Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 2000.

103113
www.elsevier.nlrlocaterjappgeo

Predicting the transport properties of fractured rocks from seismic

information: numerical experiments
Fred Kofi Boadu )
Department of Ciil and Enironmental Engineering, Duke Uniersity, P.O. Box 90287, Durham, NC 27708-0287, USA
Received 15 June 1998; accepted 21 May 1999

Abstract
The hydraulic properties including porosity and permeability of fractured rock masses are estimated from seismic
velocities derived from controlled numerical experiments. Models of fractured media are developed to represent fractures
embedded in an otherwise intact rock. Fracture porosity and permeability are computed using a hydraulic model that
accounts for fracture length, aperture and orientation. Seismic attributes are used as a guide to detect the onset of reflections
from the fractured medium. Seismic velocities of the fractured layers are computed from the transit times of seismic waves
propagating through the layer. The study shows that the velocity ratio between the fractured and the intact rock correlates
with the hydraulic properties. Low velocity ratios are associated with high fracture porosity and permeability. Empirical
least-squares regression relationships are developed to describe the correlations for practical use. q 2000 Elsevier Science
B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fractured medium; Seismic velocities; Porosity; Permeability

1. Introduction
Most rocks in the earths crust are fractured
to some extent in response to tectonic and other
in situ stresses. These fractures are pervasive
and range in size from microcracks to crustal
faults. In civil engineering, geotechnical, hydrogeological and geo-environmental practice, fractures play a central role. They enhance porosity
and permeability and thereby increase the reten-

Tel.: q1-919-660-5432; fax: q1-919-660-5219;

E-mail: boadu@akoto.egr.duke.edu

tional and production capabilities of a reservoir

or an aquifer. Fractures can control the transport
of contaminants in the subsurface and therefore
characterizing them is vital in remediation
strategies. Retentional and fluid flow properties
of fractured aquifers are of enormous concern in
remediation efforts. The stability of the foundation of engineered structures and excavations
are degraded when fractures are present in the
subsurface. Fractured reservoirs with large reserves of hydrocarbons exist throughout the
world Van Golf-Racht, 1982. . Thus, presently
in the hydrocarbon and environmental industry,
fracture-related fluid flow imposes increasing
challenges to reservoir and site characterization.

0926-9851r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 6 - 9 8 5 1 9 9 . 0 0 0 2 0 - 8

104

F.K. Boadur Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 103113

Oil exploration and exploitation efforts are in

recent times being redirected toward fractured
reservoirs. Though the transport properties and
the productive capabilities of fluid filled reservoirs are undoubtedly influenced by fractures,
quantification of fracture systems remains a
formidable task. The hydraulic properties are
normally measured through localized and expensive operations such as borehole drilling and
fluid flow experiments. It is of utmost importance to develop cost-effective techniques to
characterize fractures quantitatively, and relate
these characteristics to the production capabilities of the reservoir.
An important question that often arises and
remains unsolved is: How can fractures that are
significant in controlling the transport or retention of fluids in the subsurface be identified,
located and characterized? A relatively inexpensive way to characterize a fractured reservoir
remotely and on a much larger volume or scale
is through the use of geophysics specifically
seismic methods. The question addressed here
is: Can we relate the non-invasively and easily
measured seismic parameters to hydraulic properties of fractured media? Information about
fracture porosity and permeability obtained remotely would be particularly useful to engineers
and hydrogeologists involved in assessment of
production and transport potential of aquifers
and development of remediation strategies. It
would be an important development if information about the transport properties of a fractured
reservoir can be obtained from seismic data.
The same parameters that contribute to the variations in hydraulic properties such as effective
permeability or discharge also contribute to the
variations in seismic velocity and attenuation
Cook, 1992. .
The elastic and hydraulic parameters as well
as the travel times and amplitudes of seismic
waveforms propagating through such fractured
medium are modified Walsh and Grosenbaugh,
1974; Goodman, 1976; Brown and Scholz,
1986.. Generally, the effect of fractures on seismic wave velocities is modeled by deriving the

