VENTILATION OF SHIPS

BY

JOHN

F. I~TICI~OLS, IV[E5~BER *

With the growth in recent years in size and

comfort of the modern passenger ship, there
has been a corresponding development in the
arrangements for supplying and distributing
that greatest of luxuries, an abundance of pure
fresh air. The demands of the present day are
that every passenger in whatever class and every
member of the crew shall have an ample supply
of fresh air. This requirement has resulted in
many improvements in ventilating apparatus
and led to the installation of ventilation systems
which in extent and intricacy are seldom
equalled in comparative land installations.
Ventilation on shipboard, as on land, is for
the dual purpose of providing healthful and
comfortable conditions--healthful conditions by
providing the requisite amount of oxygen for
physical well-being, and comfortable conditions
by either supplying or removing heat as the need
may be and by producing the air motion which
is necessary to promote evaporation from the
skin. On many routes the situation is made
difficult by the fact that within the space of not
more than two or three days the climate in which
the vessel operates has changed from frigid to
tropical or vice versa.
On the other hand,
marine conditions have the advantage over land
conditions in that in general there is available
an ample supply of dust-free and bacteria-free
air to draw upon. Other factors of difference
between ]and and sea lie in the fact that ships,
in general, have walls which are practically nonporous and their structures offer difficulties in
the way of low head room and confined spaces
for the installation of ducts, and in many cases
there is excessive heat transmission from machinery and similar compartments. As in all
other marine installations, the final arrangements are a compromise between the result
desired and the space limitations.
NATURAL VENTILATION

Ventilation may be either natural or mechanical. The use of natural ventilation on shipboard
* Chief engineer, Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry
Dock Company, Newport News, Va.

is limited to such conditions as can be properly

served by ducts through which the air motion is
produced by the chimney action of the heated
air or by the impulse given the air by inlet
a n d / o r outlet cowls.
Natural ventilation is in general adequate for
cargo holds containing inert cargo and for the
machinery spaces of relatively shallow vessels,
especially those with large machinery hatches.
F o r these services, the air is put in motion by
cowls fitted with gear so that they may be
directed toward the prevailing wind when used
for supply and from the wind when they arc to
serve as exhausts. I n connection with the ventilation of machinery spaces, use can frequently
be made of the flow of combustion air to the
boilers or to the fans supplying them. In other
words, much can be accomplished by locating
the ventilation t r u n k outlets in such a manner
that the flow of air from them to the boiler
f r o n t or blower inlet will adequately ventilate
the working spaces.
Natural ventilation for staterooms, especially
those below the weather decks, and for similar
living spaces must be used with caution as the
partial vacuum which exists on the lee side of
the vessel will frequently reverse the flow from
that intended and produce very unsatisfactory
results.
VOLUME OF A I R REQUIRED FOR ~rECttANICAL
VENTILATION

The volume of air to be supplied is determined

by one or both of two conditions; first, the replenishment necessary to maintain a supply of
pure air ample for health, and, second, the conduction of heat either to or from the space in
question. F o r spaces continuously occupied, such
as staterooms, a supply of 30 or 40 cubic feet
per minute per person is ample for comfort and
health. F o r spaces such as dining rooms, which
are occupied for only a portion of the time and
in which the air may be freshened between the
periods of occupancy, this allowance may be
reduced with satisfactory results. F o r vessels
in tropical climates, where the external air is

175

VENTILATION

176

OF S H I P S

already too warm for comfort, obviously nothing is gained by supplying excessive quantities
IJ
________i----_
of fresh air. Under such conditions bodily com~ i':".::..-....... -:.
8ulkhec~d fort is to be sought through the production of
rapid air currents, which accelerate evaporation
from the skin. F o r this purpose the use of
Poneling
~-~,~
Space
ventilation terminals discharging at high veloRoom%
cities is reasonably effective, especially when,
in staterooms, a separate adjustable terminal is
provided for each passenger. Bracket fans of
various types, however, are much more effective
FIG. ].--SECTION WttROUG}{ BULKHEAD BETWEEN
in producing the desired movement of air. In
ENGINE HATCIt AND PASSENGER QUARTERS
American practice they are practically essentml
for tropical conditions.
When the compartment to be ventilated is
subject
to artificial heat transmitted through the
EncJine I ~ - - ' : ~ i ~ ~ 1
SheeHerod
surrounding bulkheads or deck from adjacent
Room
I!!;i::~!.i]:!ii(i
i~: i;i]i~!i!~!:i F Co v e r, n g
heated spaces, such as engine rooms, boiler compartments, galleys and pantries, the air supply
Bulkhead~
should be calculated on the basis of temperature
difference and the conductivity of different wall
types.
Fig. 1 illustrates a typical section
FIG. 2.--SEo'r[ON THt'OUGK BULKHEAD BETWEEN
through a bulkhead between an engine hatch and
~IACHINERY COMPARTMENTS
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I~'IG. 3.--LAYOUT OF PORTION OF VENTILATING SYSTEM IN TItE PASSENGER STATEROOMS

VENTILATION
passenger quarters. Fig. 2 illustrates a typical
section through a bulkhead between machinery
compartments.
Based on inside and outside
temperatures of 150 degrees and 70 degrees, the
heat transmission may be taken as 8 and 20
B.t.u. per hour per square foot respectively.
F o r public spaces, such as the lounge, smoking room, dining rooms, etc., in which the number of persons is variable, it is customary to
determine the air supply on the basis of time of
change. Accepted practice is about as follows,
based on minutes per change :
Type of room

Dining rooms. . . . . . . .
Lounge . . . . . . . . . . . .
Smoking room. . . . . . .
Galley and pantries..
Engine rooms. . . . . . .

Number of minutes per change

of air

3~ to 4~/~
5 to 10
5
2 to 3~
1 to 4. depen(ling on the arrangement and steam temperature

DESIGN OF DUCT SYSTEMS

I n the general layout of passenger-space ventilation, the first consideration is the subdivision

&R.

S.R.

S.R.

OF

SHIPS

177

into systems to meet the requirements of space

limitations, convenience in operation and fire
protection. Due to the lack of headroom on
shipboard, which in general limits the depth of
fore and aft ducts to not over 4 or 5 inches, it
will in general be found advisable to limit fans
to sizes varying from 6000 cubic feet per minute
o n moderate-size vessels to 8000 cubic feet per
minute on large vessels, except for engine rooms
and galleys. As the ordinary limit of allowable
velocity in ducts due to noise is about 2500 feet
per minute, the above capacities correspond to
cross-sectional areas of from about 2.4 to about
3.2 square feet. The second consideration is that
as far as practicable each fan should be devoted
to the same general class of service, i.e., public
spaces should not in general be combined with
staterooms, etc.
The third
consideration
demands that as far as practicable ventilation
ducts should terminate at fire-resisting bu.lkheads and should in no case pass through them
without an easily closed fire-proof damper.
The initial cross-section area of duct deter-

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178

VENTILATION

OF

SHIPS

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FIG. 5 . - - V E N T I L A T I O N DUCT V(ITI~ IC~I~ETED AND S L I P J O I N T

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FIG. 8 . - - D E C K

CONNECTION OF VENTILATION

DUCT

fSolder
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/
/
FIG.
7.--NoN-WATERTIGItT
DUCT
WlTI~
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AND
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FIG.

