Professional Documents
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edu/26848925/Ancient_Literary_Traditions_Tracing_Heterogeny_and_Assessing_Intangibl
es_1st_Draft_
THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES, PHILIPPINE COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES
Submitted in fulfillment of
the Academic Requirements
for the Degree
Ph. D. English
By Jaime Cabrera
30 March 2016
This paper traces Hindu-Sanskrit influences in precolonial Philippine literature; examines intangible
elements such as superstitions and filial piety in ancient literary forms; and discusses their influences on
regional literatures particularly in the literary traditions of Muslim Philippines.
Contents
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................................................7
1
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................................................8
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................................................................15
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
Categorization ........................................................................................................................................20
2.4.4
Classication ..........................................................................................................................................22
2.4.5
2.5
2.6
2.6.1
2.6.2
2.7
2.8
2.8.1
Superstitions ..........................................................................................................................................30
2.8.2
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
3.2
3.2.1
Hinduism ................................................................................................................................................41
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.5
3.2.6
3.2.7
3.2.8
3.2.9
3.2.10
3.2.11
3.2.12
3.2.13
3.2.14
3.2.15
3.3
3.3.1
Language ................................................................................................................................................69
3.3.2
Writing System.......................................................................................................................................70
3.3.3
3.3.4
Moslem Philippines................................................................................................................................70
4.2
Superstitions ..............................................................................................................................................74
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.3.6
4.3.7
4.3.8
4.3.9
Pregnancy ..............................................................................................................................................80
4.3.10
Childbirth ...........................................................................................................................................81
4.3.11
Infants................................................................................................................................................82
4.3.12
Children .............................................................................................................................................82
4.3.13
4.3.14
4.3.15
Death .................................................................................................................................................84
4.3.16
4.3.17
4.3.18
4.3.19
4.4
4.5
4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.5.1
4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.5.4
4.5.5
4.5.6
4.5.7
4.5.8
4.5.9
4.5.10
4.5.11
4.5.12
4.5.13
4.5.14
4.5.15
4.5.16
4.5.17
4.5.18
4.5.19
HUMANISTIC ANALYSIS......................................................................................................................................136
5.1
5.2
Recapitulation ..........................................................................................................................................138
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................................................................148
6.1
Findings ....................................................................................................................................................149
6.2
6.3
6.4
Recommendations ...................................................................................................................................150
6.5
REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................................................153
ADDITIONAL READINGS .............................................................................................................................................171
APPENDICES ...............................................................................................................................................................179
List of Tables
Table 1: Indic Elements in Philipine Literature ............................................................................................................10
Table 2: Periods of Philippine Literature .....................................................................................................................11
Table 3: Key Terms Used in the Research ....................................................................................................................11
Table 4: Key Features of the Scientific Approach in Research .....................................................................................16
Table 5: Research Designs and Approaches ................................................................................................................17
Table 6: Three Ways to Interpret Literary Text ...........................................................................................................20
Table 7: Types of Categorization .................................................................................................................................21
Table 8: Data Catagories for Narrative Construction...................................................................................................22
Table 9: Steps of the Research Design .........................................................................................................................23
Table 10: Tools of the Research...................................................................................................................................29
Table 11: Typology of Philippine Superstitions or Folk Beliefs ....................................................................................30
Table 12: Indic Elements in Philipine Epics ..................................................................................................................31
Table 13: Timeline of Early Human Migrations ...........................................................................................................33
Table 14: Timeline of Early Philippine Cultural Contacts .............................................................................................35
Table 15: Material Proof of Indic Colonization ............................................................................................................57
Table 16: Values of Folk Beliefs in the Philippines .......................................................................................................73
Table 17: Values of Folk Beliefs in the Philippines .......................................................................................................75
Table 18: Summary of Values Frequency in Filipino Folk Beliefs .................................................................................75
Table 19: Values Frequency in Filipino Explicit-Prescriptive Folk Beliefs.....................................................................76
Table 20: Values Frequency in Filipino Implicit-Symbolic Folk Beliefs .........................................................................77
Table 21: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to House, Home, and Family .....................................................................78
Table 22: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Food and Eating.....................................................................................78
Table 23: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Money & Wealth ...................................................................................79
Table 24: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Love, Courtship, & Marriage .................................................................80
Table 25: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Pregnancy ..............................................................................................81
Table 26: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Childbirth ...............................................................................................81
Table 27: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Infants ...................................................................................................82
Table 28: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Children .................................................................................................83
Table 29: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to the Human Body ....................................................................................83
Table 30: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Illness and Disorders .............................................................................84
Table 31: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Death .....................................................................................................85
Table 32: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Numbers & Colors .................................................................................86
Table 33: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Numbers & Colors .................................................................................86
Table 34: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Bad & Good Luck ...................................................................................87
Table 35: Other Folk Beliefs & Superstitions................................................................................................................88
Table 36: List OF Values Frequency Charts ..................................................................................................................89
Table 37: Frequency of Folk Beliefs and Filial Piety in Darangen (23) .........................................................................91
Table 38: Darangen Analysis Chart (Bilingual) .............................................................................................................94
Table 39: Darangen (85) Summary Practice Chart.......................................................................................................96
Table 40: Darangen Bantugan Percentage Averages of Totals .................................................................................99
Table 41: Darangen (07) Summary Practice Chart .....................................................................................................101
Table 42: Ullalim Banna (03) Summary Practice Chart ..............................................................................................102
Table 43: Matabagka at Nalandagan (04) Summary Practice Chart ........................................................................102
Table 44: Alim (10) Summary Practice Chart .............................................................................................................103
Table 45: Biag ni Lam-ang (30) Summary Practice Chart ...........................................................................................104
Table 46: Biag ni Lam-ang (43) Summary Practice Chart ...........................................................................................106
Table 47: Bidasari (24) Summary Practice Chart .......................................................................................................108
Table 48: Bidasari (43) Summary Practice Chart .......................................................................................................109
Table 49: Hudhud ni Aliguyon (13) Summary Practice Chart .....................................................................................111
Table 50: Hudhud ni Aliguyon (23) Bilingual Summary Practice Chart ......................................................................112
Table 51: Ibalon (15) Summary Practice Chart ..........................................................................................................114
Table 52: Ibalon Yling (25) Bilingual Summary Practice Chart ...................................................................................115
Table 53: Indarapatra at Sulayman (05) Summary Practice Chart ............................................................................116
Table 54: Indarapatra at Sulayman (22) Summary Practice Chart ............................................................................117
Table 55: Indarapatra at Sulayman (37) Summary Practice Chart ............................................................................118
Table 56: Indarapatra at Sulayman (70) Summary Practice Chart ............................................................................122
List of Figures
Figure 1: The Countries of East Asia (pinimg.com). .....................................................................................................32
Figure 2: Migrations Out of Africa (wikispaces.com) ...................................................................................................34
Figure 3: Sundaland and Changes of Sea Levels (maritimemysteries.org) ..................................................................36
Figure 4: Sundaland 30,000 Years Ago and Today (loveisrasa.blogspot.com) ............................................................38
Figure 5: The Cultural Zones of Greater India (Wikimedia) .........................................................................................41
Figure 6: Map of the Philippines 1598 Petrus Kaerius (gmanews) ..............................................................................46
Figure 7: Pallava Kingfom (Wikipedia) .........................................................................................................................47
Figure 8: South East Asia 500 AD 750 AD (timemaps.com) ......................................................................................48
Figure 9: Sri-Vishaya Empire (Wikimedia) ...................................................................................................................50
Figure 10: Map of Precolonial Philippines (Philip Andrew) .........................................................................................52
th
Figure 11: The Majapahit Empire in the 15 Century (quora.cdn.net) .......................................................................56
Figure 12: The Dutch Trade Route ca. 1650 (ireneses.files.wordpress.com) ..............................................................68
ABSTRACT
This paper lays the groundwork for a mixed-methods research approach in literary
analysis. To trace the Indic origins of Philippine folk literature, prehistoric and precolonial
narratives are reconstructed. to analyze filial piety and superstitions in Muslim folk epics, an
empirical approach involving frequency analysis is used. As a result, one original contribution is
a set of ready-to-use charts that can be used to analyze folk literature epics and practice the
mixed methods approach. The key findings include: (a) that all elements of traditional literature
in the Philippines are not indigenous; (b) that Indic cultural influence in traditional Philippine
literature can be traced back to 600 years of Indian colonization of the Philippine islands; and (c)
that qualitative analysis of intangibles in literary and ethnographic text samples is best supported
with empirical data and a quantitative research approach. The paper is presented in six (6)
chapters. Chapter 1(Introduction) presents the research questions and a prcis of the answers; the
operational definitions of key terminology; and the organization of the paper. Chapter 2
(Methodology) presents the research problem and theoretical constructs; research design,
methods, tools, and procedures; the objects of the study; and the qualitative and quantitative
procedures used. Chapter 3 (Narrative Reconstruction) reconstructs prehistoric and precolonial
narratives that trace the development of literary tradition in the Philippines. Chapter 4 (Empirical
Analysis) explains and exemplifies step-by-step procedure in analyzing intangibles such as filial
piety and superstitions in ethnological and in literary texts. Chapter 5 (Humanistic Analysis)
explains various elements in traditional Philippine literature in terms of historical and statistical
data discovered in the preceding chapters. Chapter 6 (Conclusions) summarizes the research
goals, findings, and original contributions, as well as suggests avenues for future research.
