Measurement

Introduction
Measurement is the comparison of an unknown dimension to a known standard. Good measuring
instruments were a key to high volume production. Without them, parts could not be built
accurately enough to be interchangeable. Each assembly had to be hand fitted together. Today,
measuring tools are essential for most machining operations from initial part layout to final
inspection.

Calipers
The figure below depicts a caliper. It can measure lengths from 0 to 7.5 inches to a precision of
one thousandth of an inch. One can measure the outside of a part with the jaws, the inside of a
hole or slot with the nibs, or the depth of a hole or shoulder with the extension bar.
This particular one is has a vernier scale. It takes a little practice to read it properly. Calipers
often have a dial or digital readouts instead.

A Vernier Caliper
To read a vernier caliper:

Read the large number division first.

Read the small number division.
Read the number of smaller subdivisions. Each represents 0.025
inches to be added to the measurement.

Read which line on the vernier lines up with a line on the main
beam. For each line a thousanth must be added to the
measurement.

An example follows:

Reading a Vernier Scale - An Example

Micrometer
A micrometer generally provides greater precision than a caliper, but can measure a smaller range
of lengths. A micrometer is depicted in the drawing below.

Parts of a Micrometer
To use a micrometer, place the part in the opening. Next, turn the thimble until the spindle
contacts the work. To apply a consistent pressure to the part, use the ratchet stop. Use the clamp
ring to hold the thimble in place while you read the micrometer. To read the micrometer:

Read the exposed number on the barrel.

Read the number of divisions past the number. Each division
represents 0.025 inches.
Read the division on the spindle. These usually read to less than
thousandths of an inch.

An example of reading the micrometer follows:

Reading a Micrometer - An Example

THE TERNARY GAS PLASMA WELDING TORCH

Developed by Lockheed Martin, for the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, the Ternary Gas Plasma
Welding Torch provides a faster, more efficient means of joining thicker materials with relatively low heat
inputs. In addition, due to the patented design, there is less dependency on the technician's skills to
achieve quality results. The increase in performance that the Ternary Gas Plasma Welding Torch achieves
is attributed to a secondary inert gas acting in conjunction with the primary inert gas to provide a
substantially "stiffer" arc from the electrode of the torch than a typical single inert gas provides.

Benefits

Improves weld quality through a stiffer more controllable arc

Reduces cost through reduction in weld "cutting" defects
Reduces welding times
Narrower weld with greater penetration at any given electrical current setting
More desirable Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

Reduces dependency on operator's skills

Expands the capabilities for joining thicker materials with relatively low heat inputs.

Potential Commercial Uses

Benefit to any process that requires continuous welding where precision, speed and weld strength
are essential
Cost alternative to laser or electron beam welding
Products produced from aluminum alloys such as pipes, tubes, valves, cans, tanks and other
containers and engine components
Use in automotive, aerospace/aviation, ship building and industrial machinery industries

The Technology
The Ternary-Gas Plasma Arc Welding (TGPAW) torch functions by utilizing three gases: a primary inert
plasma gas, a secondary inert plasma gas, and an inert shielding gas. The primary inert plasma gas is
directed through the body of the welding torch and out of the body across the tip of a welding electrode
disposed at the forward end of the body. The second plasma gas is disposed for flow through a
longitudinal bore in the electrode. It is directed through the electrode to co-act with the arc to produce
equivalent defect free welds in types and thickness of metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) with less total heat
input per inch of weld (i.e. less current/voltage output and/or high travel speeds). The completed weld is
narrower with greater penetration at any given electrical current setting, thereby producing a more
desirable Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and greater ultimate tensile strength values. In addition, the
secondary inert plasma gas compliments the primary inert gas to provide a "stiffer" arc, less subject to
becoming skewed and unequal in dimensional shape. This characteristic aids alleviating weld "cutting"
defects caused by an asymmetrical arc and subsequent asymmetrical heating pattern at the weld joint.
The secondary plasma gas may be any of the inert gases or semi-reactive gases or a mixture of two or
more of these, however the choice is dependent on the material being welded and the results desired. The
process can be applied to Direct Current Straight Polarity and Variable Polarity Welding Modes. The third
inert plasma gas is "shield" gas that is directed through the torch body for circulating around the head of
the torch adjacent to the electrode tip. The following diagram illustrates the Ternary Gas system:

ARC WELDING WITH CONTINUOUS WIRE ELECTRODE WITH GAS

SHIELD (G.M.A.W.) OR WITHOUT GAS SHIELD
(FLUX or SELF-SHIELDED WIRE).
A. Introduction
Continuous wire welding in a shielded atmosphere is often
identified by the abbreviations M.I.G. (Metal Inert Gas) and
M.A.G. (Metal Active Gas) or G.M.A.W. (Gas Metal Arc Welding).
Continuous wire welding is a process in which the heat required
to
carry out the weld is supplied by an electric arc that is
maintained between the piece to be welded and the wire
electrode. The welding zone is constantly fed with the welding
material (the wire electrode) by means of a special torch, which
also
supplies the flow of gas (or gas mixture) whose purpose is to
shield
the wire electrode, the weld pool, the arc and the area
surrounding the base material from atmospheric contamination. The presence in the welding circuit of the
gas cylinder (inert or active gas, or a mixture of the two) together with the use of solid wire electrodes,
identifies the gas shield welding process (M.I.G. or M.A.G.).
The absence of the gas cylinder from the welding circuit, together with the use of tubular wire electrodes,
identifies the welding process without gas shield (SELF SHIELDED WIRE, NO GAS or FLUX); in this case
the gas shield is obtained by the action of the flux core contained in the wire.

B. The welding circuit

The welding circuit consists essentially of the following elements:

1. Power source
2. Torch with cable bundle
3. Wirefeeder
4. Water cooling unit
5. Gas cylinder with regulation system
6. Clamp with earth cable

1. power source
The purpose of the power source is to feed the welding zone
welding material, by means of a special torch, and to maintain
electric arc that is struck between the piece to be welded and
consumable wire electrode.
Unlike M.M.A. and T.I.G power sources, where there is only
regulating parameter (welding current), on M.I.G.-M.A.G.
sources there are two regulating devices, one which regulates
arc intensity (welding voltage), and another which regulates
of welding wire feed (welding current).
Power sources can be divided into two categories:

with the
the
the
one
power
electric
the rate

a) direct current (DC) power sources

direct current power sources are the commonest power
sources
and are characterised by their high stability; this is because
they are
based on the fact that an electric arc will tend to stabilise
naturally
if it is powered at constant voltage and generated on a wire fed at a constant rate. Given the flexibility of
the process, there is some flexibility in the choice of voltage and wire feed rate parameters. In this way it is
possible to obtain drop transfer, from the welding material to the material to be welded, using either the
"short arc" immersion procedure or the "spray arc" procedure.
b) pulsed current power sources
in this case it is not the voltage size that is regulated in the power source, but the current, which is not held
constant but modulated with a train of impulses (hence the name "pulsed"). The purpose of the impulses
is to force the drop to detach itself from the welding material; in this case the arc is not stabilised naturally,
so that the impulses and wire feed rate must be perfectly synchronised to achieve an acceptable weld.
Both the in first and second case, at least two knobs are used for regulation; recent research in the
industry has led to the development and marketing of "synergetic" type welding machines in which the
operator uses only one control knob.
The manufacturer memorises the optimal welding parameters in the power source and these can be
recalled and/or corrected by the operator, depending on the particular job requirements.
The different polarities when connecting the poles of the power source to the material to be welded
identify two operating modes:
i) direct current with straight polarity connection
With electrode negative connection, the torch is connected to the negative pole and the material to be

