the series will
powers
converge rapidly if z is not too small.

Maclaurin's formula applied to this case
a
is
as follows
1'RACTICAL ASTRONOMY.
240
146.
and observing that when y
za
o,
Differentiating (V)
find the following values of the differential coefficients
we
<**]
_ __!_
fy)
sin za
'
\dy~
cot
^ ^_
"~
3
*"
cotX
Substituting these values in (d) and restoring the value of

y,
we
find
cos
(P
cos S
2
sm
/cos
*/
<p
'i+3 cotX)2
2
cos #\ s
.cotjs. 2 sin
&
sin !/.
(240)
In this equation 2 sin !/, 2 sin !/, etc., are expressed in terms
of the radius. The equation must be made homogeneous by
introducing the divisor sin i" where necessary.
cos
cp
cos 8
= A
'
*,.
*'<***.
î(,
= *;
+ 3 cot^.) =
^=if-
^=
(*4i)
C;
.\
Then we have
q>
+ Am
Bn
=F G?.
(242)
146. This computation is made very simple by the use of

table VIII, where m and n are given with the argument / expressed in time (the last term, Co, is seldom used).
As A and B will be constant for the entire series, we shall
have,
If
z a zv z3
m,,
m m^
etc., Zp,
etc.,
m^
are the observed zenith distances,

the corresponding values of
taken
from the
table,
148-
MI,
LATITUDE BY CIKCUMMERIDIAN ALTITUDES.

n *, e tc.,
M*>
=
=
the corresponding values of
Zi
rp
Am,
z.,
qp
Am,
Bn,;
Bn^
9$z^ Am^
Bn^
cp
cp
The mean
n^,
<y
n,
of these equations will then be
._
be observed that an approximate value of the

required for computing^. When the observations extend on both sides of the meridian a sufficiently close
approximation may always be obtained by taking the largest
147.
It will
latitude
is
measured altitude and calling

better, take the
mean
this the
meridian altitude
of this in connection with that
or,
imme-
and following it. If the altitudes are all

measured on one side of the meridian, or if for any reason a
value of g> has been used which proves to be considerably
diately preceding
using for
be necessary to repeat the computation of A,

In
the value found from the first computation.
may
in error, it
<p
first
Am
need be computed in the

approximation, and only three or four altitudes reduced.
that case only the correction
148. Let us now exarrtine separately the terms of equation (240) in order to
see how far from the meridian the observations may be extended without intro-
ducing into the resulting latitude inadmissible errors.
Taking the
for
last term, viz.,
any given values
of cp
and
6",
we can compute
the value of
t,
for
which
this
242
4 8.
We
readily see that when

quantity will have any value, as, for instance, i".
the zenith distance of the star is large the observations may be extended much
The following table gives the
further from the meridian than when it is small.
hour-angle, for which this term has the value i" for different values of
o, then
40 and 5
Thus, referring to the table, we see that if cp
q>
and
d.
m
4O
committed in neglecting this term amounts to i" only

from the meridian. If cp = 40 and 5 = 23 about the
or, in this case, the error
when
the star
maximum
is
40
declination of the sun, then
2O m
ONE
LIMITING HOUR-ANGLE AT WHICH THE THIRD REDUCTION AMOUNTS TO

SECOND.
Let us
now
consider the term

cos Q) cos
/c
I
In a precisely similar
which
we
this
term
is
5\
.
sm (<p
\s
cot 2
o)/
2 sin 4 \t
^-
sin
Bb.
manner we can compute the limiting values of

The table is computed in this way
less than i".
find that in the first of the
above cases
16
in the second,
within
/,
;
from
m
LIMITING HOUR-ANGLE AT WHICH THE SECOND REDUCTION AMOUNTS TO

SECOND.
it
ONE
149-
LATITUDE BY CIRCUMMERIDIAK ALTITUDES.
243
own
times for observing, we can always make

our measurements so near the meridian that these terms may be neglected.
As i" is much within the error of an ordinary sextant measurement, the
we
If
are able to choose our
may'be extended somewhat beyond those of the table without serious

We may, in a similar manner, determine for what values of t Co or Bn
have the values o".i, o".oi, or any other value.
limits
error.
will
Lower Culmination.
149.
When
the star
observed near the meridian at lower
is
culmination, the hour-angles should be reckoned from the

lower branch of the meridian. This is equivalent to substithen have
tuting 1 80 -f- 1 in the formula in place of t.
We
cos z =. sin
(p
Writing, as before, cos

this
Expanding
culmination
cos
cos
(p
cos d cos
/.
2 sin'^/,
((p -\- 6) -f-
this as before,
we
and therefore
cos
<p
j
cos 6 2 sin
/.
and remembering that for lower
have, from (235),
zg
cos zn
180
cos
(<p -+- tf),

((p
-f-
#),
readily obtain
cos
(p
sin
cos d 2 sin 2 \t
za
or
and
becomes
cos z
we
sin
sin \"
= z Am
= 180 - d - (z
2.o
(p
-4i
-\i
-f-
Bn,
y
....
Am + Bn).
(24;)
\ *TJ )
(246)
This formula might have been obtained from (240) exactly

as (235) is from (234), viz., by simply changing <$ into 180
d.
The hour-angle is obtained by simply taking the difference
244
between the chronometer time
149.
of observation
and
of culmi-
nation.*
Let a
= star's right ascension = sidereal time of culmination;

= chronometer correction, when chronometer is slow.
-f-
Then
If
then
chronometer time
Aty
(a
&
is
of culmination.
the chronometer time of any observation,

t
=&
(a
A&)
......
(247)
Formula for Latitude by Circummeridian Altitudes of a

z
90
t=&
cos
A=-
- (h -(*(p
r)
cos d
A* cot
(XIII)
2 sin \t
sin i"
sin i"
<p
180
8
d
(z
(z
4-
Am 4- Bn],
Am 4- Bn)
upper culmination
lower culmination.
Example of Latitude by Circummeridian

1873,
August
Star.
Altitudes.
a Aquila
observed for Latitude.

Observer Boss.
Instruments: Sextant and Sidereal Chronometer.
20.
Assumed latitude 2O
Star's declination d
Chronometer correction
From ephemeris,
-\-
49 01'
m i8 8
i
4i
1
'
'
22
ig
50
44"' 37". 5
27
.5
32' n''.5
* If the rate of the chronometer is

appreciable it must be taken into account
For the simplest manner of doing this see Art. 152.
I49
LATITUDE BY CIRCUMMERIDIAN ALTITUDES.

q>
49 01
cos
= 8 32 .2
S = 40 28.8
^ = .9991
B
cp
cos d
cosec
log
= 9.8168
= 9.9952
= .1876
A =
log A*
cot Z
245
= 9.9992
= .0688
=
0.0680
9-9996
1.169
The observations and method of reduction are shown in

the following tabular statement, which will be sufficiently
explained by reference to formulas (XIII).
Mean h
Eccentricity
=$E=
Refraction
*
J.t
\I
r
49
=
'=
ro =
33' 59". 8
I
[w]
51 .5
10
.1
343-35
3"-9
I
-3
47-3
easy to see in advance than the term

introduced here to illustrate the method.
It is
is
=
=
Index error
Bn
is
inappreciable in this case.
246
Corrected altitude
Zenith distance
Declination
Resulting latitude
q>
= 49
= 40
= 8
= 49
150.
31' io".g
28 49
.1
32
.4
.5
i".3
not considered necessary to reduce each observawork is abridged somewhat by the following process [see Art. (146)]
If it is
tion separately, the
Mean
of
Index
Eccentricity
Corrected
=
=
E=
zh
99
zh
h
Am'
7'
99
= 49
=+
31
Refraction
Corrected
Zenith distance
Declination
Latitude
14". 5
3 43 .o
20
.2
.3
47
= 49
z = 40
d = 8
<p = 49
h
31
m=
22".6
22".6
Am'
.3
.1
.4
of
m'
10 .9
28 49
32
Mean
35 .6
22 .6
0.5
which we have derived for circumwe have supposed the decimation prac-
150. In the formulae
meridian altitudes
constant during the interval of observation.

this is not the case but the same method may
be used if we take for d the mean of the declinations corresponding to each time of observation, or, what is practically
the same, the declination corresponding to the mean of the
tically
With the sun
It is, however, better to reduce each altitude separately for the purpose of estimating the accuracy of the final
result and as a partial check against error of computation.
If formulae (XIII) are used, the declination must be interpolated for the time of each altitude this considerably aug-
times.
ments the labor of reduction. This additional labor may be

avoided by the method which follows.
CIRCUMMER1DIAN ALTITUDES OF THE SUN.
151-
247
Method of Reducing Circummeridian Observations of
Gauss
the Sun.
151. In this method the hour-angle is reckoned from the
point where the sun reaches his maximum altitude instead of
The meridian
from the meridian.

used
in
Let #
AS
=
=
the change in 6 in one second,
and
tf
The
<?
AS
/
.......
of higher order than the
+ /dS
<*.
cos
q>
-7- is
pose we determine
cos d
-
^-
peculiarity of the process
the small term
mum
is
,-
first.
2 sin if, etc.
in the
sin cp sin
(250)
method by which
For
this pur-
corresponding to the maxi-
equal to zero and solving for
Take the equation

h
Then
taken into account.
the value of
value of h by placing
sin
(248)
/(/),
by neglecting terms
9,
then be
the declination corresponding to hour-angle t\

hourly change in # given in the Nautical Almanac, -f- when the sun is moving N.;
the hour-angle given in seconds of time.
AS
Also, since
may
the sun's meridian declination;
Then
declination
the observations.
all of
reducing
-\-
cos
<p
cos 8 cos
t.
t.
248
Differentiating with respect to
k, d,
and
151-
and placing -r=
/,
o,
we have
dh
cos h -jr
dS
(sm
<p
cos o
cos
cp
sin o cos
t)
cos
cp
cos S sin
-^
= o.
(251)
As t will be very small, no appreciable error will be introduced by making cos / = I, when the above equation readily
gives
dS
-si
*//
In this
t is
maximum
of
call
cp
cos d
sin ((p
d)
cos
-i
=r
sm
itjj/,
and as
it is
small
we may
cos
cp
write
cos d
O.
in
equation (250),
i,,.
will
whence
\t,
2
2 sin \t
ty
'
it
becomes
^,,)..
always be small when this method
sin \t
Then
(252)
the hour-angle of the sun corresponding to the

To distinguish it from the general value
Substituting this value of
...
altitude.
dS
Since
write
/.
is
(254)
used, let us
= \f.
- */
2 sin %f
= %(f 2ty + /)
= W - y}' - &.
Passing back from the angles to the sines and making the
151-
terras
CIRCUMMEKIDIAN ALTITUDES OF THE SUN.

homogeneous by introducing the divisor
becomes
249
sin i", equa-
tion (254)
cos
-\-
-\
(p
cos d
2 sin
sin z
cos
<p
sin
cos 8
COS
% (t
shTi 77
y)
'
'
(255 )
COS
2sin ^!/
tf
.
sin
\y
2 sin
'
~în^;
The term
is
sin
always very small, and
in
the solution of the problem as given by Gauss it was negIts computation only requires one additional logalected.
rithm, and
is therefore very simple; but in reducing sextant

perhaps an excess of refinement to retain it.
We now require a convenient formula for computing y.
Equation (253) may be written
work
it is
15 sin
dS
sin z.
cos
<p
cos 8
l2O)
r-f
dt
y will be required in seconds of time.

we replace dS by the number of seconds
since
If
increases in one hour, and dt

of arc, we have
Then from
*v
y=
of arc
by one hour expressed
dS
AS
dt
54000*
in
which 8
seconds
(256)
sin z.
AS
cospcosd
[940594] -4
206265
.
15x54000
sin 2
^
cos<pcostf
Ad .2tA.6<.
(2*7}
^
(258)
250
frequently be accurate enough to take
It will
152.
-.
to the chronometer time of culthe chronometer time of maximum

difference between this and the chronometer
added algebraically
is
mination
the result
The
altitude.
time of observation
is
is (/
y).
Formulas for Latitude by Circummeridian Altitudes of the Sun.
*,=.A
sin
(XIV)
I
4
2 sin %(t
sin i"
=z+
<p
tf
y\
2 sin $(/
'
+ x*
sin
y\
7/
Am + -5.
Correction for Rate of Chronometer.

15-2.
If
the times are recorded by a chronometer which has
a large rate, the hour-angle used in formulas (XIII) and (XIV)

may require a correction. This correction can be applied in
a very simple manner, as follows
:
Suppose first a star to be observed by a sidereal chronometer which has a daily rate #, -f- when the chronometer
Then 24 actual sidereal hours correspond to24h

shown by the chronometer, and all hour-angles given
is losing.
0,
as
in
units of chronometer time will be in error in a like ratio.
Let
t
/'
*x
=
=
any hour-angle as shown by the chronometer;

true value of the hour-angle.
may always be
neglected without serious error
when
is
not too small.
CORRECTION FOR RATE OF CHRONOMETER.
15--
t
/
(t'Y
\7J
24
"
86400-
- 69 ~
""
24"
251
86400
= r--"afcTn- =
i
tffc)'
......
( 2 59)
864ooJ
Then
in
formula (XIII)
we shall have with
sin \t'
sin*
/'
sin \t
t'
sin
practical accuracy
t;
/.
The factor k or log k may be conveniently tabulated with

the argument rate ; and as it will be constant in any series
of observations, it may be combined with the factor^, which
will then be computed by the formula
cos
cos 3
>
given in table VIII, C.

a star is observed with a mean time chronometer whose
rate is ST, the factor Vk will convert the chronometer intervals into mean time intervals we then require the factor
to convert these mean time intervals into
/.<* = 1.00273791
sidereal intervals. The formula for computing A will then be
is
If
A =
where log n
ktf
COS
--
Q>
COS $
sin 2.
.....
(261)
.0011874.
observed with a mean time chronometer the

intervals of the chronometer corrected for rate will not
correspond exactly to the solar intervals, as these will be
apparent time intervals.
If
the sun
is
* See Art.
93.
252
If
we
let
SE
152.
the increase of the equation of time in
one day, then (one apparent solar day) = (one mean solar
SE = the chronometer rate on apSE, and ST
day)
parent time, k will then be given by the formula
(262)
Finally,
if
the sun
is
observed with a sidereal chronometer,
we must
introduce the factor - to convert the sidereal inter-
vals into
mean time
intervals.
The log- =9.9988126.
The
formulae for the four cases are then as follows:
__
Sr
=
r _
8T ~
\*'
86400
Star with sidereal chronometer,
86400
COS
CD
COS S
;
sin 2
Star with
mean time chronometer, A
Sun with
sidereal chronometer,
[p. 002375]^
cos
cp
cos S
r(XV)
sin z
k and
k' are.
Example.
[9 997625]^'
taken from table VIII, C.
Determination of latitude by circummeridian altitudes of the sun.
1869, July 24th.
Instruments:
The
A =
Des Moines, Iowa.

Sextant and
Observer Harkness.
Mean Time Chronometer.
declination, equation of time, etc., are taken
from the ephemeris
for the
CIKCL'MMERIDIAN ALTITUDES OF SUN.
15--
Des Moines
instant of the sun's meridian passage at
253
16*
apparent
time at Washington.
Assumed
Latitude
cp
Longitude
L =
AT=
From ephemeris,
41
h
-f-
19
35'^
6 m 16*
18
8.9
46'
i6".i
Ab -
Equation of time
Semidiameter
Equatorial hor. parallax
it
Computation of
=
=
=
=
=
19 46.3
21 49.2
cosec
.4298
A =
1.893
log
.2772
B=
8.95
5
z
cos
Computation of y.
8 .44
and B.
,4
005
4i
47". 2
15'
35-5
<?
31 -94
6 m I2 8 .o
-{-
9.8738
= 0.5544
= -3975
log j5 = .9519
log A*
cot z
9.9736
=
A =
Computation of x*.
INDEX ERROR.
On
arc.
Off arc.
For the chronometer time of culmination we have

Equation of time
Chronometer time of max.
The
difference
between
this quantity
E=
oh
AT = -
)'
alt.
:'
6 m I2 8 .o
18
8.9
4-3
24
i6'.6
and the observed time
T is
(t-y).
In reducing sextant observations
x may always be
disregarded.
the quantity
PRA CTICA L AS TRONOM Y.
254
The observations and
reductions are
now
152.
as follows:
Upper limb la
3
Lower limb
<
Mean
O =
Semidiameter
Refraction
Parallax
Index
cor.
Eccentricity
68
=
/ =
\I =
25' 21". 2
.2
-|-
15
\E
=
=
z =
d =
latitude <p =
47
47
15
21 .6
+
-J-
3 .1
+
-[-
.8
-j-
-f
14
68
10' 40". 7
Mean
68
10' 40". o
21
.2
21 .8
10 .4
Corrected
Resulting
53' 45". 6
67
3-2
10 .4
14 .8
68
10'
3g".4
49 20
19 46 16
41
35'
36"
The observations of the above series, it will be noticed,

were all taken before the sun reached the meridian, and so
far from the meridian that the term Bn has a very appreciIt is a little better to take the observations near
able value.
the meridian when practicable, as then small errors in
will produce less effect on the resulting latitude.
(See Art.
AT
144.)
The above
observations
may
be reduced by the method
of Art. 146 if it is not considered necessary to compare the

individual results. The labor is considerably less, as will be
seen by the following

Mean
of
chronometer times
AT =
18
8 .9
23
51
38.9
True mean time

Longitude from Washington
Washington mean time
L =
1 '
o 57
47". 8
16
54 .9
152.
CIRCUMMEK1DIAN ALTITUDES OF SUN.
The declination of the sun is now to be taken from the ephemeris for
mean time of observation, instead of the instant of meridian passage as in
255
this
the
previous method.
Thus
19
E=
This value of
is
46' 23".8;
6 m i2 8 .o.
now the mean time

we have
of the sun's meridian passage.
For
the chronometer time
Chronometer time
E=
oh
AT = -
18
24
of the sun's meridian passage
Means:
Am'
'
419". 8
794
Bri
-7
6 m I2'.o;
8.9;
20 .9.
= .44
= 3". 9
The number of observations on the two limbs being the same, the senu
diameter will be eliminated by taking the mean of the individual values
Mean
= 2/1
= I=
E=
of sextant readings
Index correction
Eccentricity
Corrected reading
A
=
=
135
Parallax
+ Am
Resulting latitude
<p
20
55' 51". 3
57 55 .6
21 .7
3 .2
-jJ
14 -7
3-9
10' 47". 9
49 12
19 46 24
.8
29 .7
67
- Bn = = 68
Z =
21
S
oo".8
135
=*-f
Corrected altitude
-\-
r =.
Refraction
53'
-\-
41" 35' 36"
256
The rate of the chronometer was

The daily increase of the equation
dT =
of time 8E = -fdT- 8E = -
153.
'.47
.63
1. 10
Therefore the log k
The
(See Art. 152.)

9.999989.
correction for rate is therefore absolutely inappreciable.
Fifth Method.
We have al^53- By Polaris observed at any hour-angle.

ready seen (method third) how the latitude may be obtained
by an altitude of a star, observed in any position. We have
also applied the formulee
Polaris.
deduced
to a series of altitudes of
more convenient formula than the one there used
is
ob-
tained by expanding the expression for the latitude into a

series in terms of ascending powers of the polar distance. The
latter, in case of Polaris, being at present only about i 20',
the series will converge rapidly, and a very few terms give
an approximation sufficiently accurate for every practical
purpose.
Let
/
<p
90
h
the polar distance;
x.
Then x is the correction which is to be applied to the measured altitude corrected for refraction to produce the latitude, x can never be greater than/.
Substituting these values in
sin
it
sin
cp
-f-
cos
cos/
-f-
cos (h
sin
y>
cos d cos
/,
becomes
sin
sin (h
Expanding
sin (h
x]
x) and cos
(h
x] sin/ cos
t.
(a)
x) by Taylor's, and
LATITUDE BY POLARIS.
153-
257
sin/ and cos p by Maclaurin's formula, we have, as

terms of the order/ and x\
far as
sin
(hx) =
cos (A
sin
^r)=cos
/z
x cos //
x sin //
-j-
+ i*
%x* sin h
^ cos h
2
cos h
-(-
^x* sin h\
\x* sin
/>=/-/;
- - i/ +
sin
cos/
Substituting these values in
=1
cos
we
(a),
readily obtain
2
2xp cos / -(- / ) tan //

cos /
3.r/
\(x*
cos
/)
tan
Which
contains
all
terms
in
/and
from the
or,
first
h.
to the
x must now be determined from
fourth orders inclusive,
For the
() by successive approximations.
first
approxima-
tion let
= p cos
Substituting this value in the second term of (U) and retain2

ing terms of the order/ we find for the second approxima,
tion
=p
cos
i/
Substituting this value in the
and retaining terms

proximation,
sin
tan h
.....
(d)
second and third terms of

3
of the
order/
we
(#)
find the third ap-
viz.,
= / cos /
sin
tan h
-(-
^/
cos
/ sin"
/.
(e)
Similarly for the fourth and final approximation,
=p
cos
sin / tan
sin / tan
^/
|/
-(-
-J/ cos
// -\-
^V/
(4
/ sin
9 sin
t
a
/)
sin t tan h.(f)
258
153.
As x and / will be expressed in seconds of arc, the series

must be made homogeneous by multiplying/ by sin i'',/ by
sin i", and/ by sin i".
Then the expression for the latitude is
2
<p
=h
p cos
-f \p"~ sin i" sin" / tan h

3
4
2
2
3
3
^/ sin 1" cos /sin / -(- -J/ sin i" sin /tan /
3
2
2
9 sin /) sin / tan h. (263)
^p' sin i" (4
4
Let us now examine separately the last three terms of

order to see when the}- mav be neglected.
Let us write the last term equal to //, viz.,
(263) in
Forming the
placing
/
will
it
-%-p* sin
i" (4
sin
/)
differential coefficient of
equal to zero
make
u a
in
cos
tan h.
with respect to
//
/,
order to determine what value of
maximum, we
sin t
sin
find
9 sin
/ (2
/)
from which
sin
cos
o;
sin /
o;
The
last of these corresponds to a maximum, as will be

found bv substituting this value in the second differential
coefficient.
The maximum value

(/being
u'
It will
of this term
is
then found to be
20')
o".ooii tan
//.
therefore always be inappreciable.

3
4
3
viz., ^p* sin i" sin / tan h,
The next term,

when sin / = i.
Its greatest
value
is
therefore o".oc>76 tan
is
//.
maximum
LATITUDE BY POLARIS.
153-
259
This term will then be only o".oi in latitude 48, and o".i
67. It may therefore always be neglected when
the instrument used is the sextant.
in latitude
Writing
i" cos
sin
equal to zero,
we
i/
sin
dv
forming
-,,-,
it
placing
maximum when
t,
readily find that v
sin /
The maximum value of this
f
then be o".333. If then we drop this term with
those which follow, the error introduced in this way will
seldom amount to half a second, and will generally be much
smaller as the maxima values of the different terms occur for
different values of /.
Therefore for determining the latitude by Polaris by sexis
term
will
tant observation,
=
k
(p
_;
2
cos
[4.384S4]/ sin
/ -+-
tan
h.
Let us apply this method to the example solved in Art.

have given
143.
We
From
Nautical Almanac.
=
5 =
Therefore/ =
a
i5
By Observation.
m 6 s .o
AQ
4733". 8
Therefore
log/
cos
First correction
Second correction
i
-f-
2'
36". 2
&=
88 41' 6". 2
log
3-675210
=9
899537,,
(p
i .5
142 30' 43". 5
constant log
4.38454
log/'
7.35042
sin
9.56866
tan h
9.91704
log 2d cor.
= 1.22066
= 3.574 747
16 .6
Therefore
39 33' 38". 8
ioh 45 m 7'.4
40
36' 31". 6
260
We
154.
be o".24, which makes the

agree exactly with the value before found (Art.
find the third correction to
value of
cp
143).
Tables have been prepared with the design of abridging

this computation, but the direct application of the formula
is so simple that tables are of no great advantage, especially
if
the third and fourth corrections are not required.
Correction for Second Differences.
154. When a series of, say, ten altitudes is observed, if the measurements
are made in quick succession, so that the arc of the circle in which the apparent
motion of the star takes place does not

then the
the
mean
differ appreciably from a straight line,

of the observed altitudes will be the altitude corresponding to
of the times.
If, however, the deviation from a straight line is ap-
mean
preciable, this
follows:
Let
mean
ti,
altitude will require a correction
/3 ,
ft,
hi, hi,
h
Ati
At*
Then
from
A.
(6),
hi
ti 3
be the times of observation;

h^ be the observed altitudes;
= the altitude
=
= -^
/
ti,
corresponding to the time /<>;

t a = *, -f- At^\
from which
*o
to
= f(t
= f(t )
may
fu
which
hi
J*i).
= /fr)
A*
+ Â>;
= /<Yn
.../&= f(t - Atn}
Expanding these expressions by Taylor's formula, we
find
be obtained as
CORRECTION FOR SECOND DIFFERENCES.
154-
The mean
h\
From
of these values will be
h*
d^
^n
the values At\, At*, etc.,
but as the quantities

-
26 1
will not
be zero.
At* At*
,
fl "+"
by
,
^fa
+ dtn
the term multiplied by
(b),
will
be zero;
be plus, the term multiplied by
etc., will all
should always be taken into account
It
when
large
enough
<//*
to
be appreciable.
To determine
we
-^
sin h
when we
sin tp sin
-}-
cos
9)
cos 5 cos
/;
readily find
/cos
d**h
And
differentiate the equation
since cos
= sin
z,

cos 5\ s
becomes
A,
+^
sin 2
tan
/,
>4
(266)
The quantities At\, At?, etc., will be expressed in seconds of time they must
2
be reduced to arc by multiplying by 15. Also, I5^/] etc., must be multiplied by
sin i" in order to make formula (264) homogeneous.
The last term will therefore be multiplied by i(i5) 5 sin i", the logarithm of which is 6.73673
10.
Therefore formula (264) becomes
;
'
[6.73673]
"
'
"
26 7 )
262
155
As an example, we may apply formula (267) to the observations of Polarig

given in Art. 143, where we have
ti
t,
ta
/4
/.
=
=
=
=
=-
1235.4
At?
71 .4
J/T
At*
5 .4
.6
42
15227.6
5098.0
=
AT* =
1814.8
9401.5
29.2
157 -6
Mean
By
=
=
log
3-9732
constant logarithm
6.
8.9997
formula (265), with the data given in Art. 143,
Correction
o".lo
log
7367
We may
the
in a manner precisely similar derive the correction to be applied to

of the times, to obtain the time corresponding to the mean of the
mean
zenith distances: this
may
be more convenient in certain cases.
The
necessity for applying a correction for second differences may generally

be avoided by dividing a long series of observations into two or more parts,
neither of which shall embrace an interval of time long enough to require such
This proceeding has the advantage that in reducing the two halves
correction.
of the series separately they will mutually check each other.
155. The methods of determining time and latitude which

have been given in this chapter are especially adapted to
the requirements of the explorer.
The observations can
generally be obtained more conveniently at night, and both
time and latitude will be required. From the observed time
the longitude will be obtained, as will be explained more
As we have already shown, the time will be
fully hereafter.
best determined by observing two stars, one east and one
west of the meridian, both as near the prime vertical as practicable.
The
mined
most conveniently deternorthern hemisphere by observing Polaris
latitude will generally be

in
the
GENERAL REMARKS.
155-
263
north, and another star south, by circummeridian altitudes.

Then, with the best attainable approximation to the latitude,
the time can be
computed by the method
of Art. 125.
With
time the correct value of the latitude may

then be determined by (XIII) and (XVI), and if this differs
much from the assumed latitude the time must be recomIn extreme cases it may be necessary to recompute
puted.
the latitude, but with proper care this need not often occur.
As a survey of the line of travel is generally made by
this value of the
means of a compass and odometer (which is a little instrument for recording the number of revolutions of a cartwheel), the observer always knows his position approximately. The same process, essentially, is followed at sea,
where the approximate place of the vessel is always known
from the " dead reckoning," which is the course as indicated
by the compass and log.
The methods of this chapter are those which are most convenient and useful in practice. On land, where the observer
has a certain degree of choice as to time of observation and
methods, and where the results must have a considerable
degree of accuracy to be of any value, it will seldom be desirable to employ others. At sea, however, the case is somewhat different. It sometimes happens that the determination of the place of the vessel
is of the greatest importance

when, from cloudy weather or other causes, observations
cannot be obtained which are suitable for the employment
of the methods of this chapter. Further, a high degree of
accuracy is not required for purposes of navigation. Various methods of determining the place of a vessel are therefore given in works on navigation, in order that the mariner
may be in a position to utilize any data which he may obtain.
It can
readily be seen that by varying the conditions a
great variety of solutions of the problem may be obtained.

of these are exceedingly elegant from a mathematical
Some
264
155.
Such, for instance, is the method given by

for determining both the time and latitude from observation of three stars at the same altitude. Thus if k is the
point of view.
Gauss
common
altitude, #,
d',
6" the declinations,
/,
the hour-angles of the three stars respectively,
/ -j- A, / -j-
A'
we have
Three equations from which
t and g> may be found.

Further
there are three equations, we can also determine
h from them, so that the altitude need not be measured at
than
this, as
but only the instant of time observed when each star

reaches the altitude //. If, however, the altitude is measured
by the instrument, this process shows the error of the instru-
all,
ment, thus giving us one equation for determining the eccentricity
by Art.
116.
same star are measured, a similar

process gives us three equations for determining the latitude,
hour-angle, and declination of the star.
Also, it is evident that two measured altitudes either of the
same star or of different stars will give two equations of the
If
three altitudes of the
from which the latitude and hour-angle may

be determined.*
A variety of cases may also be considered in which the
measured quantity is the azimuth of a star, or three different
altitudes of the same star and the differences of the azimuths,
or the data may be varied in many ways but these solulorni of (268),
tions are of
little
* For a solution of
Method
practical value.
this problem graphically, see Captain Sumner's

of Determining the Place of a Ship at Sea.
New
PROBABLE ERROR OF SEXTANT OBSERVATION.
156.
26
]
Probable Error of Sextant Observations.

156. In all instrumental measurements the error of the result obtained consists of two parts: first, that due to the observer; and second, that due to instru-
mental and other sources with which the observer has nothing to do. When the
instrument employed is the sextant, the latter consists for the most part of the
In any given series
various undetermined errors noticed in Articles 114-117.
and therefore nothing is gained in this

measurements.
however, the case is different. These form the accidental
of observations these affect all alike,
direction by increasing the
With the
first class,
number
of individual
errors of observation, and, as they occur in accordance with the law of least
squares, their effect diminishes with an increase in the number of measure-
ments.
Let
= the probable error of the mean of a series of observed altitudes;

= the error due to the observer, not including personal equation;
= the error due to instrument and causes other than the observer.
A'
.A"]
Ri
Then, by Art.
Thus
if
A'o
16,
the observer could
do
VAY4- AY
.........
(269)
his part perfectly, he could never diminish the
probable error of a single series below /I'j.

The values of J? A",, and R-> for a given instrument and observer
may be
determined by methods which we have already employed.
Thus (Art. 132) we have found for the probable error of the time determined
".14. The corresponding
by a series of ten double altitudes of the sun, RI* =
error in the double altitude zh is found by the differential formula, viz.,
,
and
for this case
Therefore
we have found
azn
Jzh
=
=
.640.
*'
I4
X -^ =
#,".
2". 6
3". 2
.049
From
the latitude observations (Art. 149)
we have found
AY'.
discussion of the ninety individual measurements of altitude employed

in the investigation of the eccentricity of the sextant (example, Art. 116). Prof.
By a
Boss
measurement of double altitude to be

From the soluand of the mean of ten measurements
4". 4 = AV
the equations of condition of the same example we found for the probable
finds the probable error of a single
14'',
tion of
266
error of a single equation R*

5". 9.
Thus the instrumental probable error
1^6.
Therefore by equation (269) R*

3". 93.
nearly equal to the observer's probable
is
mean of ten measurements.

now we assume the probable error of a single measurement to be
14"
above, we have for the observer's probable error of the mean of m measure-
error of a
If
as
ments, by equation
and the
total
(25),
probable error
R*
/?
=
=
# = i/
14". 5;
7
.4;
m =
m =
10,
20,
J 5
=
R =
J?
-45-
5.9;
5.0;
m
m =
50,
/i' a
100,
>fo
=
=
4.4;
42.
Thus it appears that with a skilled observer almost nothing is gained by ex

Instead,
tending the number of observations of a given series beyond ten.
therefore, of multiplying observations in the same circumstances, when accuracy
is
desired, the circumstances
must be varied with a view
to eliminating the in-
strumental errors.
Thus for good results a determination of time or latitude should never depend
tn a single series, no matter how carefully made or how elaborately the instrumental errors have been investigated. Latitude should be determined by both
Aorth and south observations, giving both equal weight, no matter whether
In like manner
determined from an equal number of measurements or not.
time should be determined from observations both east and west combined with
equal weights. (See also Harkness, Washington Observations, 1869, Appendix
page m.)
I,
CHAPTER
VI.

J 57-
When
the time
is
required with extreme accuracy,
as in a careful determination of longitude, the methods of

the preceding chapter are not adapted to the purpose. The
instrument used will then be the transit.

The common form of transit instrument consists essentially
As it
of a telescope attached to an axis perpendicularly.
revolves with the axis the line of collimation produced to
the celestial sphere describes a great circle. The instrument
is
generally
mounted
so that this great circle
is
the meridian,
and it is used in connection with the sidereal clock or chronometer for determining the instant of a star's transit over the
meridian. If our clock is accurately regulated to show sidereal time, such an observed transit gives us at once the star's
right ascension, the latter being, as we have seen, the same
If, however, we observe
already known, this process
as the sidereal time of culmination.
a star whose right ascension
is
gives us the error of the clock.
The
field-transit
mounted
which we are
at present more particularly concerned, is always used for this latter purpose.
Theoretically the instrument may be used in any vertical
in the meridian, with
sometimes used
in the plane of the prime verthe latitude, or in a fixed observatory for

When speaking of the
finding the declinations of stars.
plane.
It is
tical for finding
transit instrument
in the meridian.
simply
we understand
it
to be
mounted
268
PR A C 7 '1CA L AS TRONOM Y.
FIG.
6.
5 8.
58.
269
Description of the Instrument.

158.
The "transit instrument designed
for a fixed observa-
permanently mounted, is much larger and

more complete than one designed for use in the field, where
it must be transported from place to place.
The transittory,
where
it
is
circle of the
Washington observatory, for instance, has a

telescope of twelve feet focal length, the aperture being eight
and one half inches it is mounted on massive piers of marble,
;
which rest on a foundation of masonry extending ten feet

below the surface of the ground.
Figs. 26, 27, 28, and 29 show different forms of the fieldtransit used by the coast and other government surveys.
Fig. 26 is a
focal length
very
and
common
form.
The
inches aperture.
telescope
is
26 inches
provided with a
diagonal eye-piece for observing transits of stars near the
As
zenith, the magnifying power being about 40 diameters.
may be seen from the figure, the frame folds up so that the
entire instrument may be packed in a single box of comparatively small dimensions. The frame rests on three footscrews by means of which it is levelled, the final adjustment
in this direction being made by a fine screw at the right end
of the axis, as shown in the figure.
At the opposite end is a
screw, or pair of screws acting against each other, by means
of which the final adjustment in azimuth is made.
The two
lamps at opposite ends of the axis are for illuminating the
field.
The
It is
axis being perforated, the light enters
it,
falling
on a small mirror at the intersection with the telescope, by

which it is reflected down the tube to the eye-piece. The
threads of the reticule then appear as dark lines in a bright
field.
With some instruments there is only one lamp: with
two the unequal heating and consequent expansion of the
2/0
FIG. 27.
159.

two pivots
of
is
changing
instrument
is
2/1
to a great extent avoided, also the inconvenience

the lamp from one side to the other when the
reversed.
The two
small circles attached to the telescope below the

axis are called finding-circles ; they are used for setting the
telescope at the proper elevation. They are about 6 inches
The alidade carries a level, as shown in the
in diameter.
figure.
The index
is
generally adjusted so as to read zero
when
If then the vernier is set

the telescope is horizontal.
at the meridian altitude of a star 'and the telescope revolved
bubble stands in the middle of the tube, the star

be seen in the middle of the field when it passes the
meridian. One circle could be made to answer every purpose, but it would read differently in the two positions of
the axis, and this would be likely to prove a fruitful source
The instrument is reversed by lifting the
of annoyance.
until the
will
axis
up out
of the supports
carefully replacing
159. Fig. 27
ment designed
telescope
is
by hand, turning
it
around and
it.
shows a larger and more complete

for longitude
work.
instru-
The
focal length of the

inches.
Magnifying
46 inches, aperture 2f
to 120 diameters are used.
powers varying from 80
provided for reversing the instrument,

which will be understood by reference to the figure. The
cam worked by the crank below the frame raises the axis
out of its supports, when it is turned around and again lowered into its place. One of the finders has two levels attached, one the ordinary finding-level, the other a much finer
one for use in determining latitude, as will be explained
special apparatus
is
hereafter.
160. Fig. 28 is a somewhat common form of transit, one
end of the axis being made to take the place of the lower
A reflecting prism is placed at the
half of the telescope.
intersection of the telescope with the axis, which bends the
2/2
FIG.
160.
l6l.
273
rays of light at an angle of 90, the eye-piece being at the
end of the axis.

The instrument shown
in
the figure
may
be used as a
transit, zenith telescope, or azimuth instrument, and is very

convenient for use in positions where it is not practicable to
have two or three separate instruments.
advantage
It has, besides,
that, for stars of all zenith distances, the
the
observer
occupies the same position: with the common form of instrument the position of the observer is sometimes uncomfortable,
which
is
prejudicial to accuracy.
161. Fig. 29
shows another form
the Coast Survey by Fauth
&
of instrument,
made
for
Co. of Washington.
This
form was first proposed by Steinheil (Astronomische NachHere a separate tube for the
ricktcn, vol. xxix. page 177).
telescope is dispensed with entirely, the axis being made to
serve this purpose by placing the object-glass at one end and
the eye-piece at the other. The reflecting prism is placed
shown in the figure, and almost

The tube is placed horizontally and in
in front of the objective, as
in contact with
it.
the prime vertical. When the reflecting surface of the prism

adjusted at the proper angle, the image of any star may be
is
made
to transit across the threads of the reticule, precisely

forms of instruments.
as in the other
The instrument shown

inches,
and
in the figure has a focal length of 25

It is fitted with the appliances
2 inches aperture.
necessary to adapt
it
to use as a zenith telescope.
It is
very
compact and portable, and is therefore particularly adapted

for use in a rough country where transportation is difficult.
The portable transit instrument is mounted when practicable on a pier of brick or stone, set into the ground deep
enough
to insure stability.
sawed
Where such
a foundation
is
not
square and firmly planted in the

ground answers a very good purpose. The observatory may
be a shed made of boards or a canvas tent.
available a log
off
2/4
l6l.
163.
The Reticule.
162.
shown
This consists of a number of spider-lines arranged as

The middle line is
in the figure.
placed as nearly as may be so that a line

joining it with the optical centre of the
object-glass shall be perpendicular to the
axis.
In field-instruments a very thin piece

of glass ruled with fine lines is often used,
and is found more satisfactory in some
FIG. 30
In the larger instruments

respects than the spider-threads.
intended to be used with the chronograph there are some-
times as many as twenty-five lines; in the smaller instruments

there are usually five or seven always an odd number. The
two horizontal lines are for marking the centre of the field.
The instrument should always be set so that

pass across the field midway between them.
the star will
The Level.
is provided with a delicate
supported by two legs, the bottoms of
which are V-shaped. The length is such that these V's rest
on the pivots of the axis when the level is placed in the position shown in Figs. 27, 28, and 29.
The tube which is
nearly filled with alcohol or sulphuric ether is apparently
cylindrical, but in reality has a curvature of large radius.
The bubble of air which is allowed to remain in the tube will
always occupy the highest point, and so any change in the
relative elevation of the two ends will cause a change in the
It may therefore be used not only
position of the bubble.
163.
Every
transit instrument
striding-level.
It is
when the axis is horizontal, but, by ascertaining the angle corresponding to a motion over one division of
for determining
2/6
164.
the graduated scale, we may by reading the two ends of the

bubble determine the small outstanding deviation from per-
The level when so

fect adjustment.
instrument for angular measurement.
used
is
a very delicate
To find the value of one division of the level. This is

accomplished by the use of a little instrument
called a level-trier, which is simply a bar of wood one end of
which rests on two pivots, while the other is supported by a
micrometer-screw.
164.
most
Let
easily
the distance between

the screw
two consecutive threads
of
L =
the length of the bar between the points of sup-
port
the angle corresponding to one revolution of
the screw.
;
Then
from the middle in
and W.
The readings in the direction W. may be considered -fLet the level be placed on the
those in the direction E.,
bar of the trier, and both ends of the bubble read then let
the micrometer-screw be turned so as to cause the bubble to
move from its first position, and the two ends read again.
Suppose the
both directions.
scale of the level to read
Call the
two ends
of the level E.
Let
and
be the readings of the bubble

position
e'
in the first
and w' be the readings of the bubble
in the
second
position
the value of one division of the level;
the true angle through which the bar has
;
d,
v,
been moved, as given by the micrometerscrew.
i6 4
VALUE OF ONE DIVISION OF LEVEL.
Then |(w
e)
e')
be the reading for the middle of the

bubble in the first position;
will be the reading for the middle of the
bubble in the second position.
will
from which
<X -
e')
(w'-
(270
e)'
The operation should be repeated many times
in different
parts of the tube to insure greater accuracy in the final result, and to test the tube for irregularities.
The following example
of determining the value of one

given by Schott, of the Coast Survey
for brevity only one half of the series is given here
division of a level
is
Coast Survey
Office,
Decembers,
1868.
Determination of value of one division
of level B, belonging to Transit No. 6.
o". 99
Value of one division of level-trier
2/8
165.
The numbers
in the last column but one show that the

not uniform, but there appears to be a gradual change
of curvature from one end towards the other. With such a
If we
level the extreme divisions ought never to be used.
level
is
take the
mean
of the quantities in this
10 divisions of level-trier
Therefore
division
=
=
g".g
column we
find
9.875 divisions of level.
i".oo$.
The determination should be repeated
at different tempera-
tures to ascertain whether change of temperature affects the

curvature of the tube.
All fine levels are furnished with an air-chamber for
When using the level
regulating the length of the bubble.
this should be kept at about the length which it had when
the value of the scale was being determined.
The value of the level may also be determined by placing
on a finely -graduated circle and reading the circle with the

bubble in different parts of the tube. Thus by means of the
mural circle of the Washington observatory I found the
value of one division of the level of a zenith telescope to be
i ".059, with a
probable error of o^.oiS.
it
Adjustment of the Level of the Transit Instrument.

is used for testing the horizontality of the axis
therefore when it is placed on the axis the tube should be
If such is the case
parallel to the latter.
The bubble must be in the middle of the tube zt'/ien the
First.
Place the level on the axis, and bring the
axis is horizontal.
latter approximately horizontal, read the scale, reverse the
If this adjustment is perfect
level and again read the scale.
the reading will be the same in both positions, otherwise one
half the difference of the two readings must be corrected by
The screws for this
raising or lowering one end of the tube.
purpose are shown on the right in Fig. 27. Repeat the pror
165.
The
level
cess until the adjustment
is
satisfactory.
167.
ADJUSTMENT OF THE INSTRUMENT.
Second.
The vertical plane passed through the axis must be
279
Let the level be reparallel to that passed through the tube.

volved or rocked in both directions around the pivots of the
If the reading changes in consequence of this motion
axis.
the adjustment is not perfect. The direction in which the
adjusting-screws must be moved will readily appear from the
motion of the bubble. The first adjustment should afterwards be examined, as it may have been disturbed by this
operation.
Adjustment of'the Instrument.

1 66.
First.
The threads of the
focus of the object-glass
reticule
and eye-piece.
must be
in the
common
First adjust the eye-piece
by sliding it in and out of the tube until the position is found

where the threads are most distinctly seen. (A mark should
then be made on the tube of the eye-piece so that it may be
at once set to the proper focus, or a collar may be fitted to it
so that when it is pushed " home" it will be in focus.) The

instrument should then be turned to a distant terrestrial object, or a star, and the tube carrying the threads set so that
the image will remain constantly on one of the threads when
the eye is moved to one side or the other of the eye-piece.
In some small instruments the threads are fixed at the principal focus of the objective by the maker, with no provision for
further adjustment.
The threads must be parallel to a plane perpen167. Second.
dicular to the axis of the instrument.
Direct the telescope to
a distant well-defined point, and bisect it with the middle

thread move the telescope up and down through a small
angle (the axis having been previously levelled). If the
thread is vertical it will bisect the object throughout its en;
tire extent.
With some instruments there
is
an arrangement for revolv-
280
68.
ing the reticule and consequently for perfecting this adjustment; with others there is none. In any case care should
be taken to observe all transits over the same part of the field
when a small deviation from true vertically will not be a

source of error.
To adjust the line of collimation. Direct the
168. Third.
telescope to a distant terrestrial point, and bisect it with the
middle thread then carefully reverse the telescope, and if
the thread does not then bisect the object, bring it half way
by means of the adjusting-screws found on each side of the
tube which contains the reticule. The operation must be
;
repeated until the adjustment is satisfactory.

Instead of a distant terrestrial point various instrumental
devices have been used, particularly in fixed observatories.
One of these is the colli mating telescope, or collimator as it is
This is a small telescope placed north or south of
called.
the transit instrument, so that when the telescope of the latter
is horizontal the observer may look through the eye-piece
into the object glass of the collimator.

thread in the principal focus of the latter will then appear precisely as if seen
from an infinite distance, since the rays of light coming from
the thread through the object-glass will
all
emerge
in parallel
sharply-defined image of this thread will therefore

be found at the principal focus of the transit telescope, and
lines.
is only a few feet distant, this image will

not be disturbed by atmospheric undulations as in the case
of a distant mark.
By using two collimators, one north and
one south, the adjustment may be made without reversing
as the thread itself
the instrument; this process, however, cannot be conveniently applied to a field-instrument.
The mercury collimator is also much used with the fixed

instruments of observatories.
This is simply a basin of
mercury placed directly under the telescope, so that when

the latter is placed vertical with the objective down the
ADJUSTMENT IN THE MERIDIAN.
169.
28 1
observer can look through the eye-piece into the mercury.

The threads will then be seen in the field, together with their
images reflected from the mercury. The axis having been

carefully levelled, the thread and its reflected image will coincide if there is no error of collimation.
If the collimation
has been previously adjusted by the collimating telescope,
be employed for measuring the inclination
not, however, a suitable method to employ
with the portable instrument.
To adjust the instrument .in the plane of the
169. Fourth,
this process
of the axis;
meridian.
may
it
The
chronometer.
is
transit
is
used
in
connection with the sidereal
The observations will be made
the error of the chronometer; this
is,
for determining
therefore, presumably
known with any degree of accuracy.

nothing whatever is known of the chronometer error,
may in certain cases be advisable to determine it approxi-
not
If
it
mately by the sextant, or by the altitude of a star measured

with the vertical circle of an engineer's theodolite. Such a
preliminary determination ^will very seldom be necessary.
As the approximate time may therefore be known by some
Suppose, for
process, we first take the best value available.
simplicity, the chronometer to be set for this approximate
time or, in other words, that to the best of our knowledge
the time
shown by the chronometer is correct.

Almanac the right ascension
take from the Nautical
We
then
of a close
star, and as this is equal to the sidereal time of

culmination, we direct the telescope to the star, level the axis,
and at the instant when the time shown by the chronometer
circumpolar
equals this right ascension bring the middle thread of the

reticule on the star, using the fine-motion screw at the end
of the axis for the final adjustment.
The instrument will now
be approximately
ment
in the
meridian.
We next level the instru-
carefully by the fine-motion screw at the end of the

axis, and select from the almanac a star which culminates
282
169.
near the zenith for determining a more correct value of the

As all vertical cirtime, or of the chronometer correction.
cles pass through the zenith, by selecting a star which passes
as near as possible to this point we determine a very close
approximation to the true chronometer correction, even

when the instrument has a large azimuth error. It is better
to use two stars for this purpose, one culminating north of
the zenith, and one south (as it will very seldom be possible
to find a star culminating exactly in the zenith).
If the
operations already described have been carefully attended
to we shall now know our chronometer correction within a
second, which will be accurate enough for perfecting the
adjustment in the meridian by another circumpolar star.
Let
the value of the chronometer correction just
determined
Then a
the right ascension of any star.
AQ =
the chronometer time of culmination.
When the chronometer indicates this time, the star must be

carefully bisected by the middle thread, the axis having been
previously levelled. If the observer does not yet feel sufficient confidence in the adjustment, the operation must be
repeated for a closer approximation.
The circumpolar stars most suitable for this adjustment
are the four standard stars of the Nautical Almanac, viz.,
Besides these the
a, 6, and A Ursse Minoris and 51 Cephei.
ephemeris for 1885 and following years gives a number of
other stars near the pole reduced to apparent place for intervals of ten days.
METHODS OF OBSERVING.
I/O.
283
Methods of Observing.
The immediate aim
of the observer is to obtain as

170.
accurately as possible the instant of time, as shown by the
clock or chronometer, when the star crosses each thread of
the reticule. These times may then be reduced by a method
to be explained hereafter to the time over the middle thread.
If then r is the probable error of a transit observed over a
single thread, and n the
number
probable error ot the mean
will
of threads observed, the
be
_-.
\'n
There are two methods of observing transits, viz., the eye

and car method and the chronographic method. The latter
method is more accurate except with an observer of long
experience, an^l
vatories.
is
now used
It is also
almost universally
employed
in
the field
in fixed
when
obser-
the time
is
required with great accuracy for longitude work.

In other cases, when the portable instrument is used, the
observations will be made by the eye and ear method, which
as follows: A few seconds before the star to be observed
reaches the thread the observer takes the time from the
chronometer and watches the star as it approaches the thread,
is
at the
same time counting the beats
When the star crosses the
of the chronometer.
thread the exact instant is noted if
;
crossed between two beats,

the fractional part of a second is estithe thread
mated
is
to the nearest tenth.
This
esti-
made more by the eye than

the ear; thus, suppose when the observer counts io the star is at a, and when
mation
is
II
at b\ the distance
from a to the
FlG32
thread will be compared with the distance from a to b, and the ratio will be expressed in tenths. In
s
skilful observer will seldom
this case the time will be io .4.
-
284
be in error by so much as -^ of a second in estimating the

time over a single thread for a star near the equator.
By the chronograpJiic method the observer registers the
instant when the star is on the thread by simply pressing the
key which closes or breaks,
as the case
may
be, the galvanic
recorded by a mark on the cylinder

of the chronograph, and may be read off at leisure.
As the
observer is not obliged to count the seconds as in the other
method, the threads may be placed much closer together
and a larger number of readings taken. A practical limit
will, however, soon be reached beyond which nothing will
be gained in accuracy by increasing the number of threads.
Formerly the large transits of the Coast Survey were provided with twenty-five threads arranged in five groups, or
tallies of five threads each.
Of late this number has been reThis instant
circuit.*
duced to
is
thirteen, the central tally containing five threads, the
two on each side three each, and the two extreme tallies only
one each. The middle threads of the tallies are at equal distances and
may be used for eye and ear observation, while the

middle tally is convenient for observing close circumpolar
stars, which may be best observed by the eye and ear method.
Mathematical Theory of the Transit Instrument.
We
have shown how to adjust the instrument and

171.
place it in the plane of the meridian. With whatever care
these adjustments are made, there will always remain small
outstanding errors, the existence of which will affect the
observed time of a star's transit. The amount of these errors
must then be determined, and the necessary corrections
applied to the observed time to reduce it to the true time of
meridian passage.
*See
Art. 121.
THEORY OF THE TRANSIT INSTRUMENT.
171.
285
We
shall call a line passing through the centres of the

Also,
pivots and produced indefinitely the rotation axis.
the line drawn through the optical centre of the object-glass
and perpendicular to the rotation axis is the collimation axis.
When
the instrument
is
revolved this line describes a great
circle of the celestial sphere, the poles of which are the points
these
where the rotation axis pierces the sphere.
When
known
poles are
Let
90
the position of the circle
itself is
known.
the azimuth of the point where the west

end of the axis pierces the sphere
;
the altitude of the same
poini:.
Then a
will be the deviation of the axis from the true east and
west position, plus when the west end deviates to the south
and
b is the deviation
when
Let
the west end
m =
90
Let
Then
x, y, 2
high.
the hour-angle of this point

the declination.
a,
and
b will be the polar co-ordinates,
and
x
y
=
=
Let
position, plus
be the rectangular co-ordinates of this point

referred to the horizon.
A, 90
we have
is
from the true horizontal
x',y', z
A
A
cos b cos (90

cos b sin (90
a)
a)
cos b sin a
4 cos b cos
sin
b.
(272)
be the rectangular co-ordinates referred to the

equator.
*See equations (no).
286
Then
A, (90
x'
y=
in),
A
A
and n are the polar co-ordinates, and
cos n cos (90

cos
sin (90
in)
;)
cos n sin
J cos
z'
The
171.
cos
m
w
sin n.
(273)
formulae for transformation of co-ordinates will be *
x sn
=.
/ =/;
#' =
fp
.>.....
^r
(274)
cos
Substituting for x,y, z and x' y',

the common factor A we have
,
z'
their values,
and dropping
cos n sin
m=
cos n cos
sin
cos
sin
sin
<?
cos b cos
<>
<^
cos b sin a cos
sin b cos
-f-
<p -f~
sin b sin
(275)
9?. )
when a and
are known.
Equations (275) give m and
which
placed to the values of a, b, m, and
may therefore be of any magnitude, and consequently the
instrument in any position.
By careful adjustment, however, these quantities may always be made very small, and
there will therefore be no appreciable error in writing the
quantities themselves for their sines, and writing for the
cosines unity. Therefore
For the transit instrument in the meridian,
No limit has been
m=
n =
From
these
we
a sin
cp -\-
a cos
b cos
q> -f-
cp
b sin
readilv derive
a
b
=m
= m
sin tp
n cos
,
_
cos
cp -\-
n sin
See equations (112.)
THEORY OF THE TRAXSIT INSTRUMENT.
172.
172.
Now
let T
the east hour-angle of a star

on the middle thread
287
when seen
the error of collimation
plus
when
the
star reaches the thread too soon.*
Now
let
the star
when on
the middle thread be referred to
a system of rectangular co-ordinates, the plane of x, y being

the plane of the equator, the axis of x being perpendicular
to the rotation axis.
Then d
is the angle formed with

the plane of x, y, by the radius vector;
the angle formed with the axis of x by the pro-
the star's declination
jection of the radius vector
x
y
Then
=
=
=
A
A
A
cos d cos (r
cos 8 sin (T
sin 8
y being reckoned towards the

Let the star be
now
Then
m);\
m}
;
>
y being
(278)
east.
new system of
x coincides with that of the
referred to a
nates in which the axis of
tem, the axis of
on the plane of x, y.
co-ordilast sys-
the rotation axis of the instrument.
the angle formed with the plane of x,

radius vector
s,
by the
tf,
the angle formed with the axis of x by the projection of the radius vector on the plane of x, z.
Then
x'
y'
z'
The
star
is
=
=
=
supposed
A
A
A
to
cos
cos
cos
sin c
tf,
\
!
c sin
tf
be observed
at
upper culmination.
(279)
288
1/2.
two systems the axes of x coincide, tne axes of

make the angle n with those of y and z. Therefore
In these
y'
and
z'
y'
z'
Combining
cos
cos
#,
sin c
cos
= y cos n
= y sin n
(278), (279),
=
=
sin #,
and
z sin
-\-
(280),
cos tf cos (r
cos # sin (T
cos tf sin (r
z cos
.....
(280)
n.
we have
m);
m) cos n
m) sin n
# sin n\
sin tf cos n.
sin
-\-
(281)
With these equations, as with (275), no restrictions have

been placed on the quantities involved, and they will serve
When these
for computing T when m, n, and c are known.
quantities are small, as with the instrument adjusted in the
meridian, the second of (281) becomes
c
from which
This
= (T
=m
-\-
n sin
m) cos 8
n tan d -j- c sec 6
6;
......
(282)
BesseV s formula for computing the hour-angle of the

it passes the middle thread of the reticule.
In applying it, the unit in which ;, ;/, and c are expressed must be
the second of time.
star
If
is
when
we
substitute in (282) the value of
from the second
of
(277), viz.,
m=
we have
This
is
b sec
b sec
<p -\-
<p
n (tan d
n tan
tp,
tan
cp) -\-
Hansen s formula for computing r.