References, Additional Readings, Tables, and Figures are listed at the end of the paper.
INTRODUCTION
kindness and hospitality towards visitors predisposed the southern Filipinos towards benign
cultural inputs from Hindunized Arab influences via ancient maritime traders. To this day, the
original precolonial values such as filial piety and folk beliefs can be found in Muslim epics such
as the Maranao Darangen Bantugan, the Manubo legend of Ango, the Maranao Maharadia
Lawana, and the Maguindanao lndarapatra at Sulayman.
Most of precolonial Philippine literature was oral and took on many forms to transmit
the inner quality and strength of a culture, usually among the traditions, customs, fairytales,
ballads, songs, accounts of ancient festivals, games, superstitions, beliefs, proverbs, popular
sayings, nursery rhymes, riddles, and jingles of the masses, which are woven in the fabric of
the daily life of the community (Marias, 2011). The foreign roots of native folklore can be
even traced to the ancient cultures of SE Asia and Polynesia (Mabanglo, 2015).
While the main focus of the thesis is on tracing period Hindu-Sanskrit elements in
prehispanic Philippine literature, particularly Muslim Philippine folk epics, the paper will
include salient facts related to prehistoric origins and movements shaped by natural phenomena;
historical events that shaped precolonial Philippine history and culture; as well as theoretical
underspinnings and procedures that shape the research. One purpose is to position the
significance of the events in the proper historical context so that the significance of literary
works can be understood more completely. The other pupose is to provide the information
required to answer the research assignment.
However, one of the many lasting legacies of Indias forgotten erea of Philippine
colonization includes aside from vocabulary, archaeological artifacts, customs and traditions
Indic elements in ancient Philippine literature. For instance, Filipino epics such as Darangen,
Indarapatra at Sulayman, Lam-ang, Ibalon, Hudhud and Alim were inspired by the Mahabharata
and other Hindu epics (Liclican, 2014). The following table shows the spread of Indic
influences in the regional literatures of the Philippines, including the literary traditions of
Moslem Mindanao:
Table 1: Indic Elements in Philipine Literature
Regions
Ifugao
Literary Works
Alim
Ilocano
Biag ni Lam-ang
Maguindanao lndarapatra at
Sulayman
Manobo
Alamat ng Agusan
Maranao
Maranao
Singkil
Darangen
Maranao
Maharadia Lawana
Maranao
Radiya Mangandiri
Pangasinan
The Legend of
Princess Urduja
Ang Unggoy at ang
Pagong
Ang Lawin at ang
Inahing Manok
Tagalog
Tagalog
The cultural destruction wrought by later colonizers (e.g, Spain, Japan, North America) did less cultural damage to
inaccessible areas of Palawan, the Bontoc provinces, and the most resistant areas of Muslim Mindanao which,
unlike the preceding two, actively engaged in war and battle. As a result, some precolonial cultural and oral
traditions remained well-preserved.
Madjapahit empires. Furthermore, the most empirically-supported of all the various migration
theories regarding the earliest inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago indicates migration
waves from the south, where the Indic empires lay, rather than from the Sinic empires in the
north. Lastly, there seem to be no clear instances of infusions from ancient Chinese literature into
ancient literary traditions of the Philippines comparable to those of the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana.
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Timelines
Prehistoric Period
Precolonial Period
Sri-Vishayan Period2
Majapahit Period3
Spanish Colonial Period
American Colonial Period
Japanese Occupation Period
Contemporary Period
Time Frame
Years
? - 200
200 - 700
700 -1293
1293 -1567
1565 1898
1898 1946
1942 - 1945
1946 2016
?
500
593
274
333
48
3
71
empirical
approach
filial piety
This devotion or allegiance to one's family, family loyalty,6 or respect, obedience, and
care for ones parents and elderly family members7
folk belief
folk literature
traditional literature or myths, legends, epics, fables, and folktales passed down by
word of mouth through the generations usually with unknown authors9
frequency
analysis
Heterogenous
(adj.) having a source or origin outside of the organism; having a foreign origin
(dictionary.com)
Hindu
Indic
indigenous
Naturally existing in a place or country rather than arriving from another place14 See:
Precolonial. Cf. pre-Spanish
influence
literature
Muslim
Philippines
The Philippine Muslim communities include (1) the Maguindanao, (2) the Maranao of
Lake Lanao, (3) the Tausug, (4) the Sama,17 (5) the Yakan, (6) the IIanon or Iranun of
Lanao del Sur and Magindanao, (7) the Molebugan or Molbog of Palawan, (8) the
Kolibugan of the Subanons, (9) the Sangil of Sarangani, S Cotabato, and Davao Sur,
(10) the Kalagan of Davao, and (11) the Panimusan18.
Philippine
literature
This refers to the literature of the Philippines. In this paper, it refers to the Philippines
indigenous oral literary traditions that include poems, sayings, riddles, literary jousts,
songs, lullabies, work songs, solemn or ritual songs, and folk epics.
Philippines
www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3406900157.html
dictionary.com
8
Wikipedia, Folk religion
9
Folk Literature at nkfust.edu.tw
10
It also analyzes measures of central tendency, dispersion, percentiles, etc. From researchoptimus.com, What is
Frequency Analysis?
11
Wikipedia, Hindu
12
The Free Dictionary, Hinduism
13
The Free Dictionary, Indic
14
Cambridge English Dictionary, indigenous
15
Merriam-Webster, Influence
16
www.yourdictionary.com
17
includes the Samal and the Badjao
18
Muslim Inhabitants of Palawan
19
www.yourdictionary.com
7
precolonial
An age, era, or time period before foreign colonization. See Pre-Spanish. Cf. Indigenous
precolonial
literature
Refers to the legends of prehistory, and the precolonial literary traditions of the
Philippines
pre-Spanish,
pre-Hispanic
The period of time before the Spanish occupation of the Philippine islands. See
precolonial. Cf. indigenous
regional
literature
The literature of any of the 18 regions (17 administrative and 1 autonomous) of the
Philippines. The eight largest language regions are Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilokano,
Hiligaynon or Ilonggo, Waray, Bikolano, Pangasinense, and Kapampangan. In addition,
a uniquely diverse culture is in N Luzon, in Mindanao, and in the southern islands of the
Philippine archipelago.20
Sanskrit
superstition
(1) a belief or practice resulting from ignorance, fear of the unknown, trust in magic or
chance, or a false conception of causation;
(2) an irrational abject attitude of mind toward the supernatural, nature, or God resulting
from superstition;
(3) a notion maintained despite evidence to the contrary;22
(4) the belief in supernatural causality that one event causes another without any
natural process linking the two events such as astrology and certain aspects linked to
religion, such as omens, witchcraft, and prophecies, that contradict natural science.23 Cf.
superstitious beliefs
superstitious
beliefs
Superstitious belief refers to the notion that a ritual or activity can have a positive or
negative impact on the events in ones life.24 Cf. superstition
trace
20
seasite.niu.edu
Oxforddictionaries.com
22
Merriam-Webster Dictionary, superstitionus belief
23
Wikipedia, superstitionus belief
24
eHow, What is the Meaning of a Superstitious Belief?
25
www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/investigate
21
METHODOLOGY
The research uses a mixed-method approach involving theoretical concepts for narrative
reconstruction, empirical procedures for empirical analysis, and humanistic approach in data
interpretation.
Features
Empirical
evidence
Objectivity
Control
Predictability
Hypothesis
testing
Replication
Details
This is data that is collected by direct observation or experiment, not by
argument or belief. Careful experiments and observations are carefully
reported in detail so that others can repeat and verify the data.
Researchers are totally value free and unbiased in their investigations; they
are not influenced by personal feelings, experiences, preferences, or opinions.
All sources of bias are minimized. Personal or subjective ideas are eliminated.
Facts speak for themselves though they may be unexpected or different.
All extraneous variables are controlled so as to identify cause and effect.
Research aims to predict future behavior from the research findings.
Predictions at the onset of a research is derived from theory. Hypotheses (null
or alternative) must be testable, stated in operationalized, explicit forms.