I IEnlarg ed

9 . - - ~ V E L D E D DUCT
SPACES

De'ta'lI
FOR

CARGO

U. S. S. G.

mines the amount of air to be passed, the number

of spaces that can be served and the length of
the system. These considerations in t u r n determine the pressures for which the fans are to be
designed. F o r ordinary systems the static pressure at the fan is approximately 11/~ inches of
water, varying from 1 to 2 inches.
For
machinery-space ventilation, where large quantities o f air are handled and where there is much
less subdivision of ducts, velocities up to 400.0
feet per minute are permissible in order to reduce the size of ducts.
The size and shapes of ducts are varied to
suit the structure and maintain headroom. In

passenger spaces, the outlets must usually conform to the requirements of the scheme of decoration. Throughout the vessel, constant consideration must be given to duct arrangements
that conform to the rat-proofing requirements of
the United States Public Health Service.
Fig. 3 illustrates the actual layout of a portion of the ventilation system in the passenger
staterooms of a moderate-size vessel successfully
operating in the tropics.
F o r methods of proportioning branch ducts
so as to obtain the desired distribution, reference
is made to the following publications: " F a n
E n g i n e e r i n g " published by the Buffalo Forge

VENTILATION OF SHIPS
J

I/I
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FIG. 10.--FTXED TER~IINAL

FIG. ]2.--EXPANDED ~~ETAL LOUVRE

I,YY

r7 Y

.......

FIG. l l . - - U N I V E R S A L TERMINAL

Company; " M e t h o d of Designing Ventilation

Systems," Bureau of Construction and Repair,
Navy Department, and " F r i c t i o n and Duct
Sizing C h a r t " published by the American
Blower Corporation, each of which gives practical and readily handled information. The
supply and exhaust systems are similar in design, the losses in each varying somewhat. The
design of systems for naval ships is about the
same as for merchant vessels, except for requirements peculiar to this type of ship. Higher
v e l o c i t i e s and pressures are used in order to
reduce the size and weight of the ducts.
I n the design of ventilation systems it is axiomatic that what goes in must come out, but this
feature is frequently overlooked or neglected.
I t is most i m p o r t a n t to provide adequate outlets
for exhaust air. In the absence of local forced
exhaust ventilation, ample exhaust grilles to
passageways must be provided from all rooms,
and these should preferably be in the u p p e r part
of the room to avoid pocketing hot air there. In
the same way, the air which finds its way to the
passageways must be provided with outlets
through exhaust heads or fans to the outside
air, and this in a m a n n e r that will not be interfered with by wind or weather. Neglect of this

provision will upset any otherwise well-designed

system of ventilation. F o r galley and p a n t r y
spaces, it is essential to provide a substantial
margin of exhaust capacity over supply capacity
in order to insure that odors from these spaces
do not permeate the living spaces. F o r the
same reason, care should be taken that there is
an excess of supply over exhaust in dining
rooms, which are normally adjacent to galleys
and pantries. All toilet spaces should have
mechanical exhaust systems. Ample exhaust is
aiso essential for laundry spaces on account of
the high humidity in them.
F o r shipboard work, ventilation ducts are
normally built of galvanized sheet steel, the
following thicknesses representing successful
practice :
Size of duct diameter or long s~de

U . S . S . (~.

Vertical mains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horizontal mains, 24 inches and over . . . . . . . . . . .
Ducts above 12 inches o 24 inches . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ducts above 6 inches to 12 inches . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ducts 6 inches and under . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

No.
No.
No.
No.
No.

16
16
18
20
22

Ventilation ducts of the smaller sizes are made

up of light gage galvanized steel with crimped
lengthwise seams (Fig. 4) and riveted and
soldered slip joints (Fig. 5) or flanged joints
(Fig. 6) between lengths of ducts. Large nonwatertight ducts are generally of galvanized
steel with riveted and soldered lengthwise seams
(Fig. 7). Connections through decks are made
as shown in Fig. 8. W a t e r t i g h t ducts through a
ship, and where exposed to weather, and heavy
plate ducts in cargo spaces are welded either as
separate trunks (Fig. 9) or built into the ship's
structure.
In designing ducts, it is desirable t h a t the
width should not exceed twice the depth and t h a t
the radius of throat be at least equal to the
depth. Where this latter condition cannot be
met, the fitting of splitter plates (Fig. 15) will
in many cases accomplish the same result.

'180

VENTILATION

Venilat'ion

OF

SHIPS

Duci"

ventila?1on Duct

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FIG. 1 4 . - - D I F F U S I N G LOUVRE
FZG. 13.--PUNKAI~

LOUVRE

Ventilati.on terminals are of m a n y types. Fig.

10 shows the fixed type, which is used in spaces
where it is suitable. Fig. 11 shows an adjustable
t y p e frequently used in machinery and other
spaces where a d j u s t m e n t of direction of discharge is desirable. Fig. 12 shows a t y p e frequently used in staterooms and crew's quarters,
etc., with a shut-off damper, but without adjustm e n t of direction.
Fig. 13 illustrates the
P u n k a h louvre, in which the air is delivered at
high velocity and can be adjusted to discharge
in various directions. Fig. 14 illustrates a type
f r e q u e n t l y used in staterooms to introduce the
air without drafts. A t discharge velocities above
1000 feet per minute, noise begins to be appreciable, and, as far as practicable, the terminal
area should be taken so as not to exceed this
figure.
VENTILATION FANS
Due largely to the extension of the use of
electricity on board ship, the fans used for ship
ventilation are practically all motor driven.
They m a y be of either the propeller or the centrifugal type.
Propeller-type fans are desirable for conditions where large volumes of air are to be moved
at low pressures. The condition limiting their
use is noise. I n general they are satisfactory on
m e r c h a n t work up to a p p r o x i m a t e l y ]./4 inch air
pressure, though for naval work up to 1 inch
pressure and 7000 feet per minute peripheral
speed is permitted.
Centrifugal fans are more commonly used
t h a n propeller fans. I n recent years, practically all fan m a n u f a c t u r e r s have developed new
types that have the combined advantages of
higher speed, greater efficiency and non-overloading characteristics. To avoid undue noise the
peripheral speed should be limited to about 8000
to 10,000 feet per minute. The greatest care

must be taken to insure that fan runners are

p r o p e r l y balanced and correctly located in the
casing as these two points are the sources of
most of the fan troubles.
F o r fans serving passenger quarters it is desirable that the bases be mounted on felt, cork
or rubber, and the fan casings joined to the
inlet and outlet ducts by short canvas sleeves.
AIR HEATING

I t is well known that the efficiency of surfaces

for t r a n s m i t t i n g heat to air is greatly increased
by a rapid relative movement of the air, a fact
which has led to the development of numerous
forms of air heaters variously known as thermotanks, thermo-fans, etc. In these a given amount
of surface is several times as efficient as when
used as wall radiators, and this fact permits a
considerable saving of weight.
The arrangement of ventilation heaters for s u p p l y i n g the full
room t e m p e r a t u r e desired is satisfactory on
m a n y classes of vessels especially for short voyages. However, when applied to the heating of
staterooms, individual control is lacking, and this
is not satisfactory and is used only when the
vessel is ordinarily employed in the tropics with
only a v e r y occasional day of cold weather.

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182

VENTILATION OF SHIPS

This objection has been overcome satisfactorily

in either of two ways, first by providing each
stateroom with duplicate ventilation outlets, one
carrying hot, the other cold air; second, by
warming or tempering the air to a moderate
degree, say 65 degrees F., and providing electric
heaters under individual control to increase the
room temperature to that desired. F o r public
rooms it is frequently found advantageous to
place the ventilation outlets near the floor behind
standing radiators, which gives the advantage of
providing a supply of warm air in winter and
of making the radiator surface more effective.
VENTILATION OF PERISHABLE CARGO

that the combination of supply and exhaust

terminals will produce a thorough circulation
of air through all parts of the cargo. Heaters
are sometimes provided so that as the vessel
reaches northern latitudes the supply air may
be tempered to avoid chilling the cargo. Providing dampers so that the air may be partially
circulated will assist in obtaining the same
result. The fans are, of course, provided with
speed regulation and the branch ducts with
dampers to insure uniform flow. The amount
of air supplied is usually sufficient to change
the gross volume of the compartment every 2
to 4 minutes.
A variation of the above
arrangement is to omit the exhaust fans but
retain substantially the same arrangement of
ducts, letting the supply fans provide the entire
motive force for the air.
The vent ducts for this arrangement are
usually of 3/16-inch steel plates, of the design
previously referred to and shown in Fig. 9,
to withstand the severe treatment received in
cargo spaces.