= tp, the term in n vanishes and
that
when S
and
c alone.
From
this
it
c sec
(283)
We
T
see from it
depends on b
follows that those stars are best
CORRECTION FOR DIURNAL ABERRATION.
1/3-
289
suited for determining r and therefore the clock correction

which culminate near the zenith.
Substituting in Bessel's formula the values of
from
(276),
we
and n
readily find
_
~ a sin
(<p
6}
E5Td~~
cos
+ *~^5TT~6) + c^tf*
(<p
'
(284)
Which is Mayer's formula, and is the one best adapted for

use with the portable transit.
We adapt these formulae to the case of lower culmination
8.
by changing d into 180
Now
let
Q=
AQ =
the apparent right ascension of any star;

the observed clock time of the stars passing
the middle thread;

the clock correction.
Then
A
In which r
If
I2 h
may be computed by
the star
-f-
= & + AQ
= a (Q
is
-f- r-
(285)
-f- T).
either (282), (283), or (284).
observed at lower culmination, a becomes
a.
Correction for
Diurnal Aberration.
Aberration
is the apparent change in a star's posiby the progressive motion of light combined
with the motion of the earth itself. The displacement is in
the direction of the earth's motion, and the tangent of the
173.
tion caused
angle of displacement is equal to the component of the velocity of the earth perpendicular to the line of sight divided by
the velocity of light.
Aberration is considered under two heads, viz., annual and
diurnal aberration, the former resulting from the earth's an-
2QO
nual motion in
its axis.
its orbit,
The subject
and the
latter
1/3-
from the revolution on
will be treated in a
subsequent chapter as
At present we
fully as will be necessary for our purposes.

shall only consider the diurnal aberration.
Let k
time of
second.
the diurnal aberration of an equatorial star at the

The velocity of light is 186,380 miles per
transit.
point on the earth's equator has a linear motion

per second, in consequence of the diurnal revTherefore the linear velocity of a point
olution of the earth.
whose latitude is (p will be 0.2882 cos (p. Then
of 0.2882 mile
r
k
'
:
.-
186380
If
sin
77
COS<Z>=".3IQ
COS<Z>
.O2I COS G>.(286)
the star's declination
is
tf,
the effect
upon the
star's
k we
have, by applying Napier's

L^J .first rule for right-angle triangles to the triangle shown
*
FlG 33 .in ths figure,
/
hour-angle being
sin
or
k
k'
=
=
',
sin k'
cos
k sec d
tf;
s
.O2i cos (p sec 3.
(287)
As this will cause the star to appear too far east, the observed time of culmination will be too late and the correction must be subtracted.
The correction for diurnal aberration may be combined
with the collimation constant by making
c'
As
.02i cos (p
(288)
observations are made in both positions of the axis, it

necessary to distinguish between them. This may be done
by noting the position of the clamp, whether it is east or west.
If then the sign of c is determined for clamp ivest, the algeis
EQUATORIAL INTERVALS OF THREADS.
1/4-
2gi
braic sign must be changed when the position is -clamp east.

It must be remembered that the algebraic sign of the aber-
change when the instrument is reversed; so if

been combined with c, c' will in one case
be the sum of the two, and in the other case the difference.
ration does not
this correction has
Equatorial Intervals of the Threads.

174. When the transit of a star over one of the side threads
observed, we may regard the distance of this thread from
the collimation axis as its error of collimation, and proceed
with the reduction precisely as in case of the middle thread.
is
It is simpler in practice, however, to determine the angular

distances of the side threads from the middle thread, when
the times may all be reduced to the time over this thread.
This angular distance when expressed in time is evidently

the time required for an equatorial star to pass from the side
thread to the middle thread.
Let
Then 2 -(-^
r
-)-
=
=
the equatorial interval for any thread;

the interval for a star whose declination
the collimation error for this thread;
the hour-angle of a star
The second
sin (r
of equations (281)
m)
when seen on
may be
sin c sec n sec
-\-
#,
and for the side thread

sin (r -f
m)
= sin(*
-f- c)
sec n sec d
-\-
tf.
this thread.
written
tan n tan
is
tan n tan
3.
'
2Q2
By
174.
subtraction,
sin (r -f
sin (r
m)
*w)
= [sin(/ +
2 cos (%t
sin c] sec
<^)
sec
<?
;
which becomes
2 cos
(7 -f
sin
\I
<0
sm
i* sec
sec
#.
m and w are very small quantities, the above

Since r
be written
may
sin
For
all stars
sin i sec
tf
(289)
not nearer the pole than 10,
When 7 is
observed and
i is
sin i
i
sec d
(289),
required, the equations

sin
7 cos
become
d\
(290)
I cos 8
(290),
When the star is nearer the pole than 10, formulae which
are practically exact are obtained as follows: i may always
3
be written for sin i, and (7
^7 ) for sin 7. Therefore
i
But
cos 7
therefore
fT) cos
7(i
- \r
and
3.
(cos 7)1
^7';
we have
i
7costf Vcos7.
i
sec $
V sec
7.
(291)
(291),
EQUATORIAL INTERVALS OF THREADS.
175-
The following
Suppose the
175.
T=
Let
/,,
/",,
A2
/'
table gives log
argument /in time
the
/3
/4
,z 3 ,*z 4 ,
tb
i\
=
=
293
V cos/ and log V sec/ with
reticule to contain five threads.
the time of a star's passing the middle thread;

the times of passing the separate threads
;
the equatorial intervals.
The star is supposed to pass the threads in the above order

when the clamp is west. When the position \sclamp easf, the
order will be reversed, becoming
/
At lower
/', ^.
z'
4,
3,
culmination the order will be the reverse of that of upper

culmination.
We
shall
have
T=
sec
=./,.+
*,
sec
t,
-f
t\
sec
t,
-\- i<
=
=
=
When
/. -j-
the reduction
is
to the
sec
sec
middle thread,
i3
o.
294
The mean
is
T=
or
T"
7"
T= T
sec ,. (292)
^z sec 8 for clamp west;

Ai sec tf for clamp east.
Instead of reducing the observed times to the time over

the middle thread, we may reduce them to the time over an
imaginary thread, the time over which is the mean of the
times over the five threads, or T of the above formula.

The equatorial intervals and error of collimation are then
determined with reference to this mean thread instead of the
This method is more convenient than the

Ai then vanishes and the equatorial intervals
middle thread.
preceding, as
are not required
when
all
of the threads are observed.
Reduction of Imperfect Transits.

176.
A transit is
imperfect
when
the time over one or
of the threads has not been observed.
Formula
more
(292) applies
equally to such
a transit, by simply dropping the terms

corresponding to the threads which were not observed. Thus
suppose the first two threads were not observed; the formula
will then be
Correction for Rate.

177. If the rate of the
necessary to take
it
chronometer
is
large,
it
transits.
*
When
may
be
into account in reducing imperfect
the reduction
is
to the
middle thread,
ts
= o.
DETEKMINATldN OF THE CONSTANTS.
1/8-
6T =
Let
Then
if i is
Thus
8T =
if
the hourly rate of the chronometer.
given in seconds,
a star
.83<D
and
is
we
observed with a mean time chronometer,
(293)
have
shall
becomes
T= /+ /sec tfx 0.99727;

T = + sec d [9.99881].
or
295
I
!
Determination of the Constants.
We
178.
may determine the time of the stars passing the
meridian, and consequently the clock correction, from formulas (284) and (285) when we know the values of a, b, and c,
or from formulae (282) and (285) when we know m, n, and c.

The determination of these quantities will therefore now
be considered.
The Level Constant,
b.
Place the striding-level on the axis and read both ends of

the bubble, reverse the level and read again.
Let
to
and
first
position;
be the readings of the west and east end in
and /, the readings of the west and east end
in sec-
ond
position;
d, the value of
one division
of the level
expressed in
time;
x,
the error of the level due to any want of perfect ad-
justment.
Then
1/9-
there were no error the inclination would be equal

to the reading of the middle point of the bubble, or
if
b
b
the
mean
of
which
=
=
%d(w
\d(w'
e)
+ x\
x;
e'}
is
,')_(,
(295)
The level is often reversed two or more times for greater

accuracy. Whatever the number of reversals, the inclination
is given by the formula
t=-[W-E]-,
2
where
W and E
are respectively the
(296)
means
of the east
and
west readings.
Inequality of Pivots.
179. The above expression for b is obtained by applying
the level to the outer surface of the pivots; it therefore gives
the true inclination of the rotation axis only when the diamIf they are unequal this value
eters of the pivots are equal.
of b requires a correction determined as follows:
Fig 34^ is a cross-section of one of the pivots, with the V
of the level B, and of the instrument A.
Suppose the clamp
E c
A
FIG.
34.
FIG. 34^.
Formula (295) gives the inclination of the line B'B;

west.
that of C'C is required. Suppose the V of the level to have
the same angle as the V of the instrument.
INEQUALITY OF PIVOTS.
1/9-
Let
B and
b
B' be the inclinations as
shown by
the level for
clamp west and east respectively;

and b', the true inclinations of CC-,
ft,
the constant inclination of A'A;
ECC'
p, the angle
For clamp west,

For clamp east,
By
297
=B
= B'
b
b'
b'
subtraction,
C'CF.
-\-
p\
/;
b'
B'
B'
-B
2p
=
=
fi
p-}
ft -\-
p.
^**
)
2p\
(297)
Which determines
In order to be reliable
the value of/.
must be derived from a large number of readings
it
of the level
both positions of the axis. It will then be a correction to

be added algebraically to the inclination as given by the level
for the position clamp ivest, or
in
b
b'
If
=B
= B'
the angle of the level V
will not be equal to
Let
-\-
is
2*
r and r
=
=
=
the angle of the level V;

the angle of the instrument V;
the radii of the pivots;
BC\\\ the
= AC in
L = length
/i
clamp west;
clamp east.
proceed as follows:
di
for
for
not equal to that of instrument
C'CF and we
2*'i
p
p
figure;
the figure;
of level
C'C;
angle ECC';
angle
C'CF;
the notation in other respects remaining as before.
V, the
angle
ECC'
'
B'
Substituting the value of /i from
'
-B-
79.
2p
-B
and reducing, we readily
(e)
Bl
B'
2
Example.
sin
\sin
ii
i -\-
The following readings
find
sin
(297)i
i\i
of the level
were made
for determining the inequalities of the pivots of the transit

instrument of the Sayre observatory.
Clamp
Direct,
Reversed,
(e
-f
e'}
By formula (295),
B and
level.
B' being
=
B'
Clamp West.
East.
w.
E.
w.
14.4
15.1
12.8
16.2
12.7
16.7
14.6
14.9
27.4
31.1
E.
27.1
=+
31.8
=w+
B=
1.175;
expressed in
terms
w'
of
-f-
.925;
one division of the
The angle
therefore,
of the level V
by
was equal to that
2 99
of the transit;
(297),
B'
p=-
- B=+
.062.
By a considerable number of readings made at different

times the following values of p were obtained. The first
and third columns show the angle of elevation of the telescope, the second and fourth the corresponding values of/.
ta.
The value
of
one division of the level
is
'.174; therefore
.on.
180. The diameters of the pivots may not only be unequal,

but the forms may be irregular. This is tested by reading
the level with the telescope placed at different zenith disIf inequalities are found to exist, a table of correctances.
tions for different zenith distances from zero to 90 on each
side of the zenith may be formed in case it is necessary to use
the instrument in this condition. If the corrections are large
enough to be appreciable, however, the instrument should
be put into the hands of an instrument-maker for repairs.
181. A little instrument designed by Prof. Harkness, and
"
called by him the
spherometer-caliper," is very convenient for measuring the inequalities and irregularities of pivots.
Fig. 350
is
a front and 35^ a side elevation.
The same
3 oo
181.
both figures. The foundation-plate b carries

cylindrical guides, dd, which are connected at their lower
Into the foundation-plate is screwed the
by the bar e.
letters refer to
two
end
brass piece m, to which

c.
FlG.
cemented the thick circular glass

are also firmly screwed to the foun-
is
The two V's, aa,

The brass
dation-plate.
plate
plate /slides freely
FIG.
3501.
up and down
35-5-
THE SPHEROMETER-CALIPER.
between the guides dd, being kept in place by three loops,

of which pass around the right-hand guide and one
around the left, as shown in the figure. The brass rod g,
which passes through the piece m and the plate c without
touching either of them, is firmly attached to the upper end
of the plate/, and moves with it, while to the lower end of
two
iSl.
30
is attached a second short brass rod which passes

freely
through the bar e and carries the nut h,
In using the instrument, the plate /"is depressed by means
of the nut h until one of the pivots whose irregularity is to
be measured passes freely under the V's aa. Then the V's having been properly adjusted upon the pivot, h is loosened and
the flat edge of the aperture in/ is pressed against the under
The elevation of the rod
side of the pivot by the spring i.
g above the glass plate is then measured by means of the
spherometer. This consists of the micrometer-screw shown
in the figure, which is supported by the small tripod s, the
legs of which rest on the glass plate.
By means of this screw
small differences in the elevation of the rod g, and consequently of the size of the pivots, may be readily measured.
Let 2v
n
=
=
R=
the angle of the V's aa;

the difference between the readings of the screw
on the two pivots;
two consecutive
the linear distance between

threads of the screw;
L=
the distance between the V's of the transit instru-
the inequality of the pivots expressed in seconds

of time;
the radius of the pivot to be measured;
the distance from the upper surface of the glass
ment;
C=
Then the
plate to the angle of the

vertical distance from the
glass plate to the flat surface of
sin
V's.
upper surface of the

the aperture in /will be
sin
Similarly for the other pivot
n.
(298)
302
The
sln
difference
is
(r
r'}\
'
sin
......
82.
3OO
evidently the difference in the elevation of the end

g when the second pivot is substituted for the
that is, the difference between the two micrometer
This
is
of the rod
first;
Therefore
readings.
sin
Then from
c,
This instrument
is
the
sin
v
-
.......
(30I)
Art. 179.
amining
nR
(i
pivots
+ sinWZsin
15"
.....
(3
2)
especially to be recommended in exfor irregularities, as by measuring
diameters of the pivot the exact form may be

determined. If irregularities exist they may be detected
by the level, but it will not show which pivot is irregular.
different
TJie Collimation Constant,
c.
182. A transit instrument of the better class is provided

with a micrometer,* the movable thread of which is parallel
to the threads of the reticule and so nearly in the same plane
that both are in the focus of the eye-piece at the same time.
* For
description of micrometer see Art. 97.
THE COLLIMATION CONSTANT.
184.
303
With
this arrangement the error of collimation may be

measured directly as follows
By means of a distant terrestrial object. The position being
:
clamp west
suppose direct the telescope to a distant terand by means of the micrometer measure the
distance of its image as seen in the field from the middle
thread, then reverse the instrument and measure the distance
If the object appears on the same side of the thread
again.
in both positions, the error of collimation will be half the
difference of the measured distances if on opposite sides,
half their sum.
restrial point,
care must be taken not to

This sign may be determined
practically by remembering from which side of the field a
star at upper culmination appears to enter.
If then for
clamp west the thread appears nearer that side of the field
than for clamp east, c will be plus for clamp ivest, and minus
In determining c in this
mistake*
its
way
algebraic sign.
for clamp east.

183.
By
the
The thread or crossmay be used in the same way
collimating telescope.*
threads of a collimating telescope
as a distant terrestrial object for measuring the collimation

constant, and with the advantage that there will be no appreciable atmospheric disturbance, the mark being only a few
With two collimating telescopes, one north and

one south of the instrument, the error may be determined
without reversing the instrument. As this method is only
of practical value with the large instruments of an observatory, it will not be explained further here.
feet distant.
If the
184. By the mercury collimator*
telescope is
directed vertically downwards, the middle thread may be
seen directly, together with its image reflected from the
mercury.
If
the axis
is
horizontal the constant c will be one

* Art. 168.
304
185.
between the direct and reflected images,

which may be measured as before.
half the distance
If
Let
the axis
b
is
not horizontal,
the elevation of the west end
the micrometer distance of the thread from
image, positive
when
the thread
itself
is
its
on the
from which a star at upper culmination

appears to enter.
side
\M =
Then
b;
\M +
........
(303)
By reversing the instrument and again measuring the

distance of the thread from the reflected image we can
determine both b and
collimating telescopes
the instrument.
185.
By a
close
c,
or
if
has been determined by the

b without reversing
we can determine
circumpolar star.
With the portable
in-
found more convenient to determine the

collimation constant by observation of a star in both posi-
strument
it
will be
tions of the axis, as follows

Observe the transit of a
:
slow-moving star over one or
more threads
including the middle thread or not then reverse the instrument and observe the transit over the same
With one of the
threads, now on the other side of the field.
four circumpolar stars of the Nautical Almanac there will be
plenty of time to reverse the instrument during the interval
over two consecutive threads. It is advisable to read the
level for each thread.
The times observed are then to be reduced to the times

over the middle thread (or the mean thread, as the case may
be) by means of the equatorial intervals, which must be well
determined.
THE AZIMUTH CONSTANT.
86.
Let
305
T =
the clock time over the middle (or mean)
T=
the clock time over the middle (or mean)

thread for clamp east
thread for clamp west
=
AT =
AT =
6T =
and
AT and
b
b'
AT =
Then
the level constants in the
two
positions
the clock corrections at times
T and T
the clock correction at time
hourly rate of clock.
AT.
6T(T - T
AT = AT.+ dT(T - r
);
o ).
Then applying Mayer's formula,

C1.W.
-f-
Cl.E.
(284)
and
(285),
a=
b cos (g>
#) sec
-\-
c sec
.o2i cos 
Subtracting the
tf)
sec ^
first
T) cos
of these
rf
sec d
.O2
cos
q>
sec
S. J
from the second, we readily find
+ i(T' -
T)
STcos d
"3-W -
b}
cos
9 -
6).
(305)
This formula is applicable to lower culmination by chang6 as usual. In most cases the term in ST
ing 6 into 1 80
will be inappreciable.
The Azimuth Constant,
a.
186. This can only be determined by observation of stars.

Let two stars be observed which differ as widely as possible
in declination.
306,
Let
Tand
T' be the times of observation reduced to the

middle (or mean) thread;
$ and
a and
6',
the declinations of the stars;
a',
their right ascensions.
Then equations (304) will apply to these stars, except that in

the second we shall have a' and d' in place of a and tf, and
the sign of c is not changed.
Let us write
t
= T
-\-
<$T(T
b cos ((p
-f-
tf)
sec 8
S
t'
r'
+ 6T(T
'
cos
(?>
sec
d')
That is, we place t and

quantities in the second
tions (304) then become
=
=
a
a'
-f
t' -\-
AT
AT
/'
.O2
-{-
c sec
cos
d'+
cp
sec d
equal to the sum of the

of the equations.
(cp
(cp
#')
.O2i cos (p sec 6'.
members
+ a sin
+ a sin
sec d
known
Equa-
sec 6
sec
d'.
<J)
sec
From which
sin
(<7>
d')
sec d'
sin (<p
'
which reducss to
cos
<p
(tan
tf
- tan
d')'
The
greater the denominator of this fraction the smaller

will be the effect upon a of errors of observation.
If two
circumpolar stars are' observed, one at upper and one at

lower culmination, the denominator of (307) becomes
cos
tp
[tan 6
tan (180
d')]
cos
q>
(tan d -f tan
d'}.
TO DETERMINE n DIRECTLY.
87.
307
This combination
is therefore most favorable for the

purof the clock and the stability of the instrument can be relied on for twelve hours, the same star may
be observed both at upper and lower culmination. This will
If the rate
pose.
not be practicable, however, with a portable instrument. If

stars are observed at upper culmination, one should be
near the pole and the other near the equator.
If m and n are required, they may now be computed by
two
(276),
or
we may proceed
as follows.
To Determine n Directly.
187. Using the same notation as in the determination of
and applying Bessel's formula, (282),
= T
+ ST(T -
AT,
-f
<z,
+ m -f n tan 6 + c sec d
sec
.o2i cos
+ + tan + r sec
S
T -f
a'
- r
J7; -f tfr(r
o)
(p
placing the
t
and
t
t'
t'
known terms
tf,
<?'
tf'
.02i cos (p sec
members equal
of the second
',
to
respectively, viz.,
= T
-f-
T+
tf
r)
r)
T(:r
tf
r(:T
+
+
sec ^
<:
.02i cos 9> sec 3,
<;
sec <r
.o2i cos
sec
^',
the above equations become
a
a'
From
these
we
=
=
-\-
t'
AT
-\-m-\-n tan
<^;
AT
+m+
tf'.
tan
derive
~
,.
tan
jr
8'
-7tan TT8
....
(308)
308
Then
is
given by the second of
n tan
b sec cp
in
(277), viz.,
(309)
(p.
The
conditions favorable for an accurate determination of

n are evidently the same as in the case of a.
of Formulas for Transit

Meridian.
Recapitulation
Equatorial intervals,
=
I =
/ =
b =
c =
f
Reduction to middle
(or
mean)
thread,
Level constant,
Collimation constant,
Azimuth constant,
/ cos 5
/cos
sec 8
sec 5.
[
i(
IV
cos /;
8.
'-
Vsec /;
T'
E\.
T) cos 6
cos <p(t;m
-f-
\(T'
-j-
i('
tan
rt
AT= a -
Clock correction,
rf
cos
<)
a)
(a'
tan 6'
m=
=
AT
b sec
<p
[
(/'
(XVII)
*.O2I ros
coss 5
Bessel's formula
T}8Tcos 3
)"
-T-
For reduction bv
Instrument in the
cos
<p~|
cos 6
we have
the following
t}_
tan d
n tan cp
n tan
T+ m +
(XVIII)
-f-
c sec
".021
cos <psec<T].
Transit Observations.
To
(XVII) let us reduce the following observaSayre observatory, 1883, October 16. The transit is a smallsized instrument of 26 inches focal length, aperture 2 inches
magnifying
tions,
illustrate the application of
made
at the
TRANSIT OBSERVATIONS.
The
reticule contains five threads,
power 40 diameters.
from i to 5 for clamp east. As
or more times in each position.
will
309
numbered consecutively
be seen, the level was generally read two
* Instrument reversed for the

purpose of determining the value of c.
PRA C TICA L ASTR ONOM F.
The
values of the apparent right ascensions and declinations are taken from
the American Ephemeris, and are written down in connection with the observed
a must be taken from the ephemeris with extreme accutransit of each star,
racy, but generally 8 will be sufficiently accurate
of arc.
first
The
given to the nearest minute
first compute the values of the equatorial intervals of the threads by

of formulae (XVII), taking for this purpose the observations on 47 Cephei.
numbers in the first column of the following table are obtained by subtract-
Let us
the
if
REDUCTION OF TRANSIT OBSERVATIONS.
l8/-
311
ing the observed time of transit over each thread from the mean of the times
The quantities in the following columns will require no
all the threads.
further explanation.
over
cos
From a considerable number
9.28235.
<5
of transits the following values of the equatorial
intervals were finally obtained:
Clamp
east
/i
+ 628
+ 16 .226
+ .080
*3
*4
*'
We
5
can
now
is
1.51359
1.21021
8.90309
16 .357
1.21370,
3 2 .588
1.
use these values for reducing the incomplete transits of Polaris,
Ursa Minoris, and

In cases where the
mean
log
32".
ii
Ceti.
transit is
observed over the
five
threads the arithmetical
taken.
Let us compute the reduction of Polaris in
full.
cos 8
log sec 8
Clamp
Clamp
west,
east,
'
See
mean
mean
17
23".4;
1177
table, Art. 174.
.2.
=
=
8.35913;
1.64087.
PR AC TICA L ASTRONOM Y.
3 I2
The value of 7 used in taking I/sec / from the table is obtained by subtracting the times of transit over threads V and IV respectively from the time over
the middle thread.
Thus we have from the observation
41"
The quantity marked

inclination of the axis in
or
ft',
in
we have
=
=
4- -.838;
Therefore
.062.
-j-
=-f
=+
Corrected,
The value
54".
connection with the observations, is the

terms of one division of the level, uncorrected for in-
ft
equality of pivots.
From the first level-reading
directly read
= nm
//
.900;
".174.
.157.
of b used for those stars in connection with which the level

is
obtained by interpolating between the observed values.
is
not
Thus
we have
For computing the error of collimation

of Polaris,
Clamp east T'

Clamp west T
T'
we
have, from the observed transits
=
T =
i?"
17
8
7 .2
b'
23 .4
16.2
*
b'
=
=
=
Example, Art.
'.146
cp
.157
.on
179.
q>
=
~
40
36' 24'
88
41 24
48
l8/.
= 0.90849*
cos 8 = 8.35913
sum = 9.26762*
log |(7"
T)
Nat. No.
Therefore
- T
b)
5)
=
=
313
7.74036*
9.82481
7.56517*
Nat. No.
.1852
log \(b'
cos ((?
'.1889
clamp
^J
.0037
j-
In applying the formula of (XVII), the term \(T'

T) 8 cos 5 has been
It is convenient to combine the
disregarded, as in this case it is inappreciable.
correction for diurnal aberration with
Thus,
we have
if
we
write
=c
= -f=
in this case
c
c
c.
".021 cos
9
.
173
'.205
<f>,
clamp east,
clamp west.
but one of (XVII) will now give us the azimuth constant a.

We have seen that the best result is to be expected when we use the observed
transit? of two circumpolar stars, one at upper and the other at lower culmina-
The
tion.
last
We
therefore determine this constant from
Ursa Minoris and 47
Referring to the derivation of the formula for a (Art. 186),

t
t'
the term in
8T
= T -f= T'
b'
-f-
the rate
The computation
b cos (<p
is
cos
(p
<p
sec 6"
6")
=
=
=
103
URS^
8"
47'
40 36 24
63 10 44
MINORIS,
=
=
log cos
o .252
log b
lg
.173
.477
Cc = .726
T = 2" 27'" 46'. 85
- 1.20
Cc =
27
45.65
78
57'
log
Bb
log Cc
47 CEPHEI.
6'
(p
8'
c'
s.p.
log sec
Bb
sec 5;
sec 8';
then as follows:
Sum
b
-f- c
for
being inappreciable.
((p
S) sec
we have
18"
40 36 24
38 20 54
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.62290*
9.65438
.27728*
log
log
9.40140
9 23805
9.67868*
g.86o95
log sec
0.71765
log
log cos
=
=
9.89446
.61211
log
Sum
Cephei.
t
and
t'
3H
OM57
b
c'
Bb
Cc'
T'
Bb
+ Cc
t'
+
+
=+
=
lug
9.23805
Bb
.643
log
.903
log Cc'
9.80801
9.95570
a'
-f-
a'
5.1231
tan S'
t'
4.0758
a)
(a'
(f
9.1989
log denominator
1
We may now
a)
(f
t)]
log a
'.331
AT
compute the clock correction
2 h 50
50".4i
27
40 .14
23
10 .27
23
7.96
f)
log
cos <p
log [(a
a =
a =
-55
53 .61
50
=
=
87.
9.19590
2 h 5o m 52" 06
Nat tan 6"

Nat tan S
tan 5
log b
.173
-f-
2 .31
= 0.96373,;
= 9.88036
= 0.84409*
= .36361
= 9.51952,,
from the
last of formulae
(XVII), using for this purpose the observed transits of the zenith and equatorial
We require first the values of the coefficients.
stars.
-- sin ((p
5)
B=
5
cos o
If
the instrument
is
to
cos
((p
^
cos o
d)
--
and
C=
^.
cos o
be much used at any one place, as in an observatory

it will be ve,ry convenient to tabulate these
for determining the local time,

quantities with the argument S.
On pages 220-227 f t ne U. S. Coast Survey

Report for 1880, Schott gives tables of these factors to two decimal places, with
the double arguments d and z = cp
S, by means of which the factors may be
found for any latitude and declination within the limits of the table. If such
tables are not at hand, a computation with four-place logarithms will give the
necessary degree of accuracy. The work may be arranged as follows:
Star
d
<p
20
14'. 5
= 40 36 .4
= 20 21 .9
-\-
B=+
|3
y Andromedae.
Arietis.
= 9.5416
cos S = 9 9723
cos (
= 8.307*
= 9.8726
5) = 9.9999
d)
cos S
cos(<p
=8434*
log
,4
log
B=
.1273
logC=
.1274
IS/.
The determination
A T is
of
then as follows:
ean &.T
The column headed v contains

is
found by formula
315
= -^.j
the residuals from which the probable error
(27) or (28).
Application of Formula; (XVIII).
These formulas
an instrument of
will not often be
used for reducing observations made with
this class, but for illustration
we may apply them
to the
above
observations.
Computation of n.
t
/'
= T +c
= T' -f-
c'
We
sec S'
a
a
a'
t'
a)-(t'
=
=
sec S
a'
(a'
use the transits of Ûrscz Minoris and 47 Cephei.
t}
2 1 27"'
'
50
fi
Arietis b
S'
2h
50
so .4i
tan S
27
40.14
tan S'
23
10 .27
23
7 .96
=
=
103
18
57
5.1231
4-758
*
tan d
tan 8'
+ 9.1989
+ 2 .31
+ .167.
-\-
Therefore
'.373.
b sec cp
n tan
<p
Then we have,
ft
8"
47'
78
'
=
=
Therefore n
For
46 85
'.73
52 06 +- .90
Arietis,
T=
48
m
19".
78
.10
n tan 5
-j-
14
-J-.J8
i
48
15.35,
AT
4'.65.
Moo.
88.
Personal Equation.
188.
When
the results of transit observations
made by
dif-
ferent observers are compared, it is found that they differ

One
generally by small but nearly constant quantities.
observer perhaps acquires a habit of noting the transit too

early by a fraction of a second, while another will note it
uniformly too late. This difference is called the personal
It is customary to speak of the relative and the
equation.
absolute personal equation, the former being the constant
between the right ascensions, or clock corrections

deduced from observations made by two different observers,
and the latter the difference between the absolute value of
the quantity and that obtained by an observer who notes the
difference
time uniformly too early or too late. When results obtained

from observations of two different observers are to be compared, as in the determination of longitude, the personal
equation should always be determined and the necessary
correction applied.
The existence of a large personal equation is not an indication of a poor observer, but perhaps the contrary. Thus
the noted observers Bessel and Struve found that in 1814
personal equation was zero; in 1821 it was

while in 1823 it amounted to an entire second: thus indicating the gradual formation of a fixed habit of observing on
their relative
.8,
the part of both. Also in 1823 the relative personal equabetween Bessel and Argelander was i s .2, a surprisingly
tion
large quantity.
The personal equation also depends to some extent on the

instruments employed and the method of observation. It is
generally much smaller when the chronograph is used than
when the eye and ear method is employed. Bessel found
that when he used a chronometer beating half-seconds he
PERSONAL EQUATION.
88.
317
observed transits 0*49 later than when he employed a clock

beating seconds.
There are various methods of determining the personal
equation, those most commonly employed being the following:
First Method.
Let one observer note the transit of the star

over the first two or three threads, and the other observer its
The observed times are
transit over the remaining threads.
reduced to the middle (or mean) thread by means of the
equatorial intervals, and the difference of the reduced times
be the relative personal equation.
considerable number of stars should be observed in this
way, each observer leading alternately. Among the various
methods used, this is considered one of the most reliable.
Second MetJiod. The two observers may each use a different
instrument and determine the clock correction separately, obwill
serving the same list of stars. When the instruments which

the observers are accustomed to use differ considerably in the
arrangement of the threads or in other respects, this method
be superior to the former, as each observer may use his

instrument and make his observations deliberately and
in his usual manner.
Tliird Method.
By a personal-equation apparatus. Various
mechanical devices have been constructed for measuring
both the relative and absolute personal equation. Prof. Hilgard describes two machines of this kind in Appendix 17,
An instrument designed by
Coast Survey Report 1874.
Prof. Eastman has been in use at the Naval Observatory for
may
own
number
see
drawing of which
Washington Observations, 1875. These all
of years, for a description and
Appendix
I,
consist of a mechanical device for causing an artificial star

to pass across a field of view arranged to appear as nearly
The observer
as may be like that of the transit instrument.
notes the time of transit across the threads either by the
3lS
189.
chronographic or the eye and ear method, while the machine

by an electric arrangement records the time automatically,
constant differences between the actual time of transit and
that recorded by the machine being eliminated by causing
the star to cross the field in both directions. The difference
between the automatic record and that of the observer is his
absolute personal equation.
Prof. Eastman gives the following examples of the relative
personal equation deduced on the same night by this instru-
ment and by method

October
25, 1875,
November
December
December
March
March
first:
Professor Eastman
5,
1875, Professor
6,
1876, Professor
31, 1877, Professor

13, 1878,
Professor
23, 1878,
Professor
Eastman
Eastman
Eastman
Eastman
Eastman
By
By Ap-
Stars.
paratus.
Assistant Skinner. ..o s .25i
o8 .227
Assistant Paul
174
.173
Assistant Paul
035
.052
Assistant Frisby
Assistant Frisby
052
.044
052
.054
Assistant Paul
107
.092
This close agreement between the results obtained by two

entirely different must be regarded as exceed-
methods so
ingly satisfactory.
The observer's physical and mental condition
is sometimes
found to exert a marked influence upon his personal equaIt is therefore very desirable that while prosecuting
tion.
observations where great accuracy is essential he should maintain as far as possible his ordinary habits of mind and body.
In the more accurate longitude work of the Coast Survey
the effect of personal equation

exchanging stations when the
Probable Error
189.
eliminated by the observers

is
about half finished.
and Weight of Transit
The probable
two
is
work
Observations.
error of an observed transit consists
parts: first, the probable error of the

observer in noting the time of the stars passing the threads,
independent of his personal equation; and secondly, the varipractically of
PROBABLE ERROR OF TRANSIT OBSERVATIONS.
S T.?9-
ous errors which together form what

nation error.
Among
319
known
as the culmithese latter are those due to atmos

is
pheric displacement, outstanding instrumental errors, irregularities of the clock rate, and changes in the personal equation.
The culmination error is not diminished by increasing
the number of threads of the reticule.
The first part of the probable error, which for present
purposes
we may
call the
may
personal error,
be determined
by comparing together the individual values of the equatorial intervals deduced from a large number of observations,
using for the purpose the formula
m being
number of determinations.
the probable error of the observed time of an
equatorial star over one thread.
Then, since the equatorial interval is the difference of two
Let
the whole
observed quantities, each of which has the probable error

we shall have (Eq. 29)
from which
As
= .6745*
!=
=L-r
f,
(310)
the result of the discussion of a large number of obsermade with the different instruments of the Coast
vations
Survey, Schott gives,* for the larger instruments,

e
4/(.o63)
+ (.036)" tan
* Coast
Survey Report for 1880,
tf
p. 236.
(311)
320
and
for the smaller instruments,

s
From
V(.o8o)
+ (.o63)
tan
d.
(312)
these equations the probable error for a star of any
declination
by
190.
(33).
may be computed, and consequently trie weight,

The following table is from the Coast Survey
Report, the weight of an equatorial star being unity
In the application of the multiplier

to
employ but one
Vp
it
generally suffices
significant figure.
Relative Weights of Incomplete Transits.

190. Let
the probable error of the transit of an equatorial star over a Single thread
;
=
=
the probable culmination error

the probable error of the transit observed
;
over n threads, both sources of error being

considered
WEIGHTS OF INCOMPLETE TRANSITS,
igO.
Then
321
**=.'+-
(313)
Schott concludes, from the examination of 558 individual

values of the right ascensions of 36 stars observed at the
U. S. Naval Observatory, that for the larger instruments of
O 9 .o5i, and for the smaller instruthe Coast Survey r
ments r = o s .o6o. When assigning to the values o s .o63 and

S
O .o8o from (311) and (312), it is found that f =
.O49 and
9
.O56 respectively.
N=
the whole
Then
number
let
of threads
= the weight of an observation over n threads

Unity = the weight of an observation over all of the ./Vthreads.
p
Then,
(33),
^
1
Substituting the above values for
For the larger instruments p
For the smaller instruments
and
/=
(314)
e,,
^;
2.0
"
we have
(315)
PRACTICAL A STROXOM Y.
3 22
Let
N=
25 in (315)
the following values
IQI.
in (316)
respectively; we find
for the values of n indicated.
and 9
of/
It appears, therefore, that the gain in accuracy obtained by

increasing the number of threads soon becomes practically
Bessel thought that no practical advantage
insignificant.
resulted from the use of
more than
five threads.
Reduction of Transit Observations by Least Squares.

191.
When
the time
is
to be
determined by a series
of
observations with the portable transit instrument, the method

of least squares may be applied with advantage in case the
This will be
results are required with extreme accuracy.
the case particularly where the time is required for longitude
determination, and where the clock correction, the azimuth
and collimation constants, and sometimes the rnte, are all to
be determined from the same series of observations.
An observing list should be prepared beforehand, embrac-
ing stars "adapted to the determination of these quantities.

have seen that stars which culminate near the zenith are
best adapted to the determination of 4T; also that circum-
We
IQI.
323
polar stars observed at upper and lower culmination are

One half the stars should
best for the determination of a.
be observed in each position of the axis for the purpose of

determining c.
It is a very good arrangement to divide the stars into
groups of about five or six stars, each group to contain
two circumpolar stars, one at upper and one at lower
culmination, the remaining three or four stars being near the
between the zenith and equator. It is not advisable to include the close circumpolar stars in such a group.
The instrument having been carefully adjusted, the observa-
zenith or
tions will be
st.
conducted as follows
Read
the level.
2d.
Observe the
3d.
Read
4th.
Reverse the instrument.
5th.
Read
6th.
Observe the second group of
7th.
Read
first
group of five or
six stars.
the level.
the level.
five
or six
stars.
the level.
This may be regarded as a complete series, as it contains

everything necessary for determining all of the unknown
If considered desirable, a third and fourth group
quantities.
mav be observed in the same manner. If there is time between the stars of the group, more level-readings may be
taken but if the mounting is reasonably firm, the level
corrections for the individual stars may be interpolated from
;
those at the beginning and end.

If there are no imperfect transits, a knowledge of the
equatorial intervals will not be required otherwise they may
;
be determined from the suitable stars of the series just observed.

It must be remembered that in transporting the
instrument from one station to another the relative position
324
91.
This difficulty is
of the threads is liable to be disturbed.
avoided by the use of the glass reticule, the distances of the
which may be determined once

The reduction is then as follows
lines of
for
all.
Let
A =
B=
sin (q>
6} sec
cos
C=
(tp
8} sec
sec
tf
AT
the clock correction at time
dT =
the hourly rate

the stars' apparent right ascension.
;
8
d
We can always infer
from our observations a value of AT%

very near the true one, and as the labor of
computation will be diminished by making the numerical
which
will be
values of the unknown quantities as small as possible, we may

assume an approximate value of this quantity, and determine
a correction to this assumed value.
=
=
Let
AT.
Then x
is
the
assumed value
of the clock correction
+ *.
a small
unknown
correction to 5.
Introducing this notation into Mayer's formula,
In which x, 3T,
a,
and
may
it
becomes
be considered unknown quan-
tities.
Writing
viz.,
the
sum
= T+
of the
-\-
known
Bb
.O2
quantities,
C cos
<p
a,
we have
Tt+x + ii*Q.
(317)
325
Every observed transit furnishes one equation of this form

for determining the four unknown quantities a, c, 6T, and x.
Four perfect observations would be sufficient. As a much
larger number will be taken, the most probable values must
be determined by the method of least squares (Art. 21).
If ST is known, the number of unknown quantities will be
reduced to three. If in addition c has been determined by
some other method, there will only be two.
If there is a suspicion that the azimuth has changed during the progress of the observations, an additional azimuth
constant may be introduced as another unknown quantity.
The reduction will be facilitated by tabulating the factors
A, B, and C. Such a table has been published by the U. S.
Coast Survey, in which A and B are given with the double
C is of course given with the
argument 8 and z = (g>
).
argument
S.
When many
or
in the
observations are to be reduced at one place,
same
computed
latitude, a special table

for the latitude of the place.
is
more conveniently
The only argument
will then be d.
It will
in the
be convenient to
book used
make
the computation of
for recording the transits.
/ directly
The means
of
the times over the threads being taken, this will be T, which
is written below.
In case of incomplete transits, the time
over the mean thread is computed as already illustrated, a

and d are taken from the Nautical Almanac and written in
s
the same book. The small corrections B .b and
.O2i coscp.C
are applied directly to T. Subtracting a from the algebraic
sum, we have /
5, in which 3 will be assumed of such value
as to
make
/ small.
An example
follows.
Reduction of Transit Observations made at the Sayre Observatory, 1883, October n.
An
observing
list
was
first
prepared, of which the following
is
a specimen
The two groups are intended to be observed one in each position of the axis.
The right ascension and declination are taken from the mean values of the
"
Nautical Almanac. The column headed
Setting" gives the setting of the finding
In this case the circle reads zero when the telescope is directed to the
circle.
north point of the horizon, the latitude being 40 36' 24"; the circle will read
130 36' 24" when the line of collimation of the telescope lies in the equator.
5.
Therefore the setting for any star will be 130 36'. 4
Below is the copy of the recorded transits of the above stars as observed on
the night of October n, 1883
:
327
Level.
a Cephei.
I
III
IV
T=
a
32 Ursa
IV
V
a
22
10
9 38.60
9 32.66
22 20
T=
a
13-3
9-9
14.1
10.8
11.333
12.233
14.1
II. 2
55-5
III
II
.04
9.8
13-7
9-3
12.9
9-5
12.8
Aquarii.
V
IV
59-5
9 38.5
18.5
57-5
III
21 15 56.10 -j-- 11
21 15 50.57
Majc
II
E.
46.1
21.7
55-9
30.9
21 17
5-9
II
1-1.9
12.6
II. 2
28.2
10. 1
14.0
44.1
0.3
12.
22 ig 28.OO
22 19 21.93
-f-
.08
10.6
13-6
"35
12.65
The small quantities added to

above inck.de the corrections for level and
s
diurnal aberration; viz., Bb
b is computed from the level.O2i C, cos <p.
readings as already explained, the value of one division of the level being ".174,
and the correction for inequality of pivots being

in
terms of one division of the
level.
.062 Cl.
1 TTT
expressed
PRACTICAL ASTROXOAIY.
328
We now
take from the tables the values of the coefficients A, B, and C, or,
if
tables of these quantities are not at hand, we compute them by the formulae.
For illustrating the application of the proper weights to the equations of condition, the value of
ments.
Vp
is
taken from the table of Art. 189 for the smaller instru-
All these quantities are conveniently tabulated as follows:
Assumed # =
The
6".
the
headed
3 is obtained by adding algebraically
quantity
to the quantity
of the above observations the sum of the corrections, viz.,
Bb
".021 C cos <p, and subtracting from the result a.
now have all the
quantities entering into the equations of condition, each of which has the form
in
column
We
=Vp.l.
REDUCTION GF TRANSIT OBSERVATIONS.
191.
The
rate is here inappreciable,
and the term 5
7'(
T<,)
329
has accordingly been
dropped.
The coefficient c, as will be seen, has its sign changed

Our twelve equations, written out in full, will then be
.jSa 4- i.oir
.ooa -}- I.o8<:
1.
2.
I.2IC
I.GSC
I.OOJT
-\-
.S>2x
-|-
.46*
4.
I.ISa
.2oa
-(-
.91-*
5.
.060
-|- i.o-jc -\~
.&$x
6.
.44"*
-5 o-*'
7-
8.
9.
3.
-|-
I.2CW
-f-
-53 a
i.oif
-J- i.
i6a
i.i2f
-f-
oar
.74^
.6-ja
1.24^
-f-
.36^
10.
.66
i.ooc
-[-
LOOT
11.
i.i6a
i.2ic
-\-
12.
.64^
i.ooc
-\-
-\-
These now have the general form

a\x
.$ox
i.oox
for clamp west.
as follows
.09.
-j- .16.
= .35.
= -07.
= -f- .12.
= + -2O.
= .09.
= .19.
= .19.
= .37.
= -\~ .05.
= .15.
of the equations of condition (36), viz.,
-j- c\z -(-
d\w
n\,
there being in this case the three unknown quantities a, c, and x, corresponding to the x, z, and w of the general form. The term corresponding to^y has
disappeared here, as we have assumed the rate of the clock to be inappreciable

for the short time over which the observations extend.
We
have now
confusion
may
equations
is
to
arise
form the normal equations (see Eq. 41). In order that no

from the difference of notation, the general form of these
here given in
full, viz.:
\aa\a
\ac~\a
+
+
\ac~\c
[cc}c
+ \ad]x = [an]
+ [cd]x = |>]
We
shall give the solution of these equations in full with the various checks on
the accuracy of the computation, as an illustration of the method.
Practically,
however, this part of the work will generally be more or less abridged by ex-
perienced computers
when
the
number
of
unknown
quantities does not exceed
that of the above equations.
We
shall require, besides the quantities already indicated, the
coefficients of
each equation,
viz.:
sums
of the
330
Also,
we compute
the quantities
[as],
The computation
[],
[</,],
[nn], [,].
be made by the use of Crelle's table.

We therefore prepare the scheme for computation given below, containing 19
columns, 5 for the quantities a, c, d,
n, s, et<:., which we rewrite for the sake of
will first
convenience, and 14 for the squares and products.
The agreement
of the values of [as],
[cs],
and
[ds]
proves the accuracy of this
part of the computation.
The normal
equations are then
5.11433
.2792^
4-
3.3460*
+ 14.6142^
.1958*
.i 9 58<: + 7.6754*
3.34600 +
,2-jgza
-i-
= =
= -
.7397;
1.9201;
.7635.
191.
331
These equations are now to be solved, following the method and notation exWe shall therefore require the following auxiliary coeffiplained in Art. 28.
cients, viz.,
],
[cm],
\,
,
& i], [j i],
etc.,
[i], [* i],
[dm],
[dsi\,
[rf2],
[A 2], [2], [ra];
being computed for checks on the accuracy of the work.
The computation
will then be
made according
to the following scheme:
33 2
IQI.
The accuracy of the work at different stages of progress is shown by

manner in which the proof equations are satisfied. Those referred to by
numbers in the last column above are as follows:
(1)
[as]
(2)
(3)
[dsi}
(4)
(6)
[^2]
[JT]
[wa]
(7)
[ns 3]
(5)
We now
i]
determine
=
=
=
+ [ac + [/] + [cd - [*

- [</!];
[/</!] + [/i]
[aa]
i]
[an};
i];
i]
= jy2] - [a];
= 3] = [H[
and
by the equations
[cci]c+
[aa}a
[at i\x
[ac]c
\cn i\;
+ [a^]^r = [an}.
The Weights and Probable Errors.
The weights
of a,
In which
Therefore
c,
and x
[dd
px
will
l] a
5-476;
be given by formulae
[dd]
^-~
(76), viz.
[cd}.
log
[cc i]
log[cV2]
14-573;
log/
=
=
1.16432
1-16354
.73850
the
the
IQI.
log
O/p =
8.58362
8.83522
log
Nat. No.
\dd}
\dd
i]
j-^j
.0026
=
=
7.41884
7.6754
*
7-6728
log
log
p^j
log [aa]
log [eel]
Pa
The mean
log[V/</2]
log p a
3-646-
error of a single observation of weight unity
m
In
this case
m=
*r
rc
12
=
=
f*>
\B C
029
is
9.11504
8.83522
=
=
=
=
.70879
1.16432
.73850
.56187
see equation (88)
fi
|W|
ec
Therefore
.0887.
.017
333
7=
'
-043
.026
.052.
loo.
v^
n,
We
AT =
now have
f e,x
4-
.035
<J
Therefore
;:.
AT = 6". 060
= + -rS
<r
.098
.029
-I7
.035
Formation of the Normal Equations by a Table of Squares.
We
have seen in Art. 26 that all of the multiplications necessary for deriving the normal equations from the equations of condition can be performed by
!
See equations
(27).
t See equations
(89).
PR A CTICAL ASTRONOM Y.
334
means
of a table of squares, with
Crelle's table.
the present example.

By referring to the formulae
computation which follow
2\[aa]
any,
more labor than by
[cc]
it
will
and explanations of Art. 26 the
the use of
be applied to
details
of the
will be sufficiently clear.
The proof formula becomes
little, if
For the purpose of illustrating the method
in this case
[]J =
+
[(a
[(c
+
+
e)*]
<?)*]
+
+
[(a
[(c
+ </)'] + [(a -)'] + [_(d -
nf\
f|,
which is completely verified, as may be seen by substituting the above values.

Of course the resulting normal equations are the same as those obtained before.
CORRECTION FOR FLEXURE.
192.
335
Correction for Flexure.

192. The second form of transit instrument, that in which
the eye-piece is at one end of the axis (see Fig. 28), requires
a special correction for flexure of the horizontal axis. The
amount
of this flexure or
is
bending
in all positions of
the telescope, as
of which the axis
is
composed
is
it
assumed
will
be
to be the
if
same
the material
The
homogeneous.
effect
be to bring the reflecting prism lower down than it

would be otherwise without changing the direction of the
will
When the eye-piece is east this will

reflecting surface.
cause the star to reach the collimation axis too late by a
small quantity, which is a maximum in the zenith and nothing
in
the
horizon.
Suppose
WE
to
represent the rotation axis bent as

shown in the figure, CO being the
collimation axis of the telescope,
Let
be the eye end of the axis.
The
effect
on the observed time of
a star's transit will

evidently be the
FlG
same
3(5 .
as that
produced
by elevating the end marked E, and when the proper coefficient is found it
may be combined with the level correction.
Let/=
the coefficient of flexure.
/will be the maximum displacement of the transit thread,

and will be the value of this displacement when the telescope is directed to the zenith.
The clamp being on the end of the axis opposite the eyepiece, we must add to Mayer's formula the term
cos
QZZT*
8)
clamp west
clamp east
"
'
'
<3 '
8>
336
192.
If we write (cp
3, the terms of Mayer's formula,
8}
which give the correction of the observed time of a star's
transit for collimation, flexure, and inequality of pivots, may
(p cos z
in
which/
is
/cos z
determined by (297) or
f)
sec 6;
(297),,
(319)
and which we see
involved in the same manner as/".

These instruments are generally provided with micrometers, which may be used for determining / and c at the
same time, as follows:
In order to make a satisfactory determination, and at the
same time to test the accuracy of the assumed law of change
is
expressed by the formula /cos z, a collimating telescope is

necessary, mounted in a frame in such a manner that it may
be placed vertically over the transit telescope and at difThe collimation
ferent zenith distances from zero to 90.
is then measured, as explained in Articles 182-184, with
the telescope pointed at various zenith distances. This
measured value will include the term cos z, which will be
error
90, and a maximum when z

therefore be possible to separate c from/1
zero
when
o.
It will
It will be advisable to make a considerable number of

measurements, from which c and /"can then be derived by
method of least squares. If the resulting values satisfy

the equations within the limit of the probable error of measurement, the assumed law of change expressed by the for-
the
mula/cos
z will be verified.
some cases there
is found to be a correction required

depending on the temperature. This may be detected by
making the measurements for collimation and flexure at
different temperatures.
If then different values are found
In
varying with the temperature according to any law, the

necessary correction may be determined.
CORRECTION FOR FLEXURE.
337
Memoirs Royal Astronomical Society,

Captain Clarke, R.E., gives an example of the investigation
XXXVII,
Vol.
In
of the flexure coefficient with
In addition to the
described.
an apparatus of the kind just

movable collimator, another
was used which was fixed in the horizon. The collimation

measured on this was free from the effect of flexure, so that
by taking the difference between the quantity (f cos z -j- c},
measured at a zenith distance z by means of the movable
collimator, and the quantity c, measured at the same time with
the fixed collimator, a direct measurement of the quantity
/cos z was obtained. Twelve measurements made at zenith
distances from o to 55 gave the following results:
The column headed 5 gives the zenith
distance of the upper
the next column gives the difference between the

collimation determined on the upper and lower collimators;
collimator
and the column headed v gives the residuals.

Referring to equation (319), we see that the quantity called
"difference"
equal to
is
measured values
(//) = 3.02
From
(/
/) cos
of this quantity
it
z.
From
was found
the twelve
that
.050 expressed in divisions of the micrometer.
level-readings,
p ==
therefore
.779
.026 expressed in divisions of the micrometer;
/=
3.800.
338
One
division of the micrometer
therefore
=
=
3".i7i
o".8345
194-
.2ii.
193. The use of such an apparatus as we

will not generally be practicable in the field.
have described
The
coefficient
then be determined ir.om the observed transits by

adding to the equations of condition (317) the term
/may
cos d
The complete equation
Aa
a\
-f
f->
If
ST is
known
T,
Bf +
will then
Cc -f
ST(T
be
- T
-f
+/=
o.
and x being unknown quantities.

known, as it ordinarily will be, the number
(320)
of un-
quantities will be four.
The Transit Instrument out of tJie Meridian.

194. Equations (275) and (281) are strictly general, and are
applicable to the reduction of transits with the instrument
in any position whatever.
have seen that when the in-
We
so near the meridian that the squares and higher

powers of a, b, m, and n may be neglected* these formulas
become very simple. Bessel, Hansen, and others have given
strument
is
more general methods of solving the equations intended for

use in those cases where the observer in the field cannot afford the time for adjusting his instrument accurately in the
meridian.
When, however, the observer is provided with a
good
list
* That
cos
a,
cos
is,
b,
of stars
we may
etc.
reduced to apparent place,

write
a, b,
m, and n
for sin a, sin
like that
b, etc.,
given
and unity
for
TRANSITS OF THE SUN, MOON, AND PLANETS.
195-
in the
American Ephemeris,
this
and the labor of reduction
adjustment
so
much
is
made
339
so
than with
the more general methods, that the latter have not found
much favor, especially in this country. Therefore, however
interesting- some of these may be from a mathematical point
of view, we shall not give their development here.
readily,
is
Transits of the Sun, Moon,
less
and Planets.
195. In the field, transits of the moon will be observed for

the determination of longitude when no better method is
available. The sun and occasionally a planet will be observed
for time.
moon
In case of the sun and
the
method
of observing
tangent to the thread.
With the sun the transit of both limbs may be observed;
with the moon this will not be practicable except when the
transit is observed very near the instant of full moon.
In
observing a planet, the transits of each limb may be observed alternately, or when a chronograph is used both
limbs may be observed, as in case of the sun. With any of
these bodies, when both limbs are observed, the time of transit of the centre will be the mean of that of the two limbs.
It may, however, be desirable to reduce the limbs sepais
to note the instant
when
the limb
is
rately for the purpose of comparison.
When
the moon's limb
is
observed on a side thread, the
hour-angle is affected by parallax the time required to pass

from the thread to the meridian is affected by the moon's
motion in right ascension. The reduction is as follows:
:
Let
6'
and
/'
of the
<5
and
z and
t,
z',
be the apparent declination and east hour-angle

moon's limb when observed on a side thread;
the geocentric declination and hour-angle;
the geocentric and apparent zenith distance.
340
195.
We
can reduce the observation by either of the equations

or (284). Taking the latter, viz., Mayer's formula, we have
(282), (283),
being the equatorial interval of the thread.