If research methods and results are repeated with the same results reoccuring
in the same conditions, accuracy is beyond reasonable doubt, results are
reliable and scientific theory can be formulated.
The empirical approach of gaining knowledge via sensory experience only is not the
scientific approach. The scientific approach proposes that knowledge is gained through empirical
experience, that is, by using a process of research and analysis that includes careful observation
and experiments to identify facts and evidence.
Literary analysis that aims for objectivity uses an empirical approach. Empiricism27 states
that knowledge can only be accessed through the human senses. In other words, information can
be gleaned from observable phenomena by using sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. Before
the empirical approach, researchers believed that knowledge could be gained by using reason and
logical argument (known as rationalism) but empiricism takes the position that knowledge is
based on or may be created by personal experience (McLeod, 2008).
The research assignment is: (1) Trace the influence of Hindu-Sanskrit culture in our preSpanish literature; (2) Pay attention to superstitious beliefs and filial piety; (3) Give specific titles
of the story and explain its influences on the regional literatures of the country, particularly the
Muslim Philippines.
In the case of the necessarily broad and interdisciplinary investigation related to literary
text analysis, the research can be implemented in four possible research approaches: text
interpretation, content analysis, empirical approach, and mixed-methods research.
27
The research designs and approaches summarized in the following table are, by no
means, mutually exclusive: a research endeavor can include more than one of these approaches,
as well as research approaches other than those described in the next sections.
Table 5: Research Designs and Approaches
Approach
Quantitative
Qualitative
Postpositivist
Experimental
Test a theory via a
narrow
hypotheses;
collect data to
support/refute the
hypotheses
Pretest and
posttest measures
of attitudes
Constructivist
Ethnographic
Establish the
meaning of a
phenomenon from
the views of
participants
Procedure
Assess attitudes
before and after
an experimental
treatment
Data
Collection
An instrument that
measures
attitudes
Data
Analysis
Statistical
procedures and
hypothesis testing
Worldview
Design
Goal
Method
Observation of
behavior
Qualitative
Transformative
Narrative
Long interviews to
record how
individuals
personally
experienced
oppression
Open-ended
interview
Examine an issue
related to
oppression of
individuals
Collect stories of
individual
oppression via a
narrative approach
To be decided
Mixed
methods28
Pragmatic
To be decided
Sequentially
collect both
quantitative and
qualitative data
General survey
of a population,
then use openended interviews
Collect detailed
participant views
to help explain
the initial
quantitative
survey.
Phase 1 general
survey; Phase 2,
qualitative, openended interviews
To be decided
Adapted from The Three Approaches to Research in Selection of a Research Approach. Electronic document
available at sagepub.in
In this paper, qualitative and quantitative approaches are used in a mixed methods
research approach. These approaches are neither separate nor opposing but rather complimentary
concepts, and can be imagined as located at the ends of a research continuum where mixedmethods research is in the middle (Newman & Benz, 1998).
28
Assume that diverse data types provide better understanding of a research problem than quantitative or
qualitative data alone
There is a need to try and use scientific methods when there is a need for a rigorous
discipline. If literary analysts abandon the search for unified methods, one can lose ones
sense of literary analysis.
There is a need to try and continue to develop scientific methods that are suitable to
studying literature because it might reveal more effective methods or prove the
inappropriateness of current methods.
The arguments for mixed methods research have been reported elsewhere.i Furthermore,
the literature on mixed methods research includes a range of arguments that are better expressed
in other works. ii Of particular relevance to literary analysis and textual interpretation, mixed
methods research has been discussed by a number of authors.iii Thus, discussions on mixed
methods analysis are foregone in this paper. 29
Phase 2a: Tabular Configuration Design of tables for analysis of folk beliefs and filial
piety in selected Philippine folk epics.
Phase 2b: Classification Identification of folk beliefs and filial piety in selected
Philippine folk epics
Phase 2c: Frequency Count A Counting the frequency of occurrence of folk beliefs or
superstitions in selected Philippine folk epics.
Phase 2d: Frequency Count B Counting the frequency of occurrence of filial piety in
selected Philippine folk epics.
Phase 2e: Frequency Analysis Analysis of the statistical significance of the frequency
count results
In Phase 2e, the empirical approach is used to examine intangible elements in
ethnological as well as in literary text. The empirical approach uses basic statistical procedures to
29
Links to the electronic copies of these documents are available in the References section.
analyze ethnologic texts (e. g., filial piety in a sample of 200+ Filipino superstitions) as well as
literary texts (e. g., filial piety and superstitions in folk epics from the precolonial literary
traditions of various Philippine regions).
The key difference between the definitions of text analysis and content analysis is that the
former focuses on understanding by description and interpretation while the latter uses
systematic evaluation by interpretation after coding and classification.
2.4.3 Categorization
Types
Classical
categorization
Conceptual
clustering
Fuzzy-set theory
Prototype theory
Explanation
Sorts objects into rigid, clearly defined categories based on rules
Modernized version of classical categorization that classifies objects based
on rules but allows for different levels of fitness for each category
Clustering of conceptual that allows objects to sort of belong to a set
Classifies objects based on how similar they are to a mental image of a
prototype of that object
After the main task of categorization classifying each object as belonging to a particular
group different purposes can be served. For instance, the researcher can infer unobserved
properties of this individual based on common properties within the group (Danks, n. d., 3).
Fuzzy sets are particularly useful in understanding intangibles such as prior knowledge, attitudes,
preferences, pragmatics, cultural values, or folk beliefs (Danks, n. d., 4).
This research on the elements and origins of ancient Philippine literature involves two
phases, Narrative Construction and Empirical Analysis. The categorization process begins the
data collection for the Narrative Reconstruction phase. Based on the research assignment, the
categories of data that shaped the research parameters of the first phase of the research follow:
Table 8: Data Catagories for Narrative Construction
Category
Details
These categories helped shape the structure of the report, guided the data search from
voluminous sources and references, as well as the organization of the discovered data. For
instance, after elements are categorized in Phase 1 (Narratives Reconstruction), the research
classifies the elements for Phase 2 (Empirical Analysis). During Phase 2, the process of
categorization is prominent in the first two steps (See Table: Steps of the Research Design).
2.4.4 Classication
Any research design is both articial and arbitrary: articial because it is a tool created
for the express purpose of establishing a meaningful organization; and arbitrary because the
criteria used to dene classes in the scheme reect a single perspective of the domain to the
exclusion of all other perspectives (Jacob, 2004, 522).
In Phase 2, Empirical Analysis, the process of classification involves assigning the
literary elements into groups, in this case, filial piety and folk beliefs or superstitions. This
research on the elements and origins of ancient Philippine literature utilizes a mixed-method
approach, with an emphasis on data collection, categorization, and interpretation. The most
prevalent and comprehensive area of human activity in terms of data classification is in Library
and Information Science (LIS). In LIS, the term classication refers to three concepts (Jacob,
2004, 522):
The process of classification involves the second and third steps of the research design, as
exemplified in the following table:
Table 9: Steps of the Research Design
Steps
1. Categorization
2. Categorization
3. Classification
4. Classification
5. Empirical Analysis
6. Empirical Analysis
7. Humanistic Analysis
Research Design
Group Descriptions: Creating the groups according to the
classification description (filial piety and folk beliefs);
Literary Selections: Selecting the literary texts for analysis
(precolonial folk epics from Muslim Mindanao)
Text Processing: Separating the epics into conceptual sections and
numbering each section;
Text Analysis: Identifying the elements of filial piety and folk
beliefs in each literary text
Frequency Counts: Counting the number of occurrence of each
element in each section of each selected literary text
Frequency Tables: Tabulating the counts of occurrence into a
frequency table; and
Analysis: Interpreting the results across sections of a literary text,
and across literary texts by region, according to
2.
From the list, select the epics that are said to be influenced by Indian culture, or contain
Indic elements.
3.
4.
5.
If a paragraph is long, separate into one meaning or central idea per row.
6.
On the top row of this column, and title it Text Summary of ___ (title of the story).
7.
Insert a column before the Text Summary column. On the top row of this first column,
title it #.
8.
Number each row on the # column. This is for ease of reference during analysis.
9.
After the second column Text Summary, insert a third column and title it Superstitions.
10.
11.
Selection of text sample for analysis: For practice, select a set of texts to serve as text
samples. In this paper, a set of 200+ superstitions serve an ethnographic sample, while
selected summaries of folk epics from various Philippine regions represent a literary
sample.
2.
Format Stripping: In this paper, all text samples were taken from electronic sources. To
strip the text of all formatting and achieve a uniform look, the text sample is copy-pasted
to Notepad. Then it is copy-pasted to MS Word for separation.
3.