welded to the positive pole of the power source; this type of connection is only used in welding with tubular
wire (FLUX).
ii) direct current with reverse polarity connection
When welding with this operating mode, the torch is connected to the positive pole and the piece to be
welded to the negative pole of the power source; this is the most frequently used type of connection.
2. torch with cable bundle
The torch, which is used to transfer the welding metal to the welding zone, has an externally insulated
body and allows the passage of the wire electrode, the gas and the welding current
. Its handgrip contains a control button for switching on the current, gas output and wire electrode feed.
The cable bundle consists of a current conductor, control cables, the gas pipe, cooling water circulation
pipes (if present) as well as the wire-guide sheath. There is a variety of different types of welding torches
and pistols available on the market.
Water-cooled torches are used when the current intensity used is such that it generates a considerable
amount of heat energy; they are used for working currents of over 300 A or for pulsed currents.
Self-cooled torches are cooled by the gas shield and are used when the working current is below 300 A;
these are very commonly used.
Swan neck torches are also cooled by the gas shield and are used for low intensity current applications
(immersion transfer short arc).
3. wirefeeder
The wirefeeder device is powered by a motor whose job is to push the wire electrode, initially wound
round a reel, towards the torch and hence to the welding zone. The choice of wire feed rate value is made
by adjusting the motor regulator; a given wire feed rate implies a certain melting rate and hence a defined
value for the welding current. A distinguishing property of a wire puller is the number of wire-feeder rollers;
devices with 4 rollers feed the wire more uniformly with respect to those with 2
rollers.
4. water cooling system
The water cooling unit is a device used to cool the torch, if it is water-cooled,
should
the high welding currents used cause excessive overheating. A pump ensures
continuous circulation of water in the torch and, by means of a cooling system,
controls overheating.
5. gas cylinder with regulation system
The cylinder contains the shield gas/gases such as argon, helium, carbon dioxide
or
mixture of them, and is fitted with a pressure gauge with related pressure reducer,
which
is used to indicate the quantity of gas in the cylinder. It is also fitted with a solenoid
valve,
which are controlled by a button on the torch, to open and close the gas flow as
welding is started or ended.
6. clamp with earth cable
The clamp with earth cable is used to make the electrical connection between the power source and the
base material to be welded. The section and length of the cable are determined by the maximum current
from the power source.

C. The shield gases

The shield gases used in M.I.G.-M.A.G. welding procedures can be divided into two basic categories: inert
and active. Argon, helium and argon-helium mixtures belong to the first type, while carbon dioxide and
argon/oxygen or argon/carbon dioxide mixtures are considered active gases.
Argon (Ar) is an inert gas, produced by fractional distillation of the atmosphere. The gas is extracted from
the air and may, therefore, contain traces of impurities such as oxygen, nitrogen or water vapour, but it is
nevertheless considered suitable for most welding applications.
The use of this gas in M.A.G. applications gives good arc stability and an easy strike. Moreover, given its
low thermal conductivity, the central part of the arc column remains at a high temperature giving more
fluidity to the drops of material passing through the arc zone.
Helium (He) is an inert, rather rare gas that is scarcely present in the atmosphere and is extracted from
underground: it is therefore much more costly than argon.
Compared to argon, helium has a less stable arc but greater penetration; it is mostly used for thick welds
and for materials with high thermal conductivity, such as, for example, copper and aluminium.
Since helium, unlike argon, is lighter than air and hence more volatile, a greater quantity of gas is needed
to ensure a sufficient shield for the welding zone.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an active gas, present in the air and underground. The commonest problem

caused by this type of shield is that it can cause the formation of excessive spray and establish an
unstable arc; if the arc is kept rather short and of constant length, however, it is possible to keep it under
control. With a CO2 shield good penetration is generally obtained.
Active mixtures. It is often possible to take advantage of the qualities of individual gases, by using a
mixture for the gas shield e.g. argon-oxygen, argon-oxygen-CO2, argon-CO2.
Even if the inert gases in their pure state are able to perform their shielding effect at any temperature, the
addition of active gases improves arc stability and the transfer of the wire electrode metal to the weld pool.
This occurs without impairing the shielding effect.

D. Welding wires
The wires can be identified by their chemical composition and also their section morphology, which may
either consist of a single metal (solid wires) or have an internal core containing granules (tubular wire).
Particular attention should be paid to the presence of grease or moisture on the surface of the wire
electrode, because they could cause cracks, porosity or blowholes; in addition, if the wire electrode reel is
not wound uniformly this could cause uneven wire feed resulting in unstable welding
Solid wires usually have the same composition as the base material, with added elements able to help
clean the base material. The most widely used diameters are 0.6 0.8
0.9 - 1
1.2 1.6 mm.
Tubular wires, with gas shield, do not consist of solid metal but have
an internal
core filled with granular powder (flux); this has the same functions as
the
coating on coated electrodes.
The granular powder or flux can be of rutile, basic or special type.
Compared to solid wires, tubular wires have better arc stability and
deeper
penetration, ensure a better-looking seam, often eliminating the need
for further
finishing (e.g. spray grinding) and reducing the risk of defect formation,
such as
porosity; of course the use of tubular electrodes requires slag removal,
as for
welding with M.M.A. electrodes.
The most widely used diameters are 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.6 mm.