Having- /', / may be determined as follows:
In Fig. 37, let P be the pole, Z the zenith, O the geocentric
place of the
moon
at.
the instant of observation, O' the ap-
parent place.
Angle
From
MPO
t\
ZO =
MPO' =
/';
ZO'
the triangles
MZO and
M'ZO',
MO sin
sin MZO =
cm & =
sin
M'O'
-,
o'From triangle MPO,

From triangle M'PO',
sin
sin
Substituting these values in (322),

sin t
As
/ is
small,
cos 8
sin
=/
MO
M'O'
/'
cos
sin
(322)/
<y'
cii-i
FIG. 37
z\
= *'.
cos
tf
= sin /'cos #'.
(323)
)
we have
cos
8'
sn z
tf
.
r,
(324)
the required value of t in terms of /'.

the increase of the moon's right ascension in one
Let A
TRANSITS OF THE MOON.
195-
sidereal second
then
moon
required for the
341
being expressed in seconds, the time

to pass over this interval will be
(325)
A representing the velocity with which the moon api

proaches the meridian.
There remains the correction for the moon's semidiameter.
Let
S'
the geocentric semidiameter of the moon at the

time of transit, taken from the ephemeris;
the hour-angle of the centre when the limb is on
p
the meridian.
Then, from Fig.
38,
sin S'
sin
costf'
Writing
5 and
S' for their sines
and dividing by
15
to reduce to time,
S'
c
15 cos
FIG.
The time required

will
moon
for the
38.
to pass over this space
be
S'
From
(326)
A) cos
15(1
and
(326),
we have
ascension of the moon's centre
when
the limb
(321), (324), (325),
any thread
observed on
of the transit instrument,

cos
for the right

is
&'
sin z I sin
'
cos
sin
z'
(-*')
cosS>
"
cos(-S')
cos
S+i V
'~ + cos
?
'
S')
15(1
-A)
cos
34 2
95-
The geocentric declination, tf, and the equatorial horizontal

parallax, n, are taken from the ephemeris. Then from (XI),,
Art. 85, we have with sufficient accuracy for this purpose
d'
Ttp sin (<p'
d');
where generally d may be substituted for

the second member.
and the factor

(111 &
z
sin
-.
z7
and
sin
z
sin &
OlH
:
sin z
cos/
(328)
cp',
in
equation (327) becomes
in
cp
for
we have
being the parallax in zenith distance,
Then/
in
sin
6',
....
cos z sin/
-f-
cot z sin
cos p
approximately. And from (VII),, Art. 82 with sufficient accuracy for this purpose,
sin z
-,
sin.
If
then
we
write
A =
l
n cos
sin
((p
p sin n cos
8).
((p'
6),
(329)
F= A B
l
sec
<J,
may be tabulated with the argument log p sin TT cos(<p'

)
as in table XIII of Bessel's Tabula Regiomontance ; B^ may
be tabulated with the argument Aa
moon's change in right
y4,
--
ascension in one minute,
The term
-,
15 (i
"Moon
^r
^
A) cos o
Aa
being given
may
*
in the
ephemeris.
be taken from the table of
Culminations" of the ephemeris where it is given

under the heading " Sidereal time of semidiameter passing
MOON'S DEFECTIVE LIMB.
IpO.
the meridian."
The complete
ascension are then as follows

d'
A,
sin (cp
sin
F= A B
formulas for the moon's right
np
343
n cos
6);
(cp'
6);
(XIX)
l
sec
<J;
The use which will be made of this value of a in the determination of longitude will be explained hereafter.
series of stars will be observed in connection with the moon
for determining the clock correction JTând the constants

a and c. Sometimes the clock correction is made to depend
exclusively on about four stars whose declination is nearly
the same as that of the moon two of these precede the moon
and two follow.
;
Correction to the
Moons
Defective Limb.
196. The transit of both limbs of the moon can only be

observed when the culmination occurs very near the time of
full moon.
If one limb is defective it may still be used if it
is sharply defined,
illumination.
and a correction applied
for defective
purpose we may regard the moon as a sphere, and

the rays of light from the sun to the moon
as parallel to those from the sun to the earth.
The curve of
contact of the surface of the moon with the cone of rays tangent to its surface will separate the light from the dark part
of the moon.
When the defective limb is observed, the
point whose contact with the thread of the reticule is noted
is a point on this curve; and instead of the semidiameter 5,
For
this
we may consider
344
we
196.
shall require for this limb the perpendicular from the

centre of the disk upon the hour-circle, of
which the
\
transit thread
may
be regarded
as forming a small arc. Thus act' being the

position of the thread at the instant of the
observed transit of the defective limb L,
FIG.
39.
of the instrument,
we shall require the distance CL

5, instead of 5. Fig. 40 may be regarded as
a section formed by the plane passing
through the rotation and collimation axes
and Fig. 39 a section formed by the plane
perpendicular to the collimation
E is
axis.
the point on the earth's surface from which the observation is made.
K2
2 and
are the projections on the
plane of the instrument of rays of light
These lines are
coming from the sun.
practically parallel.
Let x
the angle formed with the plane

of the meridian by the line
drawn from the sun
to the
moon.
This will be practically the same angle
formed by lines joining the sun and
as that
earth.
CK
will be
KN
perpendicular to this
line.
is perpendicular to the plane of

Also,
the meridian. Therefore
= S cos x.
x
now
(330)
the angle which a line drawn

FIG. 40
from the sun to the earth forms with the lower branch of the
meridian.
is
TRANSIT OF THE MOON,
196.
a'
Let
345
the moon's right ascension at the time of

culmination
;
a'
the sun's right ascension

angle formed by the hour-circles
through the moon and sun
;
drawn
80
d'
(oc
angle formed by sun's hour-circle with

the lower branch of the meridian.
sun's declination.
In Fig. 41,
is the earth,
the pole of the heavens, and
the projection of the sun on the celestial
sphere. PR is the lower branch of the
meridian. SR is the arc of a great circle
.
perpendicular to the meridian.
Therefore
SER = x
arc SR.
The right-angle triangle

fore gives
sin
cos
SPR
there-
6' sin
(a
(33 1)
a)
(330) and (331) therefore give the required value of S and

the correction to be applied will be of the same form as in
r
case of S,
viz.,
15 (i
is
~ cos S +
-,
A)
I
\
when
first
\
(
second
limb
defective.
Example. 1883 October 15, the moon was observed with the portable transit
instrument of the Sayre observatory as follows:
T=\
15
55.32
18
16.98
12.15
i3-6o
346
From
the table of
moon
196.
culminations (page 379 of the ephemeris)
we
find, for
the time of the moon's transit at Bethlehem:
=
=
Apparent declination
=
=
S
it
g" 14' 18"
3681"
A
Sidereal time of semidiameter passing the meridian
We
.0425
7o .76
=
=
=/ =
also have
40
<p'
logp
Correction for inequality of pivots
The computation by
<p'
31
10'
formulae (XIX), Art. 195,

sin
44"
((p'
is
.062
now
S) = 9.7141
= 3.5660
log
log p = 9.9994
Sum = 3-2795
2"
25'
999939
as follows:
cos
=
=
=
9.9994
Sum
8.1832
S)
(<p'
it
sin
TC
log
Nat No. 1903"

S'
log(i
=
=
0.9575
A)
9.9811
log B\ =. .0189
cos S'
9.9950
log
The above
log
cos
=
F=
6" =
level-readings in
We have derived
.0179
Fcos
.0129
connection with/ give
from transits of stars
d'
c'
apply the
last of formulae
sin (q>
--
cos
cos
*
(XIX):
S')-
d')
-9
sum
=
=
.220
R
S'
(<p
cos S'
(Sum) Fcos
S'
".035
-f '.227
1.030
8
AT=
We now
8.2515
.01525
A*
42' 35"
i
9.9323
-\-
.iis.
-f-
.154;
-5'-47.
.98475
TRANSIT OF THE SUN AND PLANETS.
197-
First
T=
15-
AT=
Corrections
Right ascension of limb
Limb.
-
15'"
i" 18
55.32
5-47
i6". 9 8
.23
-\i
347
Second Limb.
5-47
-\i
so'.oS
.23
i8 m n'.74
The right ascension of the centre will be obtained from either of these by
applying the correction for semidiameter, which is the same as the sidereal time
of the semidiameter passing the meridian. The illumination of the second limb,
however, was defective, and therefore the correction given by formulae (330) and
should be applied.
(331)
From the ephemeris we have
Sun's right ascension
Sun's declination
Moon's
Applying formula
right ascension
a'
(331),
=
=
=
=
=
=
a'
d'
i3
23
m io!
45' 18"
8
h
i2 h
i7
9'
181" 32' 15"

sin (a'
a)
cos
sin
d'
x
x
log 7O .76
=
=
log
cos
9
Corrected value
70*. 74
= 8.4286
= 9.9949
8.4235
9.99985
1.84979
1.84964
Therefore
Right ascension moon's centre from observation of first limb

Right ascension moon's centre from observation of second limb
Transits of the
197.
=
=
i
i
I7
17
o.84.
i .00.
Sun and Planets.
Formulas (XIX) derived for the moon apply equally
to the sun and planets.

As, however, the parallax in these
cases will always be small, we can write without appreciable
error z
Then
z'
A,
and d
i;
d'.
348
term can be taken directly from the ephemeris,

"
given under the heading Sidereal time of semidiameter passing the meridian." The object of such an observation will be to determine the clock correction AT.
If the sun is observed with a mean time chronometer, the
rate of which is small, A may be neglected, as then the motion
of the sun will practically correspond with that of the chronometer. If the chronometer has a large rate on apparent
The
last
where
it is
time, this rate
nometer
is
may
be placed equal to
when
gaining,
E=
Let
the equation of time

transit
S"
A, -|-
when
the chro-
losing.
for the
instant of
mean time of semidiameter passing the

meridian
chronometer time of observation reduced
to middle (or mean) thread
the
T=
AT =
the chronometer correction on
I2 h
E=
Then
-|-
mean time
mean
time.
of sun's transit.
Therefore
S"
is
-(-
when both
will then
for preceding limb, and

for following limb
are observed it vanishes from the mean.
AT
be given by
(333).
The Transit Instrument
in the
Prime
Vertical.
198. The transit may be employed for determining the instant of a star's passing the prime vertical, in a manner similar to that already explained for
over
determining its
passage
the meridian.
method
Such observations furnish a very accurate
of determining the latitude of the place of observa-
PRIME VERTICAL TRANSITS.
349
a fixed observatory where the latitude is known,

for determining the declinations of the stars observed.
The
tion, or, in
practical application of the transit to these purposes is due

to Bessel, although a prime vertical transit was used by
Roemer more than
a hundred years earlier.

This method of determining latitude has been considerably
used by the astronomers of Europe, arid to a less extent in
America.
It is now almost entirely superseded by the use of
the zenith telescope, so that a
complete presentation of the
theory is relatively much less important now than it was thirty or

forty years ago.
The
P be
principle is as follows Let

the zenith, and 6"
the pole,
:
a star which crosses
FIG. 42
the prime
the
the
instant
of
star's passing
Suppose
the prime vertical to be observed with a transit instrument
perfectly adjusted in this plane then if the rate of the clock
vertical at
5 and
S'
known, the difference between the two times of transit

will be the angle SPS', one half of which is equal to SPZ = t.
Then from the right-angle triangle SPZ or S'PZ we have
is
tan
 which is to be
is known.
determined.
The process is then analogous to that employed with the

instrument mounted in the meridian viz., the adjustments
;
made
as accurately as may be, and the corrections to the

As we
final result determined for outstanding deviations.
are
shall see, the
value of the method consists largely in the
350
199.
with which the effect of instrumental errors may be

It is evident that only those stars can be observed on the prime vertical which culminate between the
equator and the zenith, that is, whose declinations are be-
facility
eliminated.
tween o and
(p.
Adjustments.
to explain the method of placing
199. It is only necessary
the instrument in the prime vertical, all the remaining adinstrument is in the
justments being the same as when the
meridian. For this purpose a star is selected whose declinais small, and the clock time computed when the star will
be on the prime vertical. Triangle PSZ of Fig. 42 gives
tion
cos/
The clock time of the

then be
star's
tan 6
tsr?-
.....
(335)
passing the prime vertical will
(336)
When the clock time is that given by this formula, the

middle thread of the reticule must be brought on the star by
the fine-motion azimuth screw.
It will be observed that a knowledge of the latitude is
necessary for computing t, but from (335) it appears that
when a star is chosen whose declination is nearly o, a small
error in the assumed value of <p may exist without mateThe adjustment should be
rially affecting the value of /.
tested by stars both east and west of the meridian, as an
error in the assumed value of <p will affect the computed
times for east and west stars with opposite signs.
200.
Some
351
instruments are provided with azimuth circles like
shown
in Fig. 28, in which case the simplest method of

proceeding will be to first adjust the instrument in the plane
of the meridian and then turn it in azimuth 90 by the circle.
that
Method of Observing.
200.
list
observed should
of stars to be
be pre-
first
pared, for which the time of passing the prime vertical, both
east and west, must be computed, also the zenith distance or
Formulae (335) and (336) give
setting of the finding circle.
the required time.
The
zenith distance
cos z
is
given by
sin 8
-.
sin
(337)
<p
If the star is near the zenith, the time required to pass the
thread intervals will be comparatively large, so that it will
be convenient to compute approximately the time of passing
the first thread.
Let
Then
/=
the equatorial interval of the first thread

the corresponding star interval.
-5.
sin (p cos o sin /
-.
sin
cp
sin z
approximately. (338)
'
The proof of this formula will be given hereafter. / will

be subtracted from the time given by (336) for a star either
east or west.
As the star moves obliquely across the field, it will be
necessary to change the zenith distance of the telescope for
every thread in order to have the transits take place between
the two horizontal threads.
PRACTICAL ASl^RONOMY.
352
2OI.
Mathematical Theory.
201. The equations (275) and (281) apply to the transit instrument in any position whatever, and consequently may be
used in this case. It will perhaps be better to derive the
formulae directly.
Let us consider the point where the north end of the axis
produced pierces the celestial sphere. This we shall call the
north end of axis.

Let this point be referred to a system of rectangular axes,
the horizon being the plane of xy, the positive axis of x being
directed north, the positive axis of y east, and the positive
axis of z to the zenith.
Let a
the azimuth of the north end of axis, reckoned

from the north point towards the east
the altitude.
Then x
cos b cos
a;
cos b sin a
z '= sin
b.
(339)
In the second system let the equator be the plane of xy

the positive axis of z being parallel to the earth's axis, the
positive axis of x being directed to the point where the lower
branch of the meridian intersects the equator, and the axis
y
of y coinciding with that in the
Let n and 180
Then
x'
The
= cos n
-f-
m=
cos m;
first
system.
the declination and hour-angle of

the north end of axis.
y'
cos n sin m;
z'
sin n. (340)
formulae for transformation of co-ordinates give
cos n cos
cos n sin
sin
m
m =
cos b sin a
cos b cos a cos
cos b cos a sin
cp
sin b cos
<p;
(341)
cp
-f sin b sin
>
cp.
202.
If the
prime
vertical,
cos b
when
instrument
carefully levelled
is
we way
the above equations
cos n cos
cos n sin
sin b
m=
m=
sin
be written
may
sin n
We
in the
write
cos a
353
and adjusted
sin (cp
b}
b).
a\
cos
(tp
shall find these formulas useful in
(342)
subsequent transfor-
mations.
202. Let
-|-
/and
tf
90
the angle between the clamp end of

the rotation axis and the object end
of the collimation axis;
the hour-angle and declination of a
star observed on the m'ddle thread.
Let the star be referred to a system of rectangular axes,

the equator being the plane of xy, the axis of x being directed
to the point where the hour circle through the north end of
the rotation axis intersects the equator.
Then the angle formed by the radius vector with the plane
of xy will be d, and the angle between the projection of the
radius on the plane of
xy and the
1
x=
cos
tf
cos(/
m)',
80
y=
+ (/
cos
axis of
will
be
m).
tfsin
(tm}\
In the second system, let the axis of
sin
tf.
(343)
coincide with the
rotation axis, the axis of y coinciding with that of the former

system. Then the position of the instrument being clamp
north,
c will
be the angle formed by the radius vector and
354
203.
the plane of yz. Let tf, be the angle formed with the axis of
the projection of the radius vector on the plane of yz.
y by
Then
x'
The
sine;
<:
cos
angles between the axis of
x'= xcosn -\-
We
= cos
_/
<srsin
x and
cos^
x' being
sin
;/,
tf,.
(344)
we have
xsm n -\- 2 cos n.
z'=
y'=y\
s'
(345)
therefore have
sin c
cos
cos
*:
cos
c sin
tf,
tf,
=
=
=
cos
cos
tf
cos
cos
(t
;;z)
sin
(/
;);
cos
(/
;)
cos n
sin 6 sin n;
sin
-J-
sin
6 cos
(346)
Equations (341) and (346) express in the most general

form the relations between the quantities which determine
the position of the instrument and the quantities <p, d, and t.
203.
The adjustments may always be made accurately
enough so that the
=C
first of (346)
C S
Sin
where the values
of sin n
may
be written
(V~^~ sin d cos (V ~~ ^>
and cos n given by
(342)
have been
substituted.
=
Acos<p '=
h
Let
Then
(347)
sin
becomes
<p'
sin
cos
= h sin (<p
--tp'
.....
R).
(348)
3 2O4-
From
the
of (348),
first
we may
not too small

.
- b) =
sm(<p-<p
tan
When
c,
first of (348)
cp'
;, and
cp'
- b = c sin
--
cp'
c sin
;) cos /.
(t
known
known
and
quantities, (349)
will give the latitude, as S is the
and
is
(349)
by the second, we obtain
tan d sec
are
<p
qj
.....
+ b + ~^J-
9 = 9
Dividing the
and therefore when d
7,
write
or
355
(350)
(350)
declination of the
obtained by observation.
determined as in previous discussions by the
striding-level. This should be done with care, as we see from
(349) that an error in b will affect the latitude by its full
amount, t and in are determined as follows:
star,
204. b
Let
t'
t is
is
and
hour-angles of the star at east and west transit
T and T =
respectively
sit
23"
=
=
A T' and A T
observed clock times
at east
and west tran-
respectively
corresponding clock corrections
;
elapsed time between east and west observation

star's right ascension =side real time of cul;
mination.
Then
= T + AT a;
t= T + AT -a-
/'
Therefore
m=
(t'
/#).
(351)
35^
205.
For determining 3 we
see that the clock rate must be

known, but neither the clock correction nor the star's right
ascension is required. For determining m a knowledge of
both these quantities
With
will
be essential.
portable instrument c may most readily be

determined by observation in the meridian, as already explained,* but on account of the facility with which an error
the
in this quantity
may be
eliminated
its
exact determination
is
not very important.
Effects of Errors in the Data.
205. Let us now investigate the effect upon the latitude of

uncorrected errors in the quantities b, c, $, and 5 = t
m.
Suppose the same star observed both east and west on two
different nights, first with the instrument in the position
second, clamp south.
clamp north;
Let b and
b'
=. the
the inclination given by the level for clamp

north and south ;
(unknown) correction for inequality
of
pivots
collimation constant,
fc> r clamp north;
the unknown error in determining c.
;
Then
(b -}-/)
=
and
(b'
the true inclination of axis for
/)
clamp north and south respecc
-(-
tively
true value of collimation constant.
See equation
(305).
205-
Let
q>'
and
<p"
357
the latitude given by (350) from transits

of the same star clamp north and south
respectively.
Then
(349) gives
(p
tp'
-f b
"
+ - / - + q)
The mean
+ / + + q)
(c
*'
(c
is
Unless the errors of adjustment are very large the last

term of this equation will be inappreciable, so that practically constant errors of collimation and level are eliminated
by combining observations on the same star in different
positions of the axis.
Errors in $ may result either from errors in the clock rate

or they may be simplv the unavoidable errors of observation.
To ascertain their effect upon cp we differentiate (350) with
respect to
cp
and
dtp
From
5,
this equation
the less effect upon
braic sign
it is west.
when
by which means we derive

isin
it
cp
2cp tan
5 d$
(nearly).
(353)
appears that an error in 3 will produce

the smaller 5 is. Also, that the alge-
the star
is
east
is
the opposite of that
when
Therefore
The effect of a small error in 3 will be eliminated by observing the star both east and west of the meridian.
Differentiating (350) with respect to (p and d, we find
358
2O6.
As the declination cannot be greater than <p, we

when (p is less than 45 an error in d will produce
error in
whose 8
For
greater than 45, d.
is
see that
a larger
(ft
upon (p will be less the nearer the star is to the zenith.

The best result will therefore be obtained by observing
at
both the east and west transit a star which culminates near
the zenith and in both positions of the axis. The observations may be made on the same star on two different nights,
the clamp being north in one case and south in the other.
Or they may all be made on the same night if the star passes
First, observe the east
quite near the zenith, as follows
transit over the first half of the threads of the reticule
second, reverse the instrument and observe the transit over
:
the same threads, now in the reverse position

third, observe the west transit over the same threads; then,/0r/A,
reverse the instrument again and finish the observation of
;
the west transit over the threads,
now
in
the same position
This method is due to Struve. It will not generally be followed in the field owing to the danger of disturbing the instrument in reversing so frequently.
as at
first.
Reduction
to the
Middle or Mean Thread.
206. In formula (349), c is the error of collimation of the

middle or mean thread. In reducing the observations over
a side thread we may replace c by c -\- i (i being the equatorial interval of the thread), and reduce each thread sepaIt will, however, be simpler to first reduce all obserrately.
vations to the times over the middle or mean threads. This
process is less simple than in case of meridian observations,
since the mean of the times over the several threads will not
in this case be the time over the mean thread.
The reduction may be made in either of two ways first,
:
REDUCTION TO MIDDLE THREAD.
2C>6.
359
by reducing each thread separately to the middle (or mean)

thread second, by applying a correction to the mean of the
times over the different threads to reduce it to the time over
the mean thread.
First. The thread intervals should be determined by meridian transits as already explained.*
;
Let
the equatorial interval of any thread from the

middle thread
;
=
=
-f- i
the corresponding star interval

the hour-angle of the star when on the middle (or
mean) thread
;
the hour-angle when on the side thread

may be regarded as the collimation error of the side
;
thread.
Then, from the

sin (c
-{- i~)
sin c
Subtracting,
2 cos (%i
Since
we
sin n sin
-(-
cos n cos 8 cos
(t
sin n sin
-\-
cos n cos d cos
(t
m}.
sin \i
-|- c]
cos n cos 82 sin
\t
/) sin
be very small, the first term of this

without appreciable error. Then
2 Sin
From
m)
(342)
3".
m)\
readily find
c will
ten sin
(t
first of (346),
=
=
*7
=
co7^coTTslrr(/
we may write cos

i
may be written
sin
2 sin
i/
-m=
'
sin (cp
i.
- ^/ =
)
* Art.
174-
be writ-
(355)
i/)'
I(\
may
/.
/(cos 7)A.
b).
Also,
360
Therefore (355)
may
be written without appreciable error,
~b) cos 6
sin (tp
and with accuracy
2O/.
sin
most
sufficient for
cases,
~~
sin q>
cos
'
<$
(356)
/) (cos 7)5
(S-
sin (S
'
'
/)'
(357)
Log (cos /)* might be tabulated, but it will be required

so rarely that it will hardly repay the labor. The value of
/ required in the second member of the above formulas
be found directly from the observations themselves, by
taking the difference of the observed time over the side
thread and middle thread.
Care must be taken to give the proper algebraic signs to
i and / being plus for north threads and minus
/, /, and S,
may
for south ones
S, plus for west,
minus for east
transits.
This method of reduction is due to Bessel,

more convenient when many stars are to be reduced.
207. Second.
and
is
Resuming the
and
c
/ for
-f- /
first
of (346),
and writing
-f
instead of sin c
/,
sin
n sin d
-{-
cos n cos d cos
(t
m).
(358)
Such an equation is given by each thread observed. If j*

threads are observed, the mean of the resulting equations
will be
c
+ =
sin n sin
*'
where
mation
z"
is
the
mean
-f-
cos n cos
cos
m),
(/
of the equatorial intervals,
sign, / represents the
any thread.
62
is
(359)
the sum-
hour-angle corresponding
to-
METHOD OF REDUCTION.
VESSEL'S
Let
T=
361
the arithmetical mean of the times observed on

the individual threads (supposed corrected for
clock error and rate)
;
the time over any thread.
Then
(t
m)
(T
m}
and
-2 sin 7.
Now
Then
2 cos
(359) then
becomes
ta
Now
Then
-
sin
TZ
(/
sin
sin n
m)
-{-
k cos (T
cos
y cos
Y sin
let
(363)
(360)
let
c-\-
cos tf cos(T
=
^=
tf,
k cos 8
m\
^.(363)
/
)
'
sin d.
(362)
becomes
sin n sin #,-)- cos
cos ^cos
(T
m).($6$)
Thus, by computing the auxiliary quantities y, & lt and x,

the form of the equation for the mean of the threads is the
same as that for the middle thread.
Practically
will
seldom
differ
appreciably from unity.
362
207.
and K may very readily be computed by the aid of tables

These tables are computed as follows:
B, page 365.
Since 2f = o (T being the mean of the observed times,
and /the difference between T and the time on any thread),
tf,
A and
may
(361)
be written
k cos K
sin K
it
appears that k sin n
sin
(366)
From
these
-5Y/
sin /).
,
is
of the order
3
,
and
only differs from unity by a quantity of the order

There will then be no appreciable error in writing
that k cos
/*.
,-
(367)
'
-sin/).
And
since,
from
(364),
we have
tan
tf,
tan
(368)
tf,
the method of Art. 74 for expanding a function of this
form gives
'i
\sin 20
n
Vsin
ill
2
This becomes, by substituting for
its
value,
l^^lid,
fi
For computing
-j
,-/
>
+
tf,,
!15^_
table A,
page
sin 2<J
.....
(370)
365, gives the value of
the argument being the difference between each ot>
METHOD OF DEDUCTION.
VESSEL'S
207-
363
served time respectively and the mean of all, expressed in

minutes and seconds of time for convenience. The arithmetical mean of these quantities will be the numerator of the
The denominator differs very
coefficient of sin 2$ in (370).
When desirable, this small difference may
little from unity.
be corrected by table B, the argument of which is the numer-
sin/
The
fourth colum n of table
If
is
sin 7),
gives the quantity (/
of these quantities being equal to H.
mean
required, we
the arithmetical
readily find, from (364),

i
K) cos'tf
(i
'
cos
The denominator does not
Therefore
(&,
differ appreciably
cos'tf
tf)
^ sin
from unity, and
/.
(371)
Since this only appears as the divisor of the small quanbe required.
-\- /, it will very rarely
The quantity will vanish when the star is observed over
tity c
z'
of the threads, and the equatorial intervals reckoned from

the mean of the threads.
all
Having shown how our fundamental equation which
ap-
thread may be reduced to

plies to the time over the middle
a like form when the time is the mean of the times over the
different threads
equation for
Formulae
<p
(349)
tan
we may now
see equation (365)
solve this
as before.
cp'
and
(350) will then
tan
#,
sec
(T
have the form

oc
K) cos
-
CS7.)
208.
Formula for Latitude by Prime
208.
Vertical Transits.
Preliminary Computation.
sin
cos z
cos
-.
sm
(p
tan 6
tan
"
~~
sin
Clock time of passing

Bessel's
--
;j"
sm d
Method
(3-
(I
of Reduction.
sin /);
sin \"
tan
<p'
tan
tf,
sec
2
2"
sin
or
/
)
cos m\
209.
EXAMPLE OF PRIME VERTICAL

TABLE
TRANSITS.
365
A.
For reducing transits over several threads to a
common
instant.
TABLE
B.
For correcting the

coefficient of sin 25.
209. As an example of the determination of latitude by this method, the following observations have been selected from Pierce's Memoir on the Latitude
of Cambridge, Mass. (Memoirs of American Academy of Sciences, vol. ii. p. 183):
366
The
z'a
33". 98;
ia
I7 .O2;
/4
os .oo;
i7".io;
clock correction and rate:
Apparent places
a
a
equatorial intervals of the threads from the middle thread are
siMi;
The
2C 9
Lyrae,
Lyrae,
ft
Persei,
/3
Persei,
of the stars observed
December
December
December
December
23d,
2gth,
=
=
i8 h 3i m 40 8 .32;
18 31 40.36;
5
d
d
25th,
(5
26th,
=
=
=
=
38
38' 3g".76.
38
38 38
40
21
.08.
25 .83.
40 21 25
.86.
c is assumed equal to zero.

Assumed cp = 42 22' 48".
compute the latitude by formulae (XXa). The transits over the
several threads must first be reduced to the middle thread by the formula
The
We
collimation error
shall first
sin (cp
The complete reduction
is
b)
cos S sin (3
i/)'
given for the observations of
in order to illustrate the process.
Lyrae,
December
23d,
209.
EXAMPLE OF PRIME VERTICAL
TRANSITS.
367
In the above the quantity 3 is computed from the second of (XXa), using for
T' and T the lime over the middle thread, and neglecting the rate, which will
be less than the probable error of the observation. The "observed /" is
found by subtracting the observed time over each thread from the time over
The quantities headed " log denominator" are computed
the middle thread.
PR A CT1CAL ASTROXOM V.
368
20 9
by writing the quantity log (sin cp cos S) on the lower edge of a slip of paper
and adding it in succession to each of the quantities in the previous, column, b
The quantities log i l log i^ etc., are

b}.
neglected in the quantity sin (q>
"
then written in order on the lower edge of another s.ip of paper and the
log
It
would be sufficient to compute the
denominator" subtracted, giving log/.
is
same for both; but in a case like

compute both as a check on the work. In the above, fouraccurate.
figure logarithms would have been sufficiently
In the same manner the other observations are reduced, the quantities T and
intervals
the above
for
it is
one
transit only, as they are the
well to
T' being those given
in the following
computation:
EXAMPLE OF PRIME VERTICAL TRANSITS.
210.
In a
manner
precisely similar, from the observations of
369
ft
Persei on
ft
Persei
Decem-
ber 25th and 26th we find
Mean
Dec. 25,
tp'
42
22' 48".
Dec. 26,
ifj'
42
Mean
42
22 48 .56
22 48 .53
The mean
of these
The value given

22' 48". 60.
in the
This
42 22 49 .06
two determinations from a Lyr& and
V=
42
+ -53
of the four level-readings

cp
50
is
42
is
therefore
22' 48". 73-
memoir from which these observations
are taken
is
the result of a long series of observations.
Application of Bessel's Method.

2IO.
(XXb)
As an example
of Bessel's
method
to the foregoing observations of
of reduction, let us apply formulae
Lyra.
370
210.
=3%
II
II
II
.2
%
II
J-3
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
N^,,S
8
v
I
*s
"
ro
*K
m8
II
ll
II
+++I
ii
^ î
tQ fo
&%
~^b
++
-H-H-i
00
S3
vo
-C
I++++
S'S^:
I
JSH
il
ii
ii
II
II
.2%,
EXAMPLE OF PRIME VERTICAL TRANSITS.
210.
In this computation the quantities
and
^,,
371
are taken from table A.
From
the values of the equatorial intervals already

given, we find for the observations over all of the threads
".621.
The west transit of
z'
December 2gth being observed only on threads

<:is assumed equal to zero.
/'o=
3 1 8". 787.
The
correction
(c
December 23d and

the west transit of
*')
for the east transit of
December 2gth
December 2gth, viz.,

For
".67.
the computation of this term is as follows:
=
=
2.5035006*
sin qJ
cosec Si
log correction
correction
=
=
2.5374996*
log (c-\- /)
Then we have, December

E. tp
b
tp
cp,
22' 33". 12
42
cp'
Mean
'
Z o)
of the
W.
cp'
22' 32". 86
42
=. 42
42
42
23'
s".64
.02
=
IiH;
= 42
67
22' 33".82
cp
2". 95
42
22' 47". 90
22' 34". 40
Dec. 2gth, clamp north,
The mean
344". 746
-*
b
('
.2044758
+ -41
Dec. 23d, clamp south,
Dec. agth, E.
9.8295232
23d,
=
=
*+!==
Mean
HI, and V, we have
II,
appreciably the same for the two transits of
is
^-g-
I,
42
23'
4".28
be observed that the corrections given in table B are here inappreciy, computed from formula (371) for the west observation of December
2gth, is found to be 0.99998433; dividing the quantity (c -\- i a ) by this factor
(365), we find for the correction 344". 752, instead of 344". 746 found by neglectIt will
able,
ing this factor.
The
difference
is
inappreciable in this case.
PRA CT1CAL A STRONOM Y.
372
211.
Method of Least Squares
Application of the
to
Prime Vertical
Transits.
we have supposed the

and west transits, and in both
The method is very simple theoreti-
211. In the preceding discussion

stars observed at both the east
positions of the axis.

In the lield, time
cally, and the results very satisfactory.
will sometimes be wanting for applying it in the manner
there explained. Besides this, many observations would ordinarily be lost by the interference of clouds at the time of
one transit or the other. For meeting these difficulties the
following modification will be useful

number of stars must be observed, some east and some
west, the axis being reversed about the middle of the series.
Care must be taken to observe about an equal number in
:
both positions of the axis, and about the same number of

east and west stars.
The declinations of stars observed east
should be as nearly as may be the same as those observed
west.
We shall suppose the observations reduced to the middle

or mean thread by the method of Bessel (Art. 207); then in
equation (365)
let
expanding cos
(r
c'
us write T
sin n sin
tf,
Now
cos
(cp
=T
m}, the equation
b) sin
Then
c'.
becomes
cos n cos
-\-
cos wsin
and
-\-
substituting for sin

their values from (342), this
c'
m cos
m cos
cos n cos
;//,
tf,
cos
rf,
sin
T
t
r,.
(373)
and cos n
sin m,
becomes
tf,
-f-
-f-
sin (q)
tfcos
tfj
b]
sin
cos
T-J.
tf,
.
cos
.
r,
.
(374}
REDUCTION BY LEAST SQUARES.
211.
Let the auxiliaries
373
and z be determined by the equa-
(p l
tions
cos z sin
cos cos
,3"
cp l
(p 1
=
=
sin
sin ^
Then
(374)
Since sin
we may
= sin (9?
sin
tf,
r,;
(-\- a tan s
star
= o.
observed furnishes one equation of
unknown
for determining- the
(376)
the
b, viz.,
(p l
sec^+/= o.
c'
an assumed approxi-
Then writing f= <p

gebraic sum of the known terms, we have
Each
here of the same order as a and
b-{-a tan z
(p l
= cp
let <p
mate value
V.
T,. )
write this equation

(p
Now
cos
^cos
becomes
*:'
c' y
<?,;
cos
(377)
this
quantities A<p, a, and
al-
form
c.
number
of stars should be observed, and the resulting equations solved by the method of least squares.
The formulae for this method are then as follows
considerable
TI
= T
cos z sin
cos z cos
sin z
Ay
-f-
/=
=
9?,
=
=
=
a tan z
<Po
<P
<PJ
9*
sin
l ;
cos
cos
tf,
cos
o, sin
sec
c'
*-[-/= o
+ A 9-
H and S are determined as explained

l
r,
in Art. 207.
(XXI)
211.
Example.
The following observations were made at Munich by Bessel, 1827, June 28th,
with a small transit instrument mounted on a tripod and approximately adjusted
in the
prime vertical:*
hr a nrirent places of the stars for the date of observation, 1827, June 28th,
m Munich sidereal
time, I find to be as follows:
34
The
mean
values of the equatorial intervals of the threads from the
are as follows
i= +598". 08
thread
za
6i2".46.
The
correction for inequality of pivots is

0.294! divisions of level for
The value of one division of the level is 4". 49.
circle north.
* See Astronomische Nachrichten, vol.

t Bessel uses as the correction
formula
/=
("os7IL*
ix. p. 413.
.42 divisions,
1
'-
'
()S
)'
which
instead of
^ 97
is
^'
evidently computed
See Ast Nach -i

-
by the erroneous
vi - P- 2 3 6 -
EXAMPLE OF REDUCTION BY LEAST SQUARES.
211.
A mean
-\- 9".
19
375
time chronometer was used, the hourly rate on sidereal time being
the correction at 12 hours chronometer time being 5'' 4 44*. 61.
Bessel gives the approximate values of the latitude and the azimuth of the
instrument as follows
:
cpo
00
=
=
48
8'
40"
0*7' 48".
If these quantities are not known with accuracy sufficient for

forming the
equations of condition, a preliminary reduction of a few of the observations will
give them.
The values
of T, u,
and
5j are
this series of observations
computed precisely as shown in Art. 210. With

no case exceeds .oi it has accordingly been
in
neglected.
The computation
of T l for each star
may now
be conveniently arranged as
follows:
As we have an approximate
value of the azimuth error,
we may
write (equa-
tion 376)
Aq>
cp a -(-
i a is
zero for
tion of
it
all
b -\- (a a -\-
q>\
the above stars
Lyra the
A a)
except *
tan z
(/o -j- c)
Lyrce and
second thread was
transit over the
sec z
Cygni.
lost.
o.
In the observa-
Therefore for this
4 zs
star to is the mean of the equatorial intervals ii, i 3
viz.,
75".775-f- I53"- II2 5Similarly for y Cygni, the fifth thread being missed, i
,
z'
Writing the
sum
of the
<P<>
our equation of
known
\_<Pi
terms,
+&
viz.,
tan z
'
sec z
~\
condition becomes
A(f>
-f-
da
tan z
c sec z
f.
+/
3/6
The computation
of
of
g>i,
tan
z,
sec
z,
and /is now arranged as follows
211.
Since the azimuth of the instrument was disturbed between the observation
i Herculis and it Lyrse, it will be necessary to introduce into the equations a
EXAMPLE OF REDUCTION BY LEAST SQUARES.
211.
different value of the
377
azimuth correction for these stars observed after the
dis-
turbance took place.
The equations
will therefore
be *
Bootis,
Lyrae,
XIII
*
316,
Herculis,
7i
Lyrae,
v Herculis,
y
<p
Cygni,
Herculis,
d Cygni,
From
Acp 4Acp
Acp 4Acp
Acp
Acp
Acp
Acp
Acp
.0207<r
.6479^/0
.35i7//
.2594^/0
.4003^0' 4-
.OTJIC
+ .2335^' +
.0269*:
.1636^
-f
.0468^
.3452^'
these nine equations of
formed
= I". 78
.1915^ = 4~ i".g8
.o6oo<r = 4- 4"-48
.0331^ = 4- 8". 80
.2045/^0
1.0579*-
=
=
=
=
.50.
.08.
2.35.
3.44.
4- 9". 08
1.78.
i" .21
4~ 3-28.
4- 5". 04
4-4-os-
5" 75
4- 2". 86
4~ 2 CI
-
1.33.
condition the following normal equations are
.351
Ja
.7974^
526^0
.7974^
1.0438^9)
1.0438^
.668ir
-)-
-f .7836^'
+ .668i^/a
.8424//a' -f
Solving these equations by the usual methods,
Aa = Aa = C = 4'
Therefore the latitude as given by

cp
=
=
.8424^ =
10.4360^: =
we
5" .41
8". 07
23.5000;
23539;
9.6825;
30.6933.
find the following values
2". 50.
this series of transits is
48
08' 41". 38.
Bessel gives as the true value of <p found from other sources 48 8' 39". 50,
from which the above value would be only i".88 in error, an agreement which
is very
satisfactory when it is remembered that the instrument used was a very
small one, mounted quite imperfectly, and used in the open air. The residuals
given in connection with the equations of condition result from the above
The weights and probable

manner if thought desirable.
values.
usual
errors
may
be computed from these
in the
* These
equations are not the same as those given by Bessel for these observations, the
differences being due to the erroneous value of the correction for inequality of pivots, before
referred to, and to slightly different values of a and 8 for some of the stars.
CHAPTER
VII.
DETERMINATION OF LONGITUDE.
The
in longitude of two points on the

equal to the angle at the pole formed by
the meridian curves passing through the two points. As
the earth revolves uniformly on its axis, it will be equal to
the difference between the times of transit of the same star
over the two meridians, and may be expressed either in degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc, or in hours, minutes, and
seconds of time; for astronomical purposes the latter designation is generally preferred.
Any meridian may be assumed as the prime meridian from
which to reckon longitudes. At the meridian conference
212.
difference
earth's surface
is
which assembled in Washington, October 1884, Greenwich

was chosen as the universal prime meridian. Heretofore
most of the leading nations of the world have reckoned longitude from the meridian of their own capital. In conformity
with this custom, longitudes within the limits of the United
States have been reckoned from the meridian passing through
the centre of the dome of the U. S. Naval Observatory at
Washington. For local purposes the meridian of Washington will no doubt continue to be employed, but for general
purposes longitudes in this country will hereafter

be reckoned from Greenwich.
As an astronomical problem, the determination of the difference of longitude between two places consists in an accurate determination of the local time at each place and the
scientific
LONGITUDE BY CHRONOMETERS.
213.
379
comparison of the times so determined the difference between the times being the difference of longitude.
The local time will generally be determined with the transit; and when great accuracy is required in the resulting longitude, all of the refinements and precautions to which attention has been called in treating of this subject must be
observed. For rough determinations, especially at sea, the
time is determined with the sextant or any suitable instrument. Nothing need be added on this point to what has
been already said. We shall therefore in this chapter confine our attention to the practical methods of comparing
;
the local time.
There are various methods which may be employed for

comparing the local time at two meridians, some of these
admitting of a much higher degree of accuracy than others.
The most important are the following:
First.
Second.
Third.
By
By
transportation of chronometers
the electric telegraph
Methods depending on the motion of the moon,

such as by occultations of stars, eclipses' of the
sun, lunar culminations, and lunar distances.
Also, some use has been made of terrestrial signals, eclipses

of Jupiter's satellites, and eclipses of the moon.
The most accurate of all these methods, when it can be
employed,
is
the telegraphic.
Longitude Determined by Transportation of Chronometers.
We shall
designate the two stations whose difference

E and W, E being east
chronometer be determined at E by any of the methods given for determination
and its
of time then let the chronometer be carried to
213.
of longitude is to be determined by
of W.
Let the error and rate of the
380
213.
error on local time determined at this place. The difference

between the time at
given by observation and the time
at E which will be given by the chronometer is the difference of longitude. The chronometer may be regulated to
mean or
either
To
sidereal time.
express the difference of
longitude algebraically,
Let
Ar
chronometer correction
time
St
A Tw
=
=
at
chronometer
at
rate per day as shown by chronometer ;*

chronometer correction on local time at
chronometer time Tw
at
A.
difference of longitude.
Then
(Tw
+ AT^) =
true time at
ter time
Tw
-f-
A TO
-f-
Therefore
dt
Tw
71,)
= J Tw -
(J
Tw
at
chronome-
the corresponding time at E.

-f dt (7^w
T,)]
(378)
Example. At Bethlehem, Pa., 1881, August 7.75, the correction to a mean time chronometer was found to be -|- 6 m
At Wilkesbarre,
h
S
d
Pa., August io 9 9" I7 .92, chros
the
correction
on
local
time
was
time,
-f 4 54 u.
s
daily rate of the chronometer was -)- i .64; i.e., the chro-
SO'.QO.
nometer
The
nometer was
losing.
AT
Therefore
(7-.-
That
is,
7;)=
2. 63 days
Wilkesbarre
is
2m
iM
*3t(Tw
-j-
6 ra
-T }=
4.31
Sum =
ATW =
A =
55 .21
54.11
i.i
west of Bethlehem.
* Unless the rate is

uncommonly large it will make no difference whether we
take chronometer days or true days in applying the correction for rate.
214.
The
rate
381
determined at the first station by

214.
comparing the results of observations separated by an interval of
several days, but it is found that the rate of the chronometer
is
during transportation (called the travelling rate)
is
seldom
the same as its rate when at rest. The

travelling rate may
be determined, or its effect
may be eliminated by transporting the chronometer in both directions.
Let
T Tw Tw T =
'
e,
',
the time of
leaving
W,
4t
d w AJ, A e
'
m=
leaving
E and
W and
arriving at
arriving at E,
respectively;
the corresponding chronometer corrections found by observation
;
the daily travelling rate.
Then
(Tw
(4 e
T }-\-(T
e
'
'4 ")(4 w
Tw =
']
time during which the chronometer
was
'
A^)
in transit
the
corresponding change
chronometer correction;
the
in
'
Previous to the application of the telegraph to the determination of longitude, the construction of chronometers had
been brought to such a degree of perfection that the chronometric method was the most accurate one available.
Where great accuracy was required, large numbers of chronometers were transported many times in both directions.
A most elaborate expedition of this kind was carried out in
1843, by Struve, for determining the difference of longitude
between Pulkova and Altona.
Sixty-eight chronometers
were carried nine times from Pulkova to Altona and eight
times from Altona to Pulkova.
A similar expedition,* or
*See Report U.
S.
Coast Survey, 1853,
p. 88;
1854. p. 139; 1856, p. 182.
382
214.
was conducted by the U. S. Coast Survey during the years 1849, '50, '51, and '55, in which fifty
chronometers were transported many times between Boston
and Liverpool. The results of the expeditions in the years '49,
of introducing a correc'50, and '5 1 showed the necessity
series of expeditions,
The expedition of '55 was

tion for change of temperature.
therefore planned and carried out under the direction of Mr.
W. C. Bond, with special reference to this correction. In
year fifty-two chronometers were transported three
times in each direction, giving as the difference of longitude
between the Cambridge observatory and the observatory at
this
Liverpool
h
Voyages from Liverpool to Cambridge, 4
Voyages from Cambridge to Liverpool, 4
32
32
3i -92
31 .75.
Such expeditions are enormously expensive, and the recomparable for accuracy with those obtained
by the telegraph. As almost every point of much importance
on the habitable part of the earth is now or will soon be supplied with telegraphic facilities, chronornetric expeditions on
the scale of those mentioned may be reckoned as things
Nevertheless the chronometric method is very
of the past.
useful where extreme precision is not required, or where the
sults are not
telegraph cannot be used, as at sea.

The method of conducting a chronometric expedition
briefly as follows:
The chronometers
is
at the first station,
which we may suppose to be E, are first carefully compared

with the standard clock; then they are placed in the vessel,
near the middle where the motion will be the least, possible,
and in a position where they will be accessible for winding
and comparing during the voyage. They should be compared daily as a check on the regularity of their rates.
record of the temperature must be kept.
21$.
383
the chronometers are immediately comOn arriving at

pared with the standard clock as before at E.
215. The errors to which the chronometers are liable are
of two kinds first, accidental irregularities which follow no
law and are therefore equally liable to affect the result with
the plus or minus sign the larger the number of chronome
ters the more effectually these will be eliminated; and secondly,
errors resulting from acceleration or retardation of rate.
When the chronometer has been transported a number of
times in both directions the effect of a constant acceleration
or retardation may be eliminated by reckoning the longitude
alternately from each station E and W.
:
Experiments show the acceleration or retardation of rate

due to two causes, viz., changes of temperature and
the gradual thickening of the lubricating oil. This latter
diminishes the amplitude of the vibration and therefore
to be
causes an acceleration of rate.
Its effect is sensibly
propor-
tional to the time.
Although great care is given by the makers to compensating the balance for temperature, it is seldom possible to accomplish this perfectly. It has been found that the effect of
changes of temperature may be represented by a term of the
3 ) 2 in which
form k(%
is the temperature of most perfect compensation and % that of actual exposure, and k is a
,
constant which with rare exceptions is positive; that is, exposure to a temperature above or below that of most perfect
compensation causes the chronometer to run slower.
The rate of any chronometer may therefore be expressed
by the formula
u
*($,,
S)'
k't;
....
(380)
k' being a constant depending on the thickening of the oil,

or any other causes which may be assumed to vary directly
with the time.
384
2l6.
The constants k, k', and 3^ peculiar to each chronometer

can only be determined experimentally.
216. The term depending on the temperature, (3 o
~y,
having always the same sign, will never vanish; therefore in
order to find the total effect of such changes during any interval a strict theory requires the total
all changes of temperature.
sum
of
all
these
terms for
We
may proceed
Let r
as follows:
the interval during which the effect of rate
quired
Let u of formula (380) be taken at the middle of

terval
is re-
this in-
Let r be supposed divided into n equal parts, so small

that the
temperature during the interval
sidered constant
Let
3,, 3,,
may
be con-
3n be the values
of
for each interval in
succession.
Then
the accumulated rate for each interval will be as
follows:
(38i)
2l6.
The sum
of all these quantities
is
and as the sum of the coefficients of
.r
+ &z "(s
For rigorous accuracy the
- would then be
the total effect of rate;

the value is
k' is zero,
_$.)!..
385
(382)
intervals should be infinitesimal
and the above expression would be
dr,
3 ) cannot be expressed as a function of T,

As, however, (S
the integration is not possible.
~ f we write the mean of the obFor determining 2*(
served temperatures (supposed to be the quantities repre9 2 etc.) equal to 8.
sented above by
,
Then
=
Since 8 and
3 )'+ 5" 2(8
2j(0
are both constant,
X
2l 2(6
since 8
is
-3
the
(S
mean
8)
$.)'
2(6
-S
)(3-
8) -f
2"($-8)\
we have
n(6
S.)';
5 )ô(-^
....
0)
o,
(383)
(384)
of the individual values of S.
Therefore (382) becomes
The value
since
is
of the quantity
is
computed
directly,
any observed temperature, and 8 the mean of
all
386
8.
the values observed. This will approach more nearly the

theoretically exact value the more frequently the temperatures are observed.
Writing
'
(386)
we have
for the
accumulated rate during the interval
K
The quantity
interval
-f k(H
in the brackets
S.)
is
+ k^r. ...,
the
mean
(387)
rate during the
r.
217. In the Coast Survey expedition of 1855 the mean

temperature was indicated by a chronometer constructed
expressly for this purpose. It was in all respects like one of
the ordinary chronometers, except that the arms and rim of
the balance were of brass and uncompensated. Its indications of the mean temperature of exposure were found to be
much more reliable than could be obtained by the use of
ordinary thermometers; its sensitiveness was such that a
S
change of i in the temperature produced a change of 6 .5
the daily rate. Experiments made for determining the

time required for a chronometer to adapt itself to the temin
perature of the surrounding air when exposed to a sudden

change showed that this was not fully accomplished until
five or six hours had elapsed, so that in case of sudden
changes the temperature shown by the thermometer might

differ widely from the actual temperature of the chronometer balance.
218. In applying (387) to any subsequent interval, T', #
must be replaced by u
k't, in which t is the time from the
middle of the interval r to the middle of r'.
Now suppose the chronometer used for determining the
8.
387
E and W. Suppose
E before starting, at
and ^ after reaching W, at
difference of longitude of two stations

the corrections J, and A^ determined at
Tv
the times T, and
times
and
t,
all
and
z? 3
being reckoned from the same meridian,
suppose E.
Let
7;
T;
r,;
r 3
7;
r, ;
r<-T =
3
rs
and*T 3 are shore intervals, and r s a sea interval.
TJ
Let
A.
=
=
the rate at the middle of the sea interval;

the difference of longitude.
Then from what precedes we have
-4=
A
A. -I
(388)
# and
are the mean temperatures for the intervals,
and e, having the values given by (386). Then from
the three equations (388)
k', and A may be determined.
0,,
2,
fa ,
Let us write
We
*'
then
find,
/ =
from the
-;
'
~
l
first
*.
and third
of (388),
+ i^,-o.
(390)
PRACTICAL A STROXOA1Y.
388
2I 9-
These values substituted in the second of (388) give the

value of the longitude A.
The chronometric method finds its most important application at sea, where a high degree of precision is not important.
When the time from port is not very great, this will
answer all practical requirements. When the voyage is very
long, the result may be rendered much more accurate by
applying the corrections for acceleration of rate, the conand 3o having been carefully determined pre-
stants k, k ',
viously.
Determination of Longitude by the Electric Telegraph.

219. The local time at one meridian may be compared with
that at another most conveniently and accurately by tele-
graphic signals.
The most simple method of making this comparison is as
follows The operator at one station taps the signal key in
coincidence with the beat of the chronometer; the instant
when the signal is received at the other station is noted by
:
the chronometer at that place.

number of arbitrary signals are sent in this way, when the process is reversed, the
operator at the second station sending the signals to the

first.
The errors of the chronometers will generally be
determined by observing transits both before and after ex-
changing the
Let
signals.
and A Te
Tw
and
the chronometer time and correction

at station E at the instant of sending
a signal
at station
at the instant of receiv;
ATW =
ing this signal
LONGITUDE BY THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.
219-
TV and A Tw =
'
389

at station
at the instant of sending

a return signal
;
TV and
4T =
'
at station
at the instant of receiv-
ing this signal

the difference of longitude
the transmission time of the electric
effect, or the small interval of time
which elapses between the instant of
;
A
/*
=
=
pressing the key at one station and

the click of the magnet at the other.
Then
l-/i
=:
/*
(7;
+ AT e ]
+ ATW =
(Tw
Xe
(2V
A
Therefore
+A
-
e );
'
^)-
Thus by eliminating the time required for transmission of

we have the longitude, or bv eliminating the longitude we have the transmission time.
signals
For many purposes the above process will give a sufficient

degree of accuracy. For first-class longitudes, however,
there are a number of small errors involved which will de-
mand
I.
attention.
They
are as follows
The
relative personal equation of the observers in determining the chronometer corrections at the two stations.
The
personal equations involved in sending and receiving the signals.

III. The time required at the sending station to complete
the circuit after the finger touches the key.
IV. The time required at the receiving station for the armature to move through the space in which it plays and
II.
give the click
called the armature time.
390
222.
assumed to be the same at both

above errors would be reduced simply to personal errors. We shall describe some of the methods of
If the
two
latter could be
stations, the
dealing with these quantities in first-class longitudes. They

may be modified when a less degree of accuracy is demanded.
This may be determined by any
220. I. Personal 'equation.
of the methods given in Art. 188, and the necessary correction
If the relative personal equation is used, it should
be determined both before and after the longitude work in
order to guard against the effect of its gradual change. The
plan followed by the Coast Survey is to exchange signals on
five nights, then let the observers exchange stations, when
applied.
exchanged on five more nights. The personal

thus eliminated, provided it has remained constant
during the time employed. As this changes with the physical condition of the observer, its variation is probably the
signals are
equation
is
chief cause of discrepancy in first-class longitudes.

221. Errors II and III are avoided by using the chrono-
For field-work break-circuit chronometers will

graph.
generally be used, as they are much more convenient to
carry than clocks. Such a chronometer being placed in the
circuit may be made to record its beats on the chronographs
at both stations.
Each chronograph will then contain a
record of the beats of both chronometers, the mean of which
will be free from the transmission time, but will be affected
by any constant difference in the armature time, viz., IV
above.
222.
Another method
The
of sending the signals is the follow-
so arranged that a tap made on the signal

key at either station is recorded on the chronographs at both
stations.
The observer at E then gives a number of taps at
intervals of two or three seconds, which are recorded at both
ing:
circuit
is
places in connection with the beats of the respective chronometers, when the operation is repeated by the observer at
223-
391
W. For identifying the hour and minute of difference of

longitude, the observer at each station informs the one at the
other by a telegraphic message what was the hour, minute,
and second by his chronometer when the first signal was
The hour and minute of one signal being identified,
sent.
only the seconds and fractional parts of the same need be
read for the remaining signals.
223. IV. The armature time will be practically the same
at both stations, and consequently the effect will be eliminated if the resistance of the line is kept at the same value at
both points.
For
this
purpose a rheostat and galvanometer
are provided at both stations, by means of which the resistance may be maintained at any required value.
The chronometer is placed in a local circuit acting on a
relay, the intensity of the current in the main line being too
great for the delicate mechanism of these instruments.
The details will be understood by reference to the following diagrams, taken from a paper by Mr. C. A. Schott.*
The chroI shows a simple circuit for observing transits.

nometer breaks the circuit B, causing the pen on the armature of the chronograph magnet to record. The observer
breaks the circuit with the observing key, also making a
record on the chronograph.

II and III show the arrangement of the circuit for chronometer signals: II being at the sending station, III at the
When the chronometer at the sending
receiving station.
station breaks the circuit B, the armature of the chronograph
magnet breaks the main circuit at X (II), and the armature
of the signal relay at the receiving station breaks the circuit

B (III), causing a record to be made on the chronograph.
the
same
For sending arbitrary signals the arrangement is

At the sending
at both stations, viz., that shown in III.
*
Appendix No.
14,
U.
S.
Coast Survey Report 1880.
22 3-
392
Chronograph Magnet
with pen on armature
^(Observing Key at Transit
Magnet
on armature
^3Jf ChfoyHqaraph
_Zxl with'pen
II.
'at
Transit
Main
Talking
>
III.
Key
W-(Chronograph Magnet
with pen on armature
Observing
Talking and , n
Signal RelaS piilli
*HL_
J C Uu
Talking and Signal
FIG. 43
Key
Key at
Transit
224-
393
station the main circuit is broken by the signal key, when the
armature of the signal relay breaks the circuit B at both
stations, causing a record to be made on the chronograph.
In these cases the chronometer is placed
directly in the
circuit passing to the chronograph, and no provision is made
for equalizing the resistance at the two stations.

small
difference in the armature time is therefore
likely to exist.
Chronometer
IV.
Battery
/'''--.
V__rr "\
1
l.Cell
"~~7Eiip!iiill
Chronograph Magnet
(mjjjL^^Mth pen on armature
:'
Observing Key at Transit
and VIII show a more complete arrange

The chronometer is placed in a local circuit A with a weak battery, in order to avoid the injurious
When obeffect of a stronger current on the mechanism.
224. IV, VII,
ment of
circuits.
serving transits the arrangement is as shown in IV. The

chronometer breaks the circuit A, the chronometer relay
breaks the circuit B, making a record on the chronograph.
circuit B with the observing key,
producing record on chronograph.
VII shows the arrangement for exchanging chronometer
The chronometer
signals, being alike at both stations.
breaks circuit A, when the armature of the chronometer relay breaks the main circuit, the armature of relay D breaking circuit B at both stations.
VIII is arranged for arbitrary signals, both stations being
the same. The chronometer breaks circuit A, the armature
of chronometer relay breaks circuit B, making record on the
chronograph. At the sending station the main circuit is
The observer breaks
also
broken bv the signal key, when relay

both stations.
breaks circuit
at
394
Arrangement during
FIG. 45.
1881
22 4
22$.
By means
39$
and galvanometer the electric

resistance is kept practical!}' the same at both stations, and
therefore a constant difference of armature time avoided.
In order to eliminate any small outstanding difference in the
of the rheostat
two sets of electric apparatus, each set may be

used at both stations alternately, the instruments being exchanged with the observers at the middle of the series.
This method of exchanging
225. MetJiod of Star Signals.
longitude signals was formerly employed by the Coast Suraction of the
A very full description of the method is given by

Chauvenet (Spherical and Practical Astronomy). It is briefly
vey.
as follows
The
difference of longitude between two points, being

simply the time required for a star to pass from the meridian
of the east to that of the west station, may be measured by a
single clock placed in the electric circuit so as to produce a
record on the chronographs at both points. This clock may

be at either point, or in fact anywhere in the circuit.
When a star enters the field of the transit instrument at
E, the observer records the transit by tapping his signal key
in the usual manner, producing a record on both chronographs. When this star reaches the meridian of W, the observer in like manner taps its passage over the threads of
his transit instrument, also producing a record at both
points.
This method is theoretically very perfect; but as it requires

a monopoly of the telegraph lines for several hours every
night when signals are exchanged, it has proved somewhat
impracticable.
Example.
of illustrating this subject I give below
the record of a series of longitude signals between Washing-
For the purpose
ton, D. C., and Wilkes Barre, Penn., 1881,
October
6th.
39 6
225.
At Washington the instruments employed were

sit circle,
sidereal clock,
the tran-
and chronograph of the U. S. Naval
Observatory.
At Wilkes Barre the instruments were a portable

and mean time chronometer.
transit
At the latter place the following programme was followed:

Transits of 16 stars were observed, the instrument being
twice reversed; the chronometer was then taken to the
telegraph office, 200 feet distant, and the longitude signals
exchanged, after which 13 stars were observed with the transit instrument, the axis being reversed once.
The 29 equations furnished by the observed transits gave the values of
the chronometer correction and rate, also the azimuth and
collimation constants of the transit instrument.
The
nals
following
is
the
method adopted
in
exchanging
sig-
At Washington
the telegraph key was tapped at intervals

making a record on the Washington
of about 15 seconds,
chronograph, and through the telegraph line a click of the

sounder at Wilkes Barre. The observer at the latter place,
having his eye on the chronometer, noted the instant of this
After 10 or 15 such signals had
click and recorded the same.
been sent from Washington to Wilkes Barre, a similar series
was sent in the opposite direction, the operator at Wilkes
Barre tapping the key, producing a click of the sounder at
that place and a record on the Washington chronograph.
This constitutes a complete series. Two such were exchanged each night when observations were made.
It is obvious that with a chronograph at Wilkes Barre nothing need be changed in the above programme. The record
would then be made on the chronograph instead of by the
observer, and if thought desirable the intervals between the
much shortened.
The chronometer at Wilkes Barre being
signals could be
regulated to
mean
225.
397
solar time, its correction and rate on sidereal time are some-
what
large.
are as follows
The
values obtained from the observed transits
At 9 h 39 m chronometer
AT
time,
-j-
!3
Hourly rate,
Rate per minute,
Similarly for the
At
22 h
30'"
Washington
The record
3S .9q3
9 .952
.024
.1659
-|-
clock,
AT =
sidereal time,
Hourly
9
-(-
rate,
2i .89i
-)-
.019
.0360
of the signals with the individual values of the
longitude immediately follows

Washington
to
Wilkes Barre
to
Wilkes Barre.
Washington.
40.219
398
Then
\
JJL
we have
referring to formulas (391),
=
=
\(\ w -f A e )
Ae
%(\ w
=
=
4"'
Wilkes B. east
40^.236
226.
Wn.
of
.017.
In the above the reduction of each signal has been carried

in order to show the precision of the individ-
out separately,
Practically the labor of reduction
ual values.
may
be econ-
omized by reducing the means of the recorded times.