Separation by sentence or conceptual groups: For ease of analysis, the text can be
divided into separate units, which can be by sentence, or by sentences that refer to one
idea (paragraphs). This is done by using the search-replace function of MS Word to
replace all final punctuation (e.g., full stops) with the punctuation plus a paragraph
separator. The result is that each sentence begins on a new line.
4.
Text tabulation: The separated sentences are all selected, and the Insert menu is activated
to conver the text to table by paragraphs. The result is a table with one column and
several rows, each row containing one sentence. A top row is inserted, and the heading
(title of the text selection) is typed in. Option: In case the choice of the researcher is for
each row to include more than one sentence (each group can be called a paragraph for
prose or a stanza for verse), the preceding step of separation can be done manually.
5.
Text numbering: A new column is inserted to the right of the column that was first
created. The column label on the top row is ##. This column is used to consecutively
number each sentence. When discussing the analysis, the numbers are used to refer to
specific ideas or sentences.
6.
Values identification: Three columns are inserted after the column containing the text
sentences or paragraphs (now the second column after the text numbering column is
inserted). In this paper, column 3 is titled Superstitions, Column 4 is titled Filial Piety,
and an optional Column 5 is titled Other Values.
7.
Values frequency count: Read the sentence (or paragraph or stanza) on one line. If a
superstitious belief or practice is indicated, implied, or articulated, write the number 1 in
Column 3. If an instance of Filial Piety (e.g., love of family, respect for siblings, parents,
elders, or prioritizing the family over other matters is indicated, implied, or articulated),
write the number 1 in Column 4. Write zero otherwise. In Column 5, write a brief text
description to label each new value found (for example, specify if literary or cultural
value, then list the value). Use the same label for recurring values elsewhere in the text
sample.
8.
Frequency analysis: Examples of frequency analysis are shown in the chapter titled
Empirical Analyses. Likewise, examples of qualitative analysis proven by quantitative
data are provided.
Phase 3a: Frequency Analysis Analysis of the humanistic significance of the frequency
count results
Phase 3b: Frequency Analysis Analysis of the humanistic significance of the folk
beliefs or superstitions frequency count results in terms of Indic elements
Phase 3c: Frequency Analysis Analysis of the humanistic significance of the filial piety
frequency count results in terms of Indic elements
Phase 1c: Reviews the related historical literature, which precludes the use of theoretical
constructs regarding the continuation and development of Indic influences on Philippine
culture and literature.
1.1.1.1.
Classification Theory
Categorization Theory
In literary analysis, the term categorization means dividing literary elements into groups
in such a way that the members of each group are similar or related to each other. This process of
recognizing relationships or similarities and then grouping them accordingly helps the researcher
to discover structures, patterns, and order in a complex body of literary text.
Without this procedure, the literary analysis will be unique at every instance of textual
encounter, so much so that ones experience or understanding cannot be extended to other
encounters with similar elements in a literary piece. In addition, categorizing complex texts can
reduce thinking load by simplifying the connections between literary elements (Jacob, 2004,
518). In categorization, the researcher decides on the context and the descriptions of each
category. Jacob (2004) cites Zerubavel (1993) who contends that the individual nds order and
meaning in the environment by imposing boundaries by splitting and lumping objects of
experience so as to create distinct islands of meaning (p. 518).
The most significant aspect of categorizing literary elements is that (Barsalou, 1983;
1987) it allows the researcher to create new relationships and thus to create new information
whose value exceeds the simple grouping (Jacob, 2004, 519) of elements in the literary text.
Categorizing literary elements clarifies patterns of similarity and helps the researcher discover
new knowledge.
1.1.1.3.
Reception Theory
Halls Reception Theory (1993) focuses on the meaning of a literary text that lies with
the audience and not with the writer or producer. Successful textual construction allows
audiences to quickly understand messages and meanings. As well, audiences generate concepts
and emotions related to their acceptance, rejection, or revision of the text. Halls theory helps
researchers consider the way intentions and meanings are encoded or embedded in literary texts,
as well as the ways the text is understood (decoded) by readers. The theory also helps analyze the
ways that readers can reject or misunderstand the writers intended message. The theory suggests
that, while literature may be seen as reflecting or preserving reality, it actually constructs reality.
Halls model of textual interpretation includes preferred reading, which is the transfer of
a writers intended meaning; negotiated reading, which is the way a reader can perceive or
modify a writers intended meaning; and oppositional reading, which is the way a reader can
reject or oppose a writers intended meaning.30
1.1.1.4.
Context Theory
In literary analysis, context theory can be used as a linguistic tool. The conscious use of
context theory can help guide textual analysis so that readers can overcome any difficulties in
understanding complex literary texts. As well, analysis can have less errors of interpretation.
Hymes (1974) developed a model that can help researchers analyze literary texts within a
cultural context. The model includes components of speech acts that are categorized in ways that
can be used to analyze various types of discourse. This theory can help researchers see how the
literary text is produced within the parameters of a society, language, and culture. The elements
of society, language, and culture that affect the literary text are called context. The theory of
context includes three types: context of utterance, context of situation, and context of culture.
1.1.1.5.
Local Interpretation
The principle of local interpretation is related to context theory. For instance, when
people read and understand a text, they will use some principles to make sure that they
understand the text reasonably.
The principle of local interpretation instructs the hearer not to construct a context any
larger than what he needs to arrive at an interpretation. This principle is a strategy where the
reader does as little processing as possible, only to construct a representation which is
sufficiently specific to permit an interpretation which is adequate for the readers perceived
purpose of the literary text (Zhu & Han, 2010, 143).
1.1.1.6.
Cultural Context
Related to the concepts of the context theory and local interpretation in the preceding
sections is the notion of cultural context.
30
The use of language in writing, as well as the analysis of text in reading, depends on
context. The critical elements for understanding text include situation, common knowledge,
cultural context, and the subjective factors of readers and writers (Zhu & Han, 2010, 144).
1.1.1.7.
Co-text
The interpretation of the meaning of the following text is constrained, limited, influenced,
and shaped by preceding text, which is called co-text. Co-text refers to words that contain
meanings that affect any text that follows. In short, co-text illustrates the relationships between
different parts of a literary text.
In the process of literary analysis, readers must consider not only cultural contexts but
also the meanings embedded in the preceding texts (Lewis, 1972) because interpretation of a
sentence will be forcibly constrained by the preceding text, not just those phrases which
obviously and specifically refer to the preceding text (Zhu & Han, 2010, 143).
Statistical
Procedures
Summary count
Summary count
Frequency
count
Frequency
count
None
Frequency
count
Summary count
Frequency
count
Tables
Indigenous Philippine Languages
Indigenous Philippine Scripts
Frequency of filial piety in in a sample
of 200+ Philippine folk beliefs
Frequency of superstitions in in a
sample of 200+ Philippine folk beliefs
Ancient Philippine epics by region
Conceptual groups in each ancient
epics
Frequency of filial piety in selected
ancient epics
Frequency of folk beliefs or
superstitions in selected ancient epics
Regional Summary of filial piety in
selected ancient epics
Regional Summary of folk beliefs or
superstitions in selected ancient epics
Tabulation of Hindu-Sanskrit folk
beliefs or superstitions in selected
ancient epics
Tabulation of Hindu-Sanskrit
elements of filial piety in selected
ancient epics
Analysis
Narrative Empirical Humanistic
Other tools utilized by the research include electronic search engines (e. g., Google
Scholar), word processing software (MS Word, Notepad), numerical data processing software
(MS Excel), image processing software, downloading and unlocking programs.
2.8.1 Superstitions
A total of 219 samples of superstitions or folk beliefs are selected as objects for empirical
analysis. The samples are separated into 15 types.
The following table ranks the samples by number of samples per type.
Table 11: Typology of Philippine Superstitions or Folk Beliefs
Objects
Samples
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
44
23
22
21
16
15
15
12
12
11
8
7
6
4
3
219
Culture
01
Ifugao
02
Ilocano, Bicol
Region
03
Pangasinan
04
Maranao
05
Maranao
06
Maguindanao
Title
Indic Elements
The next section, Narratives Reconstruction, reconstructs the prehistoric and precolonial
narratives of Philippine historiography. The purpose is to trace the cultural elements that helped
shape the literary traditions of the various regions of the Philippines, particularly the IndicSanskrit elements in Moslem Philippine literary forms and traditions.
31
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biag_ni_Lam-ang
NARRATIVES RECONSTRUCTION
The Philippine islands lie near intersecting geological plates, which accounts for seismic
and volcanic activities in the area. The numerous coasts face the Pacific and Indian oceans on the
path of annual monsoon winds. Typhoons touch these coasts before reaching landfall in China.