effective elastic moduli of the fractured rock

mass and subsequently relating these moduli to
the velocities via the elastodynamic equations.
For relatively large, sparsely distributed fractures, the effective moduli approach to calculating velocities may not be appropriate PyrakNolte et al., 1990. . Furthermore, this approach
cannot account for the effect of fractures on
seismic wave attenuation. For seismic measurements to be useful in characterizing the mechanical and transport properties, a physical model
that describes the geometric properties of the
fracture which incorporates the dynamics of the
fracture upon interaction with a seismic wave is
needed.
An alternative, more versatile model, for describing the effect fractures have on both seismic velocity and attenuation is the displacement
discontinuity model. The basic premise of this
model is that the displacement of seismic waves
that propagate across a fracture becomes discontinuous while the stresses are continuous. The
displacement discontinuity concept is originally
due to Mindlin 1960. and first applied to seismic wave propagation by Schoenberg 1980. .
Several experimental studies have confirmed this
model Lutsh, 1959; Morris et al., 1964; PyrakNolte et al., 1987; Pyrak-Nolte et al., 1990;
Cook, 1992. . The modified displacement discontinuity model MDD. developed by Boadu
1997a; b. and Boadu and Long 1996. includes
the fracture size, fraction of surface area in
contact, viscosity of infilling material and the
fracture aperture. This advancement is achieved
by incorporating the dynamics of the fracture
into the equations of motion and exploiting the
analogy between electrical properties and mechanical properties to obtain the reflection
scattering. and transmission coefficients. The
MDD model has been substantiated with experimental data and compared with existing models
in Boadu 1997a; b. and Boadu and Long 1996..
The intent of this study is to explore the
relationship between seismic velocity and the
permeability and porosity of fractured media
through numerical experiments. These experi-

F.K. Boadur Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 103113

ments would provide the theoretical base necessary for field scale interpretation of relations
between seismic and hydraulic parameters.

2. Theoretical formulations
For two half spaces bounded by rough surfaces that are partly in contact with one another,
the boundary conditions for an incident wave
are

acoustic impedance of intact rock, fracture

length and opening, viscosity of infilling material, and fraction of fracture surface area in
contact, and the frequency of the seismic wave
Boadu, 1997a,b; Boadu and Long, 1996. .
For an incident longitudinal wave at an angle
u to the plane of the fracture, the complex
reflection and transmission coefficients have
been found to be:

R pp s yA pp

fpp j p
fpp j p q 1

tm r . s lim tm r q D r .
Dr

d em r .
dt

s lim
Dr

Tpp s A pp

d em r q D r .

105

fpp j p q 1

q 1 y A pp .

q 1 y A pp .

fps js
fps js q 1
1

fps js q 1

dt

tm r q D r .
Zm

R ps s yA ps
; m s P,S

1.

where tp and ts are the respective normal and

tangential stresses, e p and es are normal and
tangential strain, r is the radius vector determining the plane of the fracture in space and Zm is
the fracture impedance. The magnitude of the
jump in the discontinuity of the displacement
is determined by the fracture impedance Zm ,
where Zp is the longitudinal wave impedance
and Zs is the transverse wave impedance.
The impedance of the fracture is obtained by
exploiting the well-established analogies between mechanical and electrical quantities
Anderson, 1985. . The existence of formal relations between equations for acoustical wave
motion and electric transmission lines allows us
to treat the fracture as a transmission line for
passage of seismic waves. The corresponding
equations of motion have been developed and
solved for the transmission and reflection coefficients for an incident P-wave Boadu, 1997a,b;
Boadu and Long, 1996.. The ratio of the
impedance of intact rock and that of the fracture
is termed the inhomogeneity factor j m . This is
an important parameter which greatly affects the
seismic wave response. It is a function of the

Tps s yA ps

fpp j p
fpp j p q 1
1

fpp j p q 1

y A ps

q A ps

fps js
fps js q 1
1

fps js q 1

2.

where A pp , A ps , fpp and fps are all functions

of the angle of incidence and the Poissons ratio
of the intact material Boadu, 1997a,b; Boadu
and Long, 1996.. For SH-waves, the expressions for the reflection and transmission coefficients are

R SH s y

TSH s

js cos u
1 q js cos u
1

1 q js cos u

3.

The geometric characteristics of the fracture

affect the reflection and transmission coefficients which are also frequency dependent. The
amplitude and phase of a waveform propagating
across a single fracture have been shown to
change significantly Boadu, 1997a,b; Boadu
and Long, 1996.. From the spectrum of the
transmitted waves, the lower frequencies un-