Thus from the above we have
Wn.-Wilkes
Wilkes Barre chronometer,
AT,
Washington
13
22 h
Wilkes B. sidereal time,
22 h
sidereal time,
Wn.
Difference of longitude
A
This value of A
is
=
=
45"'
46"' i4 -53
40.10
55'"
54 .63
51
36.29
13
-33
22
41.95
22
50'"
AT,
Wn.
B.-Wn.
s
9''
39.13
22 45
clock,
Wilkes
B.
40'" 2i .2o
9''
21 .88
2O S .O7
Wilkes B.
22h
Wilkes B.
"'
21 .88
s
i4 -4i
Wn.
4'"
40^.26
4 40
.24
4 4o .22
Wilkes B. east of
Wn.
by the relative personal equaWashington and Wilkes Barre, by
affected
tion of the observers at
the personal equation of the observer at Wilkes Barre in recording the signals, and by the difference in armature time
at the
two
stations.
(See Articles 220-223.)
Longitude Determined by
226.
The preceding methods,
in
tJie
Moon.
circumstances where they
are available, leave little to be desired in facility of application

or in accuracy of results. Before the invention of the electric
LONGITUDE DETERMINED BY THE MOON.
22/.
399
telegraph the most valuable methods for determining longitude were those depending on the moon's motion, chronomctric expeditions being generally impracticable. Though
the necessity for resorting to these methods is constantly
diminishing as the telegraph lines become more widely
extended,
it
will
probably never entirely disappear.
There are various methods of utilizing the moon's motion

for this purpose, the most important of which are the following:
By eclipses of the sun and occultations of stars.

By moon culminations.
By lunar distances.
By measurements of the moon's altitude or azimuth.
Some use has also been made of lunar eclipses.
All of these methods depend upon the same general prinThe moon has a comparatively rapid motion of
ciple, viz.:
its own, in
consequence of which it makes a revolution

about the earth in 27^ days. The elements of its orbit,
together with the effects of the various perturbing forces,
being known, it is possible to determine the position of the
moon at any given instant of time; thus in the American
Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac will be found the right
ascension and declination of the moon computed several
years in advance for every hour of Greenwich time. Sup-
now at
moon
a point whose longitude is required the position

to be determined in any convenient manner by
observation; the local time being carefully noted, the ephe-
pose
of the
meris above mentioned gives, either directly or through the

medium of a more or less extended computation, the Greenwich time corresponding to this position. A comparison of
this Greenwich time with the observed local time gives the
difference of longitude required.
227. Some of the applications of this principle are capable
of giving very good results but there is one difficulty inher;
400
228.
ent in the principle itself which precludes the attainment of

an accuracy commensurate with that obtained with the tele
graph. The angular velocity of the earth on its axis, which
is the measure of time, is twenty-seven times greater than the
angular velocity of the moon in its orbit it follows, therefore, that errors of observation in determining the moon's
position, or of the ephemeris, will produce errors in the
So if the
resulting longitude twenty-seven times as great.
;
errors to be anticipated in determining the place of the

moon are of the same order as those of determining and
comparing the errors of the clocks by the electric telegraph,

we might expect to attain to an ultimate degree of precision
by the latter method twenty-seven times greater than by the
former.
Longitude by Lunar Distances.

228. This method is chiefly useful on long sea-voyages,
where, in consequence of accumulating errors, the indications
of the chronometers become unreliable.
The observation consists in measuring with a sextant, or
other suitable instrument, the distance of the moon's limb
from that of the sun, or from a neighboring star, the time
being noted by the chronometer. After this measured distance has received the necessary corrections (to be considered hereafter), the Greenwich time corresponding is taken
from the tables of lunar distances of the ephemeris by the
methods of Art.
55.
The difference between
recorded chronometer time
is
this
time and the
the error of the chronometer
on Greenwich time. An altitude of the sun or a star gives

the error on local time
the difference between the two
errors is the difference of longitude.
The ephemeris gives the distance, as seen from the centre
of the earth, of the moon's centre from the centre of the sun,
;
229.
LONGITUDE BY LUNAR DISTANCES.
40!
from the four larger planets, and from certain fixed stars
situated approximately in the path of the moon.
They are
given at intervals of three hours Greenwich mean time.
By a series of carefully observed lunar distances on both
sides of the moon the chronometer error may generally be
ascertained within twenty or thirty seconds.

longitude
determined in this way should be considered as liable to an
error of five miles, a degree of accuracy which answers the
requirements of navigation.
229. We shall consider first the distance of the sun and
moon.
This distance having been measured and corrected for instrumental errors, such as index error and eccentricity, the
result is the apparent distance between the limbs of the sun
and moon as seen from the point of observation. In order
to have this comparable with the distances of the ephemeris
it must be corrected for the semidiameters, parallaxes, -and
refraction of the
two bodies.
In order to apply the necessary corrections a knowledge

of the altitudes at the time of observation is necessary.
When there are instruments and observers enough, which
will frequently be the case at sea, all of the quantities may
be observed simultaneously the altitude of the sun so observed, if that body is sufficiently far from the meridian, may
be further utilized for determining the local time.
When it is not expedient to make all these measurements
at once the observer may measure the altitudes of the sun
:
and moon immediately after measuring the distance between

these bodies, the altitudes at the time of that observation
being computed by assuming the change in altitude to be
proportional to the change of time, an assumption which will

not be much in error if the time is short.
Finally, the altitudes may be computed by formulae (II),
Art. 65, the right ascensions and declinations being taken
402
from the Nautical Almanac. The apparent altitudes will be

derived from these computed values by applying the correction for refraction, table II, and parallax formulas (VI) and
This supposes the longitude to be approxi(VI),, Art. 81.
mately
known
otherwise
we
lack the
means
of
determining
the hour-angle /, required in formulae (II): but we shall

always be in possession of a value sufficiently accurate for this
purpose. If in an extreme case this be not true, we may

repeat the computation, using the value ol the longitude obtained from the first computation as the assumed approximate
value.
The
tance
corrections necessary to apply to the measured disbe computed as follows.
may
Correction for Scmidiametcr of
The following
230.
Sun and Moon.
quantities are taken from the epheme-
ris:
5
n
the geocentric semidiameter of the moon

the geocentric semidiameter of the sun
the equatorial horizontal parallax of the moon
the equatorial horizontal parallax of the sun.
;
=
=
n=
The moon being comparatively near the earth, the semidiameter will vary appreciably with the altitude; there will
The
be no appreciable variation in the case of the sun.
moon's semidiameter varies inversely as the distance.
In Fig. 46,
Call
s'
hen
MOB =
MAC =
s.
s'
apparent semidiameter.
(Z
_A =
_sin MAZ_s\n
p\
,>^, ^n-^~
-\-
-.
230.
403
Z being the geocentric zenith distance of the moon, and p the

parallax in zenith distance.
sin (Z-{-fl)=s'mZcosfl-\-cosZsinfl=sinZ-\-sin,pcosZ, nearly
from
(128),
Therefore
sin/
sin
s'
s(i
-f sin
sin Z,
approximately.
n cos Z)
(39 2 )
The eccentricity of the meridian has been neglected, but

the error is inappreciable for this purpose.
The correction for semidiameter will be still further modified by refraction.
Owing to this cause the apparent disks
of the sun and
moon
are approximately ellipses, the refrac-
tion being less for the upper limb than for the centre, which
in turn is less than for the lower limb.
therefore require
the radius of the ellipse drawn to the point where the curve
We
is
intersected by the great circle joining the centres of the
sun and moon.
404
230.
Regarding the figure of the disk as an ellipse, the conjugate axis will coincide with the vertical circle passing
through the centre, the semi-transverse
axis will be equal to
s' in case of the

the semi-conjugate axis, is
found directly from the refraction table
moon
^,
by taking out the refraction for the

upper and lower limbs
respectively and subtracting one half
the difference from s
The angle q
FIG. 47.
formed by the radius sq with the conjugate axis is the angle formed with the vertical circle by
the great circle joining the centres of the sun and moon sa
altitude of the
'.
'
being the required semidiameter.

To find the angle q.
In the triangle, Fig. 48,

is the
zenith
S, the moon and sun.
;
Mand
VO-H
Then
sin
H=s\nh cos D -f- cos
cos q
= sin
sin
-.
cos h
//
:
sm
//
cos
sin
D cos q\
For computing the angle
at the sun,
changed.
Then
in the ellipse
(Fig. 47) \ve
x
y
sin q
sq
sq
have
COS q
h and
H will be inter-
LONGITUDE BY L UNAR DISTANCES.
231.
Therefore
sq
'
===
+
-==
Vs'*
405
cosV
(394)
siiiV
'
The values of sq computed by (394) for both sun

and moon are then to be applied to the measured distance
231.
of the limbs of those bodies.
We
thus have the measured

distance of the centres as seen from the place of observation.
To obtain the required geocentric distance this must now be
corrected for refraction and parallax.
Let
k'
D, H, and h
D', H',
and
the apparent distance and altitudes

of the sun and moon
;
the true geocentric distance and

tudes.
//and h are obtained by applying
to
H' and
h'
alti-
the correc-
tions for refraction, table II or III, and for parallax formulae

(VI) and (VI),, Art. 81.
Referring to Fig. 48,

cosZ?'=sin//'sin^'+cos/7'cos^'cos.'=:cos(//'
cosD =sinffsinA +costf cosh cos=cos(/7
/.
h')
k)coaff
cos/i
2sin'f.
Multiplying the first of the preceding equations by cos

cos /t, and the second by cos H' cos h', then subtracting to
3
eliminate sin $E, we find
cos
'- COS
[C SZ>
D=cos (H-h} +
D is therefore expressed in terms of known

equation
is
not,
however,
in
W-W'
quantities.
(396)
The
convenient form for numerical
406
computation
therefore
we make
232
the following transforma-
tion:
cos
Let
cos h
TT,
cos D'
T-
C'
7^
C
d-,
cos //' cos h'
cos //
It may readily be shown that C will never be so small as

to give impossible values to D" and d''
'.
(396) then reduces to
cos
cos
D" =
cos
cos
d"
from which
sin
D"}
\(D
and with accuracy
^J7j) ^ D ,,l
d"}\
(398)
sufficient for practical purposes,
yT-x
As the unknown quantity

member,
sin \(d
is
(d
d"\
(399)
involved in the second
this equation must be solved

in the denominator D' -\for
by approximation.
D -\- D", we obtain

be sufficiently near the
In case the value found in this way differs very
true one.
widely from D' the computation may be repeated, using this
value just found in the denominator of (399).
232. In the above we have assumed the angle E (the difference between the azimuth of the sun and moon) to bfc the
Writing
a value of
D"
which
will generally
232.
same
earth.
for the point of observation as for the centre of the

have seen, however, that the moon has an ap-
We
preciable parallax in azimuth the value of which

formulas (VI), Art. 81, or (VII), Art. 82.
In order to determine the correction to
quantity,
D and
we
is
given by
due to
this
differentiate the second of (395) with respect to
viz.,
dD =
remembering that dE
cos
H cos h-sin E
is
Formulae
da,.
(400)
da.
the parallax in azimuth

above referred to.
da
40?
computed by the formulae
(392), (393), (394), (397), (399), (400)
now
give the
true geocentric distance D, corresponding to the measured

Then by the method explained in Art. 55 we
distance D'.
take from the ephemeris the Greenwich time corresponding

to this distance; the difference between this time and the
observed time will then be the chronometer correction on
Greenwich
time.
a planet has been used instead of the sun, the same

formulas will be used but if, as is generally the case, the
disk of the planet is bisected by the lirnb of the moon in
If
making the observation, there will be no correction for semidiameter of planet. The effect of parallax in case of the
outer planets will be very small.
If the distance of the moon from a star is measured, there
will be no correction for semidiameter or parallax of the star.
408
233.
233-
Formula for Reducing an Observed Lunar Distance
to
the Geocentric Distance.
s'
<t>
sn
cos q
For parallax
c/3
sn
8
+ sin n cos z)
s(i
of
moon,
(VI), Art. 8 1, or (VII), Art.
82.
For parallax
cos 77 cos h
of sun, (VIII),, Art. 82.
cos
cos //' cos //
H'
h'
H -h
(XXII)
=
=
d'\
cos
d-
COS
dD = -
(397)
cos d'
C-
H-COS
- h Sin -E da.
Correction for
parallax
-=r
Sin
in
azimuth.
These formulae have been written down rigorously, but in

many abridgments may generally be made in the
practice
application.
h
s
Example. 1856, March gth, 5 14 6 local mean time, the following distance
of the nearest limbs and altitudes of the lower limbs of the sun and moon were
measured:
D'
44
//'
36' 5 8". 6;
These values are corrected for instrumental

Barometer 29.5 inches;
Latitude
(p
35;
k'
56' 23'';
longitude
52
34' o".
errors.
Attached thermometer 60;
Assumed
150
Detached ther. 58;

of Greenwich.
= ioh west
233
From
Almanac we
the Nautical
Moon.
Sun.
Right ascension,
Declination,
S
Semidiameter,
Horizontal parallax, 77
Sidereal time,
From
16
we
23''
II"
14
8 .o
8.6
it
of centre,
=
=
18'
41"
16
23.1
60
.9
5"
find, for the altitudes
Refraction, lower limb,
Approx. altitude
6"
3'
n m 47'
2h
s
23* 22'" 27
mean noon,
409
take the following quantities:
5'
42^.9
6'
48"
above given,
43"-l
52
49'
40"
We now
compute the apparent or augmented semidiameter of the moon by

the first of (XXII). and then the oblique semidiameter of both sun and moon
by the second and third of these formulae.
37
10'
o'
sin
i".g
log (i
j
s'
-(-
sin
983.1
996.8
Measured D'
44
Then
9 43 -4
45
for
computing
D=
45
10'
ff=
52
51
h=
12
'i-H)=
)=
53
//)=
D=
H=
=8
q:
44
25
26
5'
12
10
tan
12
i(Z>+A-//)= 44
25
|(Z>
/*
//)=
\q=
36
o 45
8 26
53
79
f=i59
upper limb
b
=
=
we
10'
51
l(Dh+rf)=
^=9.0274
45
52
l(D+A-\-ff)=
cosec= .1550
sec=
47
centre
Therefore
1217
36
Refraction
2.9926
2.9986
o 45.5
i^=
Then from
8.2419
8.1433
.0060
Moon.
Sun.
>
9.9014
16 36 .8
16
8 .o
Approximate D'
7t
it
36' s8".6
=
=
Sum =
cos z) =
log =
log =
cos 2
z
TI
sec=
47
.7507
52
find
24". 8
lower limb
33 .6
centre
59
cos=g.7734
cosec=i.S783
56'
5'
15'
.5
.2
=
=
=
43"-
42
16'
.7
36".4
4io
log b
= 2.9819
log
6-
sin 2 q
=
=
log b
5.9638
233
2.9984
logl>-
sin 2 ?
8.6476
A*
log
S"
= 2.9859
log S*
cos 2 ?
=
=
=
5.0704
A* =
1.3407
'
5.9718
log
s'
2.9986
9.9803
log j'*
cos 2 q
=
=
B*
5-9521
B*
1.3601
5.9715
<:logden. =7.0143
log
Sg
Sq
logd.
2.9857
ac log den.
log sq
2.9821
15'
5g".6
Obs. Z>'=4436'
58. "6
True D'
= 45
5.9968
9.0736
4.6114
Sq
=
=
=
7.0014
logd.
.8720
5.9972
9.9452
5-9424
.9267
5-9971
2.9986
2.9984
16' 36". 4
9 34. 6
An approximate value of the azimuth of the moon is required for computing

the parallax; also of the sun for computing the small correction dD given by
The formulae for this computation are f
the last of (XXII).
tan
5
M = tan
cos
tan a
M)
sin (q>
/'
tan
t.
Converting the mean time of observation into sidereal time (Art.
=
=
a) =
* =
6
Sun a
/
(0
4" 26'"
=
=
t =
22
27
Moon a
36
54'
<P-
35
<pM=
51
6 = 14
3'
cos=9-3867
54
v I2
<Z>=35
12 cosec(M=i7
o
59'
78
2h
19'
cos ^"=9.9824
tan t= 6000
a=
find
Moon.
Sun.
*=.- 4
'= 75
j*/=-l6
we
3"
23
75
94),
^=64
M)=
.5104
cosec(<pcos ^=^9.9806
tan ^=9.8219
3'
t (II), Art. 65.
tan
a=
.3129
LONGITUDE BY L UNAR DISTANCES.

For parallax,
(VIII),, Art. 82,

z'
sin
(z
")
ITsin
(VII), Art. 82,
z';
z)
=
=
=
=
//
='
it
log
sin z
log
(z
**
a)
-*=
Therefore
So
(')
y)
sec
sin
(z
z'
log
(tp
cp')
cos a
0.9290
log
8". 5
6'
9.78036
compute
=
=
8.02196
53
(397)
36'
9". 6
26'
3". 3
ana
v399)
2.81158
9.64106
Y
Y =
2.45264
z'
37
10'
37
=
=
=
sin (q>
sin a' =
cosec z =
sin (a
a) =
a
a =
9.99952
z)
=
=
=
-Y=
57".!
8.24208
o
//
We now
=
=
=
=
sin a'
9.9945
'
sin
a.
n"-4
0.9345
cos
<p'}
=
cos
sin (a
411
4'
log
sin
Tt
8.24208
(p)
7.49715
44"
6". 3
22
9.99952
9.95384
.22494
5.91753
I7".l
\(D'
/>'')
d-
d"
=
=
=
44
22 40 .o
45
32 21 .8
427.5
412
sin \(d
+ d") -
log (^
</")
$(/?'
+ Z>")
log (Z?
/?")
cosec
9.
+ />")
= 84472,.
= 2.63094
+ -D") = 14409
- D") = 2.6i 9 75 n
log (D
D" =
6' s6".6
Z>
D = 45 48' 10". 4
sin
84472 ra
-14647
2.62213,,
418.9
=
=
#d +
8".
45
48'
45
5137.5
a"')
9.
d")
log (d
cosec J(Z?
2.63094
D"
Z>
}(>
=
=
=
2 33-
Second Approximation.
First Approximation.
dD>
3.5
45
48 13 -9
Correction for parallax in azimuth:
E = A' - a = 9.9945
cos A = 9.7751
sin E = 9.3966
cosec D = .1445
a) = 1.2330
log ('
logaTZ? = 0.5437
dD = 3". 5
26'
14
cos /f
We
gth,
from the Nautical Almanac the Greenwich time correby the method explained in Art. 55. For 1856, March
the following distances of the sun and moon:
have now
sponding
we
to take
to this distance
find
12"
We have
D=
PL ~
3i"
43
59'
15
45
40 54
-2510
18
47
21
.2527
53
.2493
therefore to interpolate between is h and i8 h
Referring to formula
(106),
17
we have
J'
T=
Therefore
* Correction for 2d difference
15''
19". 9
m
I3
m
1
3
log =
PLA =
log / =
2.6433
.2510
2.8943
4"
13
Resulting Greenwich time

Local time of observation
15
5
14
Resulting longitude
58
57
The above solution of this problem is only one among many, as it has
much attention from mathematicians on account of its importance
ceived
Taken from
table
at the
end of the Nautical Almanuc.
re-
to
LONGITUDE BY MOON CULMINATIONS.
235-
413
The majority of the solutions are only approximate, the design

navigators.
being to reduce the numerical work to a minimum without at the same time
Such methods may be found in
sacrificing too much in the way of accuracy.
any work on navigation, and
lution
is
will
be preferred where only an approximate so-
required.
As may be seen, the solution which we have given may be considerably

abridged without a great sacrifice of accuracy. The differences between the
oblique and vertical semidiameters of the sun and moon are very small, and the
When we remember that the

correction for parallax in azimuth is not large.
least reading of the sextant is 10", and that measurements of this kind are quite
difficult, it will be seen that often little will be lost by neglecting this part of
the computation.
Longitude by
Moon
Culminations.
right ascension of the moon may be determined

transit instrument, mounted at the place whose
longitude is required, and the local time of observation compared with the Greenwich time corresponding to this right
ascension, either by taking this time from the ephemeris of
234.
The
by means of a
the moon, or by means of similar observations made at

Greenwich, or some place whose longitude from Greenwich
is
known.
Comparison by means of the Ephemeris.
235.
The
curatelv as
transit instrument
may
having been adjusted as
ac-
be, the transit of the moon's bright limb is

with a number of stars suitable for de-
observed, together
the clock cortermining the errors of the instrument and
The corrections necessary to give the moon's right
rection.
ascension, from the observed time of transit of the limb, are
to formulas (XIX), Art. 195. The last
then
applied according
term of the formula may be taken from the table of moon
u
culminations where it is given under the heading Sidereal
meridian."
time of semicliameter passing
PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY
414
237.
236. To insure greater accuracy, the moon's right ascension may be derived by comparing the observed time of
about four stars differing but little from

two culminating before the moon
and two after. A list of stars suitable for this purpose was
"
formerly given in the-ephemeris, under the heading Moon
it
has
since
but
been
discontinued
1882.
culminating stars,"
It is an easy matter for the observer to select suitable stars
from the general list of the ephemeris.
transit with that of
the
moon
Let
in declination,
A =
t
A =
the right ascension of the moon's bright limb at

the instant of culmination;
the right ascension of the moon's centre
clock time of observed transit of limb, corrected
;
for
all
known
instrumental errors and for rate;
right ascension and time of transit respectively

of a star, the time being corrected for in-
strumental errors and rate of clock

5,
dian, taken
Then
sidereal time of semidiameter passing the meri-
A,
A,
from ephemeris.
a
a
6-
.....
+ (9-6);
(401)
This quantity A is then the local sidereal time of transit of

the moon's centre.
have now to take from the ephemeris of the moon
237.
We
T corresponding to this value A

moon's right ascension; the mean time T must then
be converted into the corresponding Greenwich sidereal time
Then A being the difference of longitude, we have
the
Greenwich mean time
of the
f.
....
(402)
237.
41$
The time 7* may be interpolated to second differences from

the ephemeris, as follows:
Let
TI
Then T
Let
the required time corresponding to A.
-f- t
AA
the ephemeris value nearest to A;

the corresponding time.
=. the difference of right ascension for
I minute,
taken from the ephemeris
difference between two consecutive values of
;
$A
A A.
ft
then equals the change in A A in one hour. Then if

in seconds, we shall have to second
supposed expressed
/ is
dif-
ferences inclusive
AA
dA
From which
',-;
+ 6A
AA
and with
.d\A
7200
sufficient accuracy,
SA
Writing
*=
60 [A
then (403) becomes
-A
'
~]
-f-
x"
x*
6A
.......
(44)
416
Among
Example.
Washington
238.
the observations of the
find the following
moon made
Observed right ascension

1877, May 23d.
of the moon's centre,
From ephemeris
AA =
T =
moon,
A =
A =
A =
I4
2.0996
=+
dA
of the
6o(^
.0029
at
A,)
13''
28 m
13
27
3 .91
3666.6
=
AA =
.O2
.11
3.56426
log
]
log
x
x"
t
=
=
=
29
6\4
29
.6
5 .8
is
now
the
3.24213
6.48426
7.46240*
log x"
This
.32213
=
log X* =
6 A) =
log
ac log A A =
aclog 7200 =
log x
9.67787
6.14267
9.76720*
Greenwich mean time corresponding to
the Washington sidereal time A. In order to compare the

t must be converted into sidereal time.
two, T
t
T,-\-t=
Table
III,
Appendix N.
=
=
M. N.
Greenwich sidereal time
= @ -A =
A.,
Sidereal time Greenwich
i4 29
5"
4
18
5 .8
22 .77
4 48
36
.56
17.1
I2M,
the required difference of longitude.

238. If the ephemeris were perfect, very little could be
done further in the way of perfecting this method. The
errors of the ephemeris, however, are not inconsiderable, and
consequence it cannot be used directly as above, except
when an approximate value of the longitude is sufficient.
in
For the year 1877 tne average correction to the right
ascen-
239-
417
sions of the ephenieris, as derived from 66 observations at
Washington, was
'.31,
of 8 s in the 'longitude
if
which would have produced an error

the observations had been used for
that purpose.
Either of two different methods may be used for eliminating from the result these errors of the ephcmeris.
First. Correction of the epliemcris.
This method is due to
The ephemeris is compared with all available
Prof. Peirce.*
moon made at Greenwich, Washington,

and other fixed observatories during the lunation, and in
this way a series of corrections to the ephemeris obtained
which, as they depend on all available data, are much more
reliable than simply the place of the moon observed at any
one observatory.
Peirce found that for each semilunation the corrections to
observations of the
the right ascension of the ephemeris could be represented

by the formula
X = A + Bt +
Cf\
(405)
X being
the correction required, t the time reckoned from

any assumed epoch (which should be chosen near the middle of the period under consideration for greater convenience), and A, B, and C being constants determined from the
The
observations made at Washington, Greenwich, etc.
ephemeris when so corrected
is
used as already explained.
The difference in
239. Second. Corresponding observations.
the longitude of anv two points mav be found by comparing the values of the n'ght ascension of the moon observed on the same night at both places.
The times of transit of the moon's bright limb and of the
comparison stars are observed at both places and the corrections applied as already explained to find the right ascen*
Report of U.
S.
Coast Survey 1854,
p.
115 of Appendix.
PRA C 7 '1CA LAS! 'RONOM Y.
2 39.
sion of the centre at the instant of transit.

tle
better
if
the same comparison
stars
It will
be a
lit-
are used at both
stations.
Let
and
Z,,
Z.,
the assumed longitudes of the

tions *
two
sta-
A.
A! and
A =
t
the true difference of longitude
right ascensions of moon's centre from

observations at L and Z- 2
;
H = variation of right
ascension for one hour

of longitude, while passing from meridian of L, to that of Z, a
.
Then
A,
A,
\H\
A,
-A,
//is taken from the table of moon culminations, where it

given for the instant of transit of the moon's centre over
the meridian of Washington. When used as in (406) its
value must be interpolated for a longitude midway between
is
Z, and
Example. As an example of the determination of longitude by corresponding

let us take the transit of the moon, the observations and reduction
observations,
of which are given in Art. 196.

have there found for 1883.
We
October
Right ascension of moon's
At Washington the
15
first
limb,
Secondflimb,
right ascensions of the limbs

First limb,
Second limb,
1'
i6 m
18
15"'
so.o8.
18
11.76.
were observed as follows
7 .3S.
28 .69.
* Reckoned from
Washington or Greenwich according as we use the ephemecomputed for Washington or Greenwich. One of the longitudes, L\ or.ii,
ris
must be known with some accuracy.

f
This
is
corrected for defective illumination.
239-
Taking the mean

we have
in
At
18 .035.
17
ly'.iis.
H=
A
The
A =
At
From ephemeris,
419
each case as the observed right ascension of the centre,
153". 88;
A*
oh .iii2
difference of longitude between
= 6 m 4o'-3.
Washington and Bethlehem determined
5
m
This close agreement is of course accidental; a
telegraphically is 6 4O .2.
deviation of four or five seconds from the true value would not have been sur-
prising.
If
we reduce
the observations of the
The mean being
the
two limbs separately, we
First limb,
Second limb,
A.
same
as above.
=
=
This
find
6 m 44'. 7.
6 36 .o.
is
an
illustration of the necessity of
transits of both limbs.
Frequently the difference of longitude determined separately from transits of each limb will show much wider deviations
than this, even when all possible care is taken to avoid error.
employing
To illustrate the method of Art. 236 for deriving the moon's right ascension
by means of comparison stars, take the following transits of the moon
f Piscium and v Piscium observed at the Sayre observatory, 1883, October 15.
:
These times are corrected

and
for instrumental errors,
that of the second limb of

the
moon
mination.
is
for defective illu-
The
inappreciable.
clock-rate
420
240.
This method of deriving the moon's right ascension is employed with most
advantage when the same comparison stars are used at both places whose difference of longitude
is
required, as then uncertainties in the places of the stars
produce no appreciable effect on the result.

In our example we have preferred to use the value of the moon's right
ascension derived in Art. 196, since the value of A T there used was obtained
from transits of a number of stars, and thus a result obtained more likely to be
reliable than the one above, which depends only on two stars.
will
240. If the difference in longitude between the two places is more than two
hours, the above method requires some modification, as then the third differences in the hourly motion // will be appreciable.
The
A\ and AI are obtained from observation precisely as

then the right ascensions are taken from the ephemeris for the time of
culmination at the two meridians, using for this purpose the assumed values of
the longitude.
before
right ascensions
Let
and a*
values of the right ascension taken from the ephemeris for

the assumed longitudes LI and LI
;
Aa =
Then
If
&i
-\-
Aa
correction to the ephemeris.
and
cr y -}~
Aa =
true values of the right ascension.
then LI and Zi are the true values of the longitude, (a 3

A\.
a\ will be equal to Ay
-(-
Aa)
((Xi-\-
Aa)
tr 2
Let Li
L!
tion to the
-J-
AL =
true difference of longitude.

of longitude.
Then
AL
is
the correc-
assumed difference
Let
(At
Ai)
AL =
Then
(a*
a,).
(407)
being, as above, the hourly change in the moon's right ascension, AL will
here be expressed in hours. To reduce to seconds we multiply by 3600, viz.,
*L = K&S.
This process
tions
is
is
sufficiently
-'
(408)
simple in theory, but if the table of moon culmina

right ascension must be interpolated to fourth or
employed the moon's
will involve considerable labor.

By using the hourly
moon the interpolation need only be carried to second differany case we must assume the moon's motion in right ascension
fifth differences,
which
ephemeris of the
In
ences.
given
in
the ephemeris to be correct.
241.
The hourly motion, //, is taken from the ephemeris for

tion at the meridian whose longitude is tp be determined.
421
the time of observa-
Example. 1883, October 16, the moon's right ascension was determined by
meridian observation at Greenwich and Bethlehem as given below.
The
transit of the
second limb was observed, the Bethlehem observations being
made and reduced
precisely as in the
example
At Greenwich,
At Bethlehem,
From
AI
A*
=
=
a'
of Art. 196.
6 m 17". 46.
32
19
.18.
moon we now
take the right ascension of

houny ephemeris
Since the argument is the Greenwich mean time, we must
above values of the right ascension, which are equal to the sidereal
times of observation, into the corresponding Greenwich mean solar time,
using for the longitude of Bethlehem the best approximation to the true value
which we possess. Thus
of the
the
the moon's centre.
convert the
Local sidereal time
2 h 19
A*
Assumed longitude from Greenwich.
Greenwich sidereal time. ...'.

Sidereal time, mean noon
Sidereal interval past noon
Table
Appendix of Ephemeris.
Greenwich mean lime
II,
For these times we
find
From
moon
the table of
13
38
12
27
17". 46
38.61
38.85
2 .48
25
36.37
12
t*i
culminations
6m
=. 2
1'
6'"
<T 2
s
.
18
21
4.08
13
38
17
42
38.61
25.47
17
39
s
I7 .6i
32
131.9
page 379 of Ephemeris
54.05
31.42
2 h 19"' 32". 38
we
find for
the hourly motion in right ascension at the time of the Bethlehem observation,
H=
Then by formula
We
(408),
AL
-3
iM.
158.58
Z =
have assu-ned
Final value of longitude,
241. The determination
tween the time of
".05
isS'.sS.
transit
31". 9-
30
.8.
moon's right ascension by the difference beof the moon and a neighboring star does not do away
of the
with the necessity for correcting the observed times for all known errors of the
transit instrument as explained in Articles 195 and 196.
What we require is
the right ascension of the moon's centre at the instant of transit over the
meridian of the place of observation. Since this right ascension is constantly

if there is an uncorrected error of r seconds in the reduced time, it
changing,
422
is
same as though
mounted in a meridian
precisely the
the
moon were observed
241.
with an instrument
Thus
differing from this one by r seconds.
uncorrected instrumental error affects the resulting longitude by its full
perfectly
an
amount.
In order to obtain the best result from the method of moon culminations the
observations should be arranged so as to include about an equal number of each
limb that is, the moon should be observed about the same number of times
;
full moon.
In this way uncertainties in the value of the semidiameter will be eliminated, and to some extent the personal equation of the
As the difference
observer in estimating the instant of transit of the limb.
between the values of the longitude, determined from the first and second limbs
before and after
respectively, from observations embracing an entire year, frequently

io9 the importance of this will be obvious.
amounts
to
In a discussion of the limit of accuracy attainable in the determination of

8
longitude by moon culminations, Prof. Peirce gives* 101 as the probable error
The probable
of a single determination of the right ascension of the moon.
error of the difference between two observed right ascensions would then be
.
.142; the probable error of the resulting longitude is twenty-seven,times this,

or 3 8 .83.
By using an ephemeris corrected as before explained, this probable
error of a single determination is somewhat reduced.
now
method
were the only thing to be considered in making and combining
observations, we could by a sufficient accumulation of individual determinations
In this case, hovyever, as in
reduce this probable error to an unlimited extent.
all cases where quantities are determined by observation, the errors of a purely
accidental character are so combined with others of a constant character that
If
the law of distribution of error, which forms the basis of the
of least squares,
accumulation of observation beyond a certain limit adds but
little to
the accu-
racy of the final result.

Prof. Peirce estimates the ultimate limit of accuracy which we can hope to
reach in determining a quantity by observation at about four times the accuracy
If then we assume that it
of the most carefully executed single determination.
possible to determine the difference in the moon's right ascension within '. I
by a single observed transit at each place, this would give a value of the longitude accurate to within 2 s 7.
The ultimate degree of accuracy which could be
attained would then be within ".67 of the truth.
Owing, however, to the unexplained discrepancies in the results from the two limbs of the moon, this ultimate error is probably too small. Prof. Peirce places the limit at i s .oo, a limit
which might be reached by observing all available culminations for two or three
years, but which would not be much reduced by a further accumulation of
is
observations.
Report of U.
S.
Coast Survey 1854,
p. 112 of
Appendix.
243-
LONGITUDE BY OCCL'LTATIONS OF STARS.
423
Determination of Longitude by Occultations of Stars.

242. The observation of occupations of stars by the moon
and of eclipses of the sun furnishes, next to the telegraphic
method, the most accurate means of determining the difference of longitude between two places.* Prof. Peirce estimates the ultimate accuracy attainable by this method as
within one tenth of a second of time.
The mathematical theory of eclipses and occultations of
stars and of planets by the moon, and of fixed stars by
It
planets, may all be embraced in one general discussion.
is
not proposed to enter here into the general problem of
eclipse prediction, as it would lead us

signed to be the scope of this work.
beyond what
is
de-
We shall therefore con-
fine ourselves to so
much
of the
cultation of fixed stars bv the
problem as
moon.
relates to theoc-
General Theory.
243. The distance of a fixed star is so great in comparison
with the distance of the moon that the rays of light from
the star enveloping the moon may be regarded as forming a
cylindrical surface, the radius of the cylinder being equal to

the radius of the moon. If this cylinder intersects the earth,
the star will be hidden from all parts of the earth's surface
within the cylinder. Let a line be supposed drawn from the
star
through the centre of the moon this line will form the
and the point where it pierces the celes:
axis of the cylinder,

tial
sphere coincides with the place of the
When
star.
the places are favorably situated for a chronometric determination

is not possible
method may be preferable, but a high degree of precision

when the chronometers are transported by land.
that
424
Now let a plane be passed through the centre of the earth

perpendicular to this line: this plane is called the fundamental plane, and is taken as the plane of XY'in. considering
the rectangular co-ordinates of the points entering into the
The axis of
is the line in which the fundaproblem.
mental plane intersects the plane of the equator, the positive
axis of Fis directed towards the north, and the axis of
is
parallel to the axis of the cylinder; the origin of co-ordinates

being the centre of the earth.
244. To find the distance of
the axis of the cylinder.
any point on
tJie
earth's surface
from
Let
=
=
<?
a,
A,D,r
the right ascension and declination of the star;

the right ascension, declination, and distance
from the centre of the earth, of the moon's
centre
x, y, #
the
rectangular
coordinates of the moon's
centre.
Let the axis
of
be positive
the direction of the end
in
whose right ascension
90
is
equal to
Then E, Fig. 49, being the centre

of the earth,
the moon, and Pthe
pole,
we have
x
y
z
FJG
MP =
90
-D
From
PX=
cos MX =
90;
=
=
r cos
MY
r cos
MZ.
the triangle
MPX =
D sin (A
Similarly from triangles MPZ and MPY
Therefore
cos
MX;
r cos
MPX,
90
(A
a).
a].
we
find the values
LONGITUDE BY OCCULTATIONS OF STARS.
245-
MZ
of cos
equations
x
y
#
and cos
MY, from which
425
result the following
r cos
r[sm
D sin (A
D cos 8
r[sin Z? sin #
);
D sin
cos D cos
cos
-|-
tf
tf
cos (^
cos (A
<*)];
<*)].
>
(409)
As the axis of the cylinder is parallel to the axis of and

passes through the centre of the moon, x and y will be the
co-ordinates of the point where this axis pierces the fundamental plane.
For our purposes z will not be required. For computing
x and y with extreme accuracy it is convenient to transform
(409) as follows
Let
Then
it
=
=
the equatorial horizontal parallax of the moon.

.
expressed in terms of the equatorial radius
of the earth,
and x
-D
cos
sin
(A
sin
Tt
a)
-;
sin
245. Let
tf,
and
<2
.(410)
the rectangular co-ordinates of a point

on the earth's surface
;
joining this point with the

centre of the earth
the line
the
(p
geographical
point
the geocentric latitude;
the local sidereal time.
;
(p'
//
=
=
latitude
of
this
426
245.
to be a point on the surThen in Fig. 49, if we suppose

face of the earth whose co-ordinates are
ij, and <?, we have
,
B,
p cos
MX;
In the triangle
MP =
90
cp';
ij
MX =
In the triangle
PY =
90
cos
MY;
p cos
MPX
MPX =
cos
Therefore
(//
sin
92'
p cos
PX =
or);
(j*
90.
).
MPY
MPY =
6;
-O-
180
a).
Therefore
cos
J/K =
sin
cos #
<p'
cos
and similarly for cos MZ, so that
=
=
Z =
77
p cos
cp'
sin
(AI
or)
p[sin
9?'
cos
tf
cos
<?'
cos
q>'
cp'
cos
sin
(/*
),
finally
p[sin
sin d
<p'
-f-
d cos
cos d cos
sin
(/*
(yw
)]
a-)].
v
;
(411)
These formulae may be computed in this form, or they may

be adapted to logarithmic computation, as follows:
p sin
p cos
cp'
cp'
cos
a)
(fJL
=
=
b sin
B;
b cos
8,
rj
S,
=
=
p cos
b sin
b
(p
(B
cos(B
Sin
(ju
tf)
a)
(412)
6],
is the hour-angle of the star as seen from the

or)
given
n,
point on the earth's surface at the instant for which
and 5 are computed.
(//
246.
Let
-LONGITUDE BY OCCULTATIO-VS OF STAKS.
H
h
A
=
=
the Washington hour-angle of the star

a
the local hour-angle
/<
the west longitude of the point <?, 77, <?.
Then
Let
h.
/f
42 /
H- A
(413)
the distance of the point from the axis of the
shadow.
Then
V(x
rf
(414)
At the
instant of the beginning or ending of an occultaevident that the point 5, TJ, 8, will be in the surface
of the cylinder, and the distance from the centre A is equal
to the radius of the cylinder, which in turn is equal to the
radius of the moon, or .2723, expressed in terms of the earth's
tion, it is
Therefore
The condition for the beginning or ending of an occupation at
any place is
equatorial radius.
.2723
V(x
)'
rtf.
(415)
Prediction of the Principal Phases of an Occultation.

246. The instant of beginning and ending of an occultation
are called respectively the time of immersion and emersion.
shall at first suppose it to be known that an occultation
We
under consideration will be visible from the given

place on a given day, and shall develop the formulse for determining these two phases viz., of immersion and emersion.
For this purpose we require the solution of equation (415)
of the star
and i] are functions.

T, of which x,y,
transcendental and of such a form that a
not possible. In fact it will readily appear
for the local time
The equation
is
direct solution
is
that an infinite
number
of values of
T'must
satisfy this equa-
428
tion, since the
number
same
star
may
247.
suffer occultation an indefinite
of times.
Equation (415) must therefore be solved by approximation,

the most convenient method being as follows: x and y are
computed for a time Tas near as may be to that of the required phase. For the first approximation the time chosen
is
commonly
that of the geocentric conjunction of the
moon
right ascension. This time is readily found from

the hourly ephemeris of the moon by finding the Green-
and star
in
wich time when the moon's right ascension is equal to the

If, as will commonly be the case
right ascension of the star.
in the United States, the meridian from which the longitude
reckoned is that of Washington, the above time will be
converted into Washington time by subtracting the difference of longitude between Washington and Greenwich, viz.,
is
m i2 s
.09-
The
object of this computation will generally be to determine the time of immersion and emersion, to assist in observing the occultation. For this purpose great accuracy will
not be necessary in fact an error of a whole minute in the
;
computed time would
The general
any case
formulae
not, ordinarily, be a serious matter.
may
much
therefore be
would be superfluous
it
abridged.
In
to use the rigorous formulas
in the first approximation.
247,
We
first
compute
x, y,
geocentric conjunction of the

sion, viz.,
when A
a.
For
and
rj
for the instant of
moon and
star in right ascenthis instant (410) may be writ-
ten
o;
-.
sin
7i
.....
(416)
For the short interval between conjunction and immersion

or emersion we may then assume the change in x and y to
be proportional to the time.
LONGITUDE BY OCCULTATIONS OF STARS.
248.
Let x' and
the changes in
solar time.
x and y
in
429
one hour, mean
Differentiating- the expression for x in (410),

we have for the instant of conjunction
and for y in
(416),
ax
dA
Let
AA
and
cos D;
-.
sin
AD =
it
ay
= dDn
sin
the hourly changes in the moon's right

ascension and declination taken from
the ephemeris.
Then
x'
cos D\
sin
y'
sin
re
(417)
and y', being independent of the place of observation,

be computed for any future time, and will be available
for all parts of the earth from which the occuliation is visiTheir values are given in the American Ephemeris
ble.
for all the principal stars occulted throughout the year.
x, y, x'
may
When required
purpose they may therefore be taken
for this
directly from that publication.

248.
We
must next compute
'
B, v,
and
rf
the latter be-
and // for one hour mean solar time.

ing the change in
and 11 are given by formulae (41 1) or (412).
For computing B' and //' we differentiate the

ond of (411) with respect to (//
a), viz.:
dg
dij
=
=
p cos
p cos
cos
q>'
r
tp
sin
(yw
<?
sin
oi)
(/<
d(u
first
and sec-
a};
a] d(n
a}.
the hour-angle of the star.

Let us now substitute
for d(n
which takes place in the value of
oi] the change
this hour-angle in one mean solar hour.
(yw
h
i
is
om o 9 mean solar time
o m 9^.856 sidereal time
54148".
430
Therefore
%'
if
Let
54148^' sin i"
a)
d(fJi
[9-4I9 1 57] P cos
?>'
cos(>
[9.419157] p cos
tp'
sin
248.
.....
(418)
,
or);
'
a) sin
(/*
d. \
the moon's radius expressed in terms of the earth's

radius
.2723;
T=
T
-f-
approximate time of immersion or emersion;*
true time of phase.
unknown correction to T to be determined.

having been computed for the time T, their
T will then be an
and
x, y, 5,
?/
true values will be
y +./r;
X'T\
-(-
-{-
'r;
Let the auxiliary quantities Q, m, M,

as follows
- a}
(x
= (ym sin M = (x m cos J/ = y -
+ (y'
sin
);
determined
cos
77);
....
?f)r- \'
N= (x
N=
');
)
'
(y
(4
T/). \
become
(421)
k sin
^ cos
these
Q= m
Q= m
we
first
-)-
cos J/
-J-
sin
rn sin TV;
cos N.
derive
k sin (Q
k cos (Q
* For the
N be
n,
(420)
rfr.
Q=
rj}
From
-|-
sin
Then
?;
- N) = in sin (M - N};
- N} = m cos (J/ - N) +
r.
approximation the time of conjunction in right ascension
be used as before explained.

f It will be observed that these two equations are identical with (415).
may
LONGITUDE B Y OCCUL TA TIONS OF STARS.
249-
Let us write
N=
Then
sin
$.
= m sin (M
N}
--,
43
k cos ^
'-\
;(423)
cos
(M
N)
Thus we have our equation solved
for r and consequently

Since the algebraic sign of cos fy is not determined, the last equation gives two values of T, that value corresponding to the minus sign of cos
giving the time of
immersion, that given by the plus sign being the time of
emersion.
The resulting times will only be approximations to the
for
T -\-
T.
tfi
true values, since in deriving them we have neglected the

second and higher orders of differences in the variation of
and //.
x, y,
If we require the time more accurately, we
may now as,
sume
these approximate values of Tând recompute formulas

and (423), thus obtaining a second approximation to the values of Tfor immersion and emersion.
(411), (419), (422),
Position
A ngle
of the Star.
249. The accurate observation of the star's emersion will

be greatly facilitated if we know in advance the exact point
on the moon's limb where its appearance may be expected.
This point is determined by its position angle, which is the
angle measured from the north point of the moon's limb
around towards the east to the point in question. We may

perhaps define this angle more clearly as follows:
Suppose two great circles drawn from the moon's centre
respectively through the pole and the star: the position angle
will then be the angle between these circles, measured from
that drawn through the pole around towards the east.
PR A C TICA LAS TRONOM Y.
432
In equations (421) x, y,
and >; being the rectangular coordinates of the moon's centre, and of the place of observation on the earth's surface, let us suppose a system of rect,
angular axes drawn through the latter point and parallel to

will be the rectangular
and (y
the old axes, (x
?/)
<?)
co-ordinates of the moon's centre in reference to this new
system.
Since k
is the moon's radius, equations

(421) require Q to
be the position angle of the moon's centre, measured from
the axis of F. Now it is evident that when the star is in
contact with the moon's limb, which is the condition ex-
pressed by equations (421), the position angle of the star

measured from the north point of the moon's limb will differ
from the position angle of the moon's centre measured from
the axis of
Fby
180.
i'
FIG.
FIG. 51
50.
NMA
in Fig. 50, the star at immersion

being at A,
the position angle required. Calling this angle P,
Thus,
is
have
i8o
we
LONGITUDE BY OCCULTATIONS OF STARS,
250.
At emersion, as shown in Fig. 51, the position angle

be the angle NESWA. Therefore
P= Q+
Then
Q=
-\-
$,
we have
-(-?/'
-f-
If
the telescope used
is
P will
80.
N
For immersion P = N
For emersion P = N
since, equations (423),
433
?/'
180;
180.
mounted equatorially and provided
with a position micrometer,* this point may be kept in view

very readily by placing the micrometer-thread tangent to
the moon's limb at the point.
If the telescope is not provided with a micrometer, a single thread may be placed in the focus of a common eyepiece, and a rough graduation marked around the rim. This
thread
may
then be set in the direction of the tangent to the
moon's limb as before.

If
250.
the telescope has only an altitude and azimuth mobe convenient to measure the angle from the ver-
tion, it will
tex,
or highest point ol the moon's limb, instead of the north
point.
Consider the triangle formed by the zenith,

the pole, and the moon's centre.
Let
V=
the position angle measured from

the moon's vertex.
Then, referring to Fig.
52,
V= P-
C.
* In a
position micrometer the reticule revolves in a plane perpendicular to
the line of colhmation of the telescope, and the threads may be placed at any
On the other hand,
angle with the meridian by means of a graduated circle.
by the same circle the angle formed with the hour-circle of a star by the line
joining
it
with any other star in the
field
of the telescope
may be measured.
434
To determine
apply to the triangle the formulae of
C,
spherical trigonometry,
sin
sin
Z sin C =
Z cos C =
Since
(7
viz.:
cos
q>
sin
sin
cos #
A)\
(/^
cos
<p
will not be required with
at the time for
which
the star differs but

write, bearing in
little
# cos
A),
(/*
and since at the instant

(420),
..,
extreme precision, and
required the right ascension of

from that of the moon, we may
mind the values given by equations

sin
by equations
is
sin
(411),
Z sin C =
of contact the values of
-\-
'r
and
rj
-\-
<?
and
ij
are,
ifrt
(428)
251. In connection with the elements for predicting the

occultation of a given star, found in the American Ephemeris,
there are given the limiting parallels of latitude within
which the star will be occulted. It does not necessarily fol-
low, however, that because a place is within the limits there

given the star will be occulted at that place. The limiting
curves do not coincide with parallels of latitude, as we might
show by investigating the theory farther, or as may be seen
by referring to the charts of solar eclipses to be found in any
number
of the ephemeris.
In case the point falls outside the limit of occultation,

will be
shown
we should
find
in
computing
sin
(M
N) >
from equations
k,
thus making
(423),
sin $
impossible value.
As the observation of occultations near this limit
>
is
it
when
I,
an
not of
PREDICTION OF
AN
OCCULTATION.
435
great value for the determination of longitude, it will not be

worth while to make a very close computation to ascertain
whether the occultation actually does occur when
it is
found
to be near the limit.