The islands, numbering over 7,000 though only about 400 are greater than one
square mile, are widely dispersed over an area of more than 100,000 miles. They are
centrally located in relation to the centuries old trade routes of the region and helps to
explain their heterogeneity. (Pisano, 1992, 7)
Tectonic plateal movements can create tidal waves. On the Indian Ocean, these can be
dissipated by the islands of Indonesia and Malaysia. However, from the Pacific Ocean, the full
force of these seismic waves touches first land in Philippine territory.
How can literature develop in such an elemental and fragmented environment? This
narrative includes the origins of the elements of literature. There must be a system of writing.
There must be a culture that is conducive for the writing of literary ideas. There must be humans
to create such a culture. There must be time to develop such a culture. These are the basic
elements of literary progress.
Estimated Timeline
What is known about ancient humans migrations comes from radiometric dating of sand
particles34 attached to archeological artifacts, and from sciences such as archaeogenetics, which
32
is study of the past using the techniques of molecular genetics the process of which includes
DNA analysis and connecting results with historic data:
In archaeogenetics, information on the DNA of different ethnic groups from
around the world is used to analyze prehistoric events and corroborate accounts from
historical sources. The DNA data are reconciled with the findings of archeologists,
linguists, and paleoanthropologists to shed light on the past (MedicineNet, 2012).
Cultural and ethnic migrations are estimated by combining archaeogenetics and
comparative linguistics (Wikipedia, Early human migrations). Thus, although the narrative
begins with conjectural scenarios, the theoretical data is largely supported by empirical evidence
that can be observed, categorized, and measured.
One of the many theories about the first inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago
suggests southward and eastward migrations from the neolithic cultures of SE China (Wikipedia,
Austronesian peoples) or from Taiwan by land bridges. When the ocean levels rose, they used
35
a linguistic and genetic group that includes other ethnicities from maritime SE Asia, Madagascar, and the Pacific
islands
rafts or boats. Whichever mode of travel was used, many settled on the Philippine islands
(Bellwood & Hiscock, 77; Cavalli-Sforza, et. al. 1988. pp. 6002-6006). To this day, ancient oral
tradition mentions ocean levels that changed and covered or revealed islands. While epic tales
include no racial descriptions so that Malay or Negrito characters can be assumed or confused,
historical narratives such as in the following table are explicit.
Table 14: Timeline of Early Philippine Cultural Contacts
Timeline
25,000 B.C.
5,000 B.C. to
3,000 B.C.
3,000 B.C. to
1,000 B.C.
200 B.C.
200 B.C. to
1000 A.D.
300 A. D.36
900 A. D.
982 A. D.
1,000 A.D. to
1,200 A.D.
1200 to 1300
1300 A. D38
1300 to 1400
1380 A. D.
1450 A. D.
1475 A. D.
1512 A. D.
1700 A. D.
1830 A. D.
Philippine Prehistory
The forefathers of the Negritos travel over Sundaland that used to connect all
Asia. They choose higher elevations and caves, gather food, hunted. They use
bows, arrows and stone tools (Sergio, 2016).
The Negritos move to coasts & rivers. Indonesians arrive by sea, w/ polished
stone tools, boat building, bark & animal skin cloth, pottery, rice planting,
cooking food in bamboo tubes, rubbing two sticks to make fire (Sergio, 2016).
The Malay ancestors of the Ifugao, Bontoc, Mangyans, and other primitive tribes
arrive, each ship (barangay) carry a small clan. They bring animist religions, jar
burial, metal tools of copper, bronze, iron and gold (Sergio, 2016).
Malays in large numbers migrate to the Philippines. They are the racial stock of
the majority of todays Philippine populace (Sergio, 2016).
Iron Age artistry in earrings, beads, pendants and bangles of clay, stone and
shells; tattooing, filing and blackening teeth which were then wrapped with gold
foil or studded with gold fillings (Sergio, 2016).
Chinese trading contact (Churchill, 1977, 3)
Indic trading contact (Wikipedia, Hinduism in the Philippines)37
Chinese trading contact
Trading begins with Arabia, India, Annam, China and later with Europeans.
Porcelains from different Chinese dynasties are imported (Sergio, 2016).
Migrants from Borneo settle in southern Philippines (Sergio, 2016).
Japanese trading contact
The Majapahit empire on Java gains influence over parts of the islands (Sergio,
2016).
Islam reaches southern Philippines via Borneo. Head-hunting victims become
slaves bartered to Chinese traders. A new social order includes freemen,
commoners, slaves & bonded servants under a datu (Sergio, 2016).
The Muslim sultanate of Jolo is established (Sergio, 2016).
The Muslim sultanate of Maguindanao is founded on Mindanao. Islam spreads,
reaching central Luzon (Sergio, 2016).
Malacca, Borneo trading contact (Churchill, 1977, 4)
Halmahera, Sulawesi, Java, Borneo, Indonesia (Churchill, 1977, 5)
Arabia trading, proselitizing contact (Baldonado)
Malay Champa
In the 1960s, anthropologist Robert Fox discovered the earliest human remains found in
the Philippines: fossilized fragments of a skull and jawbone39 (Valdez, 2011). The first human
36
3rd Century
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism_in_the_Philippines
38
13th Century
39
Anthropologists who examined these remains agreed that they belonged to modern human beings. These
include the Homo sapiens, as distinguished from the mid-Pleistocene Homo erectus species.
37
artifacts in Palawan, dated back to between 30,000 and 50,000 B. C., were believed to be of
Negrito aborigines from Melanesia that settled in the Philippine islands at least 30,000 years ago.
In 2007, a human metatarsal found near the Callao caves north of Manila was dated to at
least 67,000 years ago; experts say there was proof of raft- or boat-building skills 40 (World
Heritage Encyclopedia, History of the Philippines; Discovery News; Henderson, 2010). The foot
bone suggests that humans had settled in the Philippines as far back as 67,000 years41 ago
(Defense Language Institute. 2011, 18; Morella, 2010). How the Callao person came to the
islands could not be determined (Morella, 2010) but experts say there is a strong resemblance to
pygmy Negritos42 (Defense Language Institute. 2011, 18; Dolan, 1991).
It is theorized that, some 50,000 years before the Mongoloids came to SE Asia, pygmy
Negritos had arrived in the Philippines via the Sunda landmass through todays Malaysia and
Indonesia. 43 It is suggested that their ancesteors are the New Guinea pygmies (Howells, 1993,
235236). In the Philippines, they are said to be the ancestors of the Aeta, Agta, Ayta, Ati, and
the Dumagat 44 (Bulbeck, 2013; Bulbeck, et al, 2006. pp. 109132)45
40
Pygmy Negritos are said to have a fetishist-type of religion; lived by hunting and
gathering natural edibles; used blowguns, bows and arrows; and wore tree-bark and leaves.
Aside from living lived in temporary shelters of grass and tree branches (Zaide, 1949, 24-25), or
what available outcroppings and cave shelters that are available, the pygmy Negritos remain
mostly culturally separate in the interior countryside on some of the larger islands of the
archipelago (Pisano, 1992, 8).
So far, no study has advanced knowledge regarding the pygmy Negritos traditional use
of organized governance, communication, or writing systems.
Mongoloid is the term which anthropologists applied to the ethnic group which migrated to SE Asia during the
Holocene period and evolved into the Austronesian people, a group of Malayo-Polynesian-speaking people
including those from Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Malagasy, the non-Chinese Taiwan Aboriginals
(Wikipedia)
of Australia and New Guinea (by 50,000 years ago), would have required watercraft
capable of transporting groups of people numerous enough to establish viable
daughter colonies. (4090-4096)
Although Bellwood (1997) suggest that by 5,000 years ago, all of the large islands and
many of the small islands of ISEA were extensively settled, Bulbeck et al suggest that, between
5000-2500 B. C., large southward and eastward migrations continued. Theorists attribute these
migrations to two factors: sea changes had turned Taiwan into an island, and the island was
overpopulated by the Neolithic Austronesians (Bellwood & Hiscock, 77; Cavalli-Sforza, et. al.
1988. pp. 6002-6006). The migrations, it is suggested, included groups of Malayo-Polynesians
(Resture, 2011).
Theorists postulate that the first Malayo-Polynesians that landed in northern Luzon and
met the Austral-Melanesian groups who had settled there some 23,000 years earlier (Resture,
2011).
Over the next thousand years, these groups intermingled (Wikipilipinas; Resture, 2011)47
and spread southwards to populate the other Philippine islands (Resture, 2011), while others
went on to Borneo, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Polynesia until, over time, the Austronesians had
colonized the SE Asian archipelago (Defense Language Institute. 2011, 18; Bureau of East Asian
and Pacific Affairs. 2010).
47
From maritime SE Asia, the Austronesian people reached some parts of mainland SE Asia, then sailed eastward
and spread to the islands of Melanesia around 1200 B.C.and to Micronesia around 500 A.D., and later on to
Madagascar (Resture, 2011).