The very great advantage of supplying ample

ventilation in connection with refrigeration for
the better carrying of perishable cargo has come
to be more generally understood and more widely
applied in recent years. In addition to permitting a considerable reduction in extent of cooling surface it has made possible the reliable
transport of tender fruits and vegetables to distances previously unattainable. However, this
AIR CONDITIONING
branch of the subject is considered to be more
A comparatively recent development in conin the nature of refrigeration than of ventilanection with ships' ventilation has been the
tion and is here only referred to.
While refrigeration for the transportation of application of what for lack of a better term
most fruits and vegetables for long voyages is is called " a i r conditioning." The results have
generally considered essential, it has been found been so gratifying and so acceptable to the
that t h e use of ample ventilation without re- traveling public that air conditioning has
frigeration permits the safe handling of such become practically a necessity on any new
cargoes for distances which were formerly con- passenger vessel, especially one designed to
sidered out of the question. Citrus fruits and operate in the tropics, and its application is also
vegetables and, to a lesser extent', bananas are being rapidly extended to existing vessels.
Air conditioning has been defined as the treatbeing carried by this method with success from
Florida, West Indian and Central American ment and control of air with respect to temperapoints to North Atlantic ports, especially dur- ture, water vapor content, purity, distribution
ing the cooler seasons. It is import'ant that an and motion. Properly speaking, air conditionabundant amount of air shall be supplied and ing includes the warming and humidifying of
that the produce shall be stowed in such a man- the air when it is too cool for comfort as well
ner as will permit access of the ventilating air to as cooling and dehumidifying the air when too
every portion of the cargo and effectively pre- warm. The first phase has been discussed under
vent any pockets where the products of decom- the section on " A i r H e a t i n g " ; the present discussion will be confined to the second phase, viz.
position may accumulate.
Fig. 16 illustrates a system of ducts which air cooling.
In summer weather we are uncomfortable
has been successfully used for this service. Fans
" A " are supply fans discharging into fore and both by reason of high air temperature and
aft ducts led along underneath the deck beams frequently (this is usually the case at sea)
at each side of the vessel with branches at short because the humidity is so high as to r e t a r d
intervals l e d down to or near the deck and that evaporation of perspiration from the skin
usually discharging beneath the wooden gratings which is essential for comfort. Consequently,
covering the entire width of the compartment on the problem is both to cool and to d r y the air.
In order to reduce the amount of refrigerawhich the cargo crates and boxes are loosely
piled. Fans " B " are exhausters with suction tion that would otherwise be involved, some
openings spaced at intervals in such a manner scheme of recirculation of the air is necessary

VENTILATION
and this in general restricts its application to
spaces in which the doors and windows m a y be
kept closed. Successful installations on new
vessels have been made in this country to the
first-class dining rooms of the Mariposa and her
two ~ister ships, to the main and tourist dining
rooms of the Manhatta~ and Wazhington and to
the dining rooms of the Colombia and Haiti.
I n addition to the above, at the date of writing
this paper, air conditioning has recently been
added to the main dining rooms of the California, Virginia and Pennsylvania of the P a n a m a Pacific Line and to several yachts. The
application to foreign vessels has so far been
very limited.
While the application of air conditioning to
date has been confined mainly to dining rooms,
the results are such t h a t we m a y confidently look
f o r w a r d to its extension in the near f u t u r e to
other spaces, probably at first to the de-luxe
suites and later to other public rooms, though in
these latter spaces special problems will arise in
connection with the necessity of keeping doors
and windows closed.
I n the practical application of air conditioning the cooled air is introduced through specially formed o u t l e t s near the top of the room.
The endeavor is to lay down a blanket of conditioned air without perceptible drafts. This
cooled air gradually sinks and is exhausted
through ducts in or n e a r the floor, and, a f t e r

Rei'urn

A~r from

Dining Room

Supply Alrfo
Dining RAoorn

Oufsid,e Air

dr
$
rod
FIG. ] 7 . - - T Y P E OF A I R GONDITIONER I N GENERAL USE
FOR LARQE SPACES

OF

SHIPS

183

/
Cooling Coil

Fan

f
J

FIG.

18.--AIR

Moor

!_ _

CONDITIONING APPARATUS
~JIDUAL STATEROOMS

FOR

INDI-

being cooled and mixed with a p r o p e r amount

of fresh air, is returned to the room. The volume
of fresh air supplied is considerably reduced
from that given on page 177. A t e m p e r a t u r e differential between the room and the outside air
of about 10 degrees F. is generally maintained
and f o u n d satisfactory. As the effect is felt
immediately, it is only necessary to use the cooling a p p a r a t n s during meal hours, the system being started about one-half hour before meal time
and shut down immediately a f t e r the passengers
leave the room.
The sketch in Fig. 17 shows the type of conditioner in general use for the larger spaces such
as dining rooms.
The r e t u r n air f r o m the room is divided into
two streams " a " and "'b." The r e t u r n air " a "
as well as the fresh outside air, which enters at
" c , " pass through the cooler which reduces the
t e m p e r a t u r e of the m i x t u r e to the dew point
and so precipitates a portion of the contained
moisture which is drained off. The air emerging f r o m the cooler is then mixed with the portion of r e t u r n air " b " under the influence of
the thermostat " d " and thus warmed to the
t e m p e r a t u r e desired in the room and reduced in
humidity. F o r some installations, a portion of
the cooling has been done by a cold brine spray,
but this system has certain objections for shipboard use. I n cold weather a steam heating coil
inside the conditioner is used instead of the cooling coil.
F o r smaller rooms, such as suites and individual staterooms, a simpler a p p a r a t u s as shown
in Fig. 18 is quite adequate. I n this apparatus,
the room air is continually recirculated by an
internal fan and the desired amount of fresh

184

VENTILATION

outside air is admitted to the room through the

regular ventilation supply terminals.
While the amount of refrigeration must be
calculated for each individual case, based on the
amount of heat generated by lights, warming
tables, personnel and the incoming air, in general
it will be found that one ton of refrigeration will
be required for about 1250 cubic feet of public

OF SHIPS
room space and about 2000 cubic feet of stateroom space. While the refrigeration for the
larger type of conditioners is in general supplied from the ship's main refrigerating plant,
it will probably be found advisable to fit small
self-contained automatic refrigerating machines
to serve individual conditioners, especally when
they are at a distance from the main plant.