252.
The
successive steps in preparing to observe the oc-
Almanac star at a given place, assumto be visible at that place,* are therefore as follows:
take from the "Elements for the Prediction of Oc-
cultation of a Nautical
it
ing
I.
We
cultations" of the
American Ephemeris the Washington mean
time of geocentric conjunction T the Washington hourangle //, also Y, x',y', and the star's apparent declination d.
II.
Tt and
are reduced to the local time and hour,
angle by applying the correction for longitude, A.

p sin (p and p cos <p' are to be found by the use of table A.
1
TABLE
We
A.
shall subsequently
show how
to select
American Ephemeris those whose occultation

given place on a given day.
from the
is
likely to
list
of stars of the
be visible from a
43"
III.
We
solar time,
and
then compute
//, 4',
A), by the formulae
=
=
T?
p cos q>' sin A

p sin </ cos 3
&=
=
rf
[9-4192]
[9.4192]
In which
IV.
//
M,
m,
n,
>p
and
p cos
<>'
sin
P cos tp' cos //.;

p cos ^' sin // sin
3.
a.
//
tf
cos ^
4II v
/<
and ^Vare computed by
m sin ^/ = x
m cos M = y
then
mean
for the local
//
(T
by sm
//>
n sin
,;
;/
//;
cos
N = x'
N y'
= m- sin (M N}
-f
->
^ cos_^
,';
//';
_ mcos(M-N)
'-(423)
'
Calling the value corresponding to the plus sign r lf and

that corresponding to the minus sign ra we have
,
Time
Time
of
of
immersion
emersion
= T + =
= T r
-(-
r,
Tj
7],.
V. With these values 7", and T^ we now repeat the computation for a second approximation to the true values of the
time of immersion and emersion. ha in (411) and (419) will
become (/* -|- r,) for immersion, and (/z -f- T S ) for emersion.
will give us two values of T; one a small value giving a
7",
more accurate time for immersion, the other a large value

giving an inaccurate time of emersion. In the same way T,
PREDICTION OF
253-
AN
OCCULTATION.
437
gives a small and accurate value of r for emersion and a

large inaccurate value for immersion.
The values of x and y to be used in this second approximation will be given by the formulas
x
x
and
=
=
x'r lt
= Y
y
y
X'-TV
-\~
for immersion,
y'r^
Y -f- y'r v
for emersion.
The
values of T given above will be expressed in hours.

considered desirable to express them in minutes we
use, instead of n, a quantity ', viz.,
If it is
may
ff 'Ss.'Ses, [8.22 1 8] n.
As a check upon the values of the times finally obtained,

we compute for these times the values of x, j, <?, and
If
rj.
the times are correct these quantities will satisfy the equation
(x
)'
+ (y -
253. Instead of carrying
?/)'
0.07413-
through the computation of num-
IV with the hour-angle /* of geocentric conwe may obtain a rough approximation to the time
bers III and
junction,
of immersion and emersion, as follows:
first require the interval of time
We
and apparent conjunction

of apparent conjunction
between geocentric
in right ascension.
<?;
or writing for
At the instant
x and 5 their
values,
r ax'
p cos
<p
sin
(//
-f r
).
In which r is the interval required and ^ is, as before, the

hour-angle at the station at the time of geocentric conjunction.
43
We
sin
and
253.
have
(7z
+ T = sin ^
O)
cos r
-}-
cos ^ sin r
2
sin //( i
2 sin ^r
) -(-
cos h a 2 sin
r cos
finally,
sin (A
r will
+T
sin
O)
-f 2 sin
/*
cos
never be very large, so we

rc
2 sin
since the unit in
54148". sin i"
which
r is
).
write
may
=
(/z
[9.4192]^,
expressed
mean
the
is
solar hour.
Therefore
T OX'
= p cos
<p'
Write
[9.4192]
sin
-j-
[9.4192] p cos ^' cos
p cos ?/ sin //
p cos ?/ cos (^ +ir )
Then
=^f
=
=
(A>+ir
n-
)
'
$'.
(420)
(430)
g/
In the first approximation the r in the value of ,' may be

neglected or we may assume it equal to -J// which will generally be a little more accurate.
As the average duration of an occupation is about one
hour, we may therefore, in ordinary cases, assume as the
,
hour-angle in equations
(41 1)
and
For immersion, k
For emersion, /z
The
(419)
-\-
TO
-f-
30;
-)- 30'".
may be taken from Downes's table, given

with the subject of occultations in the American Ephemeris.
value of r
in connection
PREDICTION OF
253-
AN
OCCULTATION.
439
Example.
Required the time of immersion and emersion of the star a* Libra at Beth,
A
o h 6 m 4O*.2.
lehem, 1883, September 6th.
<p = 40 36' 24";
From
424 of ihe American Ephemeris we find
p.
Washington mean time 7\

//
log
pcos
<p'
7"
A.
Y=
6 h i8 m .4
+2
From table A, 252.

log p sin cp' = g 8 1 12
=
=
6h
/=
33'. 4
15
36 .9
hn
25'".!
9.8810
/i
.6374
-\-
+ -5332
.1173
2h
43. 6
40
54'
Instead of computing at once the values of

this value of
', and 77' with
77,
let us first determine the times of immersion and emersion roughly by
,
ô.
(429)-(43i).
sin h n
p cos
cp
9.8160
cos
9.8810
p cos
=
=
=
/i
q>
constant log
=
=
log |
\og(x'
*r
')
The computation
is
9 5824
log r c
.3O2
9.6970
now
log
fr
&'
We now
*
We
compute
|,
52
v, %,
.1509
% =
.3823
'
9 1787
x'
Emersion.
9.4192
as follows:
= 2 43 m 6
= ii8.i
- 30
=
=
.5332
9.8810
.1146
Immersion.
Ao
I'
9 8785
3i
-7
^
r
Ao'
55'
and
rj\
= 2 43 m .6
= ii8.i
+30
h
=
=
4 3i -7
67
55'
as follows:
might have used Downes's table above referred
to,
where we
find T O
74.
t Strictly T O should here be reduced to sidereal interval, but the approximation

that it is not important.
is
so rough
440
sin 5
cos 6
=
=
cos ho
log
?
'
cos
<f>
sin 5 cos ^
sin <p' cos 5
=
=
=
=
=
Check."
9.4284,2
9.9838
9.9018
'
sin h a
cos <f> sin d
253
9.
3094^
9.7803
I
9.7828
Nat. No.
Nat. No.
9 0897^
9.
7950
7
log p cos (p' cos
p cos <>' sin d sin
/ô'
//o'
log g
log rf
g.8i97
9 2524
M ==
M
cos
tan M = 9.9441
=
sin
sin
=
=
=
=
9.6613
9.2ii2
jrr
/=
9.0805
8.6304,,
^)
= + 0.6064
=
.1229
= + .6238
= + -7467
=
.4276
=+
.5433
=-
-2034
.fl/
log
M = 221
ig'.2
=
=
=
y = x - % =
=
y
9-4327
g'
7'
*'
N = 9.9930
N=
N = 9.6158
tan N = .743i
sin
sin
n cos
8.8727*1
log n
log
'
in
(M - N) =
log m =
sin
=
^=
if,
77'
N=
9.6228
7.8446
9.9328
9.4327
Mcos (AT
100
14'. 5
121
4.7
N^) =
logw =
9-7i28
9.4327
log-,
2 1554
cos
1.3009,
9.7189
9 9305
58 26'.2
i/>
log k
Nat. No.
1.3093
Nat. No.
Immersion T\
Emersion (inaccurate) r a
= 6 25 m .i
30'" = 4-48 .1
T = - o .39
T = 7" i2 m .8i
A
2om .oo
2.1554
ft
.4128
.0746
9 4350
log-
ra
.1204
.0427
-5332
.1173
= 20m .39
=
o .39
= 4~ 4 -39
The comparison with
the true value of
#,
'
viz., .0741,
shows the adopted value of A t for
AN
PREDICTION OF
253-
OCCULTATION.
441
Emersion.
d
cos S
sin
sin Ao'
cos qJ sin <5

COS Ao'
log
cos
<p'
sin 5 cos A
sin tp cos
'
= 9.4284/7
= 9.9838
= 9.9669
= 9 3094
= 9.5751
= 9 8479
= 8.8845,2
= 9 7950
= +0.7045
=
.0766
=
.6238
= + .7004
=
=
XT
X
.9608
= + .4260
=
=
.2563
(*
I
Nat. No.
Nat. No.
if
p cos
p cos
(f>
q>'
cos h
sin 6 sin
'
//
log
M = 9 8341log
= 9 4087
m
m cos M = 9
I'
T}'
= 9 7561
= 9.2763,
= 8.8753
- 8.6955,,
-\-
O w=
2 744
sin
sin yl/
4384,,
= 9.9703
log m = 9 5746
tan J/
136
57'. 6
=
=
*' =
/ = ?'
77'
sin
sin
N = 99953
=
log'
=
=
cos
log
=; 9 6611
8.8306,1
-A =
log w =
7
')
s^=
sin
^y -
"
A
Ar
t^>
=
=
9 6658
7.8876
9.7946
9.5746
M-N=
-A =
7
cos (J/
log
-5650
log
9 9342
59 I5'c
cos
w =
'
T/'
= -
2.1124
Nat. No.
Emersion r a
Immersion (inaccurate)
immersion
to be nearly correct.
That
r2
=6
=
=
i
+ 38 m .o
Nat. No.
9.7087
9 4350
1.2561
A
30"
-4582
.0677
38 33'- 3
9.8932
9.5746
1.5802
V =
log
T -
."73
2.1124
log k
.0750
.0496
.5332
25"'.
r,
=
=
-i
48
20 .01
for emersion,
however,
is
considerably in error.
i8 m .o
20
56
.o
.o
442
As a check on
when we find
2
(x
S)
-f (y
rj)-
.07426;
(x
254.
we now recompute
the accuracy of these values
|)
+ (y -
2
r/)
x, y,
and
77,
.07447.
We
have therefore a very close approximation to the true time of immerA partial recomputasion, the time for emersion being a little less accurate.
tion of the latter gives a correction of
o"M6, making the final value of
T = 7 h 53 m .O3. This latter computation is altogether unnecessary for practical purposes.
For computing the position angle P at emersion,* formula (424), we obtain

a value which will generally be sufficiently exact by using the last values of
.Wand ^ obtained in computing T. In this case we have
P = JV+0+
If
the angle at the vertex
um<;
N=
98
#=
59
337
180
V is required, we
lll;
+ i?r
24';
15
39.
have, (428) and
V = P-
(425),
C.
r/
Using the values

I
we
'
.7045,
just derived, viz.,
find
.0750,
43
7004,
Therefore
28'.
rj'
=
V=
ra
.0496,
294
=-
oh .3335,
u'.
254. In predicting the occultations which will be visible at a given place

within a given time, the first operation will be to go over the list of occultations
The conditions of
of the ephemeris and select those which may be visible.
possible visibility are:
1.
The
limiting parallels of the last
place.
column must include the
latitude of the
2. The hour-angle
A, taken without regard to sign, must be less than
the semidiurnal arc of the star; in other words, the star must be above the
horizon.
3.
local
The sun must be below the horizon, or at least not much above it, at the
mean time (T A), unless the star is bright enough to be seen in the day-
time.
Remark
cultation
i.
may
If the
or
place
may
is
near one of the limiting parallels of latitude an ocIf it is desirable to observe such stars as are
not occur.
*This angle
is
not required for immersion.
GRAPHIC PROCESS OF PREDICTION.
255-
443
occulted near the north or south limbs of the
moon, such doubtful ones may be

and the occurrence or non occurrence of an occultation will
be shown in the computation of the time of immersion and emersion. As before
shown, if the occuhation is not visible at the place under consideration it will
included in our
list,
be indicated by sin
Remark
fulfilled.
^ becoming >
In most cases
in the
formula sin
ib
-.
we may
see by inspection whether condition 2 is

For those stars near the limit it may be necessary to compute roughly
2.
the hour angle of the star
when
cos
in the horizon, for
which we have
tan d tan cp
(122)
then (ff
A) is numerically less than t this condition is fulfilled.
small table computed for the latitude of the place, giving t with the arguis
convenient
in examining this condition and the next.
ment <5,
If
Remark 3. For determining whether the sun is above or below the horizon,
we may compute roughly the times of sunrise and sunset by the method given
above for the star, or, since it is not required with great accuracy, we may take
it
from a
common
almanac.
In going over the list of the ephemeris, the computer will write the value of
A on the lower edge of a piece of paper, and pausing over each star for which
If either
condition i is fulfilled, he will see whether 2 and 3 are also fulfilled.
computer passes on. In those cases where he is unable to decide by

inspection whether either of the two fail, the star will be marked for further
examination after the list has been gone over.
fails the
Where many predictions are to be made for a given place the work may be
much reduced by computing tables for the given latitude by means of which the
computation of f, 77, |', rf and r is facilitated. The necessary directions for
'
forming and using such tables are given

the reader
is
in the
American Ephemeris,
to
which
referred.
Graphic Process.
the observer possesses a celestial chart containing the stars whose
occultation is to be predicted, the necessary computation may be made by a
255.
If
very simple graphic process. The scale of the chart must be large, and the
method will be principally useful in case of clusters like the Pleiades, where a
considerable number of stars undergo occultation within a short time.
and declination of the moon are taken from the ephemeris

an hour throughout the time covered by the occultations;
The resulting apparent places
the correction for parallax must then be applied.
of the moon are then laid down on the chart, and a curve being drawn through
The
right ascension
for intervals of half
444
257-
we have
the apparent path of the moon's centre; this line being then
properly subdivided between the half-hour points furnishes a graphic timeEach star whose distance from this line is less
table of the moon's centre.
the points
than the augmented semidiameter* of the moon will suffer occultation. From
such a star as a centre, with the moon's augmented semidiameter as a radius,
this circle cuts the path of the moon's centre in two
let a circle be drawn
points the position of which on the curve will give the time of immersion and
;
and the direction of the

gives the position angle on the moon's limb.
emersion of the
star,
star
from the point of intersection
Computation of Longitude.
now been shown how we may
predict the time

beginning and ending of an occultation, as seen from a
point on the earth's surface whose longitude is known. The
fundamental equation which expresses the condition necessary for such an occurrence is
256.
It
has
of
(415)
If
and
now all
of the data of the
problem were perfectly known,
no error entered into the observed time of the occulwould be completely satisfied. Since,
however, such perfection is not attainable, we may employ
the observed time of an occultation for determining the corif
tation, this equation
rections to the values of the constants used.
The
correction which
discussion to consider
is
order, however, that this

precision,
it is the immediate
object of this
that of the longitude assumed.
In
may
we must endeavor
be obtained with all possible

to obtain or eliminate as far as
possible the corrections to the other quantities which enter

into the equation if the values employed are at all uncertain.
257. Before
making the transformation which
(415) re-
to our purpose, let us examine the

quantities entering into each term separately, in order to see
quires in order to adapt
it
* Formula
(392).
LONGITUDE BY OCCULTATIONS.
257-
what may be
quantities
may
445
regarded as definitively known and what

require corrections.
The moon's semidiameter may be determined from ocmore accurately than in any other way. A correction Ak to the value employed may therefore be introduced as one of the unknown quantities of our equation.
k.
cultations
,,
>/.
Referring to the expressions for the value of these

we see that they depend upon a
quantities, equations (411),
and
d,
the right ascension and declination of the star
/u,
the
local sidereal time; p, the earth's radius; and g>', the geocena and tf should be so well determined that they
tric latitude,
may be regarded as absolute, that is, no stars should be used

for this purpose whose places are not so well determined as
to require no further consideration.
/u, the local time, must
be accurately determined by the transit instrument (see
The time determined by observation will genThe ephemeris of the moon given in the
erally be sidereal.
Chap. VI).
Nautical Almanac
when
is
arranged for mean solar intervals, so
employed it may be necessary to convert

the sidereal time into mean solar time, or the reverse in some
cases.
It will be remembered that this conversion supposes
We shall therefore require an apthe longitude known.
proximate value of the longitude, which we shall suppose to
that
this is
be accurate enough so that no appreciable error will result

from employing it for the above reduction. If a case should
ever occur, which is not likely, where this preliminary value
was so erroneous that appreciable errors in the subsequent
computation resulted from its employment, then it would be
necessary to repeat that part of the computation which was
affected by it, using the value of the longitude obtained from
In this way we should obtain a second
the first reduction.
approximation to the true value.

(p.
The
latitude
must be well determined by the zenith
telescope or other suitable instrument.
446
258.
p depends upon the eccentricity of the earth's meridian

satisfactory
passing through the place of observation.
determination of this quantity from occultations is not possible, but Bessel introduces a term into the equation depending on the correction to the assumed eccentricity, in order
This term will be reto show its effect on the final result.
tained for the sake of completeness, though in the practical
application of the formulas it will generally be disregarded.
x and y. Equations (409). Besides quantities already considered these contain^, D, and r, the right ascension, declinaCorrections to the assumed
tion, and distance of the moon.
all these quantities will be introduced into the
equations. Those to the right ascension and declination can
be well determined from an occultation observed at any place
values of
In order, however, to determine

is known.
or the moon's parallax on which r depends, observations
must be combined which are made at widely different points
on the earth's surface, whose difference of longitude has been
previously well determined. The correction to the parallax
whose position
r,
will be retained for completeness.

258. Let us now suppose a series of occultations
observed
one of which is well determined. The immediate object is to determine the longitude
If one star only is observed at the
of the second point.
second point, we must assume all the quantities entering into
the equation to be known with one exception. If we assume
the longitude to be the unknown quantity, we- obtain from
our data a value of that quantity which is affected by all of
the errors of the data. If the star is also observed at the
first point, this observation may be employed to correct the
tabular right ascension and declination of the moon, and the
longitude of the second point determined bv the aid of these
corrected values. If more stars are observed sufficiently
near together so that the errors may be regarded as constant
at
two
points, the longitude of
LONGITUDE B Y OCC UL TATIONS.
259-
447
during- the time elapsed, then the correction to the semidiameter can be included as an unknown quantity. As we
have remarked before, the errors of the parallax cannot be

well separated from the longitude. If then the number of
occultations observed is greater than that of the unknown
quantities which can be well determined, a solution of the resulting equations by the method of least squares will give
the most probable values of the quantities, expressed in

terms of the constants, and of those quantities which cannot
be separated from the constants.
259. We now proceed to develop the equation in the form
The meridian
required. The method is that of Bessel.
from which the longitude is reckoned will be called the first
meridian.
Let
the local time of an observed occupation
mean or
sidereal
w=
the west longitude of the place of observa-
w=
r =
the time at the
tion.
Then
t -\-
Let
first meridian.
an arbitrary time ?t the first meridian sufficiently near (/ -j- w] so that the change in
x and y during
may be assumed
the interval
(t -\-
T)
to be proportional to the
time.
and y, are the values of x and y at the time r.

Let Ax, Ay, Ak, be the corrections required to reduce the
values of x, y, and k employed to the true values. These
corrections depend on the various outstanding errors above
*
considered.
The true values of these quantities, corresponding to the

instant of observation, will then be
k -f Ak;
x +x'(t+w
n
448
x'
and
259.
y' are as before the changes in x and y in one hour,

sidereal according as one or the other is employed.
mean or
Let Aee
the correction to the assumed value of
e"
e be-
ing the eccentricity of the meridian.
Then
As
and
;?
will require the corrections
and
these quantities,
//,
-^
Aee and
r- Aee,
do not depend upon the
longitude, they will be correctly given by equations (411),

and require no other corrections.
Using the corrected values

becomes
of x, y,
B,,
and
t],
k,
equation
(415)
(k
+ AkJ
- V +/(/
v>
r}
+ Ay - -fcr.
(430
w is
supposed known with precision enough so that the values of x' andy, which change with the time, will be known
with sufficient accuracy.
Let
m sin M =
m cos M =
Equation (431)
may
(XQ
(jj/o
);
'/);
;/
sin
n cos
N=
N=
x';
y'.
then be written
wsin M+n
sin
--~4ee
(433)
259.
which may be placed
in the
.r
449
form
sin
N+by cos If-
-.
+[, smOtf-AO-f A* cos JV- A, sin JV-
( 434 )
Let us write
A.
..
= Ax sin N+Ay
cos N
,,
A
A
= Ax
CQsNAy sin N
,,
Then
\k
,,
d(S, sin-N-\-r>/
-
^(^cos^V
cos
N}
>-Aee
r;sin TV)
-Aee.
+ AkJ = [n(t+w -r)-\-m cos (MN) + A]

+[>
w sin (J/
Let
^V)
sin
sin
(J/_^)-A7. (436)
......
(437)
Then neglecting terms

A'
and Ak,
-+-w
(436)
may
of the second and higher orders in

be written as follows:
= -n cos --n
ib
cos (M
N} -|-n
sec
~\
We
>&
have -cos^
n
a form which
very small.
is
w
n
cos
little
(438)
(M-N) = -ms\r\(Mn
sin $
J
more convenient when
sin
ip
is
not
45
261.
Equation (438) then gives
m
-
TV
sin
(MN+$)
sin
Ak
-sec
n
(t
T)-]
'
'
V
,
i--\{
K-
-tan ^
-, (439)
v
n'
and the equation is solved for a;.

As will be seen, this value of w is ambiguous,
being determined from (437) in terms of the sine, with nothing to fix
/>
the algebraic sign of cos fi.

will be
(423), the sign of cos
As
>/'
before, however, equation
in case of
immersion and
-f-
always be the case except when the

occultation takes place very near the north or south limb of
the moon, when there will sometimes be exceptions 10 the
Such occultations, however, are worth very little for
rule.
longitude purposes, and therefore will not require further
for emersion.
This
will
consideration here.
260. x' andy vary so slowly that the above equation will
give a very close approximation to the true result, even
It will, howwhen (t -\- TV
r) is some hours in duration.
ever, be best to arrange the computation so that (/ -{- w
r)
a small quantity, as the labor is less in dealing with small

quantities than with large ones, and there is less liability to
error.
The unit of time in the small terms of (438) and (439) is one
is
hour.
If
then
w and
(t
r)
are expressed in the usual
and seconds,
way
be convenient to exIf then the time of the

press these small terms in seconds.
ephemeris and of observation are both sidereal or both mean
solar, these terms should be multiplied by 3600. If, however,
the ephemeris time is mean solar, and that of observation
in hours, minutes,
it
will
we must multiply by 3609.856.

Let us now consider more fully the quantities A and A'.
These depend upon the corrections to the moon's co-ordinates, viz., Ax and Ay, and upon the correction to the eccenThese will be considered separately.
tricity, Aee.
sidereal,
261.
26 1
LONGITUDE B Y OCCUL TA TIONS.
45
The co-ordinates x and y are variable quantities, and the

corrections which they require on account of the inaccuracy
of the data, viz., Ax and Jy,'\vill also be variables. It will be
^more convenient for present purposes to express these in
terms of quantities which remain constant throughout the
entire occupation.
We
x=
y = j/
have
.*
-(-
n sin N(t
-f
cos;V(/
-\-
+w-
)',\
'
T);
irom winch we have
x sin N-\-y cos yV=

x cos N-\-y sin A^=
The
last
-r
,r
of these
is
sin N-\-y cos 7V-j-(^-hw

cos N-\-ya sin A^.
r);
practically independent of the time,
and therefore may be regarded as constant throughout the

entire occultation.
Let n
x^ cos
-f-
sin
N=
x cosN -\-y
Then squaring and adding equations
*"+/ =
n*
+ [x
sin
N.
(441),
smN-\-y cvsN+n(t + w
t
r)]
(442)
This expression is a minimum when the last term is zero.

Let the value of (/ -f- w) corresponding to this minimum
be
T.
Then
x^ sin
=
Therefore
N-\- ya cos
cos ;V-f
= vV +y
is
the
-\-
n(
T)
o;
sin TV.
minimum
distance of the
is
axis of the cylinder from the centre of the earth, and
the time at the first meridian corresponding to this minimum.
45 2
We now
have x
sin
-\-
y cos N =
n(t
-f-
262.
7");
Referring no\v to the values of A and A', equation (435), we*

have for the part of these quantities depending on x and y
For A,
For A',
Axs\i\N-\-
Ax cos 7V+ dy sin N.
Differentiating equations (444),
we have
=
Ax cos TV -f- -4^ sin N =
nAT-\- (t -\-
The
in
corrections
tan
tan
(A'
(t -f-
if}
Ax and Ay
AH.
Therefore that part of the terms
nA T-\- AH
for these quantities
A)
ip
due to
T}An.
Ax and
.
(445)
are by this formula expressed

will be constant for the
terms of AT, AH, and An, which
same
occultation.
262. It remains to consider the effect of an error in the
eccentricity, viz., Aee, which is considered here for the sake

of completeness, though it might be neglected without se-
riously impairing the practical value of the theory.
From
p cos
a>
(134)
and
(140)
cos
=
.4/1
we have
(p
^sm
p sin
q>'
dp
sin
dee
= -p sn ee
<z
In which
(p
/?
tpf
sin <p(\
.
ee]
(446)
262.
d5
d,
dee
dp
dS
dpsincp'
sin
11
*/?;
dee
dp sin
Referring
now
q>'
dee
<p'
dee
do cos
dp cos
dp cos
cp'
'
dee
q>'
dee
q>'
and
to the values of
453
equations (411),
/;,
we have
cp'
dp cos
(p
Therefore
= sin
-7
i'
dp cos
a):
/*
sintfcos(,u
now to
r^
-.
x/icin
sin
dp
= -/fy&;
-jr-
Referring
^
C/u
\f
a}:
^=
-3
dp
-/3fi
the values of A and
-,
fri
A',
sin cp
=o
'
= cos#.
0cos8.
(435),
(447)
we have
for
(448)
the terms depending on Aee

ForA '_
^
nsAr _
For A',
nAr
-A**
Let us write
<?
=^
=J
^^(
f cos
(^
^)
(jo
r
-\-TI
sin A'')-)-^ cos S sin
=x
m sin J/;
w cos J/.
Jo
/)
A''
we
Substituting these values in (448) and reducing by (443),

find
For
,1,
For/I',
iff/5[n(r
-JyS/Jf
- T) - m cos (M .
-|-
\Ve have from (437) and
w sin (yT/
(438),
N)]
^V)]
+ /?cos 5 sin N
ft
cos d cos A'
Aee\
Aee.
sin
(M
N) =
JV)
neglecting the small terms of
the latter,
m cos (M
(t -f-
r}n
k cos
^-;
sin
^-;
>&
454
which substitution
+ -
will
cos '/-]+/? cos cos N Aee;

+ k sin //]+/? cos d sin JV}^.
Therefore that part of
give us for (449)
nH
tf
(\!
tan $
* sec V]
A)
sec
l
}
which depends upon
7.)
* tan ^
Therefore by (445) and (451) the last three

(438) or (439) will be as follows:
-4-
is
[i
263.
i(>
sec
--
-\
if>
tan
Ak -
if)
-(t
= A T -- tan
+w-
-\
tp
(451)
terms of equation
AH
T)
(453)
Each term is expressed in seconds of time, and h is the number of seconds in one hour of the kind of time employed in
the ephemeris of the moon.
If the times employed in the
ephemeris and in observation are both sidereal or both mean
If the ephemeris time is mean solar and the
solar, h
3600.
time of observation sidereal, //
3609.86.
263. We have now obtained an expression for the small
terms of our equation, in which the quantities depending- on
the corrections to the moon's place are expressed in terms of
quantities which are constant during the time of the occultation.
It will be advantageous, however, to express them
directly in terms of the corrections to the quantities given in
the ephemeris, viz., to the moon's right ascension, declination,
and horizontal
parallax.
263.
Let A(A
A(D
or)
the correction to the assumed difference
6)
of right ascension of the moon and star;

the correction to the assumed difference
of declination
An =
We
=
have, equation (409),

cos
D sin
(A
a)
Writing for brevity x
and
the correction to the assumed parallax.
455
shT^
differentiating,
Ax
AX
= CiriTT
D cos
sin
It will
D sin
8 cos (A
'
a)
<
453)
Y
,
sin
'
ifn^
sm
TT'
TT'
we have
ATI
x tiltn
tan
-TT
ar
Ay
*
These equations in connection with
sin
cos
AY
= sin
C1117T
A*
Jy
'tan
TT
TT
(444) give the following:
TT
presently be
that tan
shown
7t
and therefore
_ nAT=
^J^L^
Sin
rr
AX cos TVAT
-f-
A*v
Y sin
*r
7v
JTJ
;r
sin
TT
tan
(454)
456
The value
264.
We
From
now be more
will
N=
N=
have, equations (432), n sin

n cos
n"
x"
nAn
x' Ax'
these,
Differentiating,
x'
An
of
andy,
it
-j-
264.
fully considered.
x'\
y'.
y'\
y' Ay'
-\-
(455)
remembered, are the changes in x and y

Regarding them as the differen-
will be
respectively in one hour.
x and y with respect
tial coefficients of
dx__dL
dy
dt
-JT
and
-JT
X _
_ d( Y
~
dt\s\\\
we have
dX
dfr\sin nl
dt
to the time,
dt
sin
_ dY
nl~
dt sin
~y
depend upon the hourly change
right ascension and declination,

with accuracy by the ephemeris.
,
'
of the
moon
in
which changes are given
Any correction to the values of x' and y' will therefore depend upon n.
may therefore write
We
A
Ax'
'
Ay
>
= AA
sin
-.
AA
-=
sin
'.
Substituting in equation (455),
=
tan
?r'
tan
becomes
it
An
/a
Therefore
tan
y
n
^tan
the value assumed above.
LONGITUDE BY OCCULTATIONS,
265.
Returning now to equations
265.
AX
An
tan
see that
AY
and
sin JT
TT'
we
(454),
457
sin
?r
be regarded as constant throughout the duration of the
may
AT
and
occultation, since they are expressed in terms of
AH, which are constant, and An and TV, which are practically so.
The
values of
-AX and -AY will then result from

sm n
sin re
the differ-
entiation of equations (453), viz.:
X=
cos
Y=
sin
D sin (A
D cos
cos Z? sin # cos (A
a);
^/JT = cos D cos (^
sin Z> sin (A
a)A(A
a)
A Y = [cos D cos d + sin Z> sin cos (^
a)] AD
);
a)AD\
tf
-\-
At
cos Z> sin S sin
at)
A (A
a]
the time of conjunction of the sun and
comes equal
7t
sin
moon A
be-
Therefore
to a.
AX = cos/?..
-- A(A
sin
(y4
- = -- --
-JF
a);
TC
Therefore taking
sin
D and
re
cos(/?
i
sin
tf)
^.(456)
'-A(D
for the instant of conjunction of
moon and star in right ascension, and regarding A(Aa)

and A(D
the corrections to the assumed differences
tf) as
the
of right ascension
unity for cos (D
and declination
d),
TC
for sin
at this instant, also writing
n and tan
TT,
we
have, from
(454),
AT=
^smTV-f
a}
An=
'-
TT
ATC
cos TV;
An
A(D-6} sin TV
A7
x
.
cos TV-f
TT
;
'
(457)
4$8
266.
Substituting these values in (452), and writing for brevity
we have
-=-
-*sec ^4. -tan $
r[sin
_|_ j/[
C os
DA(A
4~ v sec
^>
v\ji(t -|-
yVcos
TtAk 4~
NCOS DA(A 4~ sin
NA(D
K
7")
\.a.n
6[n(t-\-wT)Ktanip&sec
a)-f- cos
NA(D -
5)]
5)]
if>\ATt
'-
4 \x4tt.
(459)
This equation gives the expression for the last three terms
which An and 2/^ are completely separated from the other corrections.
266. Let us now write
of (438) or (439), in
O = *|
y
sin
if?
cos
A)
7
(M
(t
T);
"
cos
= _ cos
= n(t-\-w
v
^=
-N
cos
DA(A
a)
cos
-f-
u tan
T)
cos
sn
J(Z>
tf);
-K tan ^-4 sec ^ _ ^ cos g cos A^)!

COS^
J
[!/?/?[(,+,_ r)
|_2
Then equation
w=
fl
(438)
vy
-\-
(460)
?/-;
ff>
becomes
v tan
rf>$ -(-
sec tyitAk
-\-
vEAit -\- vFAee.
(461)
This equation is now in a form which is well adapted to

the purpose in view.
w, y, 5, Ttdk, An, and Aee may in certain cases be treated
as unknown quantities, but they can never all be determined
at the same time from the same series of equations.
vy is a constant, and its value is independent of the longitude of the place of observation. In order to make its de-
267.
459
termination possible, therefore, the occultation should be observed at one place at least whose longitude is known. In
case such an observation is not available, y may be determined from meridian observations of the moon, if such are
available, made on the same night or sufficiently near the
same time that A A and AD may be well determined from
Of course if the ephemeris of the moon were perfect

would be unnecessary, as then AA and AD would be
them.
this
zero.
267. In case simply the immersion or emersion of a star -has
at two places, the longitude of one of which
is well determined, the power of the data will be exhausted
been observed
with the determination of w and y. If both the immersions

and emersions have been observed, we may also determine
nAk and
as unknown quantities, but in no case can An be
determined from occultations unless w has been previously
well determined.
oiAee be obtained
can a satisfactory determination

manner. The two last terms may,
Still less
in this
however, be retained in the solution of the equations in

order to show the effect on the resulting longitude of an
error in TC or in ec. At the same time it will make it possible to apply the necessary correction to the longitude, if from
any source values of these quantities become known more
accurate than those assumed in the computation.
For the determination oidk from single occultations both
immersion and emersion must be observed, but contacts at
the bright limb can be observed much less satisfactorily than
at the dark limb.
The best results are obtained from the occultations of
of stars like the Pleiades, in which the relative positions of the stars are well determined.
The passage of the
groups
moon through such

of condition of the
a group furnishes a number of equations

form (461), equal to that of the observed
disappearances or reappearances of the stars occulted.
As
4^0
268.
before remarked, observations at the dark limb can be made

with much greater accuracy than at the bright limb (except
If it is
perhaps in case of a few of the brighter stars).
thought desirable, therefore, only observations made at the

dark limb need be used in the equations, especially so if stars
are observed both north and south of the moon's equator.
On account of the advantages offered by the Pleiades for
this purpose, Prof. Peirce developed the equations in a
especially adapted to this group, for use in the
form
longitude
work
of the
U.
S.
Coast Survey.
ciently interested in the subject
The reader who is suffimay refer to the reports of
the U. S. Coast Survey, 1855-56-57-61, in the latter of which

is given a numerical example of the application of the method.
Correction for Refraction
and for Elevation above Mean Sea

Level.
The fundamental
equation which has been used as the

our analysis expresses the condition that the point
from which the immersion or emersion is observed is situ268.
basis of
ated in the surface of a right cylinder enveloping the moon

and star. At the same time it has been supposed to be in
the spheroidal surface of the earth.

The refraction which the ray suffers in passing through
the atmosphere causes the elements of this cylinder to be
curved lines instead of right lines; or, more correctly, the
is not that of a cylinder.
Further, it follows from
the irregularities of the earth's surface that the point from
which the observation is made will not in general be in the
surface of the mean ellipsoid. Neither of our surfaces there-
surface
fore conforms exactly to the mathematical form assumed.

The effect upon the observed time of an occupation will
LONGITUDE BY OCCULTATIONS,
268.
461
always be small, but in extreme cases must be taKen into account in an accurate investigation.
If we consider a ray of light as it comes to the
eye at the
instant when the star is apparently in contact with the moon's
limb, this ray will form a curved line, the asymptote of which
will cut the vertical line of the observer at a point where the
contact would be seen at the same instant as that observed
if no refraction existed.
The effect of refraction will then
be taken into account if we substitute this point for the point
occupied by the observer.
Let
h'
the altitude of this fictitious point above the

observer's position
;
Then h
the altitude of the observer's position above

the mean sea level.
+ h' =
the altitude of the fictitious point above the

mean sea level.
Let us then suppose the observation to be made from a

point at this elevation above the surface of the mean ellipsoid.
The necessary transformation will be accomplished by
changing p cos q>' and p sin cp' into p cos cp' -f (h -\- h'} cos cp
and p
sin
cp' -\-
(h -f h'} sin
p cos
and
p sm
cp' [i
cp'
f
\\
cp
+ (h +
or,
h')
IA
+,,,"'.
(h + h
by formulas 446,
Vi
ee sin
ee sin
^T^
cp]
<p~\
_T
h and h! will always be very small fractions when expressed in parts of the earth's radius therefore no appreciable error will result from neglecting the products of these
;
462
268.
Also (\-\-h-\- h') will be practically equal

the small term hh' being of no account.
The necessary correction for elevation above the mean
sea level will therefore be obtained by adding to log p
log (i -f- //), and the correction for refraction by adding
quantities
to (i -f- Ji)
log
(i
by
ee.
(i -f- h'},
h').
Expanding log
M = .43429448
(i -f- A),
is
we have
the modulus of the
common system
logarithms.
h is here expressed in terms of the earth's radius.
given in feet
we
of
If it is
shall have, instead of the above,
Therefore, neglecting squares and higher powers of h,
log
(i -\- h)
/*(.ooo
ooo 02076).
(462)
If, for instance, the elevation is 1000 feet, the correction

to be applied to log <? and log ij will be .000 0208.
The factor (i -f- h'} will now be considered.
In the general theory of refraction the atmosphere is regarded as composed of concentric strata the thickness of
which is uniform and may be regarded as infinitesimal. If
the distance of any point in a ray of light from the earth's
centre be r, i the angle between the tangent and normal at
the point to which r is drawn, then it is shown by the theory
jur sin i is a constant, // being the index of
refraction for the infinitesimal stratum at the point under
consideration.
of refraction that
268.
463
For the point where the ray enters the eye let r yw and
be the special values of r, /<, and /. Then z' will be the
apparent zenith distance of the star, and from the foregoing
,
z'
H r s:n z
If
the
first
is
point
sin
pr
i.
(463)
taken so far away as to be beyond the
limit of the earth's atmosphere, then the refraction at this
point
is
zero and
becomes
/<
unity.
The above equation then becomes

sin z
// O r
r sin
i.
(464)
In the figure,
ZQr
OP =
ru
Or
r;
is
PQ =
//';
OrQ
i.
the true zenith dis-
tance of the star observed.
Then from
rQO
the triangle
(rt
-j-
r sin
sin z
AV* sin
^') sin
and from equation (464)

(r a
from which
-\- ti]
It
,
rn
//.
sin
-
sin
2',
r will not differ appreciably for this purpose from the
464
equatorial radius of the earth
(i
h'}
The mean value
of
//
log
z,
is
i.ooo 2800.
is
value of <2 equations (41 1)

For this purpose
to cos z.
The following
tion to the
may
use log
is
-(- /*'),
By
with the argu-
referring to the
we see that <2 is very nearly equal

we may consider it the same.
Bessel's table for log
(i -)- h').
argument z we have given cos

<2
h! as ex-
log
readily arranged for log (i

the zenith distance of the star.
table
ment
if we
regard
we have
so that
pressed in terms of this quantity
without appreciable error.
TABLE
B.
z,
for
In addi-
which we
268.
465
Example. The following occultations of stars of the Pleiades group were

observed at Washington and Greenwich on September 26, 1839:
AT WASHINGTON.
AT GREENWICH.
Star.
^Celaeno
^ Taygeta
c Maja
Sidereal Time.
Sidereal Time.
ss'.Ss
22" 5 i m 19'. 99
5" 23
5
56
50 .63
23
o .68
58
17.43
23
17
46.52
emersions observed at the dark limb of the moon.

at Washington were made at Gilliss's observatory on Capitol
the position of which is assumed to be Latitude tp = 38 53' 32". 8
h
8m i 8
West
These are
all
The observations
Hill,
longitude
The
latitude of
Greenwich
cp
.75
51
28' 38''. 4
We now take from Bessel's catalogue of the Pleiades the right ascensions
and declinations of the stars for 1839.0 and reduce them to apparent place for
h
h
1839, September 26, Greenwich 3 and 6 sidereal time, viz.:
a 6"
03"
^-Celaeno...
e
Taygeta.
..
'-Maja
5349'
34".6S
56"
63"
53
49' 34". 72
23
46' 56". 47
23
53
55 27 .47
53
55 27 .51
23
57 40 .96
23
54
4 47 .27
54
4 47 .31
23
51
50 .01
23
46' 56".48
57 40 .97
50 .02
51
The right ascension, declination, and horizontal parallax of the moon for four
consecutive hours viz., 3 h 4'', 5 h and 6 h Greenwich sidereal time are as
,
follows:
* Moon's
3
.4
524o'29".S2
24
8'
ir
60' io".ig
60 8 .88
55". 07
53
18
58 .26
24
18 44 .85
53
57 3i -09
24
28 24 .41
60
7 .57
6h
54
36
24 37 53 .73
60
6 .25
We now
compute x and y
8 .03
for these dates for each of the stars
from formulae
(410), viz.,
_cosZ>sinG4
_ sin (D
a)
8
S) cos
^(A
a)
-f-
sin
sin
if
(D 4-
8) sin*
\(A
a).
'
sin
7t
* These values are

given by Peirce, Coast Survey Report 1861, pp. 204, 205. They were computed directly from Hansen's tables. When the Nautical Almanac is used the intervals will be
/aean solar hours.
466
The computation
'
This
is
is
given in
full for
Celaeno.
the quantity taken from Zech's addition
and subtraction logarithmic
table
263.
467
We thus have values of x and y computed for four consecutive hours, from
which we can now compute the values of x and y' to the third order of differences inclusive by means of formulae (101), (101),, and (ioi), viz.
:
1.047686
.583910
.369506
.160189
.463753
5S3948
.529653
.160105
y'
.120194
.583938
.689716
.160023
6h -f
.704108
.583882
.849699
.159941
4
5
For the other
stars
observed we find
Taygeta.
Maja.
3
h
h
6h
1.278300
+.584071
.290289
I59I05
.694197
.584128
.159024
.110057
.584145
449353
.608340
.158951
.474080
.584122
.767257
.158884
Computation of
(C is
only required for
|,
rj,
and
determining the correction due to refraction.)
Formulae (412) are as follows:
p cos
q>'
cos
sin
(j.i
<p'
With the known values of

and q> by the use of formulae
sin /?;
b cos
a)
B\
=
=
q>
for
p cos
q>'
sin (u
b sin
rj
(B
cos (5
a);
5);
5).
Greenwich and Washington, we obtain p
(V), Art. 77-
468
The computation
is
268.
then as follows:
been computed for the purpose of taking into account the correction for
=
With this value we find from table B. Art. 268, log (i
'A')
.ooooooi and .0000005 respectively, which values are to be added to log |
and log Tf. As they are so small as to be practically inappreciable, they have
been neglected.
2 has
refraction.
Also,
we nave
for the
above times of observation
TAYGKTA.
Greenwich.
|
+.360523
77+. 504728
Washington.
Greenwich.
MAJA.
Washington.
-.725974
'+.455553
+.362353
+.506584
+436040
-.704226
469
With the assumed value of the longitude of the observatory at Washington,

m i8
5'' 8
75, we reduce the Washington times to Greenwich time, and assuming the values of r sufficiently near these times that x and/ may be assumed
to vary uniformly during the interval, we compute M, m, N, n, and i)> by the
viz.,
formulae
m sin M = JT
m cos M = y
The computation
I;
tj\
wsin
n cos
for Celaeno
is
N=
N = y'
x'\
sin
;
then as follows:
if>
sin
(M -
N).
PRA CT1CAL A STJtOA'OM Y
4/0
Since the emersions were the phases observed, cos

Greenwich.
iff
We now
18'
299
compute fl from
cos
In a similar
manner we
43". 7
54' 35". 5-
tp
(M
cos
log h
3600;
3.5563025.
find for the other stars
ForTaygeta,
For Maja,
We
plus; therefore
Washington.
the formula
_n
where
ip is
3 268.
9".
30
+5 h
9".
79
-}~5
fl
7
7
8
m
55 -67;
8
m
53 -8-
next compute T, H, and v by formulae (443) and
T=
-(x a
xo cos
cos
sin
-\-
yt sin
(458), viz.:
N);
N;
* It is not necessary for this purpose to know the value of k with extreme accuracy, since
the correction A/t to the assumed value appears as one of the terms of our equation.
LONGITUDE BY OCCULTA TIONS.
268.
471
For Celaeno we have
Zech
log;'o cos
log(*o sin
JV-y
cos
.43345
7^9.29923
N)
log
9 73268
.21793
9 95o6i
Nat. No.
.8925
T 4- 5075
We now compute
v tan
rf>,
the coefficients for the final equations of the form (461), viz.:
vE =
v\ti(t -{-
T)
H tan
^],
and
v sec
^>.
47 2
Computing
the coefficients for the other
two
268.
same way, we
stars in the
ob-
tain the following six equations:

Celaeno: G.
= -
TO
o h o ra
W. w' =
Taygeta: G.
W.
G.
Maja:
TO
,'
-M
W. /
13".
42
= =
- =
9 .30
55 .67
9 .79
53. .08
2.935* -f 3.36617^
1.6487
55.55-1-6487
+
-
2. 74 8Au-;
[i]
.jToAir.
[4]
.084*41.650^*-
+ i.75 3 irA* + 1.307 Aw;

i.6 4 8y + 1.048* + I.QSJITA* o8 4 A,r.
- 2.328* + 2.8 5 27rA* f 2.4 9 2Air;
1.648?
i.6 4 8y
.598*
1.6487
- .062*+
i.6soirA
[2]
[5]
[3]
.4 4 2Ajr.
[6]
-.
f
I
If we assume y, 3, An. and TtAk to be the same in all of these equations

an assumption which involves no appreciable error we shall have six equations between those quantities and w'.
w, the longitude of Greenwich, will
be zero.
It is evident, however, that for various reasons a direct solution of these
In the first place, the large terms involved
equations will not be expedient.
would render the operation very laborious, and further it will not be possible
to separate Art
to be
We
from the remaining quantities without assuming both
and w'
known.
therefore proceed as follows:
Assuming the equations to be of equal
we subtract the first from the third, the first from the fifth, and the
weight,
third from the fifth; then we subtract the second from the fourth, the second
from the sixth, and the fourth from the sixth. We then have the following six
equations:
o=
4.12
-f-
337^
l.bllTtAk
3-63+ .6oy3-
=
.49
0-4. I2+
o =
2.47
o =
2.59
o
.5I47T/7/C-
1.7303 -f i.oggTr/U 4-
I.24lJjr. [2]
.256Z/7T;
[i]
[3]
[i]
.985 Jff; [3]
[2]
.96434-
.303*^-- .514^*; [5j- [4]
.1463
.oooTtdk 4-
.I28//7T;
[6]
.wsTtdk
.642Z/7T.
[6]~[5]
i.no3
-\-
[4]
of these six equations of condition we now determine the most

probable values of 3 and TtAk. The value ofZ/Tf, however, cannot be well deIf it were not known a priori that such
termined, as we have before remarked.
By means
was
the case,
it
would be shown from the normal equations, which would be
We
shall therefore determine 3

practically indeterminate for this quantity.
and TtAk in terms of Ait in order to show what effect an error in rt will have
upon the longitude.

By the method of Art. 21 we derive from the above equations the following
two normal equations:
11.00563
5-3545^
5.35457T^7/
-)-
4.25747rJ
=
=
16.0306
8.2287
-f-
5.9864^^;
2.8656^.
,Q
208.
From which
itAk
=
= -
".2588
We now
i".330i
substitute these values in the
-f-
.O28g//7T:
1.6487
=
=
= -
Mean 1.6487
= -
1.6487
1.6487
first, third,
8.645
+ 1.209.4*;
8.055
5.955 -f
7.552
1.226^*;
1.
+ .5577^*.
writing zero for w, the longitude of Greenwich,

values for 1.6487:
276-4.
4/3
'
and
of equations (A),
fifth
when we
find the following
(E)
1.237^*;
4". 582
+ .751^*.
We now substitute
sixth of (A),
when
these values of TtAk, 3, and y in the second, fourth, and

we find the following values for the difference of longitude
between Greenwich and the observatory on Capitol

Celaeno
w =
Taygetaa/
w
Maja
Mean
=5
=5
8m
Hill,
Washington:
3'. 42
1.712^*;
i.68i2/*;
2 .33
1.141.665.4*.
2 .30
i.
686.4*.
The Capitol Hill observatory is io 25 east of the Naval Observatory. The

h m
8
longitude of the latter, determined telegraphically, is 5 8 I2 .O9 west of Greenwich. Therefore the true value of w is 5'' 8 m i s .84, corresponding very closely
with the above value if we neglect Ait altogether.
s
With these values of y and 3 we may now determine the correction

assumed right ascension and declination of the moon.
We
have
sin
jVcos
DA(A DA(A -
a)
+ cos NA(D -8)=y;)

NA(D
d)
a) and
Substituting for the coefficients of A(A
values for the three stars, we have the equations
A(D
cos JV cos
a)
-f-
sin
From which we
find
A(A
A(D -
a)
d)
=
=-
5)
= - 4582;
8)
1330.
3.
to the
S) the
mean
of the
4". 46;
2 .49.
Assuming the errors of the star places to be inappreciable, these will represent
the errors in the computed right ascension and declination of the moon at a
time corresponding to the
mean
of the times of observation.
These corrections
474
269.
it will be seen are affected by any small outstanding error in the parallax, as
o.
they have been derived by assuming Ait
o and taking for it the mean of the values
In the same way, assuming Ait
given above,
3608",
viz.,
we
from the above value of itAk
find
Ak
We
k
k
hav2 -assumed
Therefore
=
=
=
-j-
.0000717.
.272270.
.272342,
shown from these observations. This result from so small a number of

occultations has no value, however, as a determination of the moon's semi-
as
diameter.
Observations of Different Weights.

269. In the solution of
to be of the
our equations we have supposed
same weight.
all
Such
will not in general be the

equal, those occultations will be
Other things being

best for longitude determination which are most nearly
When both immercentral in reference to the moon's disk.
sion and emersion of the same star are observed, the obsercase.
vation at the dark limb of the moon is entitled to greater

weight than that at the bright limb, except, perhaps, in case
of the brighter stars.
In order to determine the proper manner of treating the
equations when different weights are assigned, let us suppose,
as in our example, three observations to have been made at
one place whose true longitude is w, then for the present,
considering only terms in y and $, we shall have three equations of this form
Vpw
Vp'w
VpaS
-
Vp'a'S
VpO
\fp'O'
o;
o;
(466)
LONGITUDE BY OCCULTA TIONS.
269.
Where O = H
From these we
ry, and/,/',/" are the respective weights.

derive the normal equations
=
\_pa\w
The
4/5
+ [paa]5
[paO]
;1
O.
solution of these equations in the usual
manner gives
(468)
\jaO\\.
gives % with the weight [/##!].

But, as we have seen, this form of solution
on account of the large quantities involved.
Which
Let us write out
[paai\
in full the
_ //(a
a')
-\-pp"(a
inconvenient
values of \_paai] and
=pa*+p-a'*+ P "a"* -
is
(P* +P'*'
a")
(469)
'
/+/'+/'
Comparing these expressions with our equations of condi(466), we see that the final equation for 3 may be
tion
obtained as follows:
the
first,
Before
multiplying
the
equations
and Vp" subtract the second from

the third from the first, and the third from the
through by Vp,
Vp',
',
476
269.
second, then give to the three resulting equations the
fol-
lowing weights respectively:
pp"
pp'
+ p' VF'
+ P' +7'
p'p"
7T7T7
'
We
may apply the same reasoning to the equation in which

unknown quantities are retained, and may extend
Thus if the
it to any number of equations of condition.
number of equations of condition were four, we find by comall
of the
bining them in a like manner, two and two, six equations

with weights
pp"
pp'
P +/ +/' +/"'/ +/
It
is
"
+ P" +/''"
p"p'"
+/ +/" + /"'
not possible to give a rule by which the proper
weight can be assigned
in every case, as it will depend upon

a variety of circumstances, such as the skill and experience
of the observer, the magnitude of the star, condition of the
atmosphere, and various other causes. Evidently, if weights
are to be assigned depending upon these circumstances,
much must be left to the judgment of the observer and comIf the conditions are otherwise the same in case of
puter.
two stars, the weights may be assumed proportional to the
numerical values of cos ^; that is, proportional to the chord
a central occultaof the moon's disk traversed by the stars
tion having the weight unity.

If
ciple,
/:'
we assign weights to our six equations (A) in accordance with this prinwe shall have for the weights, taken in order, p = .49; pi = i.oo; p' =.94;
.84;
/"
The weights
.58; pi"
i.oo.
of equations (B) will then be in accordance with formulae (470).
[2]
[3]
[3]
[I]
.22 9
[5]
[i]
.141
[6]
[2]
-271
[6]
[ 4]
.296
[4]
-352
[5]
.296
477
Multiplying the equations by the square roots of the respective weights

proceeding in the usual way, we obtain the following normal equations:
2.76303
1.23913
From
these
we
-f-
239i7rJ
1.01747^^
=
3 = -
itAk
find
-f-
=
=
and
3.7605 -f I.5I29//7T;
1.6907
.6678//7T.
.00931
1.3570
--
.5579^*-
Substituting these values in [i], [2], and [3] of equations (A), and taking the
mean by
weights,
we
find
1.648^
Finally,
8.l6l -f I.22lJff.
substituting these values of 3, itAk,
find the following values for
these
=
=
w =
and
w'
8 m 3 9 .6i
i.-jc&Jit;
wt.
[5]
w'
2 .43
I.675//7T;
wt.
i.66o//7r;
wt.
.34
we have
in [4], [5],
w:
[4]
[6]
From
8 m 2 S .4.6
=
=
=
r.oo.
.84.
i.oo.
and
[6],
we
CHAPTER
VIII.
THE ZENITH TELESCOPE.
is
270. This instrument is used in determining latitude, and

particularly useful when a high degree of accuracy is re-
quired, the precision being not inferior to that of the most

refined instruments of a fixed observatory, while on account
of its great simplicity it is especially adapted to use in the
field.
We
have already developed several methods for determining latitude those of Chapter V". are very useful, but will
not be employed in the field except in cases where an error
of five or six seconds in the result is not considered objec:
tionable.
The prime
vertical transit gives results of high
precision, but not without the expenditure of much labor.

The method by the zenith telescope is superior to the first
of these in accuracy, and to the second in facility of application.
On account of these advantages *it has superseded all
other methods on the Coast and other government surveys

in cases
where extreme accuracy
The most common form
is
required.
is shown in Fig. 54.

In general appearance, as will be seen, it is a telescope with
an altitude and azimuth mounting. The essential characteristics are a very delicate level attached to the tube, like the
of instrument
level of the finding-circles in the transit instrument, and the

eye-piece micrometer. The vertical axis is made very long
to insure steadiness of motion in azimuth

is
used in the meridian
like the transit.
The instrument
2/0.
THE ZENITH TELESCOPE.
FIG.
54.
THE ZKNITH TELESCOPE.
479
4^0
In the Coast Survey instrument the aperture of the teleis 3^ inches, focal length 45 inches, length of horizontal axis 7 inches, vertical axis 24 inches, diameter of horizon-
scope
12 inches, vertical circle 6 inches (sometimes this

only a semicircle, the radius being 6 inches). The instrument rests on three foot-screws. The lamp at the end of the
horizontal axis opposite the telescope illuminates the field;
the weight seen at the same end of the axis acts as a countertal circle
is
This weight is connected with the

poise to the telescope.
telescope by a bent metallic bar, shown in the figure, in such
way as to prevent to some extent the flexure of the axis.

The horizontal circle is read by means of two verniers.
The level attached to the vertical circle is generally gradu-
ated so that the motion of the bubble over one millimetre

corresponds to an angle of one second of arc. The accuracy
of the instrument depends in a great degree on the delicacy
of this level.
In testing an instrument it may generally be
assumed that if the level is a good one the performance of
the instrument as a whole will be satisfactory. The stridinglevel shown on the horizontal axis is used for adjusting the
instrument, and is not necessarily of so great accuracy.
The micrometer* is provided with one or more movable
threads, the value of one revolution of the screw being from
45" to 60". The head of the screw is divided into 100 parts,
of which tenths may be estimated; thus by estimation T-^ of
one revolution may be read, or about o".o$. The entire
revolutions are read by means of a comb at one side of the
field of view, the distance between two consecutive notches
corresponding to one 'revolution. There are three, and
sometimes five, vertical threads which may be used for
observing transits. A rack and pinion is provided for slid-
ing the eye-piece in the direction of the vertical so that the

may always be observed in the middle of the field.
star
* For
description of the micrometer see Art. 97.
ZENITH TELESCOPE. ADJUSTMENTS.
2/1.
The instrument
is
481
mounted like the transit on a pier

solid wooden post planted three feet
of
in
masonry, or simply a
the ground.
The dimensions given above are those of a large-sized instrument; much smaller ones are often used.
The transit instrument may be used as a zenith telescope
if it is
provided with the fine level and micrometer. A
special appliance for reversing
As we have seen
is
convenient, but not essential.
in the descriptions of the different
forms
of
portable transit instruments, the two are often combined.

This arrangement is very advantageous on the ground of
economy of first cost and of transportation; at the same time
nothing
is lost in
accuracy and
little in
convenience.
Adjustments.
271. First. The vertical axis must be made truly vertical.
In setting up the instrument it will be found advisable to
place two of the loot-screws .in an east and west direction,
otherwise if it is found necessary to move the screws after

the instrument has been brought into the plane of the meridian this last adjustment will be disturbed.
The
axis
is
brought into the vertical position by the use

which should read the same while the
turned completely around in azimuth. This
of the striding-level,
instrument
is
adjustment will also be tested by means of the more delicate

level attached to the telescope.
Second. The horizontal axis should be perpendicular to the
This may be tested by reversing the stridingvertical axis.
level after the vertical axis has been properly adjusted.
The line of collimation may be adjusted by directThird.
ing the telescope to some distant terrestrial mark, then turning the instrument 180 in azimuth by means of the horizontal
4^2
271.
Allowance must be made for the parallax of the instrument, unless the mark is so far away that it is not appreThis is necessary, since the line of collimation is not
ciable.
in the same vertical plane as the axis.
circle.
Let
distance of the line of collimation from vertical

axis;
D=
p=
distance of mark;
correction for parallax.
Then
This method of adjustment depends entirely on the reading of the circle, and is therefore not capable of extreme accuracy. If considered desirable, a more accurate adjustment
may be made by means of a pair of collimating telescopes*
or by the mercury collimator.* The error may also be determined by transits of stars observed in both positions of
the axis, as explained in connection with the transit instrument. If stars are chosen which culminate near the zenith,
an error of azimuth will have but little influence on the result.
When used as a transit instrument a meridian mark is

recommended, consisting of two lamps placed side by side
and at a distance apart equal to twice the distance of the
from the collimation axis.
perhaps unnecessary to say that the instrument must
be focused and the threads placed truly vertical and horivertical
It is
zontal respectively, precisely as in the transit instrument.

Fourth. The instrument must be brought into the plane of
For this and other purposes we require the

chronometer or clock being an essential part of
the meridian.
local time, a
* See Art. 168.
ZENITH TELESCOPE. ADJUSTMENTS.
2/1.
483
The clock correction A T ma)- be determined by

the sextant, transit instrument, or by transits observed with
the zenith telescope itself.
In the latter case the process of
the outfit.
bringing the instrument into the meridian will be the same

as that already described for the transit.
If A TIB known within one second of
its
true value, that
will be sufficient.
AT being supposed known,

a = the right ascension of a star near the pole.
Let
AT = the chronometer time of culmination.
Then a
At this instant, as shown by the chronometer, the middle
thread is placed on the star, the horizontal circle being provided with a clamp and tangent-screw for this and similar
purposes.
The reading
of the verniers
direction of 'the meridian.
now shows
the true
Two
stops arranged for the purpose are now clamped to the horizontal circle so that the instrument may be turned freely in azimuth, but brought to a
stop when it reaches the meridian. Care must be taken in
turning the instrument in azimuth not to bring it up against

these stops with a shock, as this will disturb the adjustment.
South stars may be used for adjusting in the meridian, provided they are sufficiently far from the zenith. In any case
the adjustment should be tested by trying whether a south
middle thread at the proper time.

stops should be placed so that in reversing the instrument in azimuth the object end of the telescope always
turns towards the east. The observer can then turn it in
star crosses the
The
azimuth a
little,
so as to find a star a
moment
before
it
enters
then knowing exactly where to look for the star,

the eye-piece can be brought to the right place by the rack
and pinion, and the micrometer-thread moved to nearly the
the field
proper place, so that when the star finally comes into view
made with all necessary deliberation.
the bisection can be
484
272
All of the above matters having been attended to, the

is ready for regular latitude observation.
in-
strument
The Observing
List,
272. The stars are observed in pairs, one star culminating

north of the zenith and the other south. The difference of
zenith distance should not exceed 15' or 20'.
Let
Then
q>,
and
6'
z and
z'
8,
respectively the latitude of station and

declination of south and north star;
the zenith distances.
= 6 -f *;
= 6' - z'\
<P = K* + *') + *<*-*')
<p
<p
Thus the latitude
is
equal to one half the
sum of
(472)
the declina-
tions plus one half the difference of zenith distance, which

latter must be small enough to be capable of measurement
by the micrometer.
The difference of right ascension of the two stars forming

the pair should not exceed 15'" or 20, as changes may take
If care is
place in the instrument if a longer time elapses.
used
in the selection, it
will
seldom be necessary to use a
pair with so long an interval as 15 minutes. The interval

should not be less than one minute, as the instrument must
be read and reversed in azimuth for the second star, which
will require at least that
amount
of time.
Stars smaller than the /th magnitude cannot be well observed with the instrument which has been described. With
smaller instruments the 6th magnitude will be about the

limit.
OBSERVING
2/2.
LIST.
485
may be observed, but gennot be necessary or advisable to go beyond 30
Stars at any zenith distance

it
erally
will
or 35.
The catalogues most suitable for the selection of stars are

the Coast Survey catalogue,* the various Greenwich catalogues, and the British Association catalogue. The declinations of the latter are not sufficiently reliable for a good latitude determination; but as it contains nearly all the stars down
to the 6th
used
magnitude
inclusive,
it
may very conveniently be
in selecting the list, the final declinations
wards taken from more
being
after-
reliable catalogues.
In selecting the stars we require an approximate value of

the latitude, which may often be taken from a map with sufficient accuracy, or if suitable maps are not available it may
be determined by a single altitude of the sun or a star at culmination measured with the sextant. An error of i' or 2' in
the assumed value will cause no inconvenience.
In selecting the list of stars we proceed as follows
First
we must know with what right ascension to begin. If, for instance, we intend beginning our observations at 7'' P.M., this
mean solar time converted into sidereal time will give the
:
right ascension of a star which culminates at that instant.

Starting with this right ascension, we take the first star
whose zenith distance at culmination does not exceed 35 and
look
down
differs
which
list to find whether there is another star which

m
this in right ascension between i and 15, and
From
will unite with this to form a suitable pair.
the
from
(472)
we have
Thus
if $' is
the declination of the star,
if
we can
* Coast
Survey Report 1876, Appendix No.
7.
find another
486
272.
6' more than

whose declination S does not differ from 2cp
15' or 20', the two stars will form a pair suitable for our purWith the great majority of trials we shall find no
pose.
second star fulfilling the above conditions. If we use the
British Association catalogue we can generally find from
one to three dozen pairs suitable for observation for any

night in the year.
Having gone over the catalogue in this manner, writing
down the catalogue numbers of the stars, the right ascensions, declinations,
that
some
and magnitudes,
it
will often
be found
of the pairs interfere with others in reference to
time of culmination.
We
may,
if
we
choose,
make out two
for observation on alternate nights, or we may drop

those pairs which are less suitable when they interfere with
lists
others.
The
places of the stars must then be reduced to the date
of observation by applying the corrections for precession,

The declinations need only be
nutation, and aberration.*
reduced to the mean place for the year, but the apparent
right ascensions for the date of observation will be required
within the nearest second. The necessary reduction may be
obtained very readily by comparing the stars with those of
approximately the same right ascension and declination of
the Nautical Almanac.
The following is an* example of an observing list prepared
for determining the latitude along the northern boundary of
the United States. The first column contains the number
of the star in the British Association catalogue, the second
column the magnitude, the third and fourth the right ascenThe letsion and declination, the fifth the zenith distance.
ter N. or S. in the next column shows whether the star culminates north or south of the zenith the stars with the large
:
For a
full
explanation of this subject see Art. 354 and following.
OBSERVING
273-
LIST.
487
declinations culminate north, those with the small declinaThe setting, given in the last column, is the mean
tion south.
of the zenith distances.