Eventually, a subgroup kin to the rice-terrace builders of north Luzon introduced wet agriculture methods.
an earlier date has been suggested
community accepted the immigrants and absorbed them and their customs or, if the
immigrant population was sizable (by relative standards) and displayed group
cohesion, the existing community would be displaced. (p.10).
The prehistoric narrative of the Philippine archipelago has other elements, but the
limitations of the research require this overview to suffice. The discussion now shifts to the next
stage of the narrative, the precolonial period of Philippine history.
50
Should there be a move to take the Spanish nation to the World Court and present a case for damage
compensation in favor of the Filipinos; the research would lay the background of the case.
3.2.1 Hinduism
The research focuses on Hindu elements in ancient Philippine literature. Hinduism is said
to have begun during the Iron Age in India51 (Wikipedia, History of Hinduism) and is unique in
that there is no known founder or date of inception (ReligionFacts, Hindu History).
In addition, Hinduism does not claim to be a religion but rather claims to encompass
religions, with a particular focus on personal spirituality (Flood, 2009). The Hindu faith
proposes a cyclic nature of human progression, marked by stages or ages. For instance, in the
Golden Age:
people were pious and adhered to dharma (law, duty, truth) but its power
diminishes over time until it has to be reinvigorated through divine intervention. With
each successive age, good qualities diminish, until we reach the current iron or dark
age (kali yuga) marked by cruelty, hypocrisy, materialism and so on. Such ideas
challenge the widespread, linear view that humans are inevitably progressing (Flood,
2009)..
The history of Hinduism includes an eventful age between c.500 BCE and 500 CE,
beginning with the death of the Buddha (c. 400 BCE). During this period, texts such as the
Dharma Sutras and Shastras (explains law, duty, truth or dharma a key Hindu concept), the
epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana, and then the Puranas were composed. The Mahabharata
includes the Bhagavad Gita. The Dharma Sutras recognise three sources of dharma: revelation
51
(i.e. the Veda), tradition (smrti), and good custom. The Laws of Manu adds what is pleasing to
oneself (Flood, 2009).
In this paper, some Philippine epics that comprise the national literary traditions contain
strongly Indic elements, particularly literary elements that are clearly identifiable as from the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana. While the creation of these two epics can be placed between
500 BCE and 500 CE, the oral literature of the Philippines could not be pinned to a specific start
date. Although this paper traces connections between India and the Philippines such as the
Arab traders of the ancient maritime Asia trade route to explain the Indic elements in
Philippine literature, several forces of destruction have limited available resources for reference.
These forces of destruction are discussed in a following section. Meanwhile, the discussion shifts
to another ancient religion, not as ancient as Hinduism, but as pervasively powerful, if not more.
ReligionFacts, The Quran). The word Islam literally means voluntary submission or
voluntary surrender to the will of God. The root of the root is salam, which means peace
(Anon., n. d., What is Islam). A Muslim, on the other hand, is a person who follows the tenets of
the Islamic faith. The word Muslim means one who submits to God. (Wikipedia, Muslim).
Islam places great importance on maintaining the purity of the soul.
Islam encourages the individual to focus on keeping the soul healthy, through the
remembrance, obedience and worship of God. There should be a correct balance in
strengthening the soul and not over-indulging with the pleasures of the body. Islam
teaches that it is through the doing of good deeds and seeking the pleasure of God that
souls find true happiness and peace. It is in this context that the word Islam derives
from the root word salam, or peace. (Wikipedia, Islam)
The advent of Islam in the Philippine islands began when Muslim traders who came to
trade. They returned home with their tales of the pagan tribes of the islands. Eventually, Muslim
missionaries landed in Jolo, and then in Mindanao. There is no historical mention of destruction
of literary materials, or of documents, in relation to these missionaries. As in other countries,
native beliefs coexisted with Islamic beliefs, some cultures even creating indigenous versions of
Islam. The destruction of ancient literature in precolonial Philippines was attributed to other
forces.
52
Spanish and American colonialism is seen as the cause of the present-day problems faced in the Philippine
society (Niel, 1992).
The ravages of time and the Spanish invaders destroyed most of the manuscripts
from the early history of the archipelago. Even after the Americans took possession of
the islands in 1898, with a few notable exceptions, the flurry of historical scholarship
that followed mainly concerned itself with the most recent Spanish colonial period
(focusing on its negative aspects) and the natural resources that could be exploited in
the islands (1992, 2-3).
It has been observed that what remained of ancient civilations are more likely
discoverable since they stay put for a long time, which is uncommon in Maritime Asia. RausaGomez (n.d.) points to geographical diffusion as a critical factor in material destruction.
The SE Asians had the tendency to diffuse themselves geographically, even
within particular states. This was especially true of those migratory ethnic groups who
practiced shifting or fire agriculture (kaingin). The absence of a common focus of
interest is seen in the fact that no great depositories of learning were maintained in the
area to gather and conserve the record of its historical past. (94).
Rausa-Gomez also describes the practice of writing on leaves as well as to the weather
conditions prevalent in the torrid zone: if there were any local records inscribed on palm-leaf
manuscripts, they most likely have been destroyed by the humid tropical climate, insects, and
molds (95). The geographys effects on local mindsets were also pointed out:
The areas physical environment is not conducive to the preservation of
monuments and artifacts. Many were situated in swamps and forests, where the
most accessible and available material was wood. The artistic inclination of the
peoples was therefore most naturally expressed in wooden carvings, buildings, or
tools. The passage of time and the effects of climate and insects cause wooden objects
to disintegrate or be eaten away, leaving little or no evidence for the history of the
region. (Rausa-Gomez, 95)
Other factors are natural calamities and diseases. Rausa-Gomez (n. d.) exemplifies such
events in adjoining regions:
In east Sumatra, riverine settlements have been wiped out by the mudflows
sweeping down unexpectedly from the highlands. Coastal settlements have been
abandoned as rivers changed their natural courses . Plagues and endemic
diseases depopulated many kingdoms. Fleeing populations spread the
diseases. Sometimes kings relocated their capitals in areas distantly located from
those cities associated with pain, suffering, and disasters, in an effort to placate the
malevolent spirits (nats, or phi) responsible.
As shifts of population occurred from the forested inland areas to the coastal
towns, the ensuing overcrowding of towns, improper sewage disposal systems and the
absence of public sanitation practices proved to be menaces to the populace.
Climatologists have shown that there is a direct relationship between the outbreak of
endemic diseases and the climatic seasons. In SE Asia, the areas humid climate has
the effect of encouraging a high rate of bacterial reproduction. In this manner, the
occurrence of natural calamities, and the outbreak of endemic diseases have had the
effect of killing off or debilitating the population. As the populace fled, nature
gradually reclaimed the abandoned town sites and covered them with jungles and wild
vegetation, leaving no trace of human settlement. (p. 96).
Some Spanish writers deny the existence of precolonial religious writings, but other
sources say that this could be a denial of anything not Christian. For instance, Chirino says that
indigenous writing was only used for correspondence, not for religion or governance. However,
indigenous writing was used to record folk beliefs. Churchill (1977) cites Chirino as saying:
two of them were at this time most fortunately saved from perdition... (O)ne,
who possessed a book of a certain kind of poem which they call golo, very pernicious
because it expresses a deliberate pact with the devil, voluntarily gave it up for burning,
which was done. (p. 33).
To summarize, much has been lost due to Spanish narrow-mindedness. Beyer suggests
that large collections of writings of indigenous beliefs that were destroyed by early Spanish
priests included religious writings. Though no source was identified, Beyer reports that, one
Spanish priest in southern Luzon boasted of having destroyed more than three hundred scrolls
written in the native character (Churchill, 1977, 33 from Beyer, op. cit, 2).
[Note: The place names reported are for only ease of understanding. In those times, other
names were used and territorial boundaries were amorphous or nonexisting. Thousands of years
of warfare, invasion, colonization, cultural and commercial shifts would pass to create the names
and places that we know today.]
on Ptolemy's map, which was made before the second century A.D., the
Philippines was called
Tawalisi. In later
editions53 the names
Maniolas, Barusas or
Baroussai and Puloan or
Palawan. [refer to]
the whole group [of
islands].
It has been argued
that such claims would seem
to lack historical veracity.
For that, we turn to other
sources.