106

F.K. Boadur Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 103113

dergo the least change. In the reflected waves

however, the high frequencies dominate.
The method described in Boadu 1997a. will
be used in this study to obtain synthetic seismograms from the global reflection coefficient R .
for a stack of layers including a fractured
medium with fractally distributed fracture parameters. Synthetic seismograms that include
reflections from the fractured layer are then
computed using reflectivity methods. The approach involves integration of reflection and
transmission coefficients for unfractured
welded. and fractured unwelded. interfaces
into a recursive scheme, from which the hybridized global reflection and transmission coefficients are computed. This methodology can
also account for the absorptive properties of the
intact rock. Any realistic modeling of fluid
transport in fractured terrain or estimation of its
strength properties has to take into account such
distribution properties Boadu and Long,
1994a,b.. In the numerical experiments described in this paper, fractal fracture lengths,
spacings and apertures with varying fractal dimensions were generated using the method described in Boadu 1997a; b..
Fractures, when present in geologic medium,
can significantly affect its flow characteristics.
As illustrated in Fig. 1, for inclined fractures at
an angle a n with respect to the hydraulic gradi-

ent e.g., Fracture 1. , with finite length L f ,

width Wf and thickness bn , the discharge Qfd
across a section containing a suite of fractures is
Hossain, 1992. :
Qfd s qfd P Wf P cos 2a
s c f P f L frLd . P Wf P cos 2a .

4.

Here, c f is the hydraulic discharge through a

continuous fracture per unit width, under unit
hydraulic gradient. For practical purposes, the
function f L frLd . is taken as L frLd , or as
e L fyL d . Witherspoon, 1986. where Lf is the
finite length and Ld is related to the thickness
of the section h by Ld s hrcos a . The sum
contributions from R fractures divided by the
section area gives the effective permeability K a:
R

K a s 1rA .

Qfd n
ns1
R

s 1rV .

cf n P A f n P cos 3a n .

5.

ns1

where V is the volume of the section and A f n is

the area of the nth fracture. Experimental and
field measurements have substantiated Eqs. 4.
and 5. for known fracture systems Hossain,
1992.. The total permeability is the sum of the

Fig. 1. Matrix block with fractures of varying lengths, orientations and thicknesses after Boadu, 1997a.. In this study, intact
rock has permeability of 10y12 mrs.

F.K. Boadur Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 103113

intact rock permeability and the fracture permeability K a.

Similarly, the fracture porosity F f can be
computed from the fracture parameters as:
R

Lf n P tf n
Ffs

ns1

Ld P h

6.

where t f n is the thickness of the nth fracture.

107

Conventionally, Fourier transform techniques

have been employed to ascertain the average
properties of signals with very limited or no
information about the local variations in their
properties. Additional information about the signals which retain local information can be obtained by performing timefrequency complex
waveform. analysis of the signals Cohen, 1995. .
Such analyses provide new insights about the
medium through which the waves have propagated. In this paper, timefrequency analysis of

Fig. 2. a. Synthetic seismogram vertical incidence. for a stack of geologic layers with no fractured layer, b. instantaneous
frequency, c. instantaneous bandwidth and d. instantaneous amplitude. The model parameters are listed in Table 1.

F.K. Boadur Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 103113

108

a seismic wave after propagating through a set

of fractures with known distribution of fracture
parameters is used to characterize the fractured
medium.

3. Numerical experiments
Fig. 2 shows the three seismic attributes, the
instantaneous frequency, bandwidth and amplitude computed from the wave train for simple
model in which no layer contains fractures see
Table 1.. The attributes are very distinct with no
interference. The instantaneous frequency and
bandwidth values are fairly constant and equal
to the peak frequency of the propagating signal.
Fig. 3 illustrates the seismic attributes for the
situation where one of the layers is fractured
Table 1.. Each attribute plot exhibits a distinct
pattern in the demarcated time zone containing
the fractures. On the instantaneous amplitude
plot, four peaks time zone 0.60.7 s. corresponding to maxima in the reflection strengths
are recognized. These maxima correspond to
reflections from fractures with dominant lengths.
The relatively longer fractures give relatively
stronger reflection amplitudes than the shorter
ones. Composite reflections as anticipated from
a heterogenous medium such as a fractured zone
are seen on the plot.
The variations in the character of the instantaneous frequency correlates with that of the
reflection strength as seen in Fig. 3. The instantaneous frequency is sensitive to changes in

acoustic impedance. Values are constant and

equal to the dominant frequency for fracture-free
zones of maximum transmissitivity and lower
for waves that have propagated through a fractured zone. The smooth variations result from
interaction of waveforms which have reflected
off various fractures with different lengths
Boadu, 1997a. . The wave energy experiences
frequency discrimination and as a result the
reflected energy at certain frequencies is preferentially attenuated. Progressive reduction in instantaneous bandwidth in the fracture zone is
also visible. Integrating information from the
various seismic attributes from fractured zones
may be useful in the detection, location and
characterization of fractured zones in rock
masses.
To estimate seismic velocities, we will use
the model developed by Boadu 1997b. for a
multiple set of parallel fractures forming a system of fractures. The absorption coefficient a
and the velocity c of a fracture system can be
obtained Boadu, 1997b.
R

a s a0 q

Dk yln < Tpp , k < .