U. S. Northern Boundary Survey. Astronomical Station No. 4.
Observing List for Zenith Telescope.
1873, June 27.
Approx. <p 49
o'.
As will be seen, the selection of a good list of stars involves

Where great accuracy is required
considerable labor.
especial care should be exercised in selecting the stars, and
none should be employed whose declinations are not well
This part of the subject will be considered
determined.
more
in detail hereafter.
Directions for Observing.

273. A suitable list of stars having been prepared, the instrument adjusted, and the chronometer error determined,
the observer sets the vertical circle at the proper reading,
the telescope is directed towards that side of the zenith
488
where the
274.
and the bubble brought

by means of the tangent-
star will culminate,
first
to the middle of the level-tube
screw connected with the horizontal

of culmination, as
At the time
axis.
shown by the chronometer,
the star is bisected by the micrometer-thread, and the micrometer and

the instrument is then reversed in azimuth
level are read
and the second star observed in the same way this forms a
;
complete observation.
During the operations described the tangent-screw of

the vertical circle must not be touched, but the tangentscrew which moves the telescope, and consequently the level,
may be turned after reversing, in the exceptional case where

the vertical axis is not well adjusted.
If for any reason the bisection is not obtained at the instant of culmination, the star
may
be observed
off
the meridian
and the time of observation recorded, when a correction may

be computed to reduce it to the meridian. Several bisections
might be made while the star is crossing the field, and the
observations reduced to the meridian in a similar manner
but experience shows that little or nothing is gained in this
way. The accuracy with which a bisection can be made by
;
a skilled observer being greater than that of the average declinations which will be employed, it is advisable to increase
the
number of stars observed rather than to multiply obsersame star under the same circumstances.
vations on the
Determination of Value of Micrometer-screw.

274. This value may be determined most advantageously
of p. circumpolar star observed near elongation.
One of the four close circumpolar stars whose peaces are
by means
given
in the
American Ephemeris
for the purpose,
viz., 51
Cephei,
be selected
or A Ursse Minoris.
will generally
#, a,
274-
DETERMINATION OF MICROMETER VALUE.
489
The observations are made as follows: From 15 to 30 minutes before the star reaches elongation the telescope is
pointed to the star, the micrometer-thread being near that
end of the screw from which the star is moving. The telescope is set at such an elevation that the thread is a little in
advance of the star, and the bubble of the level brought into
the middle of the tube, without disturbing the position of
the telescope.
The time of transit of the star over the thread
is then observed and the level read.
The -thread is then
moved forward one revolution (or sometimes only half a
revolution) and the transit of the star observed in the new
position, and so on throughout the entire length of the
screw.
It is well to time the work so that the elongation will
occur near the middle of the series, though this is not essential.
With this in view it may be borne in mind that the
time required for Polaris to pass over a space equal to the
range of an ordinary zenith telescope micrometer will be
about 50, for A Ursse Minoris 70'", -for 51 Cephei 30'".
The record of the observations will be kept according to
the following or a similar schedule
:
To prepare for the observation, the chronometer time of

elongation must be computed. It will facilitate setting the
instrument on the star if the azimuth and zenith distance are
also computed.
49
275.
In the triangle formed by the arcs of great circles joining

the zenith, the pole, and the star, the angle at the
It
star
'
be a right angle at the time of elonga-
will
Then by Napier's
tion.
z
sin
rules,
cos d
-}
;
cos
tp
sin<z>
cos z
FlG
cos
55-
Let
tan
(474)
w/
^
<p
cot
d.
the chronometer time of elongation.
T=
Then
-.
sin o
AT? g
elongation.
(474),
Method of Reduction.
275.
ing to
We
have by observation a series of times correspondobserved transits of the star over the thread at succes-
If now the star moved

sive equal distances.
uniformly in a
great circle the intervals between these observed times would
be uniform, aside from errors of observation and the effect
of change of level.
The star, however, moves in a small
circle which is tangent to the vertical circle at the point of
elongation.
may, however, compute the correction
We
necessary to convert this motion in the small circle to uniform motion in a great circle, as follows:
For any one
of
our observed
transits let
the interval of time between ob-
z"
serration and elongation

the number of seconds of arc from
elongation
measured
= SK.
on
the
*
p, G
56i
vertical circle
Then
the angle
SPK =
sin
or
z"
z'
i$r expressed in arc, and
=
=
cos
cos
tf
<$
sin (157)
sin
(KT)
..-
sin i"
(475)
DE TERMINA TION OF MICROME TER VAL UE.
275-
By
491
expansion,
sin (157-)
If
= (157) sin
\"
in
the time of elongation
falls
// 3
+Tiu-( I 5 T
sin J/ T-
anywhere within the
never likely to be appreciable, so we

have with sufficient accuracy
the last term
is
z"
In which
log
This term
15
cos 8 [T
(15 sin i")*
- |(i 5 sin
= 0.94518
i")V].
series
shall
475 \
10.
be readily computed from the formula, but

is more convenient, where its value is
given for every minute of time from elongation to 65'". It
will seldom be advisable to extend the observations farther
from elongation than this. For this interval, viz., 65'", the
may
the following table
term
in r
is
o s .2i, and
may
very well be neglected, but
would soon become appreciable.
it
49 2
276.
Instead of applying this correction to r (the difference between the time of elongation and observation) it is more convenient to apply it directly to the observed time. It will be
We thus
plus before and minus after either elongation.
reduce the observed times to what they would have been if
the* star had moved uniformly in a vertical circle.
276. Correction for CJiange of Level Reading.

change in
the level reading indicates a change in the angle which the
The correction
line of collimation forms with the horizon.
necessary to apply to the observed times will be derived as

follows
Let
n
n, s
,
Then
sa
=
=
any level reading

an assumed level reading to which
reduced.
;
d\$(n
s)
i(
all
are to be
)].
This quantity will be an increment to z", and since it will

always be very small it may be treated as a differential. To
find the necessary correction to r we differentiate equation
(475):
'
cos z" dz"

dz''
Writing
cos d cos
cos z"
/,
I,
cos \^r
I,
this gives
Sr
15 cos o
Applying
this
= [(
30 cos 8
j)
Jo)]
\^j'\
E.
(
elongation.
(476)
and the correction taken from the table Art.
275 to the observed times, we shall have in one column

the readings of the micrometer, and in another the times
reduced to what they would have been if the star had moved
uniformly in vertical
circle,
and
if
in the position of the instrument.
no change had taken place

These may now be com-
2/7-
493
bined by subtracting the first from the middle one, the second from the middle plus one, and so on.
If n is the number of revolutions of the micrometer between
first and middle observations, we thus have a series of
values for the time required for the star to pass over this
space; if all errors could be avoided, these times would con-
the
sequently be the same.

15 cos 8
The mean
of these values multiplied
by
in
accordance with formula (475),, then gives the
value of one revolution expressed in seconds of arc.

277. Micrometer Value when Level Value is not known. There
is no more convenient or
satisfactory method for determining the value of the micrometer-screw than that just explained,
when
This
the value of the level has been previously determined.

may be done by a level-trier, or by a finely graduated
circle, as
already explained in Art. 164.
Circumstances sometimes make it necessary to determine

the values of both micrometer and level when no special apIn such a case the value
pliances are at hand for the latter.
of the level must first be determined in terms of the micrometer, as follows
The
telescope is directed to a sharply-defined mark, as the

threads of a collimating telescope, and the bubble brought
near one end of the tube; the mark is carefully bisected by
the thread of the micrometer, and both micrometer and level
The instrument is then moved through a small
are read.
vertical angle so as to bring the bubble towards the other

end of the tube, and the mark again bisected by the micrometer.
The
difference between the two readings of the micromthe measure of the angle through which the instrument
has been moved in terms of the micrometer, and the difference between the two level readings is the measure of the
eter
is
same angle
in
terms of the
level.
494
=
=
d=
M'
the
L, L'
the
Let M,
R,
two micrometer readings

two level readings
value of micrometer and level respectively.
Then
The
2 77-
d(L
L'}
d and
value of both
= R(M -
M'}.
R may now
series of approximations, as follows
(477)
be determined by a
The
value of
is
deter-
mined by the method just explained, neglecting the level

correction then with this value of R, dis computed by (477),
and the value used in a recomputation of R. This more
;
accurate value of R gives a more accurate approximation to

the value of d, and the operation may be again repeated if
If the instrument is mounted on a good foundanecessary.
change of level during the time of observation will

generally be so small that a very close approximation to the
true value of R is obtained by neglecting the level correcIt will seldom happen thai the change will be great
tion.
tion, the
enough
to render
more than one
repetition of the computa-
tion necessary.
A method
d
Let p
theoretically
= Mf
#
more rigorous
M' = =
D the
JT
is
as follows:
,.
7*,,,
micrometer
,
Z =
zenith distance, time, micrometer,

and level of a circumpolar star
observed at elongation
= the same quantities at time T.

= value of one division of the level
z = * + (M - M^R - (L - L^RD,
J MI + (M* - M )R - (L' - L }RD,
2,
Then
value of one division of the

level expressed in terms of the
M, L
RD d
T,
for a second observation.
2/8.
From
z
R=
these,
z^
( 477)i
same as the quantity which we

the previous formula, and may be comThe correction (15 sin i")V may of course
are the
z'
have called z"
V-J-
495
in
puted by (475).
be taken from the table and applied directly to the time of
observation as before. We shall then have in one column
the readings of the micrometer, and in another the times reduced to the vertical circle. We combine as before by subtracting the first from the middle, the second from the
middle plus one, and so on'; then divide each by its value of
(L
(M M")
L'}D. This gives the time required for
the star to pass over a space equal to one revolution of the
micrometer, which multiplied by 15 cos 8 gives the value in
seconds of arc.
We
z. directly for each observation

might compute z
This will involve a little more labor than the
method outlined above, as each term must be multiplied by
15 cos tf, while in the other case only one such multiplication
by
is
(475)-
necessary.
Example.
278. Polaris was observed at eastern elongation, 1874, June 18, for determining the value of one revolution of the micrometer of zenith telescope
Wiirdemann, No.
20.
Station: Fort Buford, Dakota.
Observer: Captain
J. F.
Gregory.
The preliminary computation necessary
to prepare for the observation is

of the azimuth, zenith distance, and time of
first given, viz., the computation

elongation by formulae (474).
For this purpose the right ascension and declination of Polaris are taken fiom
the Nautical Almanac, viz.:
a
6
The
latitude of station
was
cp
=
= 88
= 47
i
'
i2 m 6 s 4;
.
38' 3". 3.
59' 7".
96
The computation
cos o
cos
cp
=
=
sin a
is
278,
as follows:
8.37721
sin
'ot d
sin (p
=
=
9 99988
9.82563
9.87097
8.55158
COS 2
9.87109
tan >
53"' 56'
12
06
19
18
10
19''
i8 m
was observed over the micrometer-thread
at
2
12"
every half
turn, beginning with revolution 35 and ending with 5.5

sixty transits in all.
In the example I have only used those observed at the even revolutions, as this
will
be sufficient for illustrating the method of reduction.
278.
497
The
first five columns require no explanation.

The sixth contains the quantiwhich we have called r. The "reduction to vertical " is taken from the table
The "reduction to mean state of level" is (n
s a ),
Art. 275.
(w
s)
The "correction for level" is this quantity
where (
Jo) = o in this case.
ties
d
multiplied by
Therefore
30 cos
The value
of
one division of the
6'
this factor equals
level,
".893.
23.
The elongation being east, the sign of the level reduction is minus.
The " reduction to vertical" and "correction for level" being applied to the
observed time, we have the " reduced times" of the last column. We combine
these quantities by subtracting No. i from 16, No. 2 from 17, ... No. 15 from
30, thus obtaining a series of values for the time required for the star to pass
over a space equal to 15 revolutions of the screw. The mean of these quantities
in
multiplied by
seconds of arc.
The numerical work
is
cos S then will give the value of one revolution
as follows:
\yv\
Mean
43'" 24". 93
2604'. 93
log
cos d
log one revolution
One
revolution
Correction for refraction
Corrected value
=
=
146'.! 9
3-4 I 579
8.3772074
1.7930035
62". 0874
.0315
62".os6
49 8
The" correction for differential refraction
is
2/9-
computed by the
last of formulae
(481), viz.,
r'
5
[6.44676] sec z(z
log
z)
z)
(z
sec 2 s
r
lo<? (r
6.4468
=
=
=
=
m
in this case
being
.6745
is
now
".0315
of the squares of the residuals
Substituting in this formula,
15.
'o
This
.2578
8.4976
error is computed from the sum

column by formula (27), viz.,
The probable
in the last
1.7930
we
find
.563-
the probable error of the determination of the time required for the
The probable error of the above

star to pass over 15 revolutions of the screw.
determination of the value of one revolution of the screw will be obtained from
this quantity
From
by multiplying by the factor
this series
we
cos
<5,
viz.,
".013.
therefore conclude the most probable value of one revo-
lution of the screw to be
A'
62". 056
".013.
Value of One Division of Level.

279. An example has been given (Art. 164) of the determination of the level
value by means of the level trier.
Opposite is given an example of the deter-
mination of the level value of the above instrument by means of the micromeSee equation (477).
ter.
280.
1873,
June
15.
Mark
Observer, L. Boss.
cross-threads of transit telescope.
[vv]
Mean
value of
499
1.4396
".893
.027127
.0071.
J\
The above value
of R'
is
".62056.
Therefore
.004.
both the level and micrometer values were unknown, the above series of
observations of Polaris would give for one division of the micrometer, by neglecting the level readings, R'
".6209, which gives practically the same value
If
of
d as above.
this value of d the level corrections would then be computed and the
value of the micrometer determined, no second approximation to the value
With
final
d being required.
280. For the purpose of illustrating the method of Art. 277 let us apply it to
the example already solved.
The first part of the computation will be precisely
of
same as before except the correction for level. Applying to the observed
chronometer times the "reduction to vertical" already found, we have the
"reduced times" of the following table
the
PR A CTICA L AS TRONOM Y.
500
280.
If the chronometer employed has an appreciable rate the interval of time

corresponding to one revolution of the screw will require a correction which
may be determined as follows
:
Let
dT =
/, =
/=
Then
the daily rate of the micrometer, -(- when losing

any interval expressed in terms of chronometer
true value of interval.
A =
24"
24"
T=
86400"
'
ST
86400"
87"
"e
'
86400
86400
If, for example, the above observations had been made with a mean time
Therefore
chronometer, for d T we should have 3'" 56" = 236*
=A+/
*
When
tion.
the reduction
is
made
in this
002735
8
i73 .666
manner the term (L
-\-
.474
- L)D will
be
i7 4
for
M4
R.
o.
FORMULAE FOR LATITUDE.
28 1.
General Formula for

2Sl. Let
tJie
5OI
Latitude.
the micrometer reading for the south star,

expressed in seconds of arc
the micrometer reading for the zero-point
;
m* =
/
of the micrometer;
the correction for level, plus
reading is large
the correction for refraction.
when
the north
Then
Similarly
z'
=
=
z^-\- (m'
z,
>
m
m
-f (m
) -+-
/ -f r for
/' -f- r'
= m - m} +
(
(/+/')
south
star.
for north star.
r '}.
Substituting this value in equation (472),
= K* +
<n
+ K - o + *(/ + n + w -
r'\ (478)
It has been assumed in the foregoing that the

readings of
the micrometer increase with the zenith distance; but, whether
they increase or diminish, practically a case will very seldom

occur where the algebraic sign of the term \(in
m') will
be in doubt, as may be seen by referring to the numerical
example.
Equation (478) shows that the value of the latitude
by adding to the mean

three
corrections:
of the declinations of the
first,
the
second, the correction for level
correction
;
for
is
two
found
stars
micrometer;
third, for refraction.
*
Any point may be assumed arbitrarily as the zero-point, for by referring to
equations (478) and (479) it will be seen that only the difference of micrometer
readings on the two stars is required, and this will be the same wherever we
assume the zero to be. It will be convenient to assume

end of the scale that the readings will all be plus.
this point so far to
one
502
The Correction for Micrometer.
282.
Let
284.
M and M' = the
micrometer readings for the south

and north stars respectively
the value of one revolution of the screw
expressed in seconds of arc.
;
R=
Then
If
\(m
m'}
= %R(M -
M')
.....
(479)
the micrometer reads towards the zenith the algebraic
sign will simply be reversed.

If the mean of the north
283. The Correction for Level.
readings in both positions of the instrument is greater than
the mean of the south readings, it shows that the vertical axis
produced pierces the celestial sphere south of the zenith;
therefore the instrumental zenith distance of a south star

too small, and of a north star too large.
s
and /
Let n and
is
readings of north and south ends of bubble

for south star
readings of north and south ends of bubble
;
n'
for north star
the value of one division of the level in sec-
onds of
Then
=. the error of the level
/
/'
arc.
%d(n
=d(ri -
s)
/)
+x
-
x\
')-(*
+ O1-
(480)
The difference of zenith

so small that nothing is gained by applying to
the correction for refraction the terms depending on the ba284. Correction for Refraction.
distance
is
rometer and thermometer.
FORMULA. FOR LA TITUDE.
284.
Bessel's formula for
mean
r
at
for present
purposes
is
refraction
of
503
is
tan z
(a)
considered constant and equal to
57"-7-
The
correction r
we may
r being very small,
use a
dif-
ferential formula, viz.,
r-r'--=~(z-zy,
and from
z
If
z' is
or
If (z
y-
(<z),
given
r'
r'
z') is
(r
in
=
=
r'}
S7"-7 sec'^r.
minutes we
57". 7 sec
.s.
may write
(ff)
sin
z\
\'
.(z
as follows:
[8.22491] sec z .(z
expressed
(b)
in
z'}.
seconds,
2
[6.44676] sec z.(z
z'}.
As usual the numerical quantities in brackets are logarithms.

The computation by either of these formulas is quite
simple, but as this correction must be applied to every pair
of stars observed the following- table has been added, being
the
same
The
as that given
vertical
distance, for
by Schott, of the U.
S.
Coast Survey.
argument is one half the difference of zenith

The horizontal
which we may use \(m
;;/).
argument is the zenith distance, the table being extended to

35. In the exceptional cases where stars are observed at
greater zenith distances the correction must be computed by
the formula (481). The algebraic sign will always be the
same as that of the micrometer correction.
504
285-
TABLE B-DIFFERENTIAL REFRACTION.
If the observation has been

285. Reduction to the Meridian.
missed at the instant of the star's meridian passage, it may
be observed off the meridian in either of two ways
First. The instrument may be revolved in azimuth so as to
bisect the star in the middle of the field; or
Second. The instrument may be allowed to remain in the
meridian, and the star may be bisected off the line of collimation before it passes out of the field.
:
In the
first
case the correction to the zenith distance will
be precisely the same as that already derived for reducing
REDUCTION TO MERIDIAN.
circummeridian altitudes,
505
see equations (XIII),
viz.
Art.
149
cos
<p
cos 6 2 sin 2 \t
sn
where
/ is
the hour-angle of the star at the instant of observa-
tion.
The quantity given by this formula is to be subtracted from

the zenith distance at the instant of observation therefore
by referring to (472) we see that the correction to the latitude
;
will
be
Aw =
cos
q>
2
cos 3 2 sin
.
sin z
sin
Aq> will be plus for a north and minus for a south
m
.
sin
f,
is
taken from table VIII
When
(482)
star.
A at the end of this volume,
observed off the line of collimation, the

286.
instrument remaining in the meridian. In the
is the meridian, PS the hourfigure,
the star
is
PK
through the star. If the* star

observed on the meridian, SAT will be the
If obposition of the micrometer-thread.
served off the meridian at S', this thread will
have the position S' K'
circle passing
is
Let
Then
KK' =
x.
PK'
90
-(<*
+ *),
and, by Napier's second rule,

cos
tan 6 cot (S
+ x).
90-S
506
This
may
be placed
tan d
Clearing
tan
x .2
(i
form
.
2 sin \f\'
tan
i
-4- tan x
--,---tan d tan x
fractions and
neglecting
^, we readily find
of
sin
tan
or,
in the
286.
sin
tf
the
term
small
2
cos 6 2 sin ^/,
with sufficient accuracy,
x
As
star
i sin 2d
sin i"
(483),
the apparent zenith distance is diminished for a south

for a north star when observed in this man-
and increased
ner, the correction to the latitude will

will be equal to \x.
That is,
^ = ^\n26
always be plus and
......
(483)
This method of proceeding will generally be preferred

the observation on the meridian is lost, as when the
other method is used the stop must be undamped, and where
other stars follow in quick succession a pair may be lost in
consequence. If the star cannot be observed before it gets
beyond the field of view, the observer will generally prefer
when
to let
it
go
altogether.
The computation
of Aq> by the above formula is very

2.Aq>
simple, but a table is added from which the value of x
may be taken at once. The horizontal argument is the hour-
angle of the
star,
and the vertical argument the declination.
COMBINATION OF RESULTS.
507
TABLE C REDUCTION TO MERIDIAN.
287. Formula for Computation of Latitude from Observations

with the Zenith Telescope.
<p
r'}
- M');
2
[8.22491] sec *
Uz
z'\
(XXIII)
Reduction to Meridian.
Am =
$
-1 cos <pcos
2
2 sin"
.
sin
sin^r
/
rf-
N.
star;
Combination of the Individual Values of the Latitude.

288.
For many purposes a sufficient degree of accuracy

by simply taking the arithmetical mean of the
will be given
individual values, giving

* See
table,
p. 504.
all
equal weight.
f
See table above.
5O8
288.
When a more rigorous procedure is demanded we must

This weight
consider the weights of the separate values.
depends on the probable errors of the declinations of the
and on the probable error of observation.
stars observed,
Let
the
number
in
na n
n s ,...np
the
of separate pairs
determining a latitude
number
employed
of observations
on each
pair respectively
the whole number of observations
;
n~=n
-\-n^-\-
-\-np
the probable error of a single observation.
Then, from
(35),
(,
(* a
(np
The sum
i)ee
i)ee=
i)ee
(.
(.
of these equations gives
(n
therefore
_ pye =
e
.6745 \ / ;7TT~0
(4 8 4)
[v,w,] is the sum of the squares of the residuals formed by

taking the differences between the mean of the observations
on the first pair and each individual value; and similarly for
\vv\
COMBINATION OF RESULTS.
289.
509
The determination of the probable errors of the declinations is a much more complicated problem.
For a discussion
of this subject the reader will refer to Articles 346 and 347.
In order to obtain the expression for the weight of the
value of q> derived from a single pair,
Let
Then
fs ,
if
&>
is
the probable errors of the declinations;
the
number
of observations
on
this pair the
probable error of the mean will be \/"~>
and
of the resulting latitude.

relative weights are proportional to the reciprocals of
the squares of the probable errors; or, since the unit of weight
E$ being the probable error
The
is
arbitrary,
we may
write
"-
Value of Micrometer from the Latitude Observations.

289. If no special observations
have been made for deterit maybe derived
mining the value of the micrometer-screw,

from the latitude observations themselves.
*
Equation
(29).
510
R=
Let
the true value as possible;
AR =
Then^-j- AR =
tp' -f-
q>'
Acp
Then from
<Z/+ Acp
Let n
that
is,
290.
an assumed value of one revolution as near

the correction required.
the true value of one revolution;
computed with the assumed

value of R from all of the observations;
true value of the latitude.
the latitude
(478),
= %(6 + cP) + *(*+ Jtf) (M- J/')
=
n
the
Then
sum
of the
known
quantities of this equation;
%(6-\- d')~~^R(M^M')-^(l-\-l'}~\(r-r').
cp'
Acp
- \(M - M'}AR =
n.
.'.'.
(486)
Each pair of stars observed will give an equation of this

form for determining Acp and AR.
This process is sometimes employed when there is reason
to suspect that the adopted value of Ris erroneous; but if the
value has been carefully determined by the transits of circumpolar
stars the result will generally
be accepted as ab-
solute.
290. The
of the U. S.
example which follows is taken from the report

Northern Boundary Survey. The station is 47
miles west of Pembina, the approximate position being
Latitude 49
oo',
Longitude
h
i
24
52*
west of Washington.
290.
EXAMPLE OF LATITUDE DETERMINATION,
Twenty-nine pairs of stars were observed from two to

times each, in
all 81
511
five
observations.
The form in which the example is given will be found a

convenient one for the record and preliminary reduction.
For this purpose a book will be required with a page of about
It will be ruled or printed in blank form
7 inches in width.
as shown.
Example.
Astronomical Station No.
4.
West
side of
Pembina Mountain.
Observer, Lewis Boss.

Zenith Telescope, Wiirdemann No. 20.
Chronometer, Negus Sidereal No. 1513.
512
2 9 0.
The above probably requires no further explanation than a reference to

(XXI 1 1), Art. 287.
The values of the micrometer-screw and level which we have employed are
formula:
those derived in Articles 278 and 279,
Kd=
viz.,
62". 056;
o .893
This will be sufficient for illustrating the method of reduction.

In order to
combination of the individual values to determine the most prob-
illustrate the
able value, the weights and probable errors, the results of the entire 81 observations will be employed.
They are as follows:
290.
LA TITUDE DE TERMINA TION.
513
If
we
take the arithmetical
weights to
all,
we
mean
of the 81
determinations, giving equal
find as the result
<p
48
59' 51". 60
.048.
291. If we desire the highest degree of precision, we must combine the values obtained from the individual pairs of stars according to their respective
weights.
[vv]
In
The probable
error of observation
above by means of formula
'this
We
case
assume
81,
is
determined from the quantity
(484), viz.,
29;
therefore
".363.
computing the weights by formula (486).

This computation immediately follows. The values of g are those given by
Boss in his Catalogue of'500 Stars. In case of a few stars where Boss assigns
shall
no value
o".4
in
to the probable error, it has been assumed to be o".75.

Referring to formula (483), the following computation will be clearly understood
2 9 I.
LA TITUDE DE lÊRMINA TION.
In this column only the
last three figures of
p$
are given.
515
PRACTICAL ASTRO NOMY.
5l6
The probable
error of
<p is
Substituting in this formula,
The smaller value

tions
is
formed
is
(35)
.059.
when
of the probable error
directly
.6745 |/
;-
2 9--
fallacious, since
the
mean
of the 81 determina-
on the assumption that these

each value were derived from a
rests
it
81 values are independently determined..

separate pair of stars this would be correct, but since the 81 values depend on
only 29 separate pairs the error of the assumption is obvious.
If
might be a question whether No. 26 should not be rejected, this value difmean by a quantity so much larger than any of the others. There
appears to be no reason for its rejection aside from this rather large discrepancy.
If we reject it we find from the remaining 28 pairs
It
fering from the
(f>
48
59'
5i".54
.056.
292. For an illustration of the method of Art. 289, let us form the equations
for determining the correction to the adopted value of
and to the above
shall have 29 equations of the form (486); the above values of
value of cp.
We
'v will be the absolute terms.
we have
for the
first
we
If
refer to the observations given in Art. 290,
M')
pair \(Af
We
8.99.
have from
this
pair the
equation
Acp
8.99
-\-
AR =
n.
This star was observed on two nights, so taking the mean of the values of
and multiplying the resulting equation through by the square

)
root of the weight determined for this star, we have the following equation:
\(M
1.52^95
Proceeding
-(-
i^.ÂR =
1.46.
manner, we derive the following 29 equations of condiAcp and AR, for which we shall write x and y:
in a similar
tion for determining
I.S2X+
13.577
7.367
= =
4.227
1.58*
1.90*
1.567 =
1.84*
18.037 =
- 18.537 =
1.77-r
i.43x 4- 4.457 =
- 11.977 =
1.95*
i.88.r + 10.887 =
1.38*4-
I-46;
.49;
.38;
+
+
.69;
-9 8 ;
-Si;
.49;
-82;
I
-3',
LATITUDE AND MICROMETER.
293-
517
Proceeding in the usual manner, we derive from these the two normal equations
73.98*417.657 =
17.65*4- 2732.357 '=
From
these,
The most probable values

by
this series of
=
=
4-
004;
85.80.
-o7
.054;
.031
.009.
of the latitude
and micrometer-screw as indicated
observations are therefore
tp
48
R=
In order to have the value of
59' 5i"- 567
-054;
62". 025
.009.
R determined
in this
way
of
any value
in
com-
parison with that determined by transits of circumpolar stars, the declinations

of the stars employed must be well determined.
293.
There are various ways
in
which the observation of
stars in pairs at equal or nearly equal altitudes by means of

the zenith telescope may be employed for the determination
5l8
As may be seen, the instrument is

adapted to the solution of any problem of Spherical Astronomy which depends upon the observation of two or more
bodies at the same altitude. The most favorable condition
for latitude determination is when the two stars are on the
meridian, one north, the other south, while time is best determined by observing two stars on the prime vertical, one
of latitude and time.
other west.
account of the
east, the
On
facility with which the latitude is determined in the manner already explained, and the ease with
which the instrument may be converted into a transit when
necessary to employ
it
for determining the
approximate
problem depending on observations out of the meridian have never met with much favor.
Some of these methods are interesting from a theoretical
it is
time, other solutions of the
point of view, but for the reasons stated the subject will not
be developed further in this connection.
CHAPTER
IX.
294. The AzimutJi of a point on the earth's surface is the
angle between the plane of the meridian and the vertical
plane which passes through this point and the eye of the
observer.
Since the vertical plane is determined by the direction of

the plumb-line, and this line may deviate from the true
normal to the earth's surface, a corresponding deviation in
the azimuth must exist.

We must therefore distinguish between the Astronomical Azimuth and the Geodetic Azimuth.
The Astronomical AzimutJi of a point is the angle between
two planes drawn through the plumb-line at the point of
observation, the first plane parallel to the earth's axis, and
the second passing through the point.

The Geodetic Azimuth is the angle between two planes
drawn through the normal to the earth's surface at the point
through the earth's

and the second through the point.
It is with the Astronomical Azimuth only that we are at
The azimuth may be reckoned from
present concerned.
For astroeither the north or south point of the horizon.
nomical purposes it is usually reckoned from the south point
towards the west from zero to 360. In determining the
azimuth of a point on the earth's surface it is more convenof observation, the first plane passing
axis,
ient to use stars near the north pole of the heavens consequently for geodetic purposes the azimuth is generally
;
520
FIG.
S 8a.
295.
295-
521
reckoned from the north point. For the sake of uniformity

we shall in this chapter always suppose the azimuth reckoned
from the north in the direction N., E., S., W.
A minus azimuth will be reckoned from north towards west.
Extreme accuracy in the determination of azimuth is required
in
connection with the geodetic operations of primary
The principal methods employed in such

triangulation.
cases will be given, when it will be shown how they may be
abridged where a less degree of accuracy is demanded.
There is a variety of these methods, depending on the form
of instrument employed and the position of the stars obThe instrument will be either the theodolite, used
served.
for measuring horizontal angles, or the astronomical transit.
In any case the azimuth of the point is determined by measuring instrumental!^ the difference between the azimuth of
the point and a star. The azimuth of the star is computed by
its known right ascension and declination, and the local time
and latitude, which have been previously determined from
these data we have the azimuth of the point.
295. The Theodolite.
Figures 58^ and 58^ show two forms
The older
of instruments used on the U. S. Coast Survey.
form, Fig. 580, has a horizontal circle from 20 to 30 inches
in diameter. With the newer instruments, circles from 12 to
20 inches are considered sufficiently large, as such circles
can now be graduated much more accurately than formerly
the instrument can therefore be made more compact and
;
in the field.
portable, a matter of some importance
The horizontal circle is commonly divided directly to
5',
being subdivided by reading microscopes

and by estimation to tenths of a
directly to single seconds,
second. Two or three microscopes are used. The essential
features of the instruments will be understood from the
these
spaces
plates without further description.

For secondary azimuths a less perfect instrument will often
522
PRA CT2CAL A STRONOMY.
PIG.
295.
DETERMINATION 0^ AZIMUTH.
2 9 6.
523
For magnetic work or ordinary land-surveying a

surveyor's transit with 5- or 6-inch circle will fre-
be used.
common
quently be employed. It is perhaps unnecessary to say that

the instrument must be carefully adjusted in everv particular.
For observing at night an illuminated
296. The Signal.
mark is required.
convenient mark is a square wooden
box firmly mounted on a post or other support, the light of
FIG. 59.
a bull's-eye lantern being thrown through a small hole in the

front.
The box itself may be painted so as to form a conThis mark must be
venient target for day observation.
placed far enough from the station so that no change will be
required in the sidereal focus of the telescope about one
mile will generally be sufficient. When from any cause a
:
distant
be used
mark
;
is not practicable a collimating telescope may

but the greatest care must be exercised in mount-
524
PR A C TICA L ASTR ONOM Y
298.
ing both the instrument and collimator firmly, piers of solid

masonry being used for both.
For first-class azimuths only close
297. Choice of Stars.
circumpolar stars will be used. Preference will be given to
the four circumpolar stars whose places are given in the
ephemeris, viz., a, $, and A Ursae Minoris, and 51 Cephei.
Fig. 59 shows their relative positions, and will assist in
finding the smaller ones which are not readily distinguished
with the naked eye unless the position is previously known.
298. Method of Observing.

complete series of observations on one star will consist of ten or twelve readings on the
mark and about the same number on the
star,
the instrument
being reversed about the middle of the series.

ing order of observation is recommended:
ist.
2d.
The
follow-
6 readings on the mark.

6 readings on the star.
3d. Read the level.

4th. Reverse.
5th. Read level.
6th. 6 readings on the star.
7th.
6 readings on the mark.
If more than one series is taken it is advisable to change

the position of the horizontal circle so as to bring the readto some extent
ings in another place, in order to eliminate
the errors of graduation.
Readings are sometimes taken on the star directly, and on
is
image reflected from a basin of mercury. When this
done reading the level may be dispensed with.
By the process above described we have a carefully-executed measurement of the difference in azimuth between the
star and mark.
It only remains to compute the azimuth of
the star, when we shall have the azimuth of the mark.
its
OF COLLIMA TION AND LE VEL.
m=
s =
A =
Let
reading of circle on mark
reading- of circle on star;

azimuth of mark measured
east
525
from north towards
azimuth of star measured from north towards

east.
A =
Then
-\-
(m
s).
(487)
Different methods of computing a will be employed, depending on the position of the star when observed.
Errors of Collimation and Level.
The mark and
299.
star being at different altitudes
above
the horizon, the measured difference of azimuth will be

affected by an error of collimation, also by a want of parallel-
ism between the horizontal axis and the horizon.

Other theoretical errors of the instrument we need not
consider, since their effect may be made inappreciable by
careful adjustment.
In the figure let
NWSE
represent the horizon, z the

w' the point
where the horizontal axis produced pierces the celestial
zenith, s
any
star,
sphere.
*b
is
the inclination,
west end of axis

*c,
error of collimation,
thread
is
tion axis
x,
-j-
is
when
high
-|-
when
east of collima-
error in reading of horizontal circle
due to
and
c.
* This
designation is sufficiently general for our purpose, since we shall only
have occasion to apply it to stars observed near the pole.
526
Then
in the triangle sw'z, sz
ziv'
90
Therefore
Or, since
written
sin c
c, b,
and x
It
will
= z = zenith distance of star;

90
sin b cos
=
*=
+c
w zs
'
b cos z
+x
>
cos b sin z sin x.
be very small, the above
will
from which
w's
3OO.
sin z
may
be
seldom be necessary to apply the correction for

since it may be eliminated by observing in
collimation,
both positions of the
axis.
mark is not in
readings on mark will be
If
shall
the
the horizon a similar correction to
required, where, of course, for z we

have the zenith distance of the mark.
Azimuth by a Circumpolar Star near Elongation.

300. When the star is within a short distance of elongation,
either east or west, the position is especially favorable, since
the motion in azimuth then is very slow. Only one reading
can be taken at elongation, but we may apply a correction

to the readings near elongation to reduce them to the reading at elongation.
The azimuth and hour-angle
of the star at elongation are
AZIMUTH BY A CIRCUMPOLAR
301.
STAR.
527
computed by considering the right-angle triangle formed at

this instant by the zenith, pole, and star.
Let
a* and
te
be the azimuth and hour-
and
6,
angle at elongation
the right ascension, declina-
\- /l '
d,
a-,
tion,
and sidereal time.
Thenf
sin ae
cos
te
=
=
cos o sec
q>;
cot d tan
9?;
--Vi3S }**
=
Chronometer
8
time of elongation
46.
The chronometer correction should be known within about

one second, and may be determined by any of the methods
previously given; or the theodolite itself may be used for
the purpose, either as a transit or by measuring altitudes
as with the sextant, provided it has a good vertical circle.
The formulae for reducing

now be developed.
301.
will
the readings to elongation
Formulae (121) give the values of h and a in terms of d and

for a star at any hour-angle.
Recollecting that we now
measure the azimuth from the north instead
of the south
point, these equations are
(a)
cos h cos a
(>)
cos
Ji
sin
=
=
sin
6 cos
cos d sin

cos
/;
/.
a e since a plus value of the hour-angle te corresponds to a minus azimuth.

observations of the same star are to be made, it will be convenient
,
f If
many
to prepare in
advance a table of the values of a e and
during which
it is
intended to observe.
extending over the time
528
3OI.
At elongation we have
Multiplying together
have
(e)
cos h cos # sin ae
(/)
cos
Add
(/) to (e\
cos
From
/*
sin
a cos # e
sin
sin
d cos
3 sin
fe .
and
(c),
d cos 6
---tf
cos
then
sin
d cos d cos
6 cos
sin
S cos
2 sin
-.
cos h
and therefore
sin (ae
a)
=
=
cos
te \
tf
cos
(/e
t).
(/6
will be more convenient

value in terms of ae and <5, viz.,
its
sin f sin te .
tf
tf
The computation
substitute
and (d\ we
(b)
sin
sin d cos 8
sin
te
sin cp
(p
first (a)
a)
sin (a e
this,
sin
=
=
a)
sin (a e
//
cos
cos ae
(d}
8
cos -
sm af
(c\
if
/").
we
for cos h
cot ae cot 8;
tan #e sin 8 ^ 2 sin 2 \(te
t).
(489)
We now have an equation which gives the difference

between the azimuth at elongation and at any hour-angle /.
As this will only be used for stars near elongation, and
te
t, a small quantity,
into a series, viz.,
it
consequently
to
ae
expand
a
= tan a
it
*
In this case
-+
.. 2 sinH (/,-/)
8
7
-~,
sin"
(a
y=
a)
sin
~~ '
sin~
l.
8
[tan c e sin
r
6 sin i"
,
--^
*vi L
sin 2 5)*
-(tan a e
x 4-
will be convenient
-f- etc.
2 sin 8 ^(/e
/)].
r
,
.*
(490)
AZIMUTH BY A CIRCUMPOLAR
302.
When
this
formula
but
STAR.
$2Q
applied to the close circumpolar

from unity, and the last term
will in all practical cases be inappreciable.
have therefore the simple formula
stars, sin" 6 differs
is
little
We
tt
tail
ue
2 sin" $(te
t)
,f
....
\49 *)
302. Correction for Inclination of Axis. When the west end

of the axis is high the reading of the horizontal circle will
be small; therefore the correction will \>e plus,

The inclination will be given by the formula derived for
transit instrument, (289)
Or
if
the level
is
[_(w
+ w'}-(e +
d
= -\W-E\
.........
Where Wand E are the means

and west ends respectively.
The effect upon the reading
have by equation (487)!, viz.,
x
is
(492)
reversed more than once,
Where h
e'}\.
tan z
(493)
of the readings of the east

of the horizontal circle
we
b tan h.
the altitude of the star.
Such a correction must

mark when appreciable.
also be applied to the reading
on
530
With the circumpolar

write tan
<p
for tan
/*.
Correction for level
stars
303-
observed at elongation
we may
Then we have
6a
E\ tan
<p.
(494)
303. Correction for Diurnal AberraSuppose at the instant of obser-
tion.
vation the point from which observation is made to be moving in the

direction AB.
SA
Let
be the true direction of a
ray of light coming from a star; then

in consequence of aberration the star
will appear in the direction AS'.
Let
AC
be drawn equal to the distance traversed by the

ray of light in one second
FIG. 62.
AD,
Let angle
Then
We
V;
the distance traversed by

the point on the earth's
surface in one second
SAB=$\ S'AB=$'.
Then
or
sin 3.
sin
have found, equation
Therefore
AS
(286), v?
".319 cos
=
<p
o".îg cos
sin
3-
(p.
(495)
AZIMUTH BY CIRCUMPOLAR
303-
STARS.
531
This gives the displacement in the plane determined by

the direction of the ray of light and the direction of motion
of the point of observation.
It re-
mains to determine
star's
its effect
on the
azimuth.
NS
In Fig. 63 let s be any star,

the meridian,
the horizon.
sA is drawn perpendicular to the
NESW
horizon, and
therefore equals the
NA equals the azimuth.

The angle at E is called y.
altitude.
Since the point occupied by the

observer is moving directly towards
the east point of the horizon at the instant of observation,^
will be equal to 5.
Then the right triangle sEA gives the equations
cos h cos a
cos h sin a
=
=
sin
cos
3-
cos y\
ST.
We
require the effect produced on a by a small change in

therefore we differentiate with respect to h, a, and 3.
cos h sin a da
cos h cos a da
Multiply the
first
sin
sin
h cos a dh
h sin a dh
of these by sin
=
=
a,
subtract to eliminate dh and reduce by

t
find
da= - ^sin 3 cos h
cos
cos
yd$
sin
the second by cos

(a)
and
(b);
we
a,
readily
532
Substitute for
lect that the
dS the value
azimuth
is
of A^r given by (495), and recolreckoned from the north; we have
".319 cos
g>
cos a
.
cos h
For a
304.
(496)
close circumpolar star this will not differ appre-
ciably from
da
".319 cos a.
(497)
This will be added algebraically to the computed azimuth

of the star.
304.
Formula for Azimuth by a Circumpolar Star near Elon-
gation.
sin
ae
cos d sec
cp\
cos
te
cot
cp\
tan a e
tf
tan
ae
2 sin \(te
= ~\W E]
Aberration = ".319 cos a;
A = a -\-(ms)*
Level
m=
/)
tan
(XXIV)
sin i"
tp-t
level
-j-
reading of circle on mark;
aberration.
reading on
star.
AZIMUTH BY CIRCUMPOLAR
304-
STARS.
533
Example.
1847, October I7th, Polaris was observed near western elongation at Agamenticus, York County, Maine, with one of the 30 inch theodolites of the Coast
Survey, as follows:
The
horizontal circle
was read by means
of three microscopes designated
respectively; the value of one division of the micrometer head corresponding to one second of arc, subject to the correction for run. The circle
being graduated directly to 5', if five revolutions of the screw exactly cover this
A, B,
space there
is
no correction
for run;
otherwise
it
represents the excess or
deficiency.
For reducing these observations we have:

Right ascension of Polaris
Declination of Polaris
Latitude of station
=
=
=
=
=88
<p
=
=
Aft
43
32 .g6
29' 54".27
13 25 .o
i
5i"-8
534
We
first
compute the azimuth and time of elongation:

cos d
cos

te
=
=
=
te
4
a
west.)
M
j
304-
Chronometer time of elongation
=
=
=
=
=
8.4185287
9-973O53 1
8.3915818
88 35' i7".8
h
54
59
m 2i.2
33 .o
54 .2
51 .8
7''
46
.o
In the table which follows, the column marked corrected readings is the mean
of the readings of the three microscopes corrected for run when necessary; the
remaining columns will be explained by referring to formulae (XXIV).
Mean
Mean
of readings
of readings
=m=
= s =
s =
m
=a =
A =
on mark
on star
Azimuth of star
Azimuth of mark
243
55' 24". 86
127
116
42 48 .03
12 36 .83
39 .21
114
57 .62
114
8'
57". 94
Diurnal aberration
Final value of azimuth,
-f-
.32
STAR AT
35From
the level readings
ANY
HOUR-ANGLE.
535
we have
Direct.
E=
Reverse.
53.50
53-50
W= 53-00
53.50
\{W-E~\ =-.24
= ".97
Azimuth by a Circumpolar Star observed at any Hour-angle.
method differs from the preceding in the manner

computing the azimuth of the star, which may be conveniently done by either of three methods.
First. By the fundamental equations (a) and (b), Art. (301),
305. This
of
we
readily find
sin t
~
cos
Second.
We may
formed by the
<p
tan d
sin 
cos
a and / being small, we may expand tan
/ sin
/'
a, sin /,
cos / into
536
series,
when the equation becomes,
___
inclusive,
,
cos
sin t(p
sin
i/)
cp(i
305.
to terms of the third order
j/
q>
cos t(p
/ )'
or
cos q>=
p sin t-{-ap sin <p cos /-[~^/2cos <p
l^'cos <p-(-^/ sin
Solving this equation for a by approximations,

first approximation
we have
/.
for
the
sin /
cos
<p
This value substituted in the second term of the second member of the above equation gives for a second approximation
a
-- F\p-\-pr
sin /
COS
This value substituted

of the
above gives
For
3
/+/
'
(f)
tan
cos
L?
in the second, third,
~|
and fourth terms
finally
sini"tan9>cos^+^
sin 2 i"[(i+4tanV)cos 2 /-tanV]
(5<x>)
Polaris within the limits of the United States the term
exceed 2", while the terms neglected will not

be greater than o".i.
For a close circumpolar star observed near culmination
this formula may be written
in/
will not
The corrections for level reading and aberration will be computed by the same formulae as in the previous case.
306.
Correction of the
537
Mean Azimuth for Second Differences.
306. In applying the foregoing method to a series of ten

or more readings on a star we may proceed in either of two
ways first, we may reduce each reading separately, com:
puting the azimuth of the star for each time of observation

or second, we may take the mean of the readings and compute the azimuth for the mean of the corresponding times,
applying to this computed azimuth a small correction for
second differences.
The first method involves considerable labor, but at the
same time the individual values furnish a rough check on the
accuracy of the work. When the second method is preferred we may derive the expression for the correction as
;
follows
Let
t^
a^,a.2 ,a 3
"
'
Let At,
'
tn
an
the observed times
= the corresponding azimuths of the star;
= /.= the mean of the observed times

a = the azimuth corresponding to /.
Atn = n - /.
At* =
=/,/,;
'
Then we have
We may
t,
t,
now
an =/(/n)
Jf,
+ J*
-f-
o.
4**
-f Atn
write
= fit. + JO - ô +
53^
The mean
0.
306.
of these expressions will be
+ ^+... + ^ _~^0+ d\i
+ At? +
At?
The
<#'~2
-f-
J/n
-"'
72
quantities /// will be expressed in time multiplying

reduce to arc, and also multiplying each quantity
:
15 to
by
form (i5^/)
of -the
by
sin
the term multiplied by

-y?
i",
will be
Or,
if
(502)
preferred, this term may be computed by table VIII A,

the quantities At will be small, we shall have prac-
for, since
tically
sin i"
and the above term becomes

i
It
^, 2
\At
remains to determine a convenient expression for -r3-.
Differentiating equation
and
sin
t,
we
dâ
~df~
For a
(b],
Art. 301, with respect to a
find
tan a /cos
^"sln^V
cos a\
c^~a
2
'
'
/'
close circumpolar star cos ^ differs but little

we shall have very nearly
(S
4)
from
unity, so that
(505)
*
It will be seen that the expression which we have derived for reducing the
reading taken near elongation to the reading at elongation is a special case of
this
same form.
307.
We

therefore have for the
'-
~=
mean
of the
539
azimuths
tan a [6.73672]
^24 f,
(506)
where, as usual, the quantity in brackets is a logarithm, and

the quantities At are expressed in seconds of time.
Example.
Observations on Polaris at Dollar Point, Galveston
1848, April 5.
307.
Bay, Texas. Instrument, iS-inch Troughton & Simms theodolite.
One
The
reduction
is
now
division of level
= o''.82.
(f)
= 29
26'
= 88
29' 57".83
as follows
2".6
540
Formula
(506):
= 5.1122
= 9.2218
log
n
Constant log = 6.7367
tan a = 8.4092,,
129470
The azimuth
g>
=
=
of
We
(499), or (500).
Mean
log
log correction
Correction
Formula
(498)
is
=
=
the
28'
star
shall
tan a
it
by each method
<p
29' 57". 83
26
9=
59
by equation
(498),
<p
cos
sin <p
cos
Sumi
1.5217367
.0032688
Sum,
=
=
=
st
9.6914542
9.7085212*
9.3999754,
2.1217613
1.5250055
9.9342512
8.4092457
sin 4(5
<p)
cot if
2 .6
3 55 -23
29
31
57 .61
sin
117
56
o .43
o .21
cos
a)
either
1.5817575
I2044'i8".o
for illustration.
9.9399792
<p)
+ <p)=
=
=
4.7
(d
58
sm
tan o
$(8
q>
tan
88
\t
3'.
tan 5
=
sin t =
tan a =
29
i(d+q>)=
sin/
=
cos
=
=
d
q>
8 h 2 m 57 8 .2
may now be computed
compute
cos
o".3
n".5
Formulae (499)
=
=
9.4800*
29 26' 2". 6
88 29 57 .83
of times
* Zech
log denom.
a
307.
58
60 22
.O
cot
9.6927762
= 9.7122589
= 9.7549528
= 9-7354701
32 20 .60
o 32 .09
30
I
28 II .5
28
* Addition
and subtraction logarithms.
cos
=
cot =
-a)=
sin
9.9395566
9.9329140
9.7549528
9-76I5954
307.
AZIMUTH BY STAR AT ANY HOUR-ANGLE.
Formula
(500):
= 3.73257
= 7.46514
sini" = 4.68557
tan <p = 9.75147
cos / = 9.70852*
log/
8
log/
30' 2".i7
log/
5402". 17
3
sin 2 i"
log
=
=
=
11.1977
9.3711
9.5229
= 9.5029
= .6021
Sum = o. 1050
= .3567
log (i + 4 tan
= 9.4170
cos
Sum = 9-7737
tan (p = 9. 5029
Zech = 9.9372
log factor = 9.4401
tan 8
)
8
log 2d term
541
factor
1.61070*
log 3d term
=
=
9.4401
9.5318
= 40". 80
= + .34
Sum = 5361 .71
log sum = 3.72930
sin t = 9 93425
log sec q> = .06002
log a = 3.72357
2d term
3d term
52 9 i". 4
i
28'
n".4
For computing a single azimuth, as in the present case, formula (498) will be
For other cases, where a larger number of values are required, (499)
and (500) will sometimes be found more convenient.
For the level correction
preferred.
-[
Mean
Mean
tan cp
reading on star
102.44] tan
[97.56
-f-
q>=
level correction
reading on mark
24
2.00
=
=
=
=
19' 25". 3
51
The
given by the formula ".32 cos
aberration, as before,
is
1* -\-
aberration
158
for
s)
(p
337
Azimuth of star -f- correction

Azimuth of mark = a
(m
tan
28
.6
10 .9
3 28 .4
180
a.
l".l3.
=
= m,
= a.
= A.
s.
54 2
Condition* favorable
308. Reckoning
308.
Accuracy.
azimuth from the north point equations (121) become,
the.
h cos a
(a) cos
to
(l>)
cos h sin
(c)
sin
8 cos
sin
=
h
cos S sin 
cos
<5
cos q> cos
Also from the triangle whose vertices are the zenith, pole and
(d) sin q sin 8

sin q cos 5
(<")
(/) cos q
^ being the angle at the
star.
we
find
Dividing
by
(a)
(b)
(g) sin
cos a sin
sin a cos 
and reducing by (/),
sin a cos
</7
tan 5 cos
(507)
_/,
.;-/'
a condition possible with any star whose
declination
With a close circumpolar star at elongation, / will at the same time be near go
this will therefore give the most favorable conor 270, and sin a will be small
dition when small errors in t are to be apprehended.
;
Differentiating (g) with respect to a and d
aa
dS
__
cos
q> sin
cos h cos S
Differentiating with respect to
da
(a}
and
and reducing by
(b)
and
(e),
sin q
(509)
cos h
(<p),
tan ^ sin a
(510)
acp
Both (509) and (510) vanish when the
maxima values
on the meridian approaching near

elongation, but as they have different
star
for a circumpolar star at
is
signs on opposite sides of the meridian they will vanish from the
determinations arranged symmetrically with respect to the meridian.
It
mean
of
two
therefore appears that the azimuth will be practically free from the effects of
small errors in d,
equal
number
t,
and
<p if
it is
determined from circumpolar

and western elongation.
For a more elaborate treatment of

be consulted.
stars
observed an
of times at both eastern
this subject Craig s Treatise
on Azimuth
may
309-
AZIMUTH WHEN THE TIME
Azimuth by
the
Sun
NOT KNOWN.
IS
543
or a Star at any Hour-angle, the Time not
being
Known.
309. In determining azimuths for the ordinary purposes

of land-surveying or for
magnetic work extreme accuracy
is
In such cases it may be derived without a

knowledge of the local time by using a theodolite and reading both horizontal and vertical circles.
not required.
Either a star or the sun
may be employed
in the latter
case the threads are placed tangent to the limbs and a correction for semidiameter applied.
The vertical thread is placed
alternately tangent to the first and second limbs, and the
horizontal thread tangent to the upper and lower limbs.
If
the observations are arranged symmetrically with respect to

the limbs the semidiameter will disappear from the mean.
The azimuth of the star is computed as follows

The last of equations (113), substituting 90
and recollecting that the azimuth
point,
z for h,
reckoned from the north
is
sin
8 and
is

a.
the zenith distance measured as
and corrected for
employed, for parallax.
cp -f-
refraction, and,
We
when
the sun
inis
therefore solve the equation
for a.
2 sin %a, then cos a
Writing cos a = I
find by a familiar reduction
2
-}-
2 cos
we
cos
>-v/
^v
sn
sin z cos
sin ${*
cp -}-$}
cos
sin z cos
~s
_
-A/
,
tan \a

tp
i(.sr
<?).
<z>
0) sin j(g
gin
-|-
^_^_^ ^_^
-.
o)
_^_ rf
0,
<544
310.
The azimuth of the star may be computed by either of

these formulas, the last being most accurate. As this method
will not be employed when extreme accuracy is required
this consideration will have less weight than in other cases.
When
ter
the sun is employed the correction for semidiameobtained as follows
is
Let
the sun's semidiameter taken from the ephemeris.
Then from
the right-angle triangle formed

by the great circles joining the zenith, centre, and limb of the sun we have, calling the
angle at the zenith da,

sin
=
=
oa
If
the time
is
sin z
sin da,
smz'
("ii2^
the proper algebraic sign being obvious.

also required, we derive it from the meas-
ured altitudes by the method of Articles (124) and

Conditions favorable
to
(125).
Accuracy.
310. In order to investigate the effect upon the azimuth of small errors in
latitude and zenith distance we resume the fundamental equation
assumed
sin
Differentiating
first
cos z sin

cosec a
tan
q>
cot a
-f-
-\-
cot z cot a~\dz
cot z cosec a]d<p.
both dz and d<p diminish as a and z approach 90; also the

have opposite signs for a = 90 and a = 270. Therefore by selecting stars which cross the prime vertical at as low altitudes as may be consistent
with good definition, and observing at about the same-distance from the meridian east and west, the best results will be obtained.
When the sun is used it should be observed as near the prime vertical as
possible, east and west.
When an ordinary surveyor's theodolite is used there will be no provision for
coefficients of
coefficients
311.
AZIMUTH WHEN THE TIME
IS
NOT KNOWN.
545
illuminating the field this may, however, be done by a bull's-eye lantern held in
front and a little to one side of the object-glass.
;
Example.
Washington, D. C.
311.
Station, Capital,
Sun near prime
August
vertical,
Observer, Charles A. Schott.

h
8 m j west of Greenwich.
15, A.M., 1856.
Instrument, 5-inch theodolite.
Longitude
Thermometer 73.
Barometer 30 inches
We
also have
=
=
=
<p
S
Sun's eq. parallax
it
53'
13
55 33
= 5 h 7 m 48*. i
= 25s6'4o"
Vertical circle = 61 1702
Refraction = r = -{- I 41 -7
Mean chronometer
18"
38
time*
Horizontal circle
8". 5
Parallax
Corrected zenith
We
compute azimuth
1(2
+ + 5) =
q>
|(z -\- q>
5)
\(z
tp
S)
KZ
tp -\- d)
\a
a
Hor.
*
eris
circle
=
=
of star
by the
57
3',
44"
cos
43
ii
sin
14 53
10 26
cosec
=
=
=
=
tan \a
4
1
=
=
last of (511)
sec
dist.
7-4
6ii8'36"
9-73538
9.83489
.00120
.50598
07745
47
95
33'
3".0
7
25
56 40
290
50 33
A sidereal chronometer was used. The

and need not be very exact.
.03872.5
When
Reading
of circle for north point.
time is only required for taking S from the ephema star is used no record of the time is required.
PRACTICAL ASTROXOMY.
546
Azimuth by
the Transit Instrument.
312. It has already been shown, in connection with the

general theory of the transit instrument, how the azimuth of
the line of collimation is determined, either by special observations made for this purpose or from a series of transits re-
duced by least squares. If now the direction of this line is

fixed by a meridian mark, we have the azimuth of the mark.
Such a determination, though not of the highest order of acsufficient for many purposes.
the greatest precision is required, the 'telescope
must be provided with an eye-piece micrometer moving a
is
curacy,
When
vertical thread.
The instrument
will generally
be mounted
either in the meridian or in the vertical plane of a circumpolar star at elongation.