Figure 6: Map of the Philippines 1598 Petrus Kaerius (gmanews)
53
In 200, the Pallava Empire rose in power in eastern India. It occupied areas of todays
India and Sri Lanka. At its height, it included Sri Lanka, S India, the Malay Peninsula,
Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, and the islands of Malaysia. Simhavarman (275-300), the first king,
was a Hindu as was his kingdom. The Pallavas were tolerant of other faiths. For instance, a
Chinese monk named Xuanzang who is said to have visited Kanchipuram in the reign of
Narasimhavarman I observed at least 100 Buddhist monasteries, and 80 temples. Moreover,
Sanskrit was one of the official languages of the Pallava (Wikipedia, Pallava Dynasty). There
was also enough Persian influence in the Pallava culture to warrant calling them Persianised
Indians (Fic, 2003, p. 72). The Pallava Empire ended after 620 years of rule when the Chola
Empires second king defeated King Aparajita (876-895) (Singh, 2013).
The Pallava civilizations
contributions to Philippine prehistory
include the kawi script, Sanskrit
vocabulary, and elements of Indic
culture. Persian cultural elements in
the Pallava culture could have
transferred to the Philippines as well.
When the Pallava Kingdom
declined, new ones arose, such as the
Figure 7: Pallava Kingfom (Wikipedia)
Kingdom in Cambodia between 600 and 100 (Whitmore, 2009), and the Hindunized Malay
empires of Sri-Vishaya and Madjapahit (Zaide, 1939, 37-39) that exerted the most influence
upon the Philippines until the arrival of the Spaniards (Pisano, 1992, 12).
nature of the indigenization process, the empire was racially Malayan, culturally Hindu, and
Buddhist in terms of religion.
In the 8th century, Sri-Vishaya was a Buddhist kingdom in Palembang,59 as well as a
commercial empire in SE Asia (Bowman, 2000 p. 468). The capital was held in high esteem as a
major Buddhist teaching and missionary center, so much so that, sometime during the end of the
7th century, I Tsing, a Chinese pilgrim spent seven years in this capital (Robequain, 1958, 67;
Pisano, 1992, 13).
When the powerful Tang Dynasty began trading with other countries. Sri-Vishaya , a
tributary trading partner of the Chinese empire. The Sri-Vishayan Empire the maritime trade
routes between China and
India, as it gained a stronghold,
due to its strategic location, on
the Straits of Malacca and
Sunda, the two main passages
from the Indian Ocean to the
China Sea.
Over the centuries, SriVishaya amassed wealth and
Figure 8: South East Asia 500 AD 750 AD (timemaps.com)
In SE Sumatra
For at least a century Ceylon paid them tribute
(Zaide, 1939, 39; Fox, 1959, 27; Steiger, 1936, 195; New World Encyclopedia, SriVishaya ;
WikiPilipinas, SriVishaya ; Rausa-Gomez, 1967, 63-107).
In 30,000 B. C. or thereafter, valley-dwelling Austronesians and highland-dwelling
Negritos were the first to settle and create animist tribes in the Visayas Islands. In 900 or later,
other Asian peoples settled in the area (Wikipedia). Precolonial Visayas included the present-day
provinces of Agusan, Aklan, Antique, Biliran, Bohol, Cebu, Capiz, Dvao Oriental, Dinagat, E
Samar, Guimaras, Iloilo, Leyte, Masbate, Misamis Oriental, Negros, Samar, Romblon, Siquijor,
Leyte, and Surigao.
In 1200 and after, Hindu-Buddhist descendants from the late rVishaya, Majapahit and
Brunei kingdoms settled the islands (Abellana, 1960). By 1400, Visayas communities were
practicing a mixture of Islamic, Hindu and Buddhist beliefs (Wikipedia).
Sources claim that the Tumandok (or Suludnon) in the mountains of Panay are the only
Visayans to maintain pre-Hispanic Visayan culture and beliefs, and this is due to their
geographic isolation (Argos, 2015; Wikipedia). However, later data would contradict this
statement.
Ethnic Visayans predominantly speak at least one of the Visayan languages which are
called Binisaya or Bisaya. The table Languages of the Visayan Islands lists the Philippine
languages classified as Visayan by the Summer Institute of Linguistics.
The story of Indian colonization of the Philippines started when Sri-Vishaya vassalized
Borneo, although records are unclear. It is known that the Indian empire had established several
colonies in Borneo before the 10th century ended. As mentioned in another section, the Bornean
towns of Bandjarmasin and Brunei had already established outposts in Ma-i long before the SriVishayan Empire conquered Borneo (Leake, 1989, 5).
All Sri-Vishayan orders to colonize the west-central Philippine islands were issued to its
vassal state, Brunei (Beyer, 1921, pp. 863-864). The colonists arrived at the islands carrying the
name Vishaya (Pisano, 1992, 14). To this day, the islands of central Philippines are collectively
known as Visayas, while their inhabitants are called Bisaya.61
61
In 1365, a list of the 34 tributary states between Java and the Philippines included: eighteen on Borneo, six each
in Celebes and the Moluccas, one in the Talaut Islands to the south of Mindanao, and three in the Philippines
(Beyer, 1921, 866, 892).
Kingdom62, 63 which was a thriving trade center that aimed to establish a trading colony in Sulu.64
Troubles arose, to the point that the natives killed some of the colonists and a bloody
war ensued. After killing as many of the native inhabitants as they could, the Orang Dampuan
burned their towns and withdrew from Sulu (Beyer, 1921, 862; Pisano, 1992, 12).
62
Orang Dampuan literally translated means Men of Dampa-land, which does not make much sense. However; it
has been proven that the d and ch sounds are interchangeable in many Philippine dialects: Orang Dampuan could
be Orang Champuan or Men of Champa.
63
Later, when the island came under Sri-Vishayan rule, Champa ships continued to trade there which seems to
confirm that the earlier colonists were from that kingdom.
64
as they had done elsewhere in SE Asia
There are no sources that indicate how much time had passed before the Sri-Vishayan
orders its vassal state, Bandjarmasin, to colonize Sulu. However, the fact of the colonization can
be found in tarsila, the ancient historical genealogies of Sulu, which articulate the Bandjarmasin
roots of Sulu (Pisano, 1992, 14).
The Sulus called the colonists Orang Bandjar (people of Banjar). As in the case of the
earlier Orang Dampuan occupation, conflicts arose between the colonists and the natives of
Sulu. To achieve peace, a Bandjarmasin princess of reputedly great beauty was brought in to
marry the principal chief of Sulu.
The treaty of marriage not only achieved peace, it also turned Sulu into a tributary state
to the Sri-Vishayan Empire through Bandjarmasin, and secured a permanent foothold for further
expansion (Pisano, 1992, 14-15).
With the treaty of marriage came great economic activity. The coastal areas of Sulu saw
arrivals from Borneo, Celebes and Mindanao, and perhaps Sumatra, Java, the Moluccas, and
Indochina.
Sulu became a great trade center and ships from China, Cambodia, Sumatra, Java, and
possibly India and Arabia frequented its harbors (Beyer, 1921, 864; Pisano, 1992, 15).
65
Sources
Before China named Luzon an empire in the 1200s, people from N Philippines had
intitiated trade with China before the year 700 (Craig, 1914, 7-9) via the Muslim merchants who
had traded in China66 (Robequain, 1958, 68; Pisano, 1992, 20-21). Archeological relics of the
Sung and Yuan periods found in the Philippines indicate that, in the 700s, there was trade
between China and the islands.67 In 982 or earlier, records in Canton indicate that Muslim traders
on a ship from Ma-I arrived laden with valuable merchandise68 (Zaide, 1939, 41-42; Craig, 1914,
7; Pisano, 1992, 20; Majul, 1973, 39).
In 1200 or after, the Chinese began to prepare trading junks under the command of Arab
pilots. In Zhang Xies 1617 record of the Ming Dynastys69 foreign relations, A study of the
Eastern and Western Oceans records that ancient Luzon was a kingdom or empire ruled by kings
and not chieftains.
In Chinese tradition, the character L () the name lusung () means backbone or
substitute and Sng () is the Song Empire (). In Cantonese, the character L () is
added before to signify a lesser status70 thus, Luzon () can mean Substitute Song
Empire or Lesser Song Empire (Pangilinan, 2009a). Zhangs document uses the word gu (
), which means a sovereign kingdom ruled by a king () and not a chieftain. As Pangilinan
(2009) puts it:
The Luzon Empire (, Cantonese: Lsng Kk; 1279-1571 AD) was an
ancient empire once located around the Manila de Bay region of the Philippines. Its
capital was Tondo (, Cantonese: Tngd). Its territories covered most of what is
now Central Luzon, extending from the delta region that surrounds Manila de Bay, all
the way into the interior along head waters of the surrounding rivers in the provinces
of Pampanga and Bulacan.
In 1214 or earlier, a customs collector in Chinchew71 named Chau Ju-Kuan published a
book that combined W Luzon and Mindoro into an island north of Borneo named Ma-i.72 The
book includes details such as trade and exchange, the honesty of the Filipinos, and the accuracy
of the Negrito blowguns, and Sulu people who cut their hair and wore black turbans and sarongs,
which seems to describe Indic fashion (Craig, 1914, 10-11; Pisano, 1992, 21-24).