E. The welding metal: transfer methods

With M.I.G.-M.A.G welding procedures, the method of transferring the welding metal from the wire
electrode (either solid or tubular) to the weld pool depends, as well as on the electrical welding
parameters, on the wire diameter, the type of power source and the gas used. Depending on these
parameters, drop transfer may be by:
1. Immersion (short-arc, dip-transfer or short circuit)
2. Spray-arc
3. Impulse or pulsed-arc
1. immersion transfer (short-arc, dip-transfer or short circuit)
The welding metal is transferred to the weld pool in the form of drops which are immersed in the pool
itself, creating continuous short circuits.
This "short arc" transfer is characterised by the presence of current intensities of up to 200 A, by the use
of thin solid wires, from 0.6 m to 1.2 mm, enabling thin welds and welding in all positions possible. This is
obtained using direct current power sources.
2. spray-arc transfer
This method is designed so that the drops of material are not transferred to the weld pool by contact but
rather, due to the effect of the high current, are sprayed into the bath creating a continuous flow of
material.
This feature is obtained using direct current power sources when the current used is high (greater than
200 A) and the wires have a diameter of more than 1 mm. A very fluid weld pool is generated, with
sizeable penetration, which is suitable for horizontal welding of mainly medium and large thicknesses.
3. pulsed-arc transfer
This procedure can only be obtained with pulsed current power sources. The pulsations actually cause
small-sized drops to detach themselves and therefore the typical spray arc is obtained, even with low
currents. Heat generation/contribution, pool size and penetration are similar to those achieved with the
spray arc method. This procedure is most often used for materials such as aluminium or stainless steel,
for which the short arc welding procedure cannot guarantee sufficiently high quality results.

F. Materials welded by M.I.G./M.A.G.

9

1. mild, carbon steels

Carbon steels are welded with direct current and electrode positive polarity (the wire electrode is
connected to the positive pole) using exclusively the M.A.G. welding procedure. Applications may range
from the use of CO2 only, to argon - CO2 mixtures in differing proportions (the most common is 80%
argon, 20% CO2 ).
The greater the percentage of argon in the mixture the better the properties and arc stability.
The weld has very good properties, especially with short arc where dense/thick weld pools are obtained,
allowing welding in all positions.
The use of wires with silicon and manganese content will lead to the elimination of impurities present in
the base material and obtain good quality welds.
Bevelled seams should be prepared with thicknesses greater than 3 mm.
2. stainless steels
Stainless steels are welded with direct current and electrode positive polarity (the wire electrode is
connected to the positive pole) using exclusively the M.A.G. welding procedure.
The gas shield used should consist of Ar + CO2 or Ar + Oxygen
mixtures.
The proportion of argon in the mixture should never fall below 98%
so as to
avoid strong oxidation of the chrome present in the base material.
Seams thicker than 2.5 mm should be bevelled. Care should be
taken to
choose the most suitable welding material for the quality of the
stainless
steel being welded.
To achieve a good weld, we advise grinding the spots.
3. aluminium and its alloys
Aluminium and its alloys are welded in direct current or pulsed
current
with electrode positive polarity (the wire electrode is connected to
the
positive pole) using the M.A.G. welding procedure.
The gas shield used is usually pure argon. Pure helium or an
argon +
helium mixture can also be used.
For horizontal welding, irrespective of the thickness, the spray-arc and/or pulsed-arc technique is used;
the short-arc technique is used, instead, on thin vertical or corner welds. Given the properties of
aluminium, milling the spots instead of grinding is advisable.
4. other materials
The M.I.G.-M.A.G. welding procedure is also used on materials such as nickel and its alloys, copper and
its alloys; for all these materials direct current with electrode positive polarity is used.
For welding copper more than 5 mm thick we advise adoption of the M.I.G. procedure but in any case the
current intensity should be adjusted according to the welding position and the seam thickness.

ARC WELDING IN INERT GAS WITH NON-CONSUMABLE TUNGSTEN

ELECTRODES
(T.I.G. Tungsten Inert Gas)
A. Introduction
Arc welding in an inert gas shield with a non-consumable tungsten electrode (T.I.G. - Tungsten Inert
Gas or G.T.A.W. - Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) is a procedure in which the heat necessary to make the
welding is supplied by an electric arc which is maintained between a non-consumable electrode and the
workpiece. The electrode used to conduct the current is in tungsten or tungsten alloy. The welding zone,

10

the melted metal and the non-consumable electrode are weatherproof thanks to the inert gas which is

supplied by the electrode holder torch.