313. AzimutJi by a Close Circumpolar Star near Culmination.
is set up and adjusted as already explained
The instrument
The mark whose azimuth is to be determined must be placed so near the meridian that it may be
well observed without changing the azimuth of the instrument. In positions where a distant meridian mark is not
available a collimating telescope may be used, in which case
in Articles 166-9.
the firmest possible mounting will be required for both transit
and collimator.
The observations
will be
made
as follows:
short time
before the star's culmination the telescope is directed to the

mark and a series of readings taken with the micrometer,
and reverse position of the instrument. The

then read and a series of transits observed over the
both
in direct
level
is
micrometer-thread, which is moved forward successively one

turn or less. The instrument may be reversed or not at the
middle of the series. The level is again read and a series
AZIMUTH BY THE TRANSIT INSTRUMENT.
315-
$4?
of readings on the mark taken.

Transits of zenith and equatorial stars will also be observed for determining- the clock
correction.
314.
Method of Reduction.
this
may
The value
one revolution of
is
by the same method used
for determining the
intervals of the transit-threads,
Let /
of
required. If not previously known

be derived from the observed transits of the star,
the micrometer-screw
equatorial
viz.:
the interval of time required for the star to pass

over the space corresponding to one revolution
of the screw.
Then,
eq. (291),
5/ cos
tf
Vcos
/.
.....
(514)
Vcos / being taken from table Art. 174 when it differs

appreciably from unity. R, the value of one revolution, will
be expressed in seconds of arc.
The collimation constant may be derived either from the
transits of the star, the instrument being- reversed at the
middle of the series, or by means of the readings on the mark
two
positions as explained in Art. 182.

the transits of the star are used for the purpose the
formula for c is (see Art. 185)
in the
When
-T) cos 8+$(T- T)6Tcos
tf
(b'-
b)
cos
(?-
It is well to derive c from both the star and mark, the two
determinations mutually checking each other.
must next be re315. The mean of the observed times
duced to the time over the
line of collimation of the telescope.
PR A CTICA L AS TRONOM Y.
548
Letr,, rv
rm
rc and
tc
5.
the successive readings of the micrometer;

chronometer times of observation;
=
=
fm
A> *
micrometer reading and time for
line of
collimation.
Then, from
The
(291),, /c
- / = ^^----sec 8 Vsec (/ c
/). (515)
Vsec (4
/) is taken from the table Art. 174
thus have T, the
appreciably from unity.
chronometer time of transit over the line of collimation.
if
it
factor
We
differs
Then, equations
(284), (285), (287),
AT+ Aa + Bb +
which
in
Let
that
is,
A =
r
sin ((p
= a-
#)sec
\T +
the algebraic
B= cos (<p
AT + Bb +
sum
Then
is
6,
of the
C(c
known
C(c
.O2i cos <?);*
tf)sec#,
.O2i cos
9?)];
sec
tf.
(516)
terms.
.,
..,
(517)
the expression for the azimuth of the star in seconds of arc.

however, be remembered that in the theory of the
It will,
*
If the
mean
supposed above,
of the times has been reduced to the line of collimation as

c will
be zero:
if
not, c
tc
t<\.
315-
549
where the above formula is derived, a is

considered plus when the south end of the
telescope deviates to the east.
For present purposes, therefore, the
algebraic sign must be reversed,
giving for azimuth of star
transit instrument
(518)
The azimuth of the mark then follows at once from the difference between the micrometer readings on the mark and
star.
By observing the same star at both upper and lower culmination the effect of any constant error in the right ascension or clock correction will be eliminated from the mean.
EXAMPLE.
Ursa; Minoris at
1882,
March
Lower Culmination.
20.
29
30"
Cephei at Upper Culmination.

Transit C. S. No. 8.
Simms
42.98 55-58
2.670
<P
5r
Instrument,
6h 3om 2i i 64 46.00 56.1
15.72
Ursae Minoris.
a=
93
24'
6 h 20"
24"
5".6i
51 Cephei.
a=
87
15'
33"
550
By
Ursae Minoris.
A =
We now
7 -30
C=
Cephei.
51
A = -
+ 15.16
B==
315.
we compute
the foregoing formulae
17.76
-f- 1 1
.04
C = + 20 .91
b = 4- 5". 06 = o'.337
16.83
+ 6". 30 = 0*. 42
derive the value of the micrometer-screw from the observed tran-
each
star, as follows:
Subtracting in each case the first time from the
seventh, the second from the eighth, etc., we have the following values:
sits of
51 Cephei.
log
/=
1.73078
log
=
=
1.17609
log 15
cos d
log 15
cos 6"
log
3turns
I turn
=2
4I
53 .80
The mean
fore,
1.68082
3 turns
=I
of the readings
since
log
47.95
by formulae
X=
R=
8.77395
(515), (516),
we have
turn
R=
R=
reduced the times to the axis of collimation.
=
= -
'.021 COS
.018.
4>
1.82607
1.17609
8.67961
1.68177
48.06
21
67 .o
/ Mean
on the mark E. and W. gives rc

and (518)
C1
=
=
=
J?
15.712.
Therefore
48" .00
There-
AZIMUTH BY THE TRANSIT INSTRUMENT,

Mark west of collimation
Mean value of a
Azimuth
If
316.
of
2'
26". 02
=
=
25
axis 3.042 revolutions
mark
551
.39
.63
the telescope is not provided with an eye-piece micrometer, the aziat the end of the axis may be employed (see description of instru-
muth-screw
ment, Art. 158). The mark

range of the screw is small.
in this case
must be quite near the meridian, as the

of observing is the same as that de-
The method
scribed in the last article.
For
Determination of the Value of the Screw.
this
purpose a series of transits
of a circumpolar star near culmination will be observed, extending over the enIt will be as well not to extend it to the extire available range of the screw.
treme limit
in either direction.
Let
Afo
since the screw
where r
This
moves
the instrument in azimuth,
we
have, by (517),
ta .
little
more accurately
written
R(M
R(M -
M.)
R(M -
Mo)
sin i"
sin (15*"),
J
-k*5r - Ki5r> sin
-J-[r
2
the log ${15 sin i")
0.94518
be taken from the table Art. 275.
Where
may
is
the value'of one revolution of screw.
J?
Then
the micrometer reading at any observed time /;

the micrometer reading at time of culmination t 9
10,
i(i5 sin
i"];
i)*r]
and the quantity
When
(519)
(15 sin
i")*^
this correction is appreciable
it
be convenient to apply it directly to the observed times, when we shall

have these times reduced to what they would have been if the star had moved
these reduced times is
uniformly in a great circle. The method of combining
the same as that illustrated in the preceding article.
will
552
317.
EXAMPLE.
Ursa; Minoris near lower culmination, February 5, 1869.
Chronometer time of lower culmination, 6 h I5 m 48".
Time of three revolutions,

= r=
One revolution
597*. 07
log
=
=
=
log
R=
93
23'
48"
30
13
54
9
ig9 .o
log
log 15
J?
Star's declination
Latitude
The computation
2.29885
1.17609
8.82216
2.29710
198". 2
=
=
d
q>
=
=
of the azimuth of the star at the
mean
of the observed times,

of the
and the determination of the azimuth of the mark from the combination
readings on star and on mark, will require no further illustration.
Azimuth by Circumpolar Star
at any Hour-angle.
When
extreme accuracy is required the instrument

317.
must be provided with an eye piece micrometer. The mark,
of course, must be near the line of collimation.
The method
of observing will be the same as with the theodolite, Art.
298, except that the readings are made with the micrometer.
If there is no eye-piece micrometer the azimuth-screw may
317.
553
be used, in which case the reduction will be precisely the

as that given for the theodolite, formulas (XXIV), Art.
same
304-
When the micrometer is employed the reduction will be as

follows
NESW
the
In
figure
sents the horizon,
star,
Pthe
the zenith,
/*
repre-
pole, s the
the mark,
CZ
the direction of the line of collima-
point where the west

the celestial
tion, w' the
end
of axis pierces
sphere.
FIG. 65.
Let
M
M
M'
micrometer reading on line of collimation

micrometer reading on star;
micrometer reading on mark
value of one revolution of screw
elevation of west end of axis.
R =
b =
Then from the micrometer and level readings we require the

expression for the difference in azimuth of s and /*.
R(M R(M -
M.}
M.}
azimuth of
star,
Let
Then from
Then
a
a'
figure,
if
=m
= m'
=
a
#/
a'
azimuth of mark,
required difference of azimuth.
554
From
triangle w'zs,
sin
From
3l8.
m =
cos b sin
,sr
sin b cos ^'
cos b sin
#' sin #/.
sin b cos
sin
triangle w'-sy,
sin
m'
m, m', b, a lt and a/ will always be small quantities

the above equations may be written
m =
=
;;?'
From
these equations
a,'
b cos
.3-
b COS
we
#,
sin z
rt/
Sin
therefore
#'.
obtain
7'
-T
-.
sin z
sin
-f b
sin (z
-v
sm
z}
'
^ sin
g/-.
(520)
The micrometer reading is supposed to increase with the

azimuth if the opposite is the case the signs of in and m'
will be changed.
;
b includes the correction for inequality of pivots; also for

if the instrument is of the form shown in
Fig. 28.
(See Art. 192.) Thus the complete expression for b is
flexure,
is
= ~(W- E}+p+f.
(521)
the correction for inequality of pivots, and /"the flexure.

of the star being computed by any of the
The azimuth
methods before given, we have by

of the
318.
when
(520) the required
azimuth
mark.
A Circumpolar Star near Elongation. It will be best

practicable to observe the stars near the time of elori-
319-
The readings on the star

the reading at elongation as follows
gation.
se
the star
of
position
T =
then be reduced to
may
In the figure let
time
at
elongation
position of the star at time T.
e
555
Then
se a
the correction re-
is
quired to reduce the reading at

the reading at elongation.
From
the right-angle triangle sPa,
cos
From
this,
t)
(f e
s[
s to
we have
+ x).
tan S cot (d
by the process given for deriving equation
2 sin
--
sin
2d
(t e
/
(483)
t}
(522)
On account of the rapidity and accuracy with which the

micrometer readings may be made several sets may be taken
at one elongation if thought desirable.
Example.
319. In Vol. XXXVII, Memoirs Royal Astronomical Society, Captain Clarke
gives among others the following observation of Polaris
:
Position
IV
Station Findlay Seat, 1868, October 23.
E
E =
=
M'
Mo =
Sidereal time =
Latitude
cp
57
Declination
<5
88
Right ascension
77.01
i8 h
=
=
a =
1.30
580.19
4i
30.
Hour-angle
17
262
Zenith
We
also have
One
One
dist. of
mark
division of level
division of microm. screw
z'
34' 50". o
=d=
= J? =
Inequality of pivots
Flexure
/=
nm
4
57-46
29
32 .65
36 34
h
23' 9". 75
93
i".8io
".8345
".650
3". 171
$6
The observations given
order
are the
means
319-
of a series taken
in the following
ist.
Level.
2d.
Mark.
3d.
Direct telescope to star and read level.
4th.
Three readings on
5th.
Level.
6th.
Mark.
7th.
Level.
star.
The instrument is then reversed and another series taken in the same
The level reading given is the mean of the four above indicated.
We
order.
by computing the azimuth of the star
shall first reduce the observation
at
the instant of observation.
As both
may
and azimuth are required, equations (II), Art.

These equations are rewritten here for convenience,
zenith distance
be employed.
tan
(65),
d
M = tan
cos
t
cos
M
M)
sin (<p
tan
t;
cos a
tan h
cos
Proof:
of these formulae
cos h cos a
we
readily find
= 2
= 57
= 32
i".8i
a
h
By formula
M)'
(<p
cos S cos t
M)
sin (<p
By means
tan
33' 23".s8
22 13 .38
37 47
(521),
.65
m=
m'
+ 3"-i7i +
580.19
77.01
X
X
"- 6 5
.8345 log
.8345 log
=
=
=
2 "- 6 45
2.68500
i.8o798
sin z sin z
a'
Azimuth ol star
a
Azimuth ot mark a'
=
=
16
6 .55
33 23 .58
17' 17". 03
This still requires the correction for

diurnal aberration, viz., -f- o".32 cos a.
320.
557
320. The observations of the foregoing example are taken too far from elongation for reduction by formula (522), but they will serve to illustrate the method.
We
compute the azimuth and time
of elongation
=
cos te =
elongation Te =
Time
We
of
readily find
ae
i9
18
Then by
log
(522),
zS
177
13' 8".8
=
=
log | =
"
'"
sin
log
te
Reading
35' 39".
h
20 m
43M3
41
30
.n
39
13
02
3.47892
8.68589
9.69897
1.86378
Reduction to elongation = x
Micrometer reading on star m
at elongation
q>
cot d tan cp
T =
Time of observation T =
Te T = t
t =
'
by the formulae
cos S sec
sin a e
=m
-\-
73". 08
484 .18
557 .26
m -j- x now takes the place of m in equation (520). When the observation is
within a few minutes of elongation we take for z the zenith distance at time of
Using for
elongation but in the present example this will not be admissible.
;
2 the
value derived in the previous reduction,
Azimuth of mark
we have
17'
i7"-32
CHAPTER
PRECESSION.
321.
NUTATION.
X.
ABERRATION.
The heavenly bodies which
are
PROPER MOTION.
employed
for
the purposes treated of in the foregoing pages are,

sun, moon, and planets; and second, the fixed stars.
any
first,
of
the
In solving the problems of practical astronomy, we have

most cases supposed the position of the object observed
The co-ordinates which we have
to be accurately known.
in
in
most cases employed are the right ascension and declina-
tion.
The motions of the sun, moon, and planets are of a complicated character, and the prediction of their places for any
given instant belongs to another department of astronomy.
When their co-ordinates are required for any of the foregoing purposes they will simply be taken from the American
Ephemeris or a similar publication.
With
the fixed stars the case
is
different
their relative
positions change very slightly from age to age.

cases no change at all has been discovered.
In most
The apparent co-ordinates of all stars, however, are varying slowly but continuously, owing to two causes which are
independent of the star's motion, viz.: first, a shifting of the
planes of reference, giving rise to precession and nutation
and second, an apparent motion of the star, due to the earth's
motion combined with the progressive motion of light, called
;
aberration.
SECULAR AND PERIODIC CHANGES.
322.
559
Secular and Periodic Changes.

322.
The
small changes to which
many
of the quantities
employed in astronomical operations are subject are divided

into two classes, viz., secular and periodic.
Secular changes are those which are progressive in the same
direction from year to year, requiring long periods of time
to complete a cycle, so that during short periods the
changes may be considered as proportional to the time.
Periodic changes are those which complete their cycle in a
secitla
comparatively short time, and where the motion from maximum to minimum, or the reverse, is so rapid that the change
cannot be considered proportional to the time, except for
very short intervals.
T\\Q precession of the equinoxes produces a secular change in
the co-ordinates of all stars referred either to the equator or
It will be remembered that this is the name given
ecliptic.
to the slow motion which takes place in the line of intersection of the ecliptic and equator, causing the pole of the equator to describe a circle about the pole of the ecliptic in a
period of about 25,000 years. This motion is due to the
spheroidal form of the earth, in consequence of which one
component of the attractive force of the sun and moon tends
to draw the equator into coincidence with the ecliptic.
This component of the attraction is not uniform. It is a
maximum when the sun and moon are farthest from the
plane of the equator, and a
equator.
Nutation.
minimum when they
are in the
The want of uniformity in the forces producing

precession gives rise to small changes of short period which
together are called nutation. There are a number of small
changes embraced under this head, but the principal one
causes the actual pole of the earth's equator to describe a
560
324.
small ellipse about the mean pole the major axis of this
ellipse is directed to the pole of the ecliptic and embraces
;
about
14".
The
8" of arc.
The period
is
length of the conjugate axis
is
about
about 18 years.
Mean, Apparent, and True Place of a Star.

323. Suppose the right ascension and declination of a star
to be accurately observed with a suitable instrument the
place of the star so determined will be the apparent place.
:
The apparent
direction of the star
is
affected by aberration,
more fully hereafter.
the effect of which will be considered
If we apply to the apparent right ascension and declination

the corrections necessary to free them from the effect of
aberration, we have the true place.
If now we
apply to this true place the small periodic cor-
rections called nutation, we have as the result the mean place.

In catalogues of stars the right ascensions and declinations
are given, referred to the mean equator and equinox for the
beginning of the year of the catalogue. If then the apparent

place of the star is required for any given date, the precession must be applied to reduce the mean place of the catalogue to the mean place at the given date; the nutation and
aberration must then be applied to reduce the mean place
to apparent place. The determination of these reductions
will be the
immediate object
of the present chapter.
Precession.
324.
to
The change
two causes
in the position of the
first,
equinoxes
the action of the sun and
is
due
moon and
;
second, that of the planets. The first gives rise to luni-solar

precession, and the second to planetary precession.
3 2 5-
PRECESSION.
561
By the processes of physical astronomy it is shown that the

attractions of the sun and moon upon the matter accumulated
about the earth's equator, which gives it its spheroidal form,
produce a slow retrograde motion in the line of intersection
of the equator and ecliptic, without changing the angle between these planes. As the celestial longitudes are measured
from this line, or rather from one of the points where it
pierces the celestial sphere, the effect
is
a constant increase
in the longitudes, with no change in the latitudes.

This is luni-solar precession, and is due simply to a
motion
of the equator.
The attractions exerted
upon the earth by the other planets

of the solar system tend to change the plane in which it revolves about the sun, without changing the position of the
equator; this change is relatively small and tends to diminish
the right ascensions without affecting the declinations.
The latter is called planetary precession and is due to a motion of the ecliptic.
The combined
effect of the luni-solar and planetary preproduce small secular changes in the right ascensions and declinations, also of the longitudes and latitudes of
all stars, and in the obliquity of the ecliptic.
325. In order to be able to determine the position of the
cession
is
to
equator or the ecliptic at any given instant
it
will
be neces-
sary to select the positions of those circles at some given

epoch as fixed circles to which all motions may be referred.
Let these fundamental
circles
be the mean equator and
eclip-
tic for 1800.0.
In Fig. 67, let
Let
1800
EE
-(- t
AA Q be the mean equator for 1800.0;

A' A", the mean equator for 1800 -+- *
and EE' be the mean
ecliptic for 1800.0
and
respectively.
Then BD, the
part of the fixed ecliptic over which the
562
point of intersection has moved,

sion in
the
is
325.
luni-solar
preces-
^'.
years
Let D' be the point on the movable ecliptic which coinwhen the ecliptic had the position EEQ
cided with
Then CD'
Since
is
was
1800.0
the general precession for / years

0,.
the point of the equator which at the instant
is
at
D,
BC
is
the arc of the equator over which
FIG. 67.
the intersection with the ecliptic has
moved
in
a forward
direction.
BC
/
Let
therefore the planetary precession in the interval
is
years
G? O
5.
the
mean obliquity
DE-
=A
a?,
of the
ecliptic
for 1800.0
the obliquity of the fixed ecliptic for 1800 -f
= A"BE-
GO
the
mean
1800
7t
obliquity of the movable ecliptic for
+ =
/
A"CE\
the inclination of the

to the fixed ecliptic
D is
1800
the
-+- t.
mean equinox
of 1800;
mean
ecliptic for 1800
= EEC*
C
is
the
-f- /
mean equinox
of
PRECESSION CONSTANTS.
563
DE
Since longitudes are reckoned in the direction

E will
Q
be the descending node of the movable on the fixed ecliptic.
Let
n=
Then
n=
326.
stants,
the longitude of the ascending node of the movable on the fixed ecliptic, reckoned from the
mean equinox
- DE.
of 1800.
180
The determination
by means
and equator
of the values of the
of "which the position of the
above con-
mean
ecliptic
any time 1800 -\- t can be determined in

reference to the fixed ecliptic and equator of 1800.0, belongs
to the department of physical astronomy.
Three different
series of values have been quite extensively employed, viz.,
those of Bessel, Struve and Peters, and Leverrier. Bessel's
values are given for the mean ecliptic and equinox of 1750,
those of Struve and Peters for 1800, and Leverrier's for 1850.0.
The values which we shall employ are those of Struve and
Peters, being those which are more extensively used at
present than either of the others. If, however, it is preferred
at
it will be a simple matter to make the

necessary changes in the formulae which will be derived.
The values are as follows:*
to use other values,
0.000
^=
=
=
co,
co,
co=
n
is
=
=
50". 241 1 1 -f o.ooo
2
1
134/
23 27' 54".22;
co
-f ooo 0073 5/';
eo
''.4738^
".4776/
o".i5ii9*
.OOOOOI4/
".ooo 003 5 /
(523)
2
;
.000 241 86/
2
.
* Dr. C. A. F. Peters' Numerus Constans Nutationis, p. 66 et 71.

of the annual diminution employed
f In the American Ephemeris the value
The difference is so small as to be practically
o".4645, instead of ".4738.
almost inappreciable.
564
Bessel gives the following values for the epoch 1750:*
=
=
".ooo 1217945?
5o".37572/
LT
The
.000 00272295*'
.48368*
(524)
5". 21*;
//
Tt
.00000984233*"
=
= 171 36' \o"
= o .48892*
3=o
.000 1221483?
50 .21129*
j,= 23 28' i8".o
&?
23 28 1 8 .o
',
.000 00307 1 9?
.000
.17926*
following are Leverrier's values, the epoch being 1850
= 5o".36924*'
= 50 .23465*
= 23 27' 3 ".83 +
GO = 23
27 31 .83
n = 173 o' 12" = o".4795O*
''.ooo 10881*'
i/}
fa
-|-
GO,
yf
5=o
.000
U288*
8".694
2
;
.000 00719?
-47593'
- ".QOOOOI49*
(525)
.000 003 1 2
.000 24174*'.
.14672*
ot the above quantities to be known,

solve the following problems.
To find the precession in longitude
327. Problem First.
and latitude for any star between 1800.0 and 1800 -f- /.
Assuming the values
we may now
Let the star be referred to a system
of rectangular axes,
the fixed ecliptic for 1800 being the plane of XY, the positive
axis of
being directed to the ascending node of the ecliptic
Z being
-(- t on the fixed ecliptic, the positive axis of

directed to the pole of the fixed ecliptic.
the longitude and latitude for 1800.
Let L and B
of 1800
x=
cos
Next,
B cos (L
let
IT)
the plane of
y = cos j5 sin (L
JfFbe
the
Tabulae Regiomontanae,
mean
p. v,
77)
Then
= sin.(a)
ecliptic of 1800
Introduction.
t,
PRECESSION.
327-
the
new
X coinciding
axis of
Z directed
of
565
new
with the old, and the
axis
to the pole of the ecliptic of 1800 -(- /.

the longitude and latitude for 1800
ft
Let A and
/.
Then
*'=cos ft cos (A
II
77
^);
the same in both
is
The new axes
of
/ =cos
(a)
and
and
ft
71-
sin (A
(b} y
0,);
z'=sm ft.(b}
being the value for 1800.0.
make
the angle
n with the
old.
Therefore
x'=x\
y'=y
From
(rt), (b),
(a')
cos
ft
cos (A
(f)
cos
yS
sin (A
cos
and
77
77
-\-
y sin n +
z'
cos
<?
TT.
(<r)
(V),
#,)
î)
sin ft
(/)
z sin n\
=
=
=
cos ,5 cos
cos
cos
77);
sin
77) cos
(Z
^sin(Z
it
-\-
sin
^ sin
it;
cos
77) sin 7T-|-sin
71.
(526)
These equations are rigorous, but
in practice they may be

abridged.
n is so small that no appreciable error will be involved in
i, even when the interval t is several cenwriting cos it
much
turies.
Making cos n
(e)
cos
by cos (L
ft
sin (A
77),
i, and multiplying (d] by

and subtracting, we have
^,)
Then multiplying by
ing, we find
cos
ft
cos (A
and by
sin
cos (L
^,)
fc)
77
cos
B cos
sin
7t
and
^+
sin
sin
TT
(Z
(L
sin
sin
(L
77).
77),
^ sin
and add-
(L
division,
tan (A
_Z-
sin
!
n tan .# cos (L
^ tan ^ sin (L
sin
77),
77)
_ ny
77);
- L-
fa
ft
(L
77)
a function of n.
n cos
sin
II)
we
TT,
etc., (527)
omitted.
TT"
sin
sin
tan s j9 sin z(L
it*
may always be
may be written
in
last of (526)
sin
/? is
B cos
tan
where the term
The
and writing
this into a series
Developing
have*
327.
sin (Z,
17).
Developing by Maclaurin's formula,
we have
ft
-B=-
n sin (L
- 77) -f
5 sin
tan
TT'
(Z
77), etc.
(528)
Formulae (527) and (528) solve the problem, where, as before remarked, the terms in n* may always be dropped.
* This
expansion, which
Writing
is
(A.
of frequent application, is obtained as follows:
becomes tan x
the above formula
^>i)
=
I
From
this
x,
tan
B =
m,
-(L-n) = y,
90
we have
sin
Adding both members to
=m
sin
cos
sin (y
x
x
sin
cos
_y
x).
sin x, then subtracting both
members from
sin
and dividing,
m
m
Now
write
-\-
_
~~
-r-
sin
sin
x
x
-}-
=/;
and by Moivre's formula, equation

2u
sin
(_y
x)
sin (y
x)
\y
u;
tan
_
~
\y
2t>
V -1
r=*
t
_
'
+l
^y)
v.
(135),
*ui +I - p
_y
tan (x
tan
= f tan
v;
PRECESSION.
328.
To
328. Problem Second.
567
find the precession in longitude
and latitude between two given dates 1800 -(-/and 1800

Let A and
and
A'
Then
be the longitude and latitude for 1800

be the longitude and latitude for 1800
ft
ft'
by (527), A
A'
L =
L =
t\
tan
cos(
+
+
?/\
f
B cos
B cos
tan
-n
!
n tan
- U
(L
(L
-}-/'.
+
+
/;
/'.
);
77').
Subtracting,
A
A'
= (///
?/<,)-)-
TT'
7rtan#cos(X
77')
77).
(529)
may be placed in a better form by assuming the

auxiliary equations
This
a sin A
a cos A
From
this
we
=
=
(*'
f
(rt
+ n) sin
-
find
I -}-
P+ =
(77'
n) cos \(tt'
me
77);
77).
'
- (/ -
'
i)
--
since
2(M
m.
Taking
the logarithms of both
v)
y-^n =
me
- ;,Or
-f-
Writing for
_L-
#,
u, v,
TT
=w
and
tan
members
-1 -
^^ + ^
sin 2r/
|? s
their values,
^ cos
i,
(Z
II)
above and expanding,
of the
rl/:ri
+ i /rV \
-**=3 _ iw a
r
sin 4z/
-f-
iw
etc.
-^
sin 6v, etc.
we have
ITT"
tan s ,5 sin z(L
3
\n* tan
B sin
3(Z
II)
77), etc.
etc
568
Combining these with
328.
and eliminating n and
(529),
TT',
we
find
'
(0/
fc)
+ A cos
Similarly from (528)
we have
B
B=
/3
ft'
/:
for 1800
we
ft'
ft
tan
we
TT'
A
/
-f- /'
by the auxiliary equa-
= -
a sin
A =
substitute for
~~
TT
and
tan
- A.
A we
+ n
-it
t>
find,
(/-/'-
n -^7^77-
from
r
^(U
'
from
(532)
(530),
//).
n' their values
lecting the term in f, and recollecting that

small, this equation may be written
A =
and 1800
find
For the auxiliary quantities a and
If
);
sin (Z
Subtracting and eliminating n a.id

tions (530),
-H
- IT).
sin (L
r
7i
- 4tan. (531)
8". 5 05
-^
(523),
neg-
U)
very
is
/
.
(533)
being therefore very small even for large values

and (', we may write cos A = i in (530), when
a
n'
7i
(/'
".4776
(/"
/*)
of
''.0000035. (534)
PRECESSION.
329-
569
In equations (531) and (532) we may write

ft for B.
Introducing the auxiliary angle
A.
for L,
M such that
.and
(S35)
and substituting in (531),

Struve and Peters' values
and (534) for ^/,
(532),
0'
?r,
77,
equation (523) we have finally

the following practical formulae for computing the preces-
and latitude between any two intervals

and 1800 -f t'\
sion in longitude
1800 4-
M = 172
/S'
/ff
329. If
by
(/'
7-1
45' 31"
5o".24i
o".477&
(/'
/) [
(/'
/)[ o".4776
we
/),
(f
(/
4-
(f
/)
f)
o".ooo 0035] cos (A.

o".ooo 0035] sin (A
divide the expressions for
and then make
/',
we
-^-
172
ft]
A) and (fi
have the values
(A/
shall
for the precession in longi-
45'
3i"
/,
viz.
+3
//
5o .24ii 4- o.ooo 2268/;

//
4- [o
tude and latitude respectively at the instant
M=
- J/)tan /3;
- M)..
J s>
r and -~, or the expressions
of
8". 505;
4776
[o"4776
o.ooo oo/o/] cos
(A,
o.ooo 0070^] sin (A
M}
J/).
These formulae may be used to compute the

two dates 1800 -\- t and 1800
cession between
^(537)
tan
entire pre-
/',
if
we
of the differential coefficients for the

middle interval, viz., 1800 -f \(t -f t'\ The result will be
accurate to terms of the second order inclusive.
compute the values
570
We
329.
have developed these formulae (536) and (537) (which
are those of Bessel, except that we have employed other

constants) for the sake of completeness, although they will
not be used in connection with the problems of the present

the co-ordinates commonly employed being the
right ascension and declination.
treatise,
The mean longitude and
Example.
latitude of
a Lyra
for 1850.0 are as fol-
lows:
283
ft
61
12'
48". 12;
44 25
.45.
Required the mean longitude and latitude for 1884.0.
Here
Therefore we
A
A'
by
find,
t)
(t
ftf
(t
A'
t)
=
=
283' 12' 48". 12
A'
283 41'
>
34;
134.
23";
M = no 4 25;
- A = - X 50". 2563 +
- ft = - - X .4771 sin
(t'
t'
84;
(536),
8'
173
50;
(A
28' i8". 3 6
-OX -4771 cos (A
M)
tan
ft;
M).
ftf
- ft- ft = 61
6". 48
/?'
15". 24
44' 25". 45
6r44' io".2i
If we wish to employ (537), we shall have for t the middle of the interval between 1850 and 1884, viz., t = 67. For A in the second member we require
the longitude for 1867, which we shall have with all necessary accuracy by
adding to the longitude for 1850 the general precession for 17 years and negCalling this value A we have
lecting the smaller terms.
,
=
M=
Ao
AO
~=
dft
283
12'
172
45 31
48"
+ 50". 24
+ 33 .231
50". 2563 -f .4771 cos (A
-477I sin (A
X
X
17
67
- M) tan
- M}
= 283
= 173
= no
ft
=
-
27'
2";
22 37;
4 25;
49". 9517;
-".4481.
PRECESSION.
330-
Therefore
A.'
= ~(S -
/)
571
28' i8".36;
agreeing with the values obtained by the other formulae.
330. Problem Third.
Given the mean right ascension and
declination of a star for the date 1800 -f

ascension and declination for 1800 -f- 1'
/,
required the right
'.
We first
require the values of certain auxiliary constants

employed in solving the corresponding prob-
similar to those
lem for the
ecliptic.
In Fig. 68
let V,
V{
QV,
QVj
Vyi =
the fixed ecliptic for 1800;

the equator for i8oo
/;
+
+
the equator for 1800

t'\
the luni.-solar precession in the
terval
Vy{ =
Therefore
Let
z, z' ,
terval
QV,
and 6
(t'
t]
will
is
(/'
in-
/).
if,'- $.
/
90-^; j2^
=90+*
/
;
be quite small quantities, even
VtQV*'= e
when
the
in-
considerable.
In accordance with our notation, angle
QV.'V, =00,'.
Then in the triangle
QVy'
QV.V.'iô
the quantities
a?/,
GO,,
&?
and
572
tp
ip'
and
are given by (523);
we can
331-
therefore determine
2, z' t
6.
By
we
Napier's analogies,
tan
Aft
readily find
sn
(538)
The second
In the
first
of these
may be
written
and third the denominator may be written equal
to unity.
331.
We
can
now
solve our problem,
to determine
viz.,
the right ascension and declination for 1800

/.
given those quantities for 1800
-}-
/',
In Fig. 68,
If V^
for
5 being any
Sa
3,
Sa'
3'.
and VJ represent the position of the mean equinox

* an d 1800
*'
respectively, then
1800+
The planetary
The planetary
The
star,
having
precession in the interval

precession in the interval
right ascension
Vâ
2
Considering
now
FV =
oc\
a';
V^Q
/
/'
= V^ V^ =
= F/F/
= 90
V^Q =
90
5;
^'
3;
+ - 3'.
**
the rectangular co-ordinates of the
star,
33
the
PRECESSION.
mean equator of 1800
tive axis of
-\-t
being the
XY,
of
the posi-
plane
X being directed to the point
Q, we have
x=
y=
cos 8 sin (a -\- z -|- 3);

cos 6 cos (a-\- z-\- 3);
= sin
tf.
Similarly for the equator of 1800

x'
cos
-S-'
formulas for
sin
-f- /',
3' sin (a'
/ = cos
The
573
<?'
z' -f3');
cos (a'
z'
*', 7',
and
#',
in
y = y cos
z'
3');
<?'.
terms of
x, y,
and
are
z,
s sin 6-
= y sin
-J-
5-
cos
0.
Therefore
1
cos d' sin (a

cos S' cos (a'
z'
+ 3')
-f-
3')
sin 8'
= cos
= cos
= cos
S sin (a
5 cos (a
S cos (a
-\-
z-f- 3);
-|- z -|-
-j- z-f-
3) cos
3) sin
sin
s'n
5 sin
#cos
0;
>
'
(539)
We
might have derived these equations by applying the

formulas of spherical trigonometry to the triangle
formed by joining the place of the star with the
pole of the equator in the two positions.
the
Thus in Fig. 69, 5 being the star, and P and
pole of the equator at the time 1800+* and 1800-}-^
respectively, we have the following for the sides
and angles of the triangle. Calling the angle at
the star C,
PP'
PS= ao-tf;
6;
SPP = a + z-\-$
SPP=
180
(a'-z'+$'}
P'S=9O -(T;
A, say, for convenience;

1
80
A'.
574
Another solution
of the
problem
Gauss' equations to this triangle,
is
332.
obtained by applying
viz.:
cos !(90+cT) cos
sin 1(90
sin
The
(540)
-H') cos lt(A'-C)=s'm

sin
^'-=
sin
sn
z, z' and
being computed by
or (540) give the required solution of our
problem; these equations being solved in the usual manner.
332. Practically it is more convenient to compute the difformula for (a'
is
ferences, (a
at)
a) and (d
6).
auxiliary quantities
(538), either (539)
conveniently derived from the

which we write as follows:
cos d' sin A'
cos 6' cos
Multiply the
and second of
(539),
= cos tfsin A;
A =
'
first of
first
cos # cos
cos 6
sin
6 sin
6.
these by cos A, the second by sin A, and

by sin A, the second by
subtract; then multiply the first
We
cos A, and add.

cos 5' sin (A 1
cos d' cos (A
A)
A)
Let
= cos 6
= cos d
readily find
sin
cos A tan
sin 6 [tan 5
sin 6[tan 5 -f- cos
cos 5 cos
sin 0[tan
-\-
cos
^4
#];
tan
tan
By
the
first
of Napier's analogies,
^^
|fl].
(542)
PRECESSION.
33 2 -
575*
be necessary to make the computation in this complete form for circumpolar stars when the interval (/'
/) is
When the star is not too near the pole the computalarge.
tion will be much simpler, as \ve shall see.
It will
The mean
Example.
place of Polaris for 1825.0
=
=
5 =
Right ascension
Declination
Required the precession

1900.
We have
here
25,
in right
/'
23
27' 54". 22459;
23
27
oa,
Then by
tan
i(z'
Itf
z)
z)
^(<iV
^
$(z'
a?,)
o". 03446
9.45
o 29' 2". oo
o 28 43 .10
z)
z1
23
oa,)
sin \(z'
s)
rj>
if/
we may
=
=
=
ifj)
therefore find, from formulae (523),
=
=
1259". 43;
5036 .90;
3'
cot
i(i/>'
tf)
tan
K 00 /
z)
3".628;
12
.700.
$),
cosec !((/
ojj),
>i)-
=
=
7.9617592
cot
cosec
=
=
2.03824
9.9625128
tan=
7.9242720
log
8.53732
0-97547
tan
27' 54". 26
cos
.55
=
=
write
31' 28". 74
o 28 52
32;
15'.
14 33' 49". 8.
88 22' 3i"-47.
+ =- cos $(,' + <,) tan \(#

tan \Q
KGJ, -f cj/)
We
54 .29350;
formulae (538), which
as follows:
ascension and declination between 1825 and
100.
&V =
oh 58
is
tan
K')
sin 4(2' -f z)
tan
2>
=
=
-3999 1
9- 6375775
7.9242567
-J0
|0
=0I2'32".07
7.5618342
=o
25
4 .14
PRAClÎCAL ASTRONOMY.
7^
We now
=
=
3 =
a
14
sin
9.4101647
log denominator
log numerator
1
A)
9.3950200
(2'
sin
7.8628593
log/
9.4101647
9.8760303
1(8'
3'
8.9483587
5
15
4'
26". 13
36 .53
7'
434
1.5472620
17
0.0004259
^S
=
=
tan
7.5414869
32' 13". 06
34 49 .60
sec
cos
4'26".i 3
=
=
8)
=
=
o ii 57 .65
o 23 55 .30
5618342
9 .07
2'
o h 24
.
2".i6
8'.
144
means of the foregoing formulae we readily
the precession in right ascension and declination,
and
9.9792268
2". 66
57 45 -10
333- B_y
7.54669
7.56183
=
=
=
Zech
tan S
8.8243890
A)
Sum =
--
\(A'-\-A)
+z)
a'
9 98486
(5^2), viz.
.1239697
= 5
=
-($'-$) = (A
=
=
tan |6
cos A
=
=
A =
A =
by formulae
\(A'A}
=9.9848553
A = 20
1
8)
36". 53
9 4142243
/ cos A =
Zech =
A'
2'
15
A =
log/
cos
33'49".8
28 43 .10
3 -63
tan (A
a) and (5'
compute (a
333-
find
viz., -j-
dd
;-,
We
at
any given instant 1800
have (A
- A) =
-f- *
('_)_ (^ 4.
*)
_|_
(5'
- 3).
(543)
PRECESSION.
333If
= t in the first of
- A} = A' - A, sin 6 =
now we make
8'
3,
also, sin
sin (A'
zf 7
/'
(541),
6, sin
we may make
A=
sin (a+3);
6 tan %8 will vanish,
being an infinitesimal of the
second order.
Therefore this equation becomes
A - A =6ian6 sin (a -f 3).

f
From
same condition
(538), the
=
Combining
for (a
da
-=
The
p-
4:)
sin
/',
dt
cos
d8
-
(544)
we have
and (545), writing da, d$, and

and dividing by dt,
last of (542)
Writing
existing, viz., /
(543), (544)
a), etc.,
-d
co,
- dt-sin
co l
tan
tf
sin
-f
dd>
5).
(546)
+ 3) .....
(547)
(or
by a similar process gives
d'h
m=
sin
-j-
oo,
-f-
cos (a
-rr cos
<,-;
sm
* If we draw in the
plane of the equator lines to the mean equinox of (1800-)-^
and (1800 -f- t -{- i) years, it will be observed that m represents the angle between them, assuming the rate of change to be uniform during one year. Also,
will be the angle between the two lines drawn to the poles of the equator in
the two positions.
578
From
the values of
m=
'/-,
and
a> lt
equation (523)
46". 062 3 4- ".ooo 2849/1

3 '.0708 2
4-
2o".o6o7
we have
.ooo 01899/1
".ooo 0863/5
(549)
at
334.
4- w sin
<*
tan
S;
COS
at
We
in place of (a -(- S), no appreciable

have written
error resulting from neglecting ~
These formulae may be employed for computing the prer
cession between any
values of -jat
1800
and
+ 4(* -f
second order
*')
in
two dates 1800
-7- are
at
computed
tne r 651
-1
(/'
/)
will
-f- /
and 1800
for the
-f
/'.
be accurate to terms
inclusive.
We
If
middle date,
the
viz.,
of the
shall return to these
formulae hereafter.
Proper Motion.
334-
When
the co-ordinates of a star observed at different
dates are reduced to the same epoch by means of the precession formulae, a considerable difference in the values is
often found, indicating a motion of the star itself. This
change is called proper motion, and may be due either to an
actual motion of the star in space or to the motion of the

solar system, producing an apparent motion of the star. The
observed proper motion is in fact the resultant of the two.

For our purposes it is not necessary to attempt to separate
these components. The proper motions in most cases are
very small, requiring many years to produce an appreciable
change in the star's place; but there are a few important exceptions to this rule.
jj
PROPER MOTION.
334-
579
In investigating the subject, the path of the star is assumed

to coincide with a great circle, and the motion to be uniform.
It is not probable that either assumption is true, but such
deviations as
exist will be
may
very small.
In order to determine a star's proper motion,