7.

ks1

cm

cs

1 q cm

Dk
ks1

yarg Tpp,k

8.

where Tpp,k is the PP transmission coefficient

for the k th system of fractures. The fracture

Table 1
Layer parameters for model used in experiment. An illustration of the parameters of the individual layers used in the
computation of the synthetic seismograms. Intact rock in layer 3 has permeability of 10y12 mrs
Layer

Thickness m.

Vp mrs.

Vs mrs.

Density kgrm3 .

1
2
3 Fractured.
4
5

10
10
30
10
`

1000
2500
3000
3500
4900

600
1500
1800
1980
2700

2600
2650
2660
2660
2650

100
150
200
250
300

F.K. Boadur Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 103113

109

Fig. 3. a. Synthetic seismogram vertical incidence. for a stack of geologic layers with one of the layers containing
fractures. The time zone known to contain composite reflections from fractures is shown, b. instantaneous frequency, c.
instantaneous bandwidth and d. instantaneous amplitude.

frequency of the k th system of fractures in the

direction of propagation is D k , and c m and a 0
denote respectively the velocity and absorption
coefficient of the intact rock. This model allows
for input of any distribution of fracture parameters.
The transit times in the fracture zone for
different models are estimated for a series of
controlled numerical experiments where the
properties of the fractures and the medium are
known. For each experiment, the fractured layer

is characterized by varying fracture parameters,

that is, fracture lengths, apertures and spacing.
These parameters are fractally distributed with
fractal dimension randomly varying within the
range 0.1 to 0.9, the fracture frequency ranges
from 0.006 to 0.5 and the fracture lengths range
from a minimum of 0.1 m to 4 m. These ranges
of values are reasonable representations of fracture parameters for tight sedimentary and igneous rocks Chernyshev and Dearman, 1991. .
All the fractures are horizontally oriented. We

110

F.K. Boadur Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 103113

should note, however, that both the seismic and

the hydraulic models expressed above Eqs. 4.
and 5.. can accommodate fractures of any orientation.
For a given model, the ratio of the transit
time in the fractured to that without fractures is
computed and correlated against the fracture
porosity and permeability Boadu, 1997b. . This
ratio was computed for both P- and SH-waves.
Fig. 4 shows the relation between fracture permeability K f . and P-wave velocity ratio Vr p ..
The results show a good correlation between the
velocity ratio and fracture permeability. Velocity ratios decrease with an increase in fracture
permeability. An equation expressing this relation in least squares sense is,
log K f s y1.49 y 10.5Vr p

9.

with a root-mean square error of 0.018. Similarly, a correlation can be established between
fracture porosity and the velocity ratio. Fig. 5
shows a plot of the logarithm of fracture porosity in percent vs. velocity ratio. As shown in the

figure, low velocity ratios correlate with high

fractures porosity with a relation of the form
log F f s y6.87 q 3.72Vr p

10.

with RMS value of 0.06.

Both fracture permeability and porosity were
also related to the SH-wave velocity ratio. Fig.
6 illustrates the correlation between the fracture
permeability and SH-wave velocity ratio. Although there is some degree of scatter, in general, the velocity ratio decreases with an increase in fracture permeability. The equation
describing the relation is established as
log K f s y0.56 y 10.96Vr s

11.

with an RMS error of 0.042. The scatter may be

due to the fact that SH-waves are relatively
insensitive to fractures in the transmission process compared with P-waves Boadu and Long,
1996.. As explained by Boadu and Long 1996. ,
there are cut off frequencies at which a given
fracture length does not influence the velocity
reduction. These cut off frequencies are lower

Fig. 4. Relationship between logarithm of fracture permeability and the velocity ratio for P-waves. The least-squares
regression provides an equation describing the relationship.

F.K. Boadur Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 103113

111

Fig. 5. Relationship between logarithm of fracture porosity in percent and the velocity ratio for P-waves. The least-squares
regression provides an equation describing the relationship.

for SH-waves than P-waves and as such, the

contribution from most of the fractures with
lengths greater than the characteristic length

may not be effective in the delay process. The

relation between fracture porosity vs. velocity
ratio for SH-waves is illustrated in Fig. 7 and

Fig. 6. Relationship between logarithm of fracture permeability and the velocity ratio for SH-waves. The least-squares
regression provides an equation describing the relationship.