DISCUSSION

MR. M. J. HANLON,Me~,ber: This paper is of

prime importance to those who are responsible
for the safe and efficient carriage and delivery
of cargoes. It is not permissible to stow susceptible or perishable merchandise in a cargo
compartment and trust to luck that ordinary
natural ventilation, obtained by cowl type ventilators and the opening of hatches when the
weather permits, will protect the cargo from
damage. It is elementary that incompatible
cargoes should not be stowed in the same compartment under any circumstances, if serious
and extensive damage is to be avoided.
No ventilation system will protect susceptible
goods stowed in juxtaposition with other commodities that are strongly odorous, gaseous or
give off fumes, moisture, etc. These odors,
gases, fumes, etc. are very penetrating and
under the conditions existing in a closed cargo
hold during the voyage will permeate the entire
cargo in the hold. I f susceptible commodities
are present, the odors will be imparted to them.
Wet goods give off moisture and vapors, or
they may leak, causing the hold atmosphere to
be heavily charged with moisture which will condense on the deck beams, deck plating, hatch
beams, or the ship's side. This moisture, in the
form of drops of water or sweat, is deposited
back on the cargo stowed in the hold and will
cause very serious damage. As the temperature
of the hold increases, re-evaporation of the moisture continues and the cycle of events is repeated. Contact of the air with the deck beams
and decks causes a reduction of its temperature
and diminishes its capacity to retain the moisture, which is deposited on the relatively cooler
surfaces of the vessel's structure in the form of
sweat.
The action of the air currents in the cargo
hold is continuous. They absorb moisture from

the mass of cargo, depositing the moisture on the

structure from which it drips back on to the
cargo. Heating and cooling of the air will eventually result in a damp humid atmosphere in
the cargo hold. Distinction is made between
dampness and sweat caused by the admission of
air to the hold by the ordinary cowl ventilators
during rain or when the vessel is shipping
spray.
S w e a t and consequent cargo damage
having its origin in either source is unnecessary,
and can be eliminated, if simple modern efficient ventilating equipment is fitted to the existing ventilator trunks. The equipment can be
readily incorporated in new designs.
A storage warehouse would not be built without provision being made for adequate ventilation facilities, yet vessels are designed and
constructed without any departure from the obsolete and inefficient system of natural ventilation
effected by any of the cowl type of ventilators.
Under even the most favorable conditions these
ventilators furnish only feeble natural ventilation currents which usually do not penetrate the
cargo, or cargo spaces, to any perceptible degree, and therefore cannot remove noxious gases
or fumes or maintain a normal temperature balance between the outside atmosphere and the
atmosphere in the cargo compartment. Because
of these conditions the development of up-todate efficient mechanical ventilation equipment
for modern vessels has made rapid strides in the
last few years.
On page 182 Mr. Nichols makes the statement
that "while refrigeration for the transportation
of most fruits and vegetables for long voyages is
generally considered essential, it has been found
that the use of ample ventilation without refrigeration permits the safe handling of such
cargoes for distances which were formerly considered out of the question.
It is im-

VENTILATION
portant that an abundant amount of air shall
be supplied."
This is very true, and the author's contention
can be adequately supported by actual experience on a fleet of transatlantic steamers which
are equipped with a simple, efficient type of mechanical ventilating equipment which is placed
on the usual ventilator coaming in lieu of the
ordinary cowl, thus immediately transforming
the ordinary natural ventilation system into a
plenum or forced ventilation system.
The capacity of the fan units is sufficient to
change the air in an empty cargo compartment
once in fifteen minutes, or, if the hold is half
full, once in seven and a half minutes, and proportionally.
This equipment has been in use for over two
years in a cargo service between New York, Rotterdam and Antwerp, the average length of voyage being ten days. Cargoes of apples amounting to as much as 80 carloads, and of lard and
packing house products up to 1700 tons, have
been satisfactorily carried eastbound, and millions of Holland flower bulbs have been carried
westbound without the least indication of damage due to sweat, odors, or elevated temperatures.
This equipment is so designed that, if bulk or
inert cargoes are being carried, the fans are not
operated and the ordinary natural ventilation is
available. It is also easily possible to shift the
units from one hold to another as the nature of
the cargoes may require.
Given proper stowage, fresh fruits, flower
bulbs, provisions, etc. may safely move in ordin a r y cargo compartments. I f and when damage occurs, f a u l t y ventilation is usually found to
be responsible. One form of damage is that due
to sweating--the accumulation of moisture and
its subsequent condensation on the sides and
deckhead of the cargo compartment.
Another form of damage, and perhaps the
more serious, is that produced by cargo gases
and fumes which, if allowed to accumulate in
the cargo compartment due to imperfect circulation of fresh air, will affect the cargo itself.
In the case of apples, by way of illustration, the
fruit is subject to damage by scald--a discoloration produced by the gases generated by the
f r u i t itself. The f r u i t normally respires and
carbon-dioxide is evolved from it somewhat as
in animal respiration.
It is obvious, then, that no other single requirement is of greater importance than that of
ample and thorough ventilation sufficient to
vitiate and expel the deleterious gases, which are

OF SHIPS

185

dense and sink to the lower parts of the compartment. The ventilation system must also be
capable of maintaining a temperature balance,
as temperature is a most important factor in the
successful carriage of apples and most perishables.
Thorough ventilation of a vessel's cargo compartments is possible only when the air is forced
into the compartment under positive pressure,
and, to quote Mr. Nichols, " l e t t i n g the supply
fans provide the entire motive force for the
air. ' '
Satisfactory ventilation is ventilation which
produces a rapid, vigorous and well distributed
circulation of air in the compartment so that
the flow of the fresh air causes complete air
change to take place rapidly and continuously.
A very important feature of satisfactory ventilation, which must be given proper consideration, is the dew point, or the temperature at
which moisture condenses from the atmosphere
in the cargo compartment and forms sweat
either on the vessel's side, the cargo, or the steel
hatch coamings, deck beams or deckhead, which
in turn drips back on the cargo causing sweat
damage. The cargo hold temperature must be
so regulated by the correct use of the mechanical
ventilating apparatus that the dew point temperature is never reached.
The difference between the readings of the
dry bulb and wet bulb thermometers may be
employed to find the temperature of the dew
point, since the factor by which this difference
must be multiplied in order to give the difference between the d r y bulb thermometer readings
and the dew point has been tabulated.
If the proper temperature balance is maintained between the outside atmosphere, and that
of the cargo compartment, and the dew point
temperature is avoided, sweat damage will never
occur, and the cargo will be thoroughly and efficiently ventilated with resulting satisfactory
outturn.
It is not sufficient to provide the utmost in
modern ventilation equipment on board ship
and depend upon it to regulate its operation to
maintain the desired conditions in the cargo
compartments. Intelligent supervision and operation of the equipment must be constantly exercised, and a knowledge of the characteristics of
the commodity being carried must be had by
those responsible for the stowage of the cargo
and also by the vessel personnel. Records must
be kept of wind direction and force, state of the
sea, readings of dry and wet bulb thermometers,
temperature of the sea, relative humidity in the

186

VENTILATION

cargo compartments, dew point temperature,

and the t e m p e r a t u r e of the cargo compartments.
All these readings should be coordinated in one
record, p r e f e r a b l y in a f o r m which will reflect
daily the conditions existing in the cargo comp a r t m e n t s throughout the voyage f r o m loading
to discharge.
MR. E. B. WILLIAMS,Member: This p a p e r is
of special interest in bringing out the point t h a t
comfort in tropical climates or w a r m quarters is
not a matter of ventilation in the true sense of
the word. There are so m a n y cases where the
passenger, suffering u n d e r the discomfort of
high temperature, charges the ship with poor or
inadequate ventilation. W h a t they want is the
comfort which comes with cooling. As the author points o~t, this m u s t be attained by either
of two means. The first is having a decided
movement of air over the body causing t h a t cooling of the skin which comes with evaporation of
moisture and the fact that evaporation cannot
occur without heat being given up. This is
brought about by either bracket fans or fairly
high velocities issuing f r o m ventilation duct terminals. The second method of producing this
comfort is the air conditioning system, which
might as well be called the air cooling system.
These air conditioning installations are working
out very satisfactorily on both land and sea.
I n designing the duct systems, the engineer
has before him the prime importance of using
velocities which are not going to result in objectionable noise, as the air passes through the ducts
or through terminals. H e also has before him
the m a t t e r of keeping the duct size to a minim u m because there never seems to be an abundance of space for such ducts. This really
brings the designer to the point of setting some
resistance in inches of water as the m a x i m u m
which he feels he dare use before getting into
objectionable noise and power requirements for
driving the fans. The author points out t h a t 1.5
to 2 inches of water is in general use.
The effect of using static pressures considerably below or considerably above 2 inches is, by
a great many, badly misjudged. The size and
weight of duct work change very slowly with a
change in the designed static pressure in inches
of water. I n fact, it is strikingly small. To
move a given quantity of air a given distance in
a given time, the loss of pressure, that is static
pressure in inches of water, varies inversely as
the fifth power of the diameter of a pipe. I f
the diameter of the pipe were doubled, the resistance would drop to 1/32. Conversely, if