The TIG welding procedure can be used with the addition of external weld material (welding rod) or by
melting the base material by means of the heat effect produced by the electric arc.

B. The welding circuit

The welding circuit consists essentially of the following elements:

1. power source
2. tungsten electrode-holder torch with cable bundle
3. welding rod
4. gas cylinder with pressure circuit
5. clamp with earth cable
6. water cooling unit
1. power source

11

The purpose of the power source is to power the electric arc created between the base material and
the tungsten electrode, through the output of current sufficient to keep the arc struck. Inside the power
source there is usually a welding current adjustment device, of a
mechanical (magnetic shunt) or electronic type (thyristor or inverter
system).
It is possible to distinguish two categories of power source:

a) alternating current (AC) power source

The output current/voltage from the power source takes the typical
form of
a square wave, which changes its polarity at regular intervals with a
frequency of 20 up to 200 cycles per second (Herz) or more,
depending on the type of power source used. This is achieved by
means
of one or two devices whose function is to transform the
current/voltage sine wave from the distribution network into a suitable alternating welding current/voltage.

b) direct current (DC) power source

The output current from the power source has a continuous wave form, which is obtained by means of
devices that are able to convert the current/voltage from alternating to direct.
If the welding circuit consists of a direct current power source (DC), it can be further classified according to
the method of connecting the power source poles to the material to be welded or the form of the welding
current:
i) direct current with straight polarity connection
With staright polarity connection, the torch and its cable is connected to the negative pole and the material
to be welded to the positive pole of the power source; in this case the electrons flow from the electrode
towards the piece, causing melting.
This is the most frequently used type of current with the TIG system and it ensures good weldability for
almost all commonly weldable metals and alloys, with the exception of aluminium. Direct current with
straight polarity produces a narrow, deep weld pool and also a penetration that is decidedly better than
that obtainable with reverse polarity.

12

ii) direct current with reverse polarity connection

When welding with this polarity the torch with its cable is connected to the positive pole and the piece to
the negative pole of the power source.
This type of power supply is rarely used because it produces a flat weld pool with poor penetration.
Reverse polarity in itself causes excessive heating of the electrode, and to prevent the electrode from
burning, rather low current intensities should be used.
This is the reason for its limited use..
There is a further family of power sources, identified as direct current power sources irrespective of the
polarity of the connection and named as modulated or pulsed direct current power sources.
The modulated current power source is a direct current power source fitted with particular devices used to
vary the size of the welding current. Modulated or pulsed current is obtained by the superimposition on the
direct base current of a further component, usually a square wave form, to produce a periodic pulsation of

the arc.
With this system a weld seam is obtained consisting of a continuous superimposition of spot welds
that consecutively form a single seam. This method is typical of welds on thin materials where it is
necessary to control the amount of heat so as to prevent the piece being perforated without diminishing
the penetrability of the weld.
.
2. tungsten electrode-holder torch with cable bundle

The electrode holder torch is a tool that encloses the tungsten electrode and is connected to a set of
cables that are in turn connected to the power source and whose purpose is to supply electrical power and

13

convey the gas shield.

Depending on the type of use, torches may be naturally cooled via the gas shield, if low current intensities
are required, or water-cooled when high currents (200 - 500 A) and frequent welds are required.
3. welding rod
The thickness of the material, the type of joint and the desired welding properties will affect the
decision whether or not to use a metal welding material to add to the weld pool. The addition of metal
welding material in manual welding is achieved by immersing a rod of the material in the arc zone, at the
side of the weld pool.
The metal used is often similar to the base material metal and often includes a limited quantity of
deoxidant additives or other elements to improve the properties of the melted area.
4. gas cylinder with pressure circuit
The gas cylinder with pressure circuit consists of:
- a cylinder containing the protective gas/es;
- a pressure gauge, used to indicate the quantity of gas in the
- a gas regulator
- a solenoid valve, present if the torch is fitted with a pushbutton
controlled by this button, which opens and closes the gas flow
the operator's needs.

cylinder;
and
according to

5. clamp with earth cable

The clamp with the earth cable is used to make the electrical connection between the power source and
the base material. The section and length of the cable will depend on the maximum current (amperes) of
the welding power source.
6. water cooling unit
The water cooling unit is a device used to cool the torch, if water-cooled, to prevent excessive
overheating if high welding currents are present. By means of a pump, this apparatus gives continuous
water circulation within the torch and controls overheating by means of a cooling system.