must be observed on at least two dates which we
1800
the
-\- t
and 1800
more accurate
/'.
The greater
its
place
may
the interval
call
t)
(t'
will be the results, other things being
equal.
a and #
Let
the observed
mean
right as-
cension and declination for
-\-
Aa and
-(-
AS
1800 -f /;
values given by reducing the values observed at
the
1800
to the first date
/'
by
the application of the precession only.
Then Aa and A6
motion
Let
/-i
will
in the interval
and
//
be the changes
(/'
yu
a and 6 due
to
proper
the annual proper motion in right ascension and declination respectively.
Aa
Then
in
t}.
= -r-
Ad
~~~ .....
will be referred to the mean equator of

we had reduced the co-ordinates for this date
we should have obtained the proper motions
These values
1800
-\- t.
to 1800
If
-f- t'
referred to the equator of the latter date
H=-
Aa'
and
Vf-Ad'
(551)
5SO
These
values for stars near the pole
siderably from the

335. Problem 1.
336.
may
very con-
differ
first.
To reduce the right ascension and decfrom the epoch 1800 -{- / to 1800 -f t', the
proper motion being known.
First. Suppose the proper motion given in reference to the
lination of a star
mean equator of 1800
Add
motion
-j- t,
the solution
is
as follows:
to the right ascension for i8oo-|- / the effect of proper

for the interval (t'
t)\ similarly add
/), viz., /<(/'
With these values of the right

to the declination //(/'
/).
ascension and declination the precession is computed as
before by formulas (542).
The proper motion being given
Second.
equator of 1800
Reduce the
add
for the
mean
/'.
star's place to
to the results n(t'
t)
1800
and
-f- 1'
by formulas
//(/'
t}
(542),
and
respectively.
336. Problem II. Having given the proper motion in right

ascension and declination, referred to the mean equator of
1800 -(- /, to derive the values in reference to the equator of
1800
t'.
Equations (539), giving the values of

a and 6, are as follows:
cos 5' sin (a'
cos S' cos ('
-f S')
z -j- 3')
sin 5'
We also
cos 5 sin (a -f- z

cos 5 cos (a -f z
cos S cos (<x -j- z
and
<$'
5);
-f-
3) cos
sin
-\-
3) sin 6
sin
in
terms of
-}-
S sin
S cos
0;
0.
(552)
have
cos d sin (a -)- z

cos 8 cos (a -f 2
sin d
=
=
=
oc'
-(-
3)
+ 3) =
cos 5' sin

cos
('
cos (a
cos S' cos (a
5'
z' -f-
S')
z -\- 3')
1
cos
+ 3') sin
The proper motion which changes
+ sin
-j-
5' sin 0;
sin 5' cos
0.
>
(553)
the position of the star
produces no change in the quantities z, z -, 5', or 6,

as these quantities merely serve to fix the positions of the
itself
PROPER MOTION.
337-
581
reference planes. Therefore, proper motion alone

being
considered, these quantities will be constants, a, a', d, 6'
being variable.
Differentiating the
two
first
of (552)
on
this hypothesis,
we have
cos
d'
cos (a'
sin 5' sin (a'

-f S') da'
cos d cos (a -f- z -f- 5)
-f-
da
5') d8'
sin
d sin (a
cos 6' sin (a'

z'
sin d' cos (a'
z -\- 3') </'
-\- 5') </a'
cos 5 sin (-|-z-|-3) cos (Ida sin 5 cos (rt-j-z-f-S) cos Odd
Multiply the
of these
first
by cos
(a'
z'
'-\-
-\-
z -\- 3)
cos 8 sin
</<3
6</<5.
the second
3'),
subtracting and reducing by (552) and

z' -f- 3'), the sec(553); then multiply the first by sin (a'
z' -f 3'), add, and reduce.
ond by cos (a'
find
by
sin (a'
z' -f-
),
We
Aa'
= Aa
AS'
= - Aa
[cos 9
+ sin
tan
sin e sin (a'
S'
2'
cos
(a'
+ #')
z'
-f #')]
AS
^ cos
-J
S'
[cos
sin
^~ g,^
+ sin 6 tan
S'
cos
2'
(a'
554 *
#')].
</, da', and </#' have been changed to Aa, Ad, etc.
These equations solve the problem above enunciated with
afo,
necessary precision Aa, Ad, etc., being so small that it

unnecessary to consider terms of the higher orders. They
may be used for the entire proper motion between the two
dates t and t' or for the annual proper motion.
The proper motion being given in
337. Problem III.
all
is
reference to the mean equator of 1800

Aa and" Ad in reference to the
values of
1 800
/.
/'
to derive the
mean equator
of
Differentiating equations (553) and reducing by (552) and

manner similar to that explained above, we have
(553) in a
Aa
Aa' [cos 6
sin 6 tan S cos (a
+ 2 + i)]
sin 6
y,
~~^
;
'
AS
Aa' sin 9 sin (a
+ 2 -f #)
AS'
-\
.;
cos S [cos 8
sin
tan & cos (a
(555)
$32
337-
Example.
In the example Art. 332 we have found by applying the
precession to the catalogue place of Polaris the mean position for 1900.0, as follows:
a'
Aa'
22 m 23*46;
h
i
From Newcomb's
a'
Therefore A a'
/
/'
catalogue
22 m 33*76
we
Ad'
6';
-88
46' 26". 77.
1900*
88
Ad'
=+
find for
io .3o;
-\-
//
46' 26 .66.
".n.
Therefore
75 years.
/*
6'
/= -
-i373;
."00147.
These values are referred to the mean equator of 1900.

we wish to reduce them to the equator of 1825 we employ
From the values of (a -i- z -(- 3) and 0,
formulae (555).
If
Art. 332,
4a'
we
[cos Q
find
sin
JS'
tan S cos (a-f-s-f-3)]
sin 6 sin
(a-
coi"S~
c"os S'
~i$
Act
Also,
f 15
Ja'
sin
sin (a
* This
is,
742
=+
765
of the
=-
1096
problem
method.
4a' being given
in time
Therefore /J^+'-K'SS
of course, not an observed place, but
illustrating the
f
7*.
+ + 3) = +".2924
cos 5 [cos 6-sin 9 tan 5 cos (a-fz-f 3)]

COS( p
The above treatment
+ z + 3) _
and A8'
in arc.
is
it
due to
Bessel.
answers equally well
for
EXPANSION INTO
SERIES.
583
Proper Motion on the Arc of a Great

338. Let p
Circle.
= the annual motion on the arc of a great circle;

= the angle which this great circle forms
with the hour-circle of the star.
the star is on the meridian,
X will be measured from the
north towards the east.
When
In the figure P is the pole, 5 and S' the

second positions of the star respectively.
SS' = p;
S'A = AacosS
PSS' =
= p sin X;
SA
x\
p'
Expansion
Ad'2
Ad
first
and
p cos x
+ Ac? cos
d.
into Series.
339. The foregoing problem of reducing the mean place

of a star from one epoch to another is treated in a very convenient and elegant manner by expansion into series in terms
of the time.
If
we
<?
the right ascension and declination
a and $
the right ascension and declination
let
or,
and
for
for
we have by
any time
any time
T,
T -\-
t,
Maclaurin's formula
(557)
j-
When
are both considered,

precession and proper motion
584
the changes in a and d are functions of these
two independ-
ent variables, and

etc -> are tne tota ^ differential
[-jjrji K57-1
with respect to both
coefficients
precession
and
proper
motion.
If
we
dp a, dp $
write
and dâ, d^d

we have
tion,
d
~p d
df
and
due to prechanges due to proper mo-
to indicate a variation
to indicate
cession,
dja
similarly for the other coefficients.
Equations (549) give us -^- and -~,
=m
at
viz.,
n sin a tan
-(-
d:
.
.-.
~^-
dt*
at*
dja.
- 4-
sin
at
mn
sin
_ mn*
+ [( 2
-f-
20.
cos 2a
(- tun?
L.
at
cos a
at
.
- m* + 3
\3tn*
+ mn cos a Itan 8 + * 2 sin
sin a
'-\
cos
+3
sin 2a
559)
we have
Differentiating these,
-^ =
cos
20.)
sin a
2a
- sin 2
8;
sin 2 a tan 8;
dn_
- sin
za tan 2
(*m
tan 2 8
^+
^) cos a ] tan
+ 2* sin a (i + 2 cos za)
a ^tan
s si n 2
a cos a tan 2
tan 3
8.
(S6o>
8;
EXPANSION INTO
34-
and
585
now
340. Let us
p, x, M,
SERIES.
consider proper motion.

have the same significance as before, Articles
}JL
334 and 338.
<$' = the
right ascension and declination at end of
proper motion alone being considered.
In the triangle formed by the pole and the two positions
of the star we have
a'
time
and
t,
PS =
90
PS'
tf;
S'PS=a'-a;
90
SS'
eT;
tp\
S'SP=X-
Therefore
sin d
costf'cosfo''
cos
d'
= sin d cos /tf+cos d sin pt cos x\

sin #sinp/cos;t;
tf)=costf cos/tf
sin pt sin
sm(af'a)=
Also, p sin x
= M cos
Differentiating the
tf;
p cos ^
first
J*';
P*
= (^ cos"
of (561) with respect to 8'
and
/,
we
find
rt/
cos
8' -j-
sin
<$
Substituting for p cos ^
sin pt
its
-4-
cos
tf
cos p^./> cos
value X, and making
= o, we
have
dt
and reducing in a
Differentiating a second and third time
586
similar manner, we have the following partial

coefficients with respect to //
^~i = *
nvsn = "
iJ
L> J
'" sm
In a similar manner,
making
o,
by
341.
Li r J
n cos
!sm).
Mjt
UFJ
(562)
differentiating the third of (561),

find
*
:
rv 3nH = ~
>u
and
dâ
tan o -^
sin 2 5
(i-|-3tan 5)yUyU
L"^"J
For the terms ~^TT~ an d
with respect to
dpdfiCt
nv<n =
and reducing, we
ân = " r<vn =a/l/l ta
^J
differential
we
,*
'
(563)
differentiate (559)
//, viz.,
-f-
sin
sec 2 o
d^
;
-~- and
the values given above,
Substituting for
-^-
we
have
^P^*M
,
cos
yw
(Si
tan o
-|-
X sm a sec
/
^
"I
(564)
''*"*
nu
at
sin a.
Therefore, from (558), (560), (562), (563), and (564),
\-?-
-r.
l_* J
=m
=
-}-
COS
n sin tan d
-\- yu
34 1
EXPANSION INTO
2 "'x/ sin
-,-5
('
2fx)
sin a
+ \_7t sin a+(/" +

+ 2* sin a( cos a +
--
cos a
-j-
SERIES.
/n
sin 28
587
2ft)
" cos a
jn')
tan 1
sin 8
5;
a tan
(565)1
5.
Also we have
da
'
*'
+ -'
,_
Differentiating the
JT
at
ut
~dn
~7r cos
\_dt
+2
with respect to
first of (560)
cos 2
-js'm
tan o--7r
iM**
d^ct
~~7r
~~
at
-\-
mn
we
//,
a'/"
at
2
cos a sec
û*
+ 2ir sin 2a tan o sec
tf
'
In like manner, differentiating the

jn,
=~
or
sin
+ w cos a sec
tan 07-5f
first of
a tan
cos
-Jrr
and
sec ^("4-
(563), then substituting
--
(559) twice with
from (560) and
r.
,
sec o
"
in
(563),
sin
etc.,
p.
---^
<y
Substituting in these equations for -4-,

(562) and
7.
<af/
find
sm " tan
cos
.+
-f-
we
tan o
(5-^-
jf
respect to
find
1"*
d-a
W-u
mn sm
(566)
/
2
sec ^~~T'
their valti es
from
(566) these values, also
we have
the required
588
342.
value of the third differential coefficient.

a similar manner.
They
+ 2 "Is
+
Si "
(2
S' n *
2M3
found
in
are as follows:
cos a
2/t)
2a ~
is
-yy-
- 6M 2 + 6M' S
3/t + 3
sin a
cos 2o)
6/ui|u.'
+ ( 2W 7* + * ~7t + 3 S*) cos a + 6 * v sin 2a]

sin o +
+ s;)/n' cos a
+3
tan
(izjn
fi'
(567)
-f 3
2
-\- [(2
a
6/u.'
sin
-)-
6V' sin
sin 2 a
20.
+4
+
3
3>
sin
+ 6/)* cos 2 o]tan2

o cos 2a] tan 3
cos a
sin 2 a cos a
fe/f/i/*' sin
cos a
3V'
sin 3 a
+ ^(w
+2
2
-(-
2
^') sin a
/x)
tan 2
a
|ii
sin 2 a
/u.'
+3
"
S;
sin a
sin 2 S
^
<
sin 2
al
J
tan 3
6.
342. These expressions for the third differential coefficients

are too complicated for use in practical computation.
by Argelander* by means of which

that part may be readily derived which depends on precession onlv. These tables are convenient when the proper
motion is so small that it may be disregarded. They are
given for the epoch 1850, and Bessel's constants are employed.
series of tables is given
If the third differential coefficients are required, they may

be obtained very conveniently by computing the values of
the second differential coefficients for two dates fifty years
before and after the given one and proceeding according to
the method of Art.

If
'
we make/(r)
50.
= --,
then/(T
w) and f(T-\-w] will
See Untersuchungen iiber die Eigenbewegungen von 250 Sternen,
p. 145.
EXPANSION INTO
343-
SERIES.
589
be the values for-dates fifty years before and after the date
T.
Then the first of (101) gives
(568,
the notation being that of formula (101), and the unit of time
being one year.
343. If now we require the precession formulas for any
given date, as 1875.0, we obtain them by substituting for m
and n the values given by (549). m will generally be ex-
pressed in time and n in arc. It will be convenient to give

the formulas for the second differential coefficients the fol-
lowing form:
/ 2 tt~]
w\
(dm
b -ih?)
dn\
dm Ida
+-din\aj
---
-|
da
-J-,
We
I
sin
sin i"(-T- -b"'

)sin
,,(da
m,
Id
da
\
-*) + -
'
sec*
will be
expressed
sin i" tan 5;
-\- zfifj.'
sin i"
(15)* ~
in time; n, -r
tan 8
cos
-- dd
and ^
and p
si
in arc.
then have the following formulas for 1875.0:
3 .07225
-}-
[0.126115]
si n
'^J=o.oooo322-[4.6338o](^-//)
tan
ccs
tan
|=
[1.302206] cos a-\-n';
u'sin2d
.(569)
ASTRONOMY
PRACTICA-L
59
344.
The numerical quantities enclosed in brackets are logarithms as usual.

numerical example illustrating the application of the
foregoing formulae is given in Art. 347.
Star Catalogues and Mean Places of Stars.

344. The various catalogues of stars which are in use may
bedivided into two classes, viz., compilations and those derived
from original observation.
Among the most important of the first class are the British
Association Catalogue, Newcomb's Catalogue of 1098 Standard
Clock and Zodiacal Stars, Boss' Catalogue of $00 Stars, and Safford's Catalogue.
These catalogues are of very different
degrees of excellence. The British Association Catalogue

(often written B. A. C.) contains the right ascensions and
north-polar distances of 8377 stars reduced to the mean
equator of January i, 1850. The places of many of these are,
however, not well determined, errors of from 5" to 10" in
north-polar distance, and of corresponding magnitude in
It is a very convenright ascension, not being uncommon.
ient catalogue for use in preliminary work, bnt the co-ordinates of the stars should be taken from other authorities
when accuracy is required.

The places given in Newcomb's and
Boss' catalogues, on
the other hand, have been derived with great care from all
of the more reliable authorities, and are entitled to great
confidence.
The following
are
among
the most reliable of the other
class of catalogues, viz., those

tion:
Bradley
derived from original observa-
Observations reduced by Bessel.
logue 1755.
Epoch
of cata-
MEAN PLACES
344-
OF STARS.
591
Bradley s Observations reduced by Auwers.

Epoch 1755.
Piazzi. Precipuarum Stellarum Inerrantium Post/tones Medics.
Epoch
1800.
Groombridge. A Catalogue of Circumpolar Stars, deduced

from the Observations of Stephen
Groombridge.
Epoch
Epoch
Posit iones Medics.
Struve.
DXL
Argelander.
Gilliss.
1830.
Stellarum Fixarum Positiones Media.
First Cambridge Catalogue.

Airy.
Robinson.
Armagh Catalogue of 5345 Stars.
Pulkowa.
1810.
Epoch
Epoch
Epoch
Epoch
1830.
1830.
1840.
Observations made at Santiago, Chili.

1850.
Catalogue in Vol. I, Fulkowa Observations.
Epoch
The
Greenwich.
1845.
various catalogues from observations at the
Greenwich observatory.
Several catalogues from observations made at the
Radcliffe observatory, Oxford.
Washington. .Catalogues derived from observations at the
Radclifft-.
Naval Observatory, Washington, I). C,

Besides these there are valuable catalogues published by
the observatories of Brussels, Paris, Cambridge, England,
Cambridge, U. S., Edinburgh, Vienna, and others.
These catalogues give the right ascension and declination
(or north-polar distance) of the stars referred to the mean
equator of the date of the catalogue. Generally the data for
reducing the star to the mean equator of any other date are
These are commonly given under the headings
precession and secular variation ; the proper motion is some-
also given.
times given
The
yat
and
when
its
value
is
known.
quantities called precession are simply the values of

-
,-
at
for the date of the catalogue, precession only
59 2
345-
The secular variations are the changes

being considered.
which take place in these quantities in 100 years i.e., the
d*d
d*a
;
values of 100
Let pa.
sa
ac
and 100
r^
-^-.
the annual precession in right ascension
=
=
the right ascension for epoch
catalogue
the right ascension for epoch
the secular variation
-^-;
d-a
100
TT
at
7",
the date of the
Then
+ /!>.+
T -f-
t.
>--)
(570)
The declination will be given by a similar process.

motion
some
In
If
proper
given, this must also be included in formula (570).

catalogues the proper motion is included with the
is
precession,
when
annual motion, and
this is generally
given under the heading
da
it
corresponds exactly to
-j-
dd
and
-j-
given
by formulas (565).
When
a star's place is required with extreme accushould be sought for in as many original authorities
as may be available, and the values of the co-ordinates given
by the various catalogues combined by the method of least
squares to determine the most probable values of these coThere are different
ordinates with the proper motion.
methods for working out the details of this process, the following being perhaps more frequently employed than any
other
345.
racy
it
Suppose we require the mean place

with proper motion.
If
for 1875.0, together

the star has been well observed at
MEAN PLACES
345-
OF STARS.
593
epochs separated by a considerable interval, the latter

be determined
may
otherwise not.
We first derive the approximate right ascension and declination for 1875.0 by reducing to that date the place as given
in one or more of the best modern catalogues, using for this
purpose the annual motion and secular variation of the cata-
For
logue.
this preliminary place the
Greenwich catalogues
will generally give a value of the right ascension within

or ".3, and of the declination within 2" or 3" of the truth.
We
da dS d*a
then compute accurate values of
for 1875.0
by formulas
(569)
-TT and -^r, as explained
and
if
-j-, -7-,
dt
-7-5-,
at
at
great precision
in Art. 342.
is
.2
J d*d
and
-TT
at
required,
Our assumed
co-ordi-
nates are then to be corrected by comparing them with the
For this purpose

places given in the various catalogues.
the assumed right ascension and declination are reduced to
the date of each catalogue.
Let
a,'
a.2
tJL
=
=
the value of
=
=
t\
1875
right ascension given by catalogue
the annual proper motion.
the assumed right ascension for 1875.0;

reduced to the epoch of catalogue,
or,
for the present or, to

The difference (a,
or/), supposing
be free from error, will consist of two parts, viz., the error
and the change due to proper
in the assumed value of
motion in the interval /. Therefore
,
(570
motion ;/ and the
Each cnialogue
from these the most
an equation for determining the proper

correction to the assumed right ascension x.
is
will give us
an equation of this form
PR A C TICA L ASTR ONOM Y.
594
346.
probable values of x and // are derived by least squares.

similar series of equations will also be obtained for the declination.
The above is an outline of the method practically it

much complicated by the fact that the different catalogues
346.
is
are of very different degrees of accuracy, and in the same

catalogue the weight will depend on the number of observations
made on
the star.
It is
impossible to give any infallible
rule for the assignment of weights practically much must

depend on the judgment of the investigator. In general,
;
however, the more recent catalogues are entitled to much

Methods and instrugreater weight than the older ones.
ments are constantly improving, and in consequence a much
higher precision is possible now than was the case a hundred
years ago.
The
old catalogues are, however, indispensable

proper motion.
in investigation of
The following table shows the weights assigned by Newcomb to the different authorities employed in deriving the
right ascensions of the catalogue referred to above
MEAN PLACE
OF STAR
B.A.C. 2786.
595
Boss gives a similar table of weights for the declination

See Report of the U. S. Northern Boundary
equations.
Commission, p. 566.
If an approximate value of the proper motion is also known
may be employed in computing the differential coefficients

by formulas (569), when we shall have in equation (571), instead of jj, the correction to the assumed value of ;*, viz., J/f.
it
Example.
347. For the purpose of illustrating the foregoing formulae and methods let
us derive the mean co-ordinates and proper motion of the star B. A. C. 2786*
The following tabular statement shows the values of the

for the epoch 1875.0.
co-ordinates given by the various authorities consulted.
It probably explains
itself sufficiently.
first require an approximate value of the star's place for 1875.0, which we
which give the co-ordinates for
readily derive from the four catalogues
Thus we
1860.0, viz., Brussels, Cape of Good Hope, Greenwich, and Radcliffe.
We
may
find
1860
a
d
=
=
8h
27
nm
33"-27;
40' 4"-5<
* This
is
the
number
of the star in the British Association catalogue.
59^
For reducing these
ing quantities
to 1875
we
347.
take from the Greenwich catalogue the follow-
In right ascension,
precession
secular variation
=
=
In declination,
io".8g;
.44;
precession
secular variation
proper motion
ju'
-)-
3".66i;
.017.
.38,
Therefore
=
=
1875
We may
8h
nm
27
+ 15(3.661
33".27
40' 4". 5
7.5
io".8g
-j- is(
.00017)
7.5
.0044
.38)
8" I2 m
27
28M7,
37' 15". o
reasonably expect these to prove very close approximations to the

With these values of a and 8, and the above value of ju' we next
final values.
da.
compute
-,
d*a
dS
-,
jyj,
an
Constant^
0.126115
=
=
9.923012
sin
a.
tan*
=
No. =
m =
log
Nat.
^.-ju=
log n =
cos a =
log =
Nat. No. =
=
dS
=
fj.'
9.718710
d*8
"37T b y
Constant
S-
0.58592
3.07225
Constant
cos
9_737476
tan d
.38
log =r
1.039682*
Nat. No.
Constant
dd
--
=
=
+ //=
=
sec S =
log =
Nat. No. =
a
56326
37-*'
5-I9706*
.000015
log
7
5.98778
"5 6 326
9.73748^
=
=:
_
=
5.67348
~-]r
/.i=
.56326
sin
a =
9.92301
9.71871
log
.000 101 7 Nat. No.
7.65014^
.004468 30
4.81169
i
o688i
9.92301
.10510
5.9o86i
.000081 o
Constant =-|- .000 032 2
=,
in full.
Nat. No. =-{-.000047 1 5

Constant = J.J^S-jn
6.00723
sin
given
rf
"
^+>" =
1.302206
-11.3368
is
Constant
4.63380,;
*-*"
Nat. No.
10.95676
doc.
9.767837
3.65817
This computation
(59)-
.000 166 2
d*d
-^-=-.0044212
MEAN PLACE
347-
For determining the third

nd 1925 respectively:
We
OF STAR
differential coefficients,
1825
.000 164 5;
1925
= -
-ooo 167 9;
-^
B.A.C. 2786.
we
597
find for the dates 1825
.004471
5.
= -
.004 370
o.
therefore find, by (568),
d*a
.000 ooo 034;
d*d
-
-(-
.000 ooi 014.
Substituting the above values of the differential coefficients in Maclaurin's

formula, and making t minus, since we shall want to apply it to dates previous
to 1875, we have
a.
By means
=
=
<*<,
>
65817
+ /(.ooo 083
+ /[n".336S
/(.oo2 211
/[3
of these formulae
we next reduce
/.ooo ooo 006)];
-{-/.oooooo
17)].
assumed right ascenauthorities where our star is
the above
sion and declination to the epoch of each of the
found.
The differences between these computed values and the observed values are
given in the following table. The'" correction for //'"there given is applied
to those catalogues where the epoch of observation differs considerably from
For example, GouM's D'Agelet: The mean epoch
the epoch of the catalogue.
of observation
sumed
is.
/*'
is
1783; the catalogue places are given for 1800.

which in 17 years produces a change in d of
".38,
in this case, the ''correction for n' ."
We
have as-
6". 46.
This
59 S
348.
The weights have been assigned in accordance with the systems of Newcomb and Boss for the most part.
The quantities are now the absolute terms of the system of equations of
condition of the form
Vp(Aa
From
these
we
tn
and
n)
Vp(A8
tdj.i'
n).
derive the following normal equations in the usual manner,
with the values of the
unknown
quantities:
21.250^0:
4.045^
4.045^0:
+ 1.365/1
.304;
.055;
Aa-=
M =
2.
4i6J5
=
=
AS =
AH' =
2.416^(1'
11.750^/5
-f-
.gS-j/lju'
.015
.0197;
.00005
.00078.
3.263;
.615;
-\-
.301
.122;
.00114
.00420.
Applying these corrections to the assumed values

as the most probable values,
of a, S,
and
/*',
we have
finally,
a
S
= 8h
= 27
I2 m
28M55
37' 14".
70
.0197;
.122;
X=
'.00005
.00078;
".3811
.0042.
Nutation.
348.
Nutation has already been defined as the name applied
The components of
to the periodic part of the precession.
the attractive force of the sun and moon, which tend to draw
into coincidence with the ecliptic, are not conthe
equator
The component
stant with respect to either of those bodies.
has a maximum value when the attracting body is in the
through the earth's axis and perpendicular to
plane passing
the ecliptic, and
it
is
zero
when
the
body
is in
the plane of
NUTATION.
349-
59;)
The
the equator.
orbit of the moon and apparent orbit of
the sun are ellipses, so that the distances of these bodies from
the earth are constantly changing. The angle between the
plane of the moon's orbit and the equator is variable; so in a

degree is that between the equator and ecliptic, or apparent orbit of the sun. All of these circumstances produce
less
periodic terms in the movement called precession.

It will be seen that the law or laws governing this matter
are intricate and difficult to investigate their discussion belongs to the department of Physical Astronomy. Various
investigators have given more or less attention to the determination of the constants which enter into the formulce the
;
values which are most extensively employed at present are
those of Peters.
349. Since nutation
is simply a motion of the equator, the

unchanged, it follows that it will produce
upon the latitudes of stars. The longitudes will be
ecliptic remaining
no effect
changed, also the obliquity of the
Let A\ and AGO
ecliptic.
the nutation in longitude and obliquity

respectively.
Then, according to Peters, for 1800.0:

A\ =
-
17". 2405 sin fi-f". 2073 sin 2 Q-". 2041 sin 2 ([-f-".o677sin(([
F)
".O2i3sin(
i".2692sin2
-)-". 1279 sin (0
4ca=
+F)
Q
".0897 cos
".0093 cos (0 4~ -O-
9". 2231 cos

-|-
=
=
=
F =
r" =
Where Q
([
*That
is,
-\- ".o886cos
r')1
I
C + ''-55(>9 cos2
mean longitude of the ascending node of the moon's orbit ;*

the moon's true longitude
the sun's true longitude ;
the
true longitude of the sun's perigee
true longitude of the
the point where the
moon's perigee.
moon
passes from below the ecliptic to above.
600
The
the time, so that,

will
be
A\ =
17".2577 sin
+".2073
i".26g3 sin 2
Joo'=-{-
g".
4-
2240 cos Q
".0092 cos
co
-\-
AGO, are
sin2
-(-".1275 sin
".0896005
".2O4isin2([-f ".0677 sin(([
(0
Q
F)
".0213 sin
(Q
-f-
F)
-(-''.0885 cos 2 ([-|- ".5506 cos
F')
;
20
(573)
(0+T).
The numerical
350.
above formulas vary slowly with

according to Peters, the values for 1900
coefficients of the
values of AX, and the true obliquity,

in the ephemeris for every tenth
day
given
throughout the year. AX is there called the equation of the

equinoxes, and is additive algebraically to the longitude referred to the mean equinox in order to obtain the longitude
referred to the true equinox.
350. To determine the nutation in right ascension and declinaSince the terms of the formulas are always small, a
tion.
sufficiently accurate result will be obtained by neglecting the
In other
squares and higher powers of these quantities.
words, we may employ differential formulas, viz.,
Aa =
da ^
JA
77T
da
,77;
-
For the values
of the differential coefficients
(574)
we employ
the equations obtained by applying the general formulas of

trigonometry to the triangle formed by joining the poles of
the equator and ecliptic with each other and with the star.
* In No.
2387, Astronomische Nachrichten, Oppolzer gives formulae for these
the
quantities carried out so as to include all terms which are appreciable in
fourth decimal place.
NUTATION.
350-
In Fig. 72,
5 any
6C!
the pole of the

ecliptic,
is
P of the equator,
star.
p
PP'
PS =
6,7,
90
= 90
SPP'
=
=
P'S
SP'P
ft,
*,
9
90
tf,
a.
Therefore
cos 6 cos
a-
cos
<*
tf
sin
= cos cos A
= cos //sin A cos a? sin ft sin a?;
= cos/? sin A sin &?-)- sin/tf cos J(-(575)^
ft
sin
a?.
Differentiating these equations, considering

since it is not affected by nutation,
cos 8 sin cdcc.
cos 5 cos
-f-
</
cos
cr
sin
sin
sin
8d8
8d8
=
-
cos 8dS
From
cos
ft
cos
sin oodA.
-\-
cos, 8 sin ccda
sin A
ft
Reducing
(576)
-j-
cos 8 cos ov/a
da
~r^Cs?
sin At/A
cos A cos oodX
(cos
ft
sin
(cos
/?
sin
this
by
cos
cc
sin 5^/5
sin
sin 5</5
=
=
and the
(cos
these
cos
GJ
sin
cos 8 cos
sin
nr
cos
# sin
of (575),
ea -j-
ojrt'A -f-
derive
GO -j- sin
cos oodA.
sin
o>.
we have
5 sin
sin S</
J-
(577)
sin ctdoo.
we derive
-f-
sin a? sin
a tan 8
cos a tan o
do
;
cos
sin
-^,
we
first
as constant,
A sin oo-fsin/Jcos oXa>;

A cos oo sin ft sin oo]doa.
cos d sin a cos
/5 =: cos
/9
/3
the second and third of (575)
cos
From
cos
cos
ft
FlG
3&7
sin G?
,'
(578)
6O2
we have*
Substituting (572) and (578) in (574),
4a=
(15". 8148 -[- 6". 8650 sin
15
-|~
(.
1902
(.1872
tan 5) sin
-(-
.0825 sin
tan 5) sin 2
+ .0813 sin a tan
<5)
sin 2
tan 5 cos
9.2231 cos
9.2240
.0897 cos
a tan
5 cos 2
.0895
.0886 cos
<5
6 .8683
.8321
-j-
([
.0812'
tan
cos 2 C
.0885
1
f ')
(.0621 -}- .0270 sin a: tan 5) sin ((
2
2
.000 160 sin 20. tan 5 cos 2 Q
.000 154 cos 2a tan 5 sin 2 Q
.5509 cos a tan S cos 2O
(1.1642 -j- -5O54 sin a tan <5) sin 2
-j-j-
(.1173
5506
5052
1.1644
-j-
-(-
.0509 sin
tan 5) sin (0
F)
1170
0507
(.oigs+.ooSs sin a tan 6) sin(0-f f)
.0093 cos
a tan<5 cos(0+r);
0092
(579)
A8=
6". 8650 cos
sin
''.0825 cos
-j-
sin
2Q
.0813 cos
cos
''.0897 sin
cos
2Q
.0895
.0886 sin
cos 2([
9". 2231 sin
-)-
6 .8683
9 .2240
sin 2(
-|-
0812
.0270 cos
-f-
0885
a.
.5054 cos
f)
sin (([
tan5 sin2
.000077 sin2
ft
sin
20
ex
sin
(0
r)
cr
sin
(O
-f- -T) -|-
.5509 sin
-(-
.0509 cos
cos
20
cos
tan5cos2Q
5506
.5052
-j-
(.000023-]-. ooo 080 cos2a)
or
0507
.0085 cos
.0093 sin
(0
-j- -T).
.0092
In case of those coefficients
which change appreciably

is written below that
during the century the value for 1900.0

for 1800.0.
Tables have been prepared for facilitating the computation

above formulas, but they do not -require special consideration here. For our purposes the necessary corrections
of the
* See Peters' Numerus Constant Nutationis.

No. 486.
Also Astronomische Nachrichten,
35
are
ABERRATION.
computed
in a
simple manner,
603
as explained in Articles
354 and following.

Aberration.
351. Aberration
is
an apparent displacement of a
star's
from the circumstance that the velocity of

not infinitely great in comparison with the velocity
position, resulting
light is
of the earth.
result
from
Two
this
essentially different classes of
cause
phenomena
who must partake of all the motions

does not see the object in its true position, since the observed direction of a ray of light is determined not by the absolute direction of motion of the undulations coming from the object to the eye, but by the relative
motion with respect to the observer. This apparent change
First.
The
observer,
of the earth
itself,
of position
called the aberration of the fixed stars.
is
The observer does not see the body in its true

position at the instant when the light enters the eye, but in
the position which it occupied when the light left the body.
This is called planetary aberration. This latter we shall not
Second
have occasion to consider, as
it
belongs to another depart-
ment of astronomy.
The aberration of the fixed stars is determined bv the veloand direction of the motion of the point on the earth's
surface occupied by the observer. Of these motions there
city
are three,
viz.,
that
due
to the diurnal revolution of the earth
on its axis, to its annual revolution about the sun, and to the
motion of the earth with the sun in space.
The first of these motions produces diurnal aberration,
which hfis already been considered so far as is necessary for
our purposes.* The last motion it is not important to con* See Articles
173 and 303.
604
352.
sider, as it affects the place of the star by a constant quantity

further, it is not sufficiently well determined for the purpose,
;
even
if
it
were desirable to consider
It
it.
only remains,
therefore, to investigate the change produced by the earth's

motion in its orbit, called annual aberration.
352. Let the velocity of the ray of light coming from a
star and of the earth respectively be considered with respect
to three co-ordinate axes, the equator being the plane of X, Y.
dx dy dz
-j-
a and d
true right ascension and declination of

the star
the co-ordinates of point where the ray

of light pierces the celestial sphere
Let -r,
-JT,
the components of the earth s velocity in

the direction of the three axes (the
measure of the velocity being the space
passed over in
second)
= distance traversed
sidereal second
i
the velocity of light

in
of velocity of the ray of light

in direction of the three co-ordinate
components
4f, 77, 8,
axes.
Then
k cos d cos
a;
rt
/cos d
sin
8,
sin #.(580)
These are minus, since the light moves in a direction oppowhich the star is seen.
Let the same symbols affected by accents represent the
site to that in
corresponding quantities affected by aberration.
f=k' cos 6' sin a; Z=
Then
k' syi
a' and 6' are then the

apparent right ascension and declination of the star, and
are the components of the
',
rj', 2'
velocity relatively to the earth.
A BERRA TION.
352
60 5
Since then the relative velocities are

equal to the
ences of the actual velocities,
cos
k'
cos
k'
d'
cos a'
d' sin a'
Then we
w.
k cos d cos a -f
k cos
k' sin
Let
tf
sin
-f
differ-
-^
[.
(582)
sn
readily derive from these equations
the following:
x cos
5' sin
(')=?K
xcos<5'cos(a'
\_
fl-)=cos<5
sin
at
5)
cos
dt
+ -Hc
|_
xsin ('
a/
cos
a: 4-
21 sin a
dt
=-||j|sin 5cosa+^-
sin
5 sin
J(583)
"~^ cosa an5:

a+~
cos 5
*)=i +
^ cos 5 cos + ~
dt
dt
k\_dt
sin
_j
cos(5'
The
first
sin
-J
two
of these are exact
the last
sin
two are exact
to
terms of the second order inclusive.

Dividing the first by the second and the third by the
fourth, we have, neglecting terms of the third and higher
orders.
6o6
S'
= -
*!<**.
- sm a
- sec
-\
dy-<
sin 5 cos
~-}
-T- sin
\~dx
-\
y
-
Let
dx
-y cos o cos
R=
Then
=
From
dz
sin o sin
cos o
dt
dt
dy
-
-\-
cos o sin
then
O =
the
y=Rsin O cos
GO;
RsinQsin
GO.
(585)
we have
these
dR
dx
Rn dQ
r
at
at
dz
(584)
tan o
being the earth's rectangular co-ordinates,
Rcos O;
-T-
earth's heliocentric longitude;

the obliquity of the ecliptic.
x, y, z
dy
cos S
the radius vector of the earth;

the sun's geocentric longitude
O =
oo
dy-
a-\
Jr\_t&
a
at
cos
sin o cos
5 sin
12
aJf
TJ
sin
at
k\_dt
I
352.
dt
dR
cos
GO
dQ cos
O
RJT
dt
Sin
oo
cos
-r- sin
at
dR
;-
dt
sin
cos
GO;
sin
a>.
(586)
a
we have the values of a'
terms of the sun's distance and longitude, but
they are not in a convenient form for practical application
unless we are satisfied with an approximation obtained by
By means
an(j $>
of these equations
in
A BERRA TION.
353-
607
regarding the earth's orbit as a circle and the motion uniform.

In this case
we make
dR
dQ =
o and -j-
-^-
angular velocity of the sun in longitude.

353. The true velocity of the earth in
the
mean apparent
any part
of its orbit
be taken into account as follows: The orbit being an

ellipse, its polar equation will be
may
-f *>cos(o
- ry
a being the semi-major axis, e the eccentricity, and

(O F)
the angle between the major axis and radius vector measured
from the perihelion

as in Art. 349).
Let
F=
T=
(O and
having the same significance
the area of the ellipse

yea* Vi
e*;
the time of one revolution of the earth
df =
sidereal year;
an element of area
between two consecutive
one
radii
vectores;
dt
time required to describe
df.
Then by Kepler's first law, viz. the areas described by the

radius vector are proportional to the times we have
F=
T
df
xa*
r
since the element of area
VT^7
T~
Si'
df
= iV(0 -
F)
R dQ
W*
(588 >
$lTdO.
Therefore
-n]..
(5$9)
608
By
we
differentiating (587)
353-
find
dR
(590)
But
mean angular
to the
-yfis equal
velocity of the earth
about the sun or, what is the same, the apparent

angular velocity of the mean sun about the earth. Calling
this velocity n, we have, from (586), (589), and (590),
in its orbit
d^ _~
Tt
<h =
dt
'_
dz _
~di
The
'V I
sin GO (cos
quantity
-f-
(590
cos F}.
say, is called the constant
H,
of aber-
ration.
Substituting in (584) these values of the differential cowe therefore have
efficients,
K sec
[sin
-- sin i" sec

ic
xe sec S [sin
S
sin a
+ cos
cos a cos
a>]
[sin
fi
S[(i
sin
cos a sin
K2
sin i" tan

|
[sin 8
-- sin
+ cos
[(i
cos o sin
10)
+ cos 2
T
-|-
sin
to.
cos
+ cos T cos a cos

(cos
K2
i" tan S[(i
u>
o>)
o>
(cos
cos 2 w)
<o]
sin S sin a
cos
cos
-- sin
-|
sin
u>
o>
sin
cos aa].
<o
cos 2a sin
<o
20]
i" sec 2 S sin 2a sin 2
cos
- sin 2 o>] cos 2
sin 6 sin
sin 2
202
cos
6)
cos
+2
cos
8)
0]
o>
cos T]
sin 2
(592)
sin 20
REDUCTION TO APPARENT PLACE.
354-
The
last
two terms
609
each are constant, or are

only suDJect
to a slow secular change
they will therefore be combined
with the mean right ascension and declination of the
star,
in
and
will require
no further consideration
in this
connection!
we are only concerned with the periodic terms.

The most commonly received value of the constant
is
that of Struve, who found from a
very carefully executed
as
series
of
observations
at the
observatory of Pulkova
(Recently Nyren finds from a still more exhaustive investigation 2o".4g2.) For 1875.0 the mean value of
the obliquity of the ecliptic is a? = 23 27' 19".
20".445i.
Substituting these values in (592), and dropping the constant terms,

a'
we have
=
-\-
S'
finally
20". 4451 sec 5[sin
sin
s
.0009330 sec S sin
2
.0009295 sec S cos
20". 4451 sin S cos

-(-
20 .4451 cos
-f-
[.0000401
.0004648 tan
-)-
cos
2<x sin
cos
cos
cos
oo]
20
20;
sin
J*
sin
sin
2a
sin
[sin
<5
20.
cos
GO
(593)
cos S sin GO]
20
.0004665 cos 20} tan d cos 2Q.
Reduction to Apparent Place.

354. We have now deduced the essential formulas for reducing a star from mean to apparent place or the converse.
The place as given in the star catalogue will be the mean

place for the beginning of the year of the catalogue. The
reduction of this place to the mean place at any other date
has been explained and illustrated with sufficient fulness.
In applying the formulas as we have done we obtain the
for the beginning of the year, to which we re-
mean place
duce the star's co-ordinates. If now we wish to reduce this

mean place to the apparent place at a time r from the beginning of the year (r being expressed as a fraction of a year),
we must add to the mean right ascension and declination the
6 10
354.
precession and proper motion for the time T, as given by

formulae (565); the result is the mean place at time T. To
this mean place the nutation being added as given by (579),
we have
we have
the true place; finally adding the aberration (593),

the required apparent right ascension and declination of the star.
The following are the formulae written out in full, omitting
those terms in the nutation and aberration which are ordinarily inappreciable:
'
(m
-\-
n sin
(is".8i48
tan 5) r
6".
-{-
(
(
-|-
.0825 sin
.1872+
.0813 sin
.0621
-f-
.0270 sin
.1642
.5054 sin
-H73+
-0509 sin
.1902
-|-
.0093 cos
20 .4451 cos
rn cos a
6".
-f-
sec
<5
sin
-|-
or
sin
5)
(C
F')
5) sin 2
5) sin
5) sin
-|-
(0
(0
.0897 cos
-\-
-55og cos
F)
F)
tan d cos
2Q
a tan S cos 20
F)
(594)
sin
-j- r//'
8650 cos
Q -f
sin
a sin (d
a sin 20
a sin (Q
cos a sin
5054 cos
0509 cos
.0085
cos
K)
20 .4451 cos
ex
cos
.0897 sin
.0886 sin
0270 cos
20". 445
9". 2231 sin
cos
cos 2
or
cos 2 C
cr
cos 2
9 .2240
.0825 cos a sin 2 Q

.0813 cos asin2([
.
5) sin 2([
6 .8683
-f-
fi
5) sin 2
a tan 5 cos 2 C
a tan 5 cos
-jGO sec S cos a cos
20 .4451
tan S) sin
a tan
a tan
a tan
a tan
a tan
a tan
.0085 sin
9 .2231 cos a tan 5 cos
.0195
9 .2240
.0886 cos
S'
6 .8683
15 .8321
-(- (
-j- r/u
8650 sin
r")
-|-
".5509 sin
F)
+ F) + ".0093 sin a cos (0 + F)

(tan GO cos
sin 5 sin
sin
sin 5)
Q.
The values of the constants are determined for 1800.0.

Where the change is appreciable the value for 1900.0 is
written below.
355-
The formulae as written above are complicated and

inconvenient
for practical application.
If no method
very
could be devised for abridging the work, star reduction
would be such a formidable undertaking that but little progress would be possible in this direction.
The method in
355.
common
use, however, originally proposed by Bessel, reduces the labor to a small fraction of that required for applying the formula directly.
It will be observed that the first part of (a
a) consists
of a number of terms which have a factor of the general form
(m' -\- n' sin a tan tf), the constants m' and n' in- each case
having nearly the same ratio to each other as m to in the
precession formulae, viz., 2.3 approximately. Therefore let
1
-M;
1595)
4.0195
these values
By introducing
written
=
'
,._|_ r// _J_ [

T
4-
?'
sin
[9".
(0
z'sin fi-j-i'sin
-T)
2231 cos Q
;;//
vl
-)-
equations
2Qi" sin 2 + *"" sin

([
may be
(594)
T')
lv sin
20
+ n sin a tan S]
o". 0897 cos 2Q 4- o". 0886 cos 2
+ o". 5509 cos 20
vi
z
sin
(0 4- F)]
20". 4451 cos GO sec S cos
h sin Q 4-/&'sin2Q
[m
4- o".oc>93 cos (O 4- F)] cos

20". 4451 sec 8 sin a sin
a cos
A" sin 2([
a tan S
+ A'" sin [ - r')-^ sin2

+ sin (0 - T) - A sin (0 + T);
iv
T|
//
'"
'
(54- r/<'4- [r
|i
sin 2
sin (C
T)
z"sin2([ 4Q 4- z" sin 2fi
Vl sin
cos a
sin (0 - T) (Q
F)l X
o".o897cos2Q 4- o". 0886 cos 2 C 4-. 5509 cos 2
4-0.0093 cos (Q 4--O] sin a
/sin
4-
4- [9". 2231 cos
v
z'
ft
20". 4451 cos oo cos
(tan GO cos
sin
sin 5)
20". 4451 cos
sin 5sin
6l2
[t
of
will be
a and 8
355-
observed that the corrections to the mean values
consist of terms
made up
of
two
classes of factors,
independent of the star's place and varying

with the time, the other class depending on the star's place
and varying so slowly that they may be regarded as constant
for a considerable time.
Writing them in accordance with
the
first class
Bessel's original notation,
*A
B=
Ttsln Q+*"
'*
sin
9". 2231
cos
cos
-.0093
2Q
sin
D-f
(0
E= |-
sin
20
.0886 cos 2(
.5509 cos 2
h sin
Q+A'sinaQ
(0
*"sin2<C +/T'sin(([
/i
vi
sin
= -$(in
sin a tan
= TVcos a tan
= ^ cos a sec 5;
= T^ sin a sec 5;
-|-
- F) -
M596)
sin 2
-f T);
<5);f
<5;
<r
iv
h" sin
</
T')
-{-*"" sin(([
+ D;
-{-".0897 cos 2fi
20". 4451 sin
(0
(O+T);
20". 4451 cos oo cos
D=
i" sin 2<
sin
a'
b'
=
=
or;
sin a;
tan
c
</'
w cos
cos
oa
cos 5
sin
sin
<5;
sin S.
Then our formulas become
* = e + *p+.Aa+M-+Gf + IM+i\
8'
= $ + r n> +Aa' + BV + Cc' +Dd'.

E being the same for all stars are computed
\
in
A, B, C, D,
advance for every day throughout the vear, and the values
given in the nautical almanac and the similar publications of
other countries; so for our purposes we need only take them
from these sources.
In some star catalogues a, b, c, d and a', b c', d' are given
in connection with the star's place.
For the purposes of an
accurate reduction, however, these become obsolete in a few
years, as m, ;/, /*, 6, and GO are all subject to slow secular
',
* See Art.
358.
f These are divided by
15,
since the right ascension
is
generally given in time.
356.
613
be advisable to recompute them
It will
changes.
time has elapsed.
much
if
Example. Required the apparent place of a Lyrae, 1884, November

upper transit, Washington.
Mean
a.
>u
Apparent place
=
=
a'
i8 h 33
=
=
=
rV"*
3*.0724
20". 0534
Mean
o".6-j8
.oi79
iS h 33'"
-44 3
356. The above form of reduction
number
of apparent places
values of the constants a,
S
//'
<5
38
10, for
40' 34".4O
".2726
-f-
0.863
)
by formulae
38" 40' 59"-47
most convenient when a considerable
is
required, or
when
the star catalogue gives reliable

these quantities are not given and
only one or two apparent places are required, a different form may be given to
equations (597) which will be more convenient. This transformation, also due
is
l>,
c, d,
etc.
E\
If
to Bessel, is as follows:
/=
Write
g cos G
g sin G
in
nA
-\-
= C tan
GO;
H = D\
h sin H =
h cos
C.
B\
Then we have
it"
S'
=
=
tr
+ +/
+g sin (G -f a) tan 5 A sin (ff+ a) sec S;
+ A cos (H + a) sin
+ ryu'-f-i'oosS-j-^costC-l-a)
r//
5.
The values
ris for
-f-
of r, /.
<7,
/f,
every day of the year.
og ^ log
A,
and log
are also given in the epheme-
6 14
As an example,
of
these formulae be applied to determine the apparent place
let
Lyrae on the date given above.
We have
page 291 of ephemeris,
=
=
i8 h
H=
33. o
46
.3
34
.2
*G-\-a
*H-\-a
= 8.8239
of ephemeris,
log^- = 1.3109
*sin (G + a) = 9.9142,,
tan 5 = 9.9033
log TV
page 291
9.7570
log (^')
1.0679
page 291 of ephemeris,
log
(i)
8
(g')
.895
(A')
=
=
=
38
.2
8.8239
1.2952
9.8373
.1075
= .0639*
= 1.2952
= 9.8610
n ^ == 9-7958
(/*')
0.9520
.016
rfji'
.445
<5'
40' 34". 40
ri -7
8 .95
(0 rr
I.I58
33
'
=
=
=
=
0.6198
2.804
(A)
-f a)
s
/=
= (A) =
r/i =
a' = i8
(H
log
i8 h 33 m o s .678
()
a)
log A
cos
= 0.7273
= 9.8925
log i
cos 8
21
sec 5
log
(H +
40'. 6
2o h ig m .3
log h
*sin
1.3109
logocos (G 4- a)
38
log ^g
9-9523
log (g)
=
=
=
4 .17
.23
38
40' 59". 45
357. Note. Certain of the small terms which have been neglected in the
preceding formulae will sometimes be appreciable for stars near the pole where
great accuracy is required.
ist.
The Precession for Time
r.
We
have only used the term depending on
The values of the second differential coefficients are

given by equations (565). The numerical values being substituted, the only
the
first
of r.
power
terms which can be appreciable are

A(a' -v a)
-|-
.ooo 003 r* sin
.ooob6sr
4(8'
-f-
.000975^
tan d
o'.ooo 1491-* cos
tan d
j
sin 20- tan 1 8;
sin 2
>
tan 5.
(599)
In the formulae for aberration (593). rigorously a, d, Q, and oo are not

of these quantities as there assumed, but the true values. They
2d.
the
8)
mean values
A
table giving logarithmic sines
venient.
If this is
not available, (G
and cosines with the argument expressed

o) and (H
a) must be reduced to arc.
in
time
is
con-
357-
should therefore
a) and
(a!
be corrected
for
5) as given
(5'
by
615
The necessary
nutation.
corrections to
may be determined by
(593)
differential
formulae.
Since (a'
/[a, 5, 0,
a)
and similarly
a>),
for (5'
5),
(6
Where Aa, AS,
etc.,
'
represent the corrections for nutation given by (572) and
(579)-
AQ and AGO will never be appreciable, and of the

need only retain the following terms:
Practically the terms in
Aa
values of
and
Aa =
AS =
AS we
[6".
865 sin
6". 865 cos
or
sin
sin
Q
9". 2235 cos a cos Q]
Q -j- 9".2235 sin a cos Q.
Differentiating (593) with respect to
^j
-j-
45'
<5)
20". 445 1 sec 5[cos
20". 4451 sec
20 .4451 [sin 5 sin
20". 445 1 cos
-j
-Tft
-(-
20". 4451 cos
(5
a and
d cos
[cos
sin
sin
sin
sin
-|-
cos
-|-
cos
sin
,,
5, neglecting the
sin
tan 5[sin
tan 5;
smaller terms,
cos co\;
cos
cos
cos
5 cos
GO];
cos
GO]',
sin
cos
GO -|-sin
5 sin
a?].
Substituting in (600) and retaining only terms multiplied by tan d or sec d,
we
find
-(6".86s
A(a ,_ a)=
f9"
2235 cos
co)
sin
6 .865 cos <o+9".223s) cos
2.?^145Isini tan5sec J
+;
2
15
+(6
[
2acos(-[- Q );
20.
sin(
Q -f- Q
.86s-9".223scoso>) sin 2acos(0

-(6 .865 cos a>-9".223s) cos 2a sin(0
Q);
Q );
(603)
-(6 .865+9".2235Cos<o)cos2acos(-f-Q);
(6
.865003 w+g".2235) sin
asin(+Q);
+(6 .865-9".22 35 cos w) cos 2 a cos(

-H6
.865 cos <o- 9 ".22 3 5) sin 2 a sin(
+(6
.86 5 -9".22 35
cos
-(6
.86 5 +9".22 3 s
cos w)
<-)
Q );
Q );
cos
(Q-f Q );
cos (
Q ).
6i6
These expressions reduce

8
-f-
-\-
za
za
za
00966 cos za
.ooo 05065 sin
cos
.000 05129 cos

.000 00527 sin
sin
cos
.000
sin
3d.
.000 3847 sin

.000 0395 cos
.000 0725 sin
.000 0391 cos
(Q
(O
(0
(O
za cos (Q
2a sin (O
za cos (0
2
sin (O
".ooo 3799 cos
353.
to the following:
.000 3799 cos
(O
-f
-j
ft)
Q)
Q)
tan S sec d;
j
Q)
Q)
-f-
+
-
}-.
ft)
(603)
5 tan
sin
Q)
fi)
Q)
mean place of the star requires a corcorrections to the right ascension and declina-
In a few cases of double stars the
rection for orbital motion.

tion will
The
have the form
Aa =
J5 =
+ bt + k sin
a'
-f
-f- /'
-f
x);
sin (n -f
')
the quantities entering into the formulae depending on the elements of the star's
orbit.
The foregoing comprises all

stars from mean to apparent
mean place. In the latter case
358.
that
is
necessary for re-
from apparent
ducing
place, or
to
the corrections will be
applied with the opposite signs to those given by formulae

Since 1834 the factors A, B, C,
have been
(597) or (598).
published by the British Nautical Almanac, and in the American Ephemeris since its first publication, 1855. In the Brit-
ish
to 1865 in the American Ephemeris

not Bessel's which we have given, but that of
Particuis interchanged with C, and B with
Almanac and previous
the notation
Baily, viz.,
is
D*
* This
unnecessary and confusing change of notation was introduced by
Baily for no better reason than the following: "I have thought it desirable
that we should as much as possible make them serve the purpose of an artificial
memory. It is on this account that I have made AB represent the quantity by

which ABerration is determined; C the quantity by which preCession is determined and
the quantity by which the Deviation, or (as it is now more
generally called) the nutation, is determined." British Association Catalogue,
;
p. 34, note.
THE FICTITIOUS YEAR.
S 359-
617
must therefore be given to the notation, otherwise errors will be

very likely to occur. Since 1865 the
notation of Bessel has been
employed in the American
Ephemeris.
For any date from 1750 to 1850 the
logarithms of A, B,
C,
may be taken from Bessel's Tabula Regiomontana.
Bessel's constants are
employed and the smaller terms are
neglected they will, however, give all necessary precision
in the few cases where it will be found
necessary to employ
them.
convenient table by Hubbard for
correcting them
so as to make the values conform to the constants of Struve
and Peters will be found in Gould's Astronomical
lar attention
Journal,
vol. iv. p. 142.
Bessel's tables are
day of the fictitious year.

ject the consideration of
heretofore,
computed for every tenth

Their employment involves a subwhich we have not found necessary
viz.,
The Fictitious Year.

359.
We
have heretofore spoken of the year without speci-
fying very definitely which of the various periods called a

year was to be understood. The common year is not well
-to the requirements of
astronomy, since the length
not the same in all cases, each fourth year containing one
adapted
is
more day than
The Julian year of 365^

does not exactly correspond to
the other three.
clays is better, but its length
movements of the earth in its orbit.

In the reduction of star places Bessel obviates the
the
difficul-
which would follow from the employment of either

the above periods by employing a fictitious year to begin
ties
of
at
This
the longitude of the mean sun is 280.
instant will of course not coincide with the transit of the sun
the instant
when
over the meridian of Greenwich or Washington, but from
6l8
known mean motion of the sun the Greenwich or Washington time may be found at which the mean longitude is
280, and consequently the meridian over which the sun is
passing at this instant. This is sometimes called the normal
meridian, and may then be employed as the prime meridian
the
from which to reckon longitudes throughout the year precisely as the meridians of Greenwich and Washington are
Since the sun's mean right ascension equals the mean
longitude, the sidereal time at this meridian corresponding
h
If then
to the beginning of the year will be i8 40'" (= 280).
we imagine a point on the celestial equator whose right
used.
ascension
year
may
i8 40, the sidereal day throughout the fictitious

be regarded as beginning at the instant when this
is
point crosses the meridian, just as in the common method

the sidereal day begins when the vernal equinox crosses the
meridian.
By adopting this device a uniformity and
simplicity is introduced into those quantities which are
functions of
r.
This
is
also the date to
which the mean
When
places of stars are reduced in the star catalogues.
the elements of reduction are taken from the Nautical
Almanac or American Ephemeris no attention need be given
to this matter, as
it is
already provided for.
Bessel calls the instant when the sun's
mean longitude
of
the
This
o.o
fictitious
280
Jan.
year.
corresponds
equals
to Dec. 31.0 of the usual method of reckoning; that is, according to Bessel's method Jan. i, 2, 3, etc., indicate i, 2, 3, etc.,
days from the beginning of the year, while in the common
method the beginning of the ist, 2d, etc., days is understood.
shall now show the relation between the beginning of
the fictitious and common years, afterwards returning to the
We
Tabula? Rcgiomontance.
During one complete century the period of the comis the same as that of the Julian year.
Suppose
for the moment that at 1800.0 the fictitious year began
360.
mon
now
year
THE FICTITIOUS YEAR.
360-
619
\vith the date Jan. o.o of the common

year, and that the
length of the tropical year coincided with that of the Julian.
Then
for any other date 1800 -f
Beginning
of
year
we should have
Jan. o.o -f \f,
(604)
where /is the remainder after dividing the number of the

year by 4. In case of a leap-year, where the number of the
year is exactly divisible by 4,/ must be made equal to 4,
since the intercalary day is not introduced until the end of
February.
If we choose, in accordance with Bessel, as our
prime
meridian that of Paris, the above formula involves two erroneous assumptions: first, the beginning of the year from
which we reckon will not coincide with Jan. o.o; and second,
We
the length of the tropical year is not that of the Julian.

shall use the constants of Bessel in order to have our results
those of the Tabula RcgiomontancB.
For mean noon at Paris, viz.,

mean longitude
1800, Jan. o.o, Bessel finds
for the sun's
279
and
for the
mean
54'
".36,
daily motion of the sun in longitude
354S"-3302
+ ".ooo coo 6902*,*
where t = number of years elapsed since 1800.

For the meridian of Paris we must add to (604) the time
//
required for the sun to move 358 .64, viz., 0.10107289 day.
It remains to correct (604) for the difference between the
*
It will
be observed from the expression for the mean daily motion that the
the variation, however, amounts only to
is not constant
length of the year

*-595 P er century.
620
361.
Julian and tropical years. The tropical motion of the sun

one Julian year is, according to Bessel,
in
360 oo' 2
Therefore the mean tropical motion

//
[360 oo' 27 .6o5844]/
in /
years will be
+ o".oooi22i8t\
The time required for the mean sun to pass over the dis//
tance 27 .6o5844^, expressed as a fraction of a day, will be
2
Therefore the complete
O.OOOOOO034433/
.00777995 3 5*
formula for the Paris mean time of the beginning' of any ficti-
tious year will be

Jan. o.o
-(- o.
o.
ioi07289
To reduce any mean

fictitious
year
Therefore
let
oo77799535/
0.000000034433^
the above quantity must
0.10107289
-f-
+ i/ (605)
solar date at Paris to the date of the
be
00077799535^-}- o ooo ooo 034433^
subtracted.
^/.
is then the longitude east from Paris of the meridian where

the fictitious year begins, or of the normal meridian.
Let d
the longitude west of Paris of any meridian, expressed as a fraction of a day.
Then the reduction which must be applied to any mean solar

date at this meridian to reduce it to the normal meridian is
k
d.
Let us now return to the Tabula Regiomontana. The

logarithms of A, B, C, D, r< and the quantity E are there
given for every tenth day of the fictitious year from 1750 to
1850; the intervals being sidereal instead of mean solar days,
an arrangement which is a little more convenient in star re361.
* This
quantity divided by 365.25
is
the
mean
daily motion already given.
THE TABULA REGIOMONTANM.
361.
621
duction, for the reason that, the star being

generally observed
on the meridian, its right ascension is at once the sidereal
of observation.
In order to
the tables we must
^time
first
apply
convert this sidereal time to the
corresponding sidereal
time at the normal meridian.

It will be remembered that the sidereal
day of the fictih
tious year at any meridian
begins at i8 40 sidereal time;
therefore at this meridian itself the tables are
applicable for
For any other meridian at the

argument of the tables
this instant of local time.
instant i8 h 40 local sidereal time the

will be k
d.
At any other
ment will be
which must be
sidereal time
less
g at
this last
meridian the argu-
than unity and positive.
Or we may
write
&
24
as the quantity to be added to *-[-</, omitting one whole

h
m
h
or
24
day when g -\- 5 2O
as
before
we
If,
assumed,
regard the sidereal day of the
fictitious year as beginning when the right ascension of the
>
meridian is i8 h 40, then as long as the right ascension of the

sun is less than this quantity it will cross the meridian before
the point on the equator having this right ascension, and the
day of the fictitious year will be the same as the common
When
h
the sun's right ascension is equal to i8 40
the
two
days begin together,
(the sun being on the meridian)
and when it is greater than i8 h 40 the sidereal day of the
date.
year begins before the common day, and therefore

one day must be added to the common reckoning for the
fictitious
622
361.
Therefore the argument of the
date of the fictitious year.

table will be
in
which
= ofrom
ascension of the
whicli
beginning of the year to where the right
mean sun
equals the sidereal time, after
2=1.
The
Tabulce
quantities
then
Regiomontance
give
the
following
Table I gives k for the longitude of Paris expressed in

hours, minutes, and seconds, and also as a fraction of a day,
from 1750 to 1849.

Table II gives d, the west longitude from Paris of a number of the principal cities of Europe. (Better values can,
however, be found in the ephemens.)
for every year
'
Auxiliary table, p.
16,
gives
24
Table VIII, pp. 17-116 inclusive, gives log A, log B, log C,

T, and E.
For C and D table IX may be employed. It requires no
log D, log
special explanation here.
Example. Required the logarithms of A, B,

d
1825, July
Table
Table
Page
io
h
,
Greenwich
=+
g' =
i =
d
6,
-\-
Argument
Page
for 1825,
II for 1825,
92, table VIII,
July
log
log
log
D,
r,
for
.157
.007
.639
.000
1.489
A =
B=
log
log T
table IX,
C,
sidereal time.
=
C=
D=
9.9224
0.3026
9.6975
.4817
i.3co6 n
E=
-f-
".05
MEAN
362.
SOLAR
AND SIDEREAL
TIME.
623
The
quantities have been interpolated directly from the

tables; log C and log D are given more
accurately by table
IX. If thought desirable, the
interpolation may be carried
out to second differences, but this will not often be
necessary.
As an example of a case where i = i let it be
required to
d
h
find the above quantities for
1825, Dec. i io Greenwich
,
sidereal time.
As
before,
d
Table VI, right ascension of
g'
Mean sun Dec. i is i6 h 40"', therefore *
Argument
With
log
log
this
A =
D=
argument we
0.0867
1.2772;
log
log
=
.157
= + .007
=
.639
= i.ooo
Dec.
2.489
find
B=
r
.4976
99631;
log
C=
.7599
+.05.
Various forms of tables for star reductions have been proSome of these are very useful for
posed and employed.
special purposes, but it is not necessary to enter into the
details of their construction in this connection.
362. Conversion of Mean Solar into Sidereal Time and the conThe solution of this problem for any date after the
verse.
British and
American Nautical Almanacs became
available
in their present form has been treated with all necessary fulFor earlier dates other methods
ness in Articles 94 and 95.
The Tabulce Regiomontancz gives the data

must be used.
necessary for solving the problem for any date between 1750
and
1850.
We
have shown in Art. 94 that the mean time at any

meridian is equal to the true hour-angle of the second mean
sun,
which moves uniformly
in the equator,
and whose mean
624
362.
right ascension is equal to the mean longitude of the first

mean sun, which mov es in the ecliptic.
Also, the sidereal time is equal to the hour-angle of the true
7
Therefore
equinox.
in
our formula
(199)
at
must be understood to mean the true right ascension
of
This equals the mean right ascension

plus the nutation of the vernal equinox in right ascension.
The latter is found from the general equations (579), by
making a = o, d = o to be A\ cos &?, and is given in the
"
equation of the equinoxes in right ascenephemeris as the
in the sidereal time of mean noon
It
is
included
sion."
the second
mean
sun.
given by the ephemeris. When the ephemeris is available

it will therefore require no further notice.
Table VI of the Tabula Regiomontance gives the right ascension of the second mean sun corrected for the solar nutation
of the equinox for every mean noon at the fictitious meridian.
The fictitious year always begins with the same right ascension of the
every year.
mean sun, therefore this table is available for

The number taken from this table for any date,
which must be the date
at the
rected for lunar nutation

by table IV. The result
in
is
normal meridian,
is
then cor-
right ascension, which is given

the sidereal time of mean noon,
normal meridian, which may be used in precisely

the same way as the sidereal time of mean noon at Washington.
(See Articles 94 and 95.) Or writing the formulae
,
at the
out in
or
full,
0= r+ table VI + table IV + (r+ + O<>V= F + + /) - = VI + IV

== T + V +
T(:i
B
(;i
i)
i).
i);(6o6)
MEAN
362.
And
AND SIDEREAL
SOLAR
for converting sidereal into
mean
TIME.
625
solar time,
T= d-
(607,
The
notation being- that of Articles 94 and 95.

Given 1825, July i' /' 25", Greenwich mean
solar time.
Required the corresponding sidereal time.
1
Example.
the
By
first of
T=
formulae (606),
Table VI
Table IV
T=
Table
Table
I,
II,
(7-+* + </)
Example
7" 25"'
(k
d}
45
-f
"
o'.coo
33 .099
7''
1.015
37.606
48
o .ooo
26 .1
9 =
m
14''
.72
21 .6
9
3
55
-5
d
h
u .72, Greenwich
1825, July i I4 3
Required the corresponding mean solar time.
Given
2.
= -
25
6 37
sidereal time.
-4-
+ <H,u-i),TableVII
(r+
=
=
=
36- 4
(k
.5
+ d] (p -
i),
Table VI
Table IV
Table VII
==
V=
37'"
T=
.015
- 35
6h
14"
=
=
33 .O99
i
-495
s
36'"
9
Table VII
6h
=
=
58 .6i9
11^.720
13 .101
25'
.o
TABLES.
2
Table
values of
Table
gives values of the function
from o to
oo
A gives the
II
altitudes for a
mean
//
/
for
refraction corresponding to different
state of the
atmosphere,
viz.,
barometer
For any other readings of the

barometer and thermometer the factors by which the mean
refraction must be multiplied are taken from tables II B,
30 inches, thermometer 50.
and II D. (See Art. 86.)

Table III A, B, C, and D are Bessel's refraction tables.
These will be employed when extreme precision is required.
When the altitude is less than 5 no table will give reliable
values for the refraction, but it may be found approximated
by the supplementary table following III A. (See Art. 86.)
Table IV is intended for use in connection with the refraction table when the barometer is graduated according to the
II C,
metric system.
or VI
Tables
may
be used when the thermometer
graduated according to Fahrenheit's scale.

Table VII requires no explanation.
Table VIII A and B give values of m, log m,
where
2 sin" %t
2 sin
n,
is
not
and log
n,
Art
Table VIII C gives the factor to employ in reducing circummeridian altitudes when the chronometer has an appre(See Art.
864007
152.)
TABLE
I.
627
dt.
628
TABLE
II A.
MEAN REFRA CTION.

Barometer 30 inches.
Fahrenheit's Thermometer 50.
TABLE
FACTOR DEPENDING ON
BAROMETER.
TABLE
TABLE
II B.
II D.
629
FACTOR DEPENDING ON DETACHED THERMOMETER.
II C.
= (mean
refraction)
xX.TXt.
630
TABLE
III A.
BESSEL'S REFRACTION TABLE.
TABLE
III.
A.
SUPPLEMENT.
TABLE
III D.
631
FACTOR DEPENDING ON DETACHED

THERMOMETER.
632
TABLE
IV.
To CONVERT CENTIMETRES
INTO INCHES.
TABLE
VI.
To CONVERT RKADING OF REAUMUR'S

THBKMOMETEK INTO FAHRKNHMT'S.
TABLE
VII.
To CONVERT HOURS, MINUTKS. AND SECONDS
653
INTO A DECIMAL OF A DAY.
634
TABLE
VIII A.
in 2 \t
TABLE
VIII A.
635
636
TABLE
VIII A.
TABLE VUi
A.
637
53 8
TABLE
VIII A.
TABLE
VIII A.
640
TABLE
VIII A.
TABLE
VIII A.
64 I
64?
TABLE
YIII B.
TABLE
VIII
86400.
Rate.
9 999 6985
C.
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Freitag's Architectural Engineering
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Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Towns' Refuse
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5 00
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Vo
9.
ift
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'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.
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Elements of Analytical Mechanics
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Elements
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"
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5
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50
50
50
50
00
00
00
25
2 50
1 50
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00
3 00
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Taylor a Prismoidal Formula1 and Earthwork
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50
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grams
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h
.
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graving
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3
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Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing
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Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for the Use of
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Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making
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Statics
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Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I

Durley's Elementary Text-book of the Kinematics
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2 50
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6 00
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1 50
1 50
1 50
1 50
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Machine Design
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of Analytical Mechanics
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"
Turbines
The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893
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00
00
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1
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4
4
2
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Metcalf s Steel. A Manual for Steel-users
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7 50
1
50
3 00
2 00
8 00
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Minerals of Commercial Value.
Oblong, morocco,
Resources
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Boyd's
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Map of Southwest Virginia
Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy.
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2 50
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2 00
4 00
1 00
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of American Localities of Minerals Large 8vo,
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Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography
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,
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and Record of
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8vo,
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1
1
50
00
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2 00
50
500
2 00
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Goodyear's
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Doolittle (A Treatise On Practical Astronomy, As Applied To Geodesy and Navigation) (1900)

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Doolittle (A Treatise On Practical Astronomy, As Applied To Geodesy and Navigation) (1900)

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Chemistry

GEODESY AND NAVIGATION.

Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Lehigh University

FOURTH AND REVISED EDITION.

CHAPMAN & HALL,

approved methods in actual use at the present time.

Very complete numerical examples are given illustrative

this particular class of

has not been the design

For the materials employed original papers and memoirs

Much assistance has also been

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES.

Errors to which observations are liable

Determination of the law of error

Precision of the arithmetical

Determination of probable error of arithmetical mean

of theory with observation

Equations of condition Normal equations

Weights and probable errors of the unknown quantises

General formulae of interpolation

Interpolation into the middle

THE CELESTIAL SPHERE TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES*

The equator Declination

and azimuth, to find declination and hour-angle

find hour-angle of star in the horizon

between two stars

DIP OF THE HORIZON.

find equatorial horizontal parallax

Form and dimensions

Reduction of the latitude

Determination of the earth's radius

Parallax in right ascension and declination

Bessel's formula for refraction

Refraction in right ascension and declination

Inequality of solar days

Sidereal and mean solar unit

solar into sidereal time

convert sidereal into

THE SEXTANT THE CHRONOMETER AND

Eccentricity of graduated circles

Eccentricity of the sextant

DETERMINATION OF TIME AND LATITUDE METHODS ADAPTED TO

Conditions favorable to accuracy

Equal altitudes of a star

the zenith distance of a star

Gauss' method of reducing circummeridian

altitudes of the sun

THE TRANSIT INSTRUMENT.

Equatorial intervals of threads

Reduction of imperfect transits

The azimuth constant

Correction for flexure

Transits of the sun, moon, and planets

middle or mean thread

Application of least squares to

Directions for observing

corrections for micrometer, level, and refraction

Reduction to the meridian

of individual values of the latitude

star near elongation

Correction for diurnal aberration

Circumpolar stars at any hour-angle

Conditions favorable to accuracy