OF

SHIPS

ventilation systems were laid out for 1-inch

water gage instead of 2-inch water gage, the
diameter and weight of the duct would be increased only in proportion to the fifth root of
two or about 15 per cent. I t is seen, therefore,
that liberal changes in static pressure for which
duct systems are designed produce changes in
duct sizes which are slight indeed. P u t t i n g it
another way, slight changes in duct sizes produce tremendous changes in static pressure or
resistance of the duet system.
Big strides have been made in the last ten
years in the development of centrifugal fans
f r o m the standpoint of high efficiency and quiet
operation. The latest of these designs is a fan
wheel with backwardly sloping blades as related
to the rotation of the fan wheel. These fans
pick up the air with considerably less shock, imp a r t i n g a more uniform and quiet acceleration
to the air in the ports between the fan blades,
all resulting in less waste of energy and more
quiet operation. These fans also have the h a p p y
faculty of refusing to become overloaded u n d e r
a n y change in demand for air occasioned by
opening or closing of various ventilation terminals. This allows the use of smaller motors,
because there can never be need for motor overload capacity and, therefore, no possibility of
overheating the motor.
Mr. Nichols has referred to the efficiency of
different types of fans, and to the work of Admiral Taylor at the Model Basin m a n y years
ago, which, in m y estimation, was an epic in the
matter of ventilation systems not only aboard
ship but on land. His work was used more or
less for a basis by a great m a n y engineers and
from t h a t other strides have been made.
D u r i n g the time of Admiral T a y l o r ' s Model
Basin experiments the Na~T was having fans installed for ventilation purposes, the efficiency of
which was, I am s o r r y to say, sometimes as low
as 35 per cent. A d m i r a l Taylor came out with
a specification insisting on 50 per cent. He got
it, of course, but it caused the fan people to do
a little thinking.
At the present time, we are up around 75 per
cent in our fan efficiencies. F u r t h e r m o r e , we
have gone into the m a t t e r of making more quiet
fans. All good fan m a n u f a c t u r e r s t o d a y are
making a fan with a very much backward sloped
blade. The idea of this is to pick up the air
more carefully at the entering edge of the blades,
and c a r r y it through the ports without jerks.
In other words, the air is slowly or uniformly
accelerated, which means efficiency and lack of
noise.

VENTILATION
Mr. Nichols spoke about the non-overloading
characteristics of these more efficient backwardslope blades. T h a t is a big point. Up to 10
years ago, when we selected a motor for driving
a fan, the normal rating of which might be 10
horsepower, we would always have to say to ourselves, " N o w , suppose someone opens up the ventilation system quite completely, and takes the
resistance off the f a n ? " I n those days the
horsepower ran up anywhere f r o m 25 to 50 per
cent, as a maximum, above the rating. We then
had to p u t on a motor to take care of that emergency, consequently the fan was driven with a
15 horsepower motor instead of a 10 horsepower.
This non-overloading characteristic fan today
really has in some designs an underloading characteristic, in that its horsepower curve droops a
bit as the resistance is taken off and the volume
increases. W e are safe, therefore, when we
select this non-overloading t y p e of fan and put
a 10 horsepower motor on it for a job t h a t requires 10 horsepower. I t is impossible to get
more power on it.
As regards efficiency a great m a n y purchases
of fans today are made on the basis of capitalizing horsepower saving. On some large jobs
that amounts to enough so that a more efficient
fan with its n a t u r a l l y higher cost can be the low
bidder on the job because it receives credit for
the horsepower saved. Sometimes this amounts
to as much as $250 per horsepower.
MB. H. H. DOWNES,* Visitor: I n the spring of
1929 I began to devote a very large per cent of
m y time to ship ventilation and one of my first
conferences on this subject was with Mr. Nichols. It was at this conference t h a t I first suggested a radical change in fan design for shipboard use. I was of the opinion t h a t in a very
few years we would no longer be using the slow
fans whose characteristics were anything but
favorable for this particular class of work. Their
disadvantage f r o m an overload condition on
varying static pressures was equally as bad as
the excessive motor weights due to low revolutions per minute.
I n 1930 I designed a N a v y fan with characteristics for a p p r o x i m a t e l y 70 per cent increase in
revolutions per minute. The fan was practically non-overloading. A f t e r completing tests
on these fans, the m a x i m u m horsepower at a n y
static from no static to rated static did not exceed the brake horsepower at rated load more
t h a n 7 per cent as compared with 200 per cent
and more on the design formerly used.
Manager naval eqoiprn'ent division, American Blower
Corporation.

OF

SHIPS

187

The higher speed and non-overloading type

fan was first applied in the N a v y for hull ventilation in 1932 on the Mississippi and ~env Mexico, and, later, on the Ranger. Today, it is practically universal for both N a v y and merchant
marine work.
While speaking on fan design, I should like
to comment for a moment on propeller or disk
fans. This t y p e of fan has also been greatly
improved but the better design has not been recognized on a p a r with t h a t of the centrifugal
fans due to the tendency of misapplying them.
On account of space conditions, m a n y engineers
attempt to a p p l y propeller fans for duties which
they are wholly incapable of performing.
The principle on which propeller fans deliver
air, as well as the principle on which they build
up pressure, is well known to all. Therefore,
to attempt to adopt this particular t y p e of fan
for handling air against pressures higher t h a n
1/(~-inch static without noise is designing against
the very principle of the fan.
I n other words, we must, for pressures higher
t h a n l~-inch, s t u d y each application as to how
much noise the particular system will permit
without being objectionable. This, due to the
individual or h u m a n element as to degree of
noise, makes such designing very dangerous. I n
the very n e a r f u t u r e all types of fans will be
rated for noise exactly as for capacity and pressure. This will safeguard engineers and eliminate m i s a p p l y i n g propeller-type fans. I t is safe
to state that of all complaints in connection with
ship ventilation 90 per cent can be traced to
noise on propeller-type fans.
CAPTAIN J. H. LINNARD, Honorary Vice-President: This very interesting p a p e r covers a large
amount of ground, but it has not given much
attention to the question of the bends and other
forms of change of direction of the current that
occur in ventilation ducts. My connection with
that m a t t e r dates back to some f o r t y years ago,
when I endeavored to introduce some sort of a
calculation of ducts and piping and louvres and
outlets, but I found, at that time, that there was
no information on the subject except some that
was contained in a French publication. T h a t
led to the view t h a t a very large p a r t of the resistance in ducts for this purpose,, especially as
installed on warships where numerous bends and
changes of directions were necessary, was caused
not by the direct resistance of the pipe but by
the very considerable resistance due to those
bends, curves and other obstructions of that
character in the piping.