112

F.K. Boadur Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 103113

Fig. 7. Relationship between logarithm of fracture porosity in percent and the velocity ratio for SH-waves. The least-squares
regression provides an equation describing the relationship.

shows some scatter compared with that of Pwave case. Velocity ratio decreases with an
increase in fracture porosity. The equation describing this relation is given as
log F f s y2.57 y 1.70Vr s

12.

with the RMS error estimated to be 0.1585.

4. Conclusions
Some features of seismic waves after propagating through a fractured medium, are directly
related to the properties of the medium. The
relations between the hydraulic properties of the
fracture zone and seismic velocities have been
established using controlled numerical experiments. The seismic velocities were obtained
from the transit times of waves that have propagated through the fractured zone. Seismic attributes computed from seismic waves that have
propagated through a given set of fractures provided a good guide for the detection and location of the onset and end times.

Low seismic velocity ratios correlate with

regions of high fracture porosity and permeability for both P- and S-waves. Least-squares regression equations have been developed to describe the correlations within reasonable errors.
This development provides a valuable tool for
geo-environmental engineers and geologists
working with geophysicists to develop ways to
predict within limits, the flow properties of a
fractured rock from seismic information. The
numerical experiments may provide platform
for realistic laboratory and field predictions.
Further advancement of this study can contribute to the existing methods and technologies
used in the assessment and characterization of
fractured reservoirs.

Acknowledgements
Support from Oak Ridge Associated Universities Faculty Enhancement Award for this work
is greatly appreciated. Support from Texaco is
also appreciated.

F.K. Boadur Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 (2000) 103113

References
Anderson, E.M., 1985. Electric Transmission Line Fundamentals. Reston Publication, VA.
Boadu, F.K., 1997a. Relating the Hydraulic Properties of
Fractured Rock Mass to Seismic Attributes. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science
and Geomechanics Abstracts. Vol. 34, No. 6, pp. 885
895.
Boadu, F.K., 1997b. Fractured rock mass characterization
parameters and seismic properties: analytical studies. J.
Appl. Geophys. 36, 119.
Boadu, F.K., Long, T.L., 1994a. Statistical distribution of
natural fractures and the possible physical generating
mechanism. Pure Appl. Geophys. 142, 273293.
Boadu, F.K., Long, T.L., 1994b. Fractal character of fracture spacing and RQD. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci.
Abstr. 31, 127134.
Boadu, F.K., Long, T.L., 1996. Effect of fractures on
seismic wave velocity and attenuation. Geophys. J. Int.
127, 86110.
Brown, S.R., Scholz, C.H., 1986. Closure of rock joints. J.
Geophys. Res. 91, 49394948.
Chernyshev, S.N., Dearman, W., 1991. Rock Fractures.
Butterworth-Heineman, Boston.
Cohen, L., 1995. TimeFrequency Analysis. Prentice-Hall,
NJ.
Cook, N.G.W., 1992. Natural joints in rock: mechanical,
hydraulic and seismic behavior and properties under
normal stress. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Abstr. 29,
198223.

113

Goodman, R.E., 1976. Methods of Geological Engineering. West Publishing, St. Paul, MN.
Hossain, D., 1992. Prediction of permeability of fissured
tills. Q. J. Eng. Geol. 14, 1724.
Lutsh, A., 1959. The experimental determination of the
extent and degree of fracture of rock faces by means of
an ultrasonic reflector method. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall. 59, 412429.
Mindlin, R.D., 1960. Waves and Vibrations in isotropic
elastic planes. In: Goodier, J.W., Hoff, W.J. Eds..,
Structural Mechanics. Pergamon, New York.
Morris, R.L., Grine, D.R., Arkfeld, 1964. Using compressional and shear acoustic amplitude for the location of
fractures. J. Pet. Technol. 16, 623632.
Pyrak-Nolte, L.J., Myer, L.R., Cook, N.G.W., 1987. Seismic visibility of fractures. In: Proceedings of the 28th
US Symposium on Rock Mechanics, University of
Arizona, Tucson, pp. 4756.
Pyrak-Nolte, L.J., Myer, L.R., Cook, N.G.W., 1990.
Transmission of seismic waves across single natural
fractures. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 86718683.
Schoenberg, M., 1980. Elastic wave behavior across linear
slip interfaces. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 68, 15161521.
Van Golf-Racht, T.D., 1982. Fundamentals of Fractured
Reservoir Engineering. Elsevier, New York.
Walsh, J.G., Grosenbaugh, M.A., 1974. A new model for
analyzing the effect of fractures on compressibility. J.
Geophys. Res. 84, 35323542.
Witherspoon, P.A., 1986. Flow of groundwater in fractured rocks. Bull. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol. 34, 103115.