C.The protective gases

1. General
The main purpose of the protective gas shield is to replace the air near the weld pool, the electrode and
the tip of the welding rod (if present) to prevent the risk of contamination by harmful pollutants in the
surrounding air.
The physical and chemical properties of the gas shield can have different effects on the weld depending

14

on the various types of metal. The gases used for the shield in TIG welding are argon, helium, argon-

helium or argon-hydrogen mixtures.

It is always important that these gases are as pure as possible since even insignificant percentages of
impurities can influence the quality of the weld and make it unacceptable.
During welding using an argon gas shield, the arc is quite stable but the pool is cooler so that this gas is
more suitable for welding thin material.
Argon is a widely used gas because it costs much less than helium; this is the main selection factor when
chosing the shielding gas.
The arc with a helium shield generates more heat than that with argon; its use is therefore recommended
for materials with high thermal conductivity, thus allowing an increase in the welding rate.
Since helium is lighter than air, to give the weld pool sufficient protection it must be used in greater
quantities than those for argon.
Argon and helium mixtures are used to obtain gas shields with intermediate properties.

D. Non-consumable electrodes
There are various types of non-consumable electrodes on the market:
- pure tungsten electrodes. These are used with low current intensities and alternating current since the
arc is more stable. In terms of cost, these are the cheapest electrodes.
- thorium-tungsten electrodes. These withstand high current intensities. The arc is easy to strike and,
once struck, remains quite stable. These electrodes are recommended for welding steel with direct current
and straight polarity.
- zirconium-tungsten electrodes. These are used for manual welding of aluminium, magnesium and its
alloys, with a medium-low current intensity.
-cerium electrodes. These are distinguished by high electron emission and give good penetration with
satisfactory resistance to wear.

E. Arc stricking systems

- HF (high frequency) strike
The pilot spark is supplied by a high frequency generator that superimposes a high voltage impulse on the
welding voltage; the power of this device is minimal, but at the same time sufficient to allow the electrical
arc to be struck at a distance.
HF strikes require the use of a particular welding torch, which is fitted with a pushbutton used to control
the strike.
- pilot arc strike
In this case the arc strikes between the tungsten electrode and an auxiliary electrode that may be a ring
fitted to the nozzle of the torch itself.
The pilot arc is struck by a high frequency spark which intervenes in the actual pilot arc circuit; after the
pilot arc has been struck, the pilot spark is disconnected since the principal pilot arc is struck
spontaneously by a simple discharge of the tungsten electrode which becomes incandescent in the
ionised gas atmosphere. The type of arc strike is used mainly in automatic units.
- LIFT strike
This is obtained by means of a device that supplies a small current (so as not to damage the tip of the
tungsten electrode) when the electrode is in contact with the material to be welded.
When the electrode is taken away from the piece, a spark is created and this causes the arc to strike; the
power source then increases the welding current until it reaches the preset value. Because high
frequencies are not present, the LIFT strike does not create electromagnetic interference; however, the

15

contact made by the tip of the electrode with the base material contaminates the weld pool.
- scratch strike
This strike is obtained by scratching the piece to be welded with the tungsten electrode, causing the arc to
strike. The contact between the electrode and the piece to be welded causes tungsten inclusions in the
start of the seam, which lowers the quality of the weld.

F. Materials welded by TIG

This procedure is mainly applied for welding stainless steel, aluminium and its alloys, nickel, copper,
titanium and their alloys.
Stainless steel is welded in direct current (DC) with electrode negative polarity.
It is possible to weld thicknesses up to 2.5mm without adding weld material; thicker welds require bevelled
edges and the use of the welding rod, the material of which should be particularly suitable for the stainless

steel quality to be welded.

Before proceeding to weld, thorough cleaning with a stainless steel brush is recommended.
Aluminium and its alloys should be welded with alternating current (AC) and, to achieve a good seam,
they require the use of a suitably rated high frequency power source. If there is high oxidation, it should be
removed with a brush or by pickling (a chemical procedure for removing the oxidation).
It is also possible in this case to weld thicknesses up to 2.5mm without adding weld material; for thicker
welds, the edges must be bevelled and the welding rod should be used.
Welding in an argon atmosphere using a tungsten electrode is also applied to mild steels and steel alloys,
nickel and its alloys, copper and its alloys, titanium and noble metals. For all these metals and alloys direct
current (DC) with straight polarity is used.

16