188

V E N T I L A T I O N OF S H I P S

At that time Admiral Taylor was in the Washington Navy Yard. Among the numerous other
duties that he performed, I believe as a result
of the conversations that I had with him on this
subject, he instituted the very elaborate series
of tests which I sometimes witnessed down at
the Model Basin to determine all of these various
resistances. The result of those very interesting experiments was embodied in a p a p e r
which he read before this Society in 1905 and
which contains all the f u n d a m e n t a l bases that
one can want in designing any ventilation
system.
MR. E. F. SPANNER, Member: I t is obvious
f r o m the diagrams which a p p e a r in Mr. Nichols'
p a p e r that the problem of providing for ship
ventilation has now assumed dimensions which
render the task of accommodating the whole of
the piping systems one of great difficulty, imposing the need that a considerable amount of attention should be given the ventilation system
in the very early stages of design.
Some years ago the writer was responsible for
the introduction of the duct keel which served
the purpose of providing an alleyway through
which double-bottom and hold piping systems
could be led. The success of this a r r a n g e m e n t
at the bottom of ships suggests that, with sympathetic treatment, it might be possible to provide a somewhat similar a r r a n g e m e n t in the
u p p e r p a r t of the ship through which ventilating systems could run, as well as water and electrical systems.
Something of this kind has already been suggested by Mr. H. E. J. Camps in Great Britain,
and undoubtedly successful development of
schemes planned along these lines would greatly
simplify the task of obtaining a satisfactory and
compact layout. F u r t h e r , such a development
might be capable of commercial standardization
in respect to trunking, off-shoots, junctions and
SO o n .

MR. G. G. SCOTT, ~ Visitor: The greatest difficulty to be overcome, or at least minimized, is the
general layout of the various duct systems. I t
would lead to a higher degree of efficiency, as
well as a saving in cost, if the ducts were laid
in a straight line, and the numerous bends usually associated with such systems of ventilation
obviated.
I t has been suggested, and in fact advocated,
that the fitting of a central alleyway, either upon
the weather deck or in the '~ween decks, would
* Camps & Company, naval architects, 15 Bury Street,
London, E. C. 3, England.

Exha~s/

~':~. Ill

Cargo

Plan rfLowerDeck

Cen~frcxl
I
__ Alleywayk,
_ _ H ur r'cane
Deck
|Supply
I '1 Exhaust I
b-- Ouc~
Oucf7 1 Mo'~r~ Deck

- -

Sac~r~on

- -

Fro. 19

provide accommodation and ready accessibility

in all conditions of weather for such items as
deck, fire and water services; electric cables, telemotor control service to steering gear, or steering rods and chains; tank sounding pipes, etc.
Fig. 19 indicates in diagrammatic form a central
alleyway fitted in the vessel and accommodating
the vent ducts, as an alternative to that shown
in Fig. 16 in Mr. Nichols' paper.
I t will be observed that such an alleyway involves the fitting of twin hatches, i. e. one on
either side of the alleyway, which is a very simple matter. The sizes of the hatches would of
course be regulated by the nature of the cargo
intended to be carried. The alleyway would be
constructed so as to extend completely throughout the length of the vessel except tile extreme
ends, passing through machinery, air and light
casings. The funnel uptakes could be led on
either side of it, thus having a continuous alleyway or corridor throughout almost the complete
length of the vessel.
Such an alleyway would, I suggest, be ideal
for accommodating the vent ducts, both supply
and return, and each system could be isolated
and separate units used for the ventilation of
staterooms, public rooms, cargo spaces, etc. Although both supply and exhaust ducts are shown
in Fig. 19. the exhaust duet could be dispensed
with, and the alleyway itself used as an exhaust.
The installation of such an alleyway would,
in association with the vent ducts, also be v e r y
useful for injecting CO.~ or other fire-extinguishing gases into the holds of a vessel.
LIEUTENANT COMMANDER W . C. WADE, ( C C ) ,

U. S. N., Visitor: The statement t h a t " f o r vessels in tropical climates, where external air is
already too w a r m for comfort, obviously nothing

VENTILATION
is gained by supplying excessive quantities of
fresh a i r " undoubtedly refers to staterooms and
public spaces only, as in such spaces as engine
rooms, boiler rooms, p u m p rooms, generator
rooms, switchboard rooms, etc., the more air supplied, the better the conditions under which the
personnel therein can p e r f o r m their duties, due
to the greater amount of heat being thus removed. A t e m p e r a t u r e in such spaces approximating outside tropical temperature, by comparison with the usual temperatures experienced
in some of the above spaces, would be considered
satisfactory.
I t is believed that the necessary ventilation for
the above mentioned spaces, wherein heat is generated by the machinery therein, can be more
p r o p e r l y and accurately determined by estimating the heat losses from the equipment and piping, and f r o m this knowledge provide sufficient
ventilation to remove heat to a point of a permissible t e m p e r a t u r e rise in the spaces concerned.
I n the m a t t e r of ventilation of galleys, a quite
accurate estimate of the ventilation required can
be obtained in the same manner, from the
a m o u n t and nature of the equipment therein.
F o r example, it has been found that satisfactory
ventilation is provided by using about 1000
cubic feet per minute per section of oil-burning
range, 4 cubic feet per minute per gallon capacity of steam kettle, and 50 cubic feet per minute per kilowatt input of the electric ranges,
ovens, and broilers.
I n the ventilation of public spaces, such as
dining rooms, it would seem that a more nearly
proper supply of air can be determined, if based
on the seating capacity and adding a certain
per cent thereto for the service personnel usually
occupying these spaces. On such a basis, 10 to
15 cubic feet per minute per seat would a p p e a r
to be adequate.
Due to the inherent noise attending the operation of a propeller fan, they should not be used
in the vicinity of staterooms and public spaces.
F o r propeller fans, naval practice permits peripheral speeds up to 12,000 feet per minute in
machinery spaces, and it is expected, and they
are, noisy in these locations.
I n regard to the stateroom ventilation of naval
vessels, the necessity for cold air ducts and hot
air ducts, or w a r m i n g and tempering the air to a
moderate temperature, then using electric heaters to adjust the stateroom individually to the
desired temperature, has been overcome by the
adoption of the steam-heated terminal heater.
This heater attaches to the end of the vent duct

OF

SHIPS

189

entering a given stateroom, and is located usually in an overhead position. I t contains steamheated coils through which the air can pass, has
a by-pass so that a p a r t or all of the air can pass
around the coils, thus giving control of the heat.
Further, it has a manually operated humidifying valve by which moisture may be added and
the terminal heater outlet has two adjustable
rows of vanes, one vertical and one horizontal,
for directing the blast of air.
MR. R. L. TOMLINSON,Member: I am interested in the diffusing louvre illustrated in Fig.
14 an page 180. I understand that this type of
louvre has been used with great success on ordin a r y ventilating systems, and I have seen similar louvres on the new Grace vessels. A louvre
of this type could probably be used for air conditioning, as it will a p p a r e n t l y allow the air to
enter at comparatively low velocity with horizontal flow and at the same time it has the advantage of being adjustable. W e have, of
course, developed high-pressure slotted louvres,
both with and without damper adjustments,
and these have been used quite extensively for
cargo refrigeration and air conditioning. This
type of outlet was used on the dining room air
conditioning for the Colombian vessels, and has
also been used with great success on the air cooled
cargo refrigeration systems recently installed on
the Merchants & Miners steamers.
The t e r m air conditioning is gradually being
applied to cargo refrigeration as well as cooling
for the comfort of passengers, and we believe
t h a t the next three or four years will bring
about some rather drastic changes in the methods of refrigerating large cargo spaces. This particular phase of air conditioning will undoubtedly open up a new field for both m a n u f a c t u r e r
and shipbuilder.
We find that the shippers,
particularly those on the West Coast, are beginning to demand the maintenance of atmospheric conditions for perishables which actually
require the use of air condioning. F o r example,
in addition to the usual specification of temperature the shippers now specify the m a x i m u m and
m i n i m u m relative humidity to be maintained
during the voyage, and they are placing a limit
on the CO,, content, which requires continuous
ventilation.
I t is interesting to note that in addition to
air conditioning for the dining saloons the steamers California, Virginia and Pennsylvania of the
. P a n a m a Pacific Line have recently been fitted
out with air conditioning for cargo. The system on each vessel consists of an insulated 'tween

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VENTILATION

deck of approximately 20,000 cubic feet capacity

fitted with air cooler, blower, air ducts and automatic humidity control. Control of the humidity has been accomplished by installing spray
headers in the main discharge duct from the
blower. These sprays are controlled by a humidostat which can be set for a fairly wide humidity range. With systems such as these it has
been possible to maintain humidities ranging
from 85 to 90 per cent, which is found particularly desirable for certain fruits and vegetables.
MR. F . C. STEWART, ~" Visitor: Ventilation
should be something in the nature of an exact
science, but since the ultimate measure of satisfactory ventilation generally depends on the
personal physical reactions to the various systems, there is a considerable latitude for personal differences in regard to ventilating systems. Consequently, we must be guided largely
by the tendency of prevailing practice among
the shipowners and shipbuilders in the most recent building programs. On this basis, it would
not be true to say that bracket fans were much
more effective than the high velocity terminals
of the Punkah louvre pattern, for the reason
that most of the shipping companies trading
through the tropics show a tendency to depart
from the use of the bracket fan and replace this
entirely by terminals of the high velocity type.
The high velocity terminal is always delivering
fresh air, while the bracket fan is merely creating a movement of the air in the cabin itself.
There are practical reasons for the shipowners'
practice in this matter, in that the motors of the
small bracket fans arc generally very expensive
in up-keep.
The resistance of the P u n k a h louvre type of
terminal is nsually higher than that of ordinary
grids, and, while this might appear to be a disadvantage, it is in fact the opposite, as this pressure behind the louvre tends to make the distribution along the length of a duct much more
equitable than with the low-pressure grids. F o r
instance, in the layout of the ventilating system
in the passengers' staterooms, some of the distributing ducts are so long that a considerable
drop in pressure between the first grid and the
last would exist, so that the grid nearest the fan
would require to be very much restricted in
area, and would probably be very noisy, if the
final terminal was functioning correctly. When
it is appreciated that the output from terminals
of the same area is proportional to the square
root of the pressure behind the terminal, it will
* Director, Thermotank, Ltd., Govan, Glasgow, Scotland.

OF SHIPS
be realized that the higher the pressure behind
the final terminal the more even the distribution
at the various terminals along the duct.
While the P u n k a h louvre terminal has been
widely adopted in the virtue of the high velocity
of its delivery, yet it is also very extensively used
in public rooms of North Atlantic vessels, where
the physical effect of air movement is not required. In this case, however, the louvres are
arranged to blow horizontally over the heads of
the occupants, the directional qualities of the
louvre being used to ensure a thorough distribution of the ventilating air. Another type of
louvre being fitted in these vessels by the makers
of the P u n k a h louvre is somewhat similar to the
diffusing louvre shown in Fig. 14. This louvre,
known as the thermotank distributor, can diffuse
the air in a horizontal direction around the
louvre, or project the air downwards, much in
the same way as a ceiling fan, a vertical adjustment of the louvre deflecting plate being all that
is necessary to cause this change in diffusion.
This type of terminal is being applied to the two
super-liners at present building in Europe, viz.
the F r e n c h liner Normand~, and the CunardWhite Star liner Queen Mary. On both these
vessels, the ventilating system is also used as a
heating system, separate hot and cold air ducts
being led to the various staterooms, and a combination of mixing valve and P u n k a h louvre
known as a " T h e r m o - R e g " louvre gives the passenger complete control over the temperature
of the air being supplied to his room. This type
of installation has already been fitted in the
French liners LaFayett~ and Champlain.
The expense associated with air conditioning
has been, up to date, the main obstacle to its
application to first-class passenger vessels, although in many services the period during which
the refrigerating portion of the air conditioning
equipment would be necessary would be too
small to justify its installation. The necessary
factor in the question of air conditioning, at the
moment, is the type of refrigeration ultimately
to be adopted. In most cases, it is not possible
to take the cooling brine from the ship's main
refrigerating plant, as this plant is generally
working at its maximum duty when the air conditioning is required, so consequently it is necessary in the arrangement of an air conditioning
scheme to fit additional refrigeration plant capable of dealing with the accommodation being air
conditioned. Occasionally, this plant may be
C02 compressors (duplicates of those fitted for
the ship's main refrigeration plant) and the
most suitable refrigerating plant for cooling of

VENTILATION

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191

ship's accommodation in the hot weather is a

matter for serious consideration of the shipbuilders.
A type of fan which Mr. Nichols does not refer
to but which is now being widely applied to the
ventilation of engine rooms, boiler rooms, fruit
holds and the like, is an improved design of
axial flow fan, the design of which incorporates
the results of the latest research in aero-dynamics. Efficiencies of over 80 per cent are therefore readily obtained and pressures up to 5
inches per stage are possible, although the question of noise prevents the use of such high pressures per stage on board ship. F o r ship work,
these fans are usually mounted direct on the
spindle of the driving motor, the motor being
enshrouded in stream-lined fairings to eliminate
loss. The machinery spaces of both the Monarch
of Bermuda and Q~eeen of Bermuda, plying between Bermuda and New York, are ventilated
by means of these torpedo-type fans. P u n k a h
louvres of large diameter are also used in conjunction with the engine-room ventilation, as
their universal movement gives a simpler directional control than the universal terminal shown
in Fig. 11.

good ventilation, particularly to those directly

engaged on this work. Most recent ships are
definitely better in this respect ; the old musty
smell everywhere present in ships of the older
vintage is definitely on the run, thanks to the
subject having been given the benefit of competent attention in recent years.
We should give our Navy considerable credit
in this field, as those who have built naval vessels can testify. Their insistence on good ventilation, backed up by tests and rules for design,
has done much fbr all ship ventilation. Travelers who are observant and fair minded know the
result, if not the reason therefore. I have heard
complimentary remarks several times recently
from people who had no engineering knowledge
but did appreciate good air down below.
The supply of good air at the right temperature is not a question of simply blowing in
fresh air over steam coils; it is not a question of
churning up foul air to give a false sense of
ventilation; it is one which involves knowledge
and experience in no small degree.
Improvements in fan design should also receive credit; particularly reductions in noise
characteristics.

MR. E. H. RIGG, Vice-President: The attention given to making bulkheads really watertight
could be considerably strengthened by more attention to the elimination of any ventilation
ducts passing thi~5'ugh such bulkheads. This
precaution should be extended to fire bulkheads ;
the fitting of dampers at such bulkheads helps to
load the crew with too many things to attend to
in a crisis. Automatic dampers may be satisfactory when they do act; reliance on such devices is poor policy. We may well ask ourselves
if strict confinement of ventilating systems within main compartments is not proper and feasible.
As Mr. Nichols points out, there is a relatively
new idea which claims attention; namely, separate ducts f o r warm and cold air. We are long
used to the idea for baths and showers, why not
extend it ? The passenger will be able really to
regulate the temperature of his room, but there
may be a small reflection of this convenience in
the price of his ticket. When it becomes common, this advance will cease reacting on the pioneer owner alone. Reliance on reduced insurance premia for safety betterments and on advertising of improvements in comfort is apt to
be slow of actual realization; in the long, hard
run only do these things register.
Mr. Nichols has given us a paper which is of
decided help to those in any way responsible for

MR. Z. W . THOMPSON, ~* Visitor: T h e a u t h o r

has clearly stated the many conditions which
limit the design of heating and ventilating systems for ships. Another handicap however is
the custom of placing the fans and heaters on the
weather decks of large passenger vessels. This
arrangement, while economical of space, results
in long leads of insulated ducts which deliver
cool air at the far end of the system and hot air
at points close to the heater. It also lacks flexibility to meet the varying temperature demands
within the same main compartment. The use
of smaller fans, located in fan rooms within the
compartment ventilated, discharging through a
separaCe heater for each set of ducts (i. e. ducts
for inboard rooms, outboard rooms and port and
starboard sides) permits a close temperature
regulation and reduces the sizes of the ducts to
a minimum.

MR. RALPH A. IV[ILLER, Member: At the bottom of page 182 it says, "In order to reduce the
amount of refrigeration that would otherwise be
involved, some scheme of re-circulation of the air
is necessary and this in general restricts its application to spaces in which the doors and windows may be kept closed." And then it goes on
* Assistant naval architect, New York Shipbuilding Company. Camden. N. J.

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VENTILATION

to say that the installations so f a r have been

made in dining saloons.
I have been wondering about the odors there.
Does the re-circulating of the air bring the undesirable odors back into the room or does the air
conditioning a p p a r a t u s remove those odors ?
~IR. NICHOLS: Mr. M. J. Hanlon has brought
out numerous points that have proven i m p o r t a n t
in his experience as a ship operator and has
emphasized the necessity of supplying a positive
circulation of air. I n these days, when there are
more ships than cargbes, it is especially imp o r t a n t that provision shall be made for the
safe carrying of cargoes: As a shipper is in a
position to demand what he wants rather than
to take what he can get, he will t u r n to the line
that guarantees the most safety.
I n the case of cargoes which give off moisture,
especially when there are sufficient quantities
to cause sweating on the ship structures, the
most intelligent handling of the air supply is
demanded.
Mr. t I a n l o n also warns that even ample ventilation will sometimes not prevail, if susceptible
cargo is stored near cargo which has strong
odors. Mr. Hanlon is to be congratulated on
his resourcefulness in providing forced ventilation by comparatively simple methods without
going to the expense of a completely new installation of ducts.
W e are very much obliged to Mr. E. B.
Williams and Mr. H. H. Downes, whose respective companies supply a large proportion of the
fans we use. We are indebted to them for their
valuable remarks and explanations of the
modern developments in f a n designs.
High
speed has been attained without objectionable
noise or loss in efficiency and has given us great
savings in size and weights.
Mr. Williams has given us one of his characteristic brain twisters to the general effect that
a change in duct size makes a considerable difference, but a change in the air pressure hardly
any. I will leave it to the mathematical members to figure that out.
Lieutenant Commander W a d e calls attention
to my statement relative to supplying large
quantities of air in tropical climates. I said in
the p a p e r that there was no advantage in supplying large quantities of w a r m air to a stateroom
or to a public room in order to t r y to keep it
cool. This comment was not intended to a p p l y
to the engine rooms. I n engine rooms, and similar closed machinery spaces, almost any amount
of air is welcome. My r e m a r k was intended for

OF

SHIPS

the benefit of the occasional owner who seems to

think that the supplying of excessive amounts of
tropical air is going to take the heat from the
living spaces and make them cool.
Both Lieutenant Commander W a d e and Mr.
Downes warn us against the use of types of fans
which are not suited for the existing conditions.
The comments of Mr. Rigg are valuable. He
brought out the thought that ventilation ducts
should not pass through fire-resisting bulkheads,
in which he is perfectly sound. When the emergency comes, the excitement and lack of discipline
and drill make any a r r a n g e m e n t of dampers of
very little value. In the case of a recent marine
disaster by fire with which we are all familiar,
we were gratified when a check-up showed that
not a single fire-resisting bulkhead on that ship
was pierced by a ventilation duct. This can
always be accomplished by careful design.
We quite agree with the comments of Mr.
J. W. Thompson as to the advantage to be
gained by locating the fans below the weather
decks. A little study of the conditions, together
with a determination to find places for the fan
rooms, will often bring about substantial simplifications and improvements.
We are glad to learn f r o m Captain L i n n a r d
how he got Admiral Taylor going on the invaluable experimental work he did and on which we
have been dependent ever since.
Mr. R. A. Miller raises a question about odors.
T h a t is a very i m p o r t a n t point that has to be
kept in mind in connection with air conditioning.
A i r conditioning is apt to r u n into quite large
refrigeration capacities. I n applying air conditioning to our ships, we have to give a careful
study to keep the refrigeration within bounds.
Of course, in the case of dining rooms, there
must always be an excess of supply over exhaust
air. Also, between meal times, the refrigeration
m a y be shut off and the air supply increased to
insure perfectly fresh conditions at the beginning of meal hours. W i t h these precautions it
has been found entirely practicable to avoid
any trouble from odors.
The scheme suggested by Mr. Spanner, and
covered in more detail by Mr. Scott, of having
a central alleyway for ventilation ducts might
simplify the design of the ventilation system. I t
is questionable, however, whether this advantage
would not be offset by the effect on other p a r t s
of the vessel and its equipment. Most owners
wish as large hatches as possible and they would
object seriously to the twin hatches, especially
where it is desired to load and unload f r o m both
sides of the vessel simultaneously. The contin-

VENTILATION
uous alleyway would necessarily pass through
the fire-screen bulkheads, which would increase
the fire hazard.
W e are interested in the remarks of Mr. R. L.
Tomlinson as to air conditioning of passenger
and cargo spaces, especially as it is to his comp a n y t h a t we have been indebted for the large
m a j o r i t y of the marine installations which have
so f a r been made in this country.
The remarks of Mr. F. C. Stewart are of
special value as they may be taken as an epitome
of up-to-date E u r o p e a n practice. The greater
use of bracket fans in this country is what might
reasonably be expected f r o m the more general
use of electrical equipment here. The use of
dual w a r m and cold air systems for stateroom
ventilation is well nigh ideal.
The scope of my p a p e r is so broad that the
t r e a t m e n t of each branch has necessarily been
brief. I greatly appreciate the comments of the
various discussors who have approached the subject f r o m so m a n y different angles and have
contributed greatly to the value of the paper.
THE 1)RESmENT: fl~ p a p e r on this subject by
an engineer as widely known and of such great
experience is of unusual interest. The subject
has been covered in what appealed to me as
plain, concise language.
I t is of particular
interest not only to the designing engineer and
to the traveling public, but also to the medical
profession.

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SHIPS

193

I noticed with pleasure that Mr. Nichols referred to the necessity of ample headroom.
That was also referred to by Mr. W.illiams in
his comments. I t certainly was neglected in the
earlier designs, but now I think all the designers
recognize the necessity of having such headroom
that a m a n of ordinary height can walk along
without getting into trouble. But, nobody referred to the somewhat common .cause of
the deficiencies in the ventilation systems which
so often occur and which are so often r u n to
earth by the representative or officer in charge
of maintenance, and that is when he finds the
cause of no air at certain terminals by cutting
a handhole of some kind in the ventilating duct
and pulling out an accumulation of cleaning
rags and old cloths which have actually stopped
up the entire opening.
T h a t sort of thing is not uncommon. However, my last experience was that suitable cleaning holes were being installed in various places
to meet such conditions.
I speak for the Society in conveying to Mr.
Nichols our thanks for his paper, for the care
in its p r e p a r a t i o n and his very thorough bandling of the subject. I would like to add t h a t
when our list of papers does not include one
p a p e r from the locality of Newport News we
feel that we have an opening t h a t ought to be
filled.
I hope we w o n ' t have t h a t feeling
hereafter.