66
This relationship continued throughout the reigns of the Sri-Vishaya and the Madjapahit empires.
The earliest contact is in the Tung tien, encyclopedia of the chronicler Tu Yu (735-812). In this account a land
called Chu-po, believed to be Borneo, and two of its vassal states, Chii-yen and Tan-lan, conducted extensive trade
with Funan (SE Asia). The two vassal states were believed to be settlements in the Philippines (Wolters, 1967, 5152; Pisano, 1992, 20).
68
If true, the entry supports the hypothesis that the alternate trade route around Champa spoken of in other
documents of the time did exist and that this trade route included the Philippine archipelago. In addition, the
traders Muslim religion indicates that this route included Arabia (Pisano, 1992, 20).
69
1368-1644
70
For example, long () dragon becomes lulong () dragon-like when L () is added before.
71
the port in the Amoy district later made famous by Marco Polo
72
a name similar to that in the annals over two hundred years before
67
73
; 1368-1644
74
, 1739
a realm based on controlling trade rather than land
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Brunei#Conversion_to_Islam_and_.22Golden_Age.22)
76
during the last half of the Ming Dynasty
77
principalities of the Luzon Empire
75
Empire in Tondo, the descendants of Lakandula, to revolt against the Spaniards, but they were
defeated; many were executed or exiled, their properties confiscated. In 1590 the end of the
Luzon Empire came about by a combination of international events, Filipino collaboration, and
Spanish machinations. As Varilla (2013) narrates it:
King Sattha of Cambodia sent two elephants to the King of Luzon through his
Portuguese ambassador and requested the Luzon Empire's assistance in their battle
against Siam. In the same year the lords of the Luzon Empire were said to have been
corresponding with theTaikou-sama of Japan, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, begging for
assistance to help liberate the Luzon Empire from Spaniards. Hideyoshi (sent) a
letter to the Spanish Governor of Manila, demanding that the Spaniards leave Luzon
quietly or else face a full scale invasion that would force them out.
Unprepared for a Japanese attack, the Spanish Governor of Manila sent Hideyoshi gifts
from the Americas, including the two elephants sent by the King of Cambodia. The descendants
of the Filipino royalty who helped the Spaniards in this endeavor still enjoy high positions in
society to this day.
Visayan islands78 (Beyer, 1921, 866, 892; Zaide, 1939, 40-41). Archaeological finds support the
notion (Fox, 1959, 28; Pisano, 1992, 19):
Sufficient evidence also exists to establish Bantuan as a Madjapahit colony. Gold
mining was an important industry throughout the Agusan-Surigao area during the 14th
century. A solid gold figure from this period was found in Agusan in 1917 and,
though of local manufacture, is a Ngundjuk-type image common to Madjapahit
communities.
In 1389, the Madjapahit Empire began to weaken when a civil war over the succession to
the Madjapahit throne began.
In 1405 up to 1434, Chinese naval expeditions under Admiral Cheng Ho brought many of
the empires Malaysian colonies under the suzerainty of the Ming Emperor of China. While
gathering the Madjapahit colonies, China encouraged the Arabians (via Malaysia) to destroy the
Madjapahit Empire (Zaide, 1939, 40-41; Pisano, 1992, 19-20).79 Mohammedan Rajah Bonang80
eventually led to the overthrow of the Madjapahit Empire.
If not for yet another wave of settlers who brought Islam to the Philippines, the
Majapahit Kingdom might have continued its influence on the islands (Defense Language
Institute. 2011, 20). By the time Islam came to southern Philippines, the inhabitants had adopted
78
In the beginning of the 20th century, clearly Indic cultural elements were found in these regions, where many
natives still use the old Indian syllabic script for writing
79
As noted elsewhere on this paper, since the 7th century, the Chinese had been providing the Arabs with Chinese
junks, large trading boats manned by up to 200 men (Beyer, 1932, 130).
80
who created the Mohammedan-Malay Empire of Malacca
some Sanskrit words but the Devanagri script and the Sanskrit language were not used for
commerce or literature (Churchill, 1977). However, in agriculture, farming methods that relied
on rain were displaced by the use of irrigation and water buffalos (Defense Language Institute
(2011, 19).
Although some sources deny that Brunei and Borneo were vassal states of Madjapahit,
many other sources record relationships of colonization and vassalage between the Philippines
and Java, Brunei, and Borneo (Rausa-Gomez, 98). Through the years, proof has been
accumulated from artifacts and cultural analysis. For instance, the following table underscores
the Indic influences on Philippine culture.
Table 15: Material Proof of Indic Colonization
familiarity with Indian religious concepts and terminology through intermediate countries81
01 blending with native religious beliefs blurred the clarity of Indian concepts (but) persisted in
recognizable form
02 Sanskrit words directly absorbed into different Philippine languages.
03 The adoption of various Indian customs.
04 Elements obviously from the Ramayana epic are incorporated into local literature.
05 Elements obviously from the Mahabharate are incorporated into local literature
06
In 1843, a bronze statue of Hindu god Siva and a copper image of the Hindu elephant god Gauesha
were found in Mactan
07 In 1917, a gold statue of a Hindu Goddess was found at Esperanza, Agusan province
08 In 1958, a 13th century Buddhist-Siamese clay medallion was found in Batangas
09 In 1961, a gold pendant of a garuda, a legendary Indic bird, was found at Brookes Point in Palawan
Adapted from Churchill, 1976; Baldonado, 2005; Tan, 1967; Hontiveros, n. d.; Londhe, 1968; and Francisco, 1961
The preceding table shows the little that remains of Indic culture in the Philippines. These
comprise most of the material proof that bolster discussions of precolonial cultural transfers from
Indian civilization. The dearth of material proof is explained in the section Destructive Forces.
81
and because of a century of absence of contact with an Indian source as Islam intervened
In 1372, the first tribute embassy from Luzon to China was recorded on the Ming
Chronicles.82 The ruler of the Chinese Middle Kingdom sent an official to the King of Luzon
with gifts of silk gauze embroidered in gold and colors.
In 1405, Chinese emperor Yung-lo dispatched an official to Luzon to govern the country.
(Craig, 1914, 11-12; Laufer, 1908, 257; Pisano, 1992, 25).
By the 13th century, trade between the Philippines and Japan included cultural transfer
such as Japanese manufacturing of arm and tools, artificial breeding of ducks and fishes, and
tanning of animal skins (Baldonado, 2005). However, Japanese trade was minimal compared to
the Chinese exchange. This can explain why despite Japan being geographically closer than
China there are more Sinic influences in todays Philippine vocabulary, fashion, customs, and
lineage (Liclican, 2014).
However, despite the geographic proximity of China and the PHlippines, there appears to
be no significant Sinic elements in ancient Philippine literature.
In 1406, a Malayan tribe named Ping-ka-shi-lan who lived along the western and
southern shores of the Lingayen Bay in Luzon, is recorded in the Ming Chronicles as sending a
delegation to China and presenting the emperor a gift of horses, silver, and other objects and
receiving in return paper money and silks (Pisano, 1992, 24).
In 1406 until 1407, 1408 to 1410, and in 1417, Chinese admiral Cheng Hos fleet of 62
ships bearing 27,800 soldiers (Craig, 1914, 11-12; Pisano, 1992, 25) went to Lingayen, Manila,
Mindoro, and Sulu as well as Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and other Madjapahit colonies in SE Asia,
to bring them under Ming governance (Zaide, 1949, 46; Laufer, 1908, 257; Steiger, 1936, 333).
In 1408, a chief arrived from the Philippines, along with two headmen from each village
under him, each accompanied by retainers. The Chinese emperors gifts to them were paper
money for the sub-chiefs and for each hundred men six pieces of an open-work variegated silk
used in making coats and linings (Craig, 1914, 11). In 1410, a Chinese recorded a tribute
embassy from the Pangasinan king (Laufer, 1908, 256; Pisano, 1992, 24-25).
In 1417, the rajahs of Sulu, their wives, children, and headmen paid tribute to the Chinese
court, followed by another Sulu mission in 1420 (Craig, 1914, 12; Pisano, 1992, 25). A sultan of
Sulu who died on a visit to the Emperor Yung-lo was buried in Shantung Province, China.
82
In 1421, the Philippine stopped paying tribute to the Ming Dynasty, which retreated from
the islands and returned to its own borders (Zaide, 1939, 41-42; Pisano, 1992, 25-26).
83
84
960-1279 A.D.
1368-1644 A.D.
While it would seem that Chinese trade enabled transfer but not exchange, the absence of
records, however, is not proof that Filipino culture did not influence Chinese as a lesser culture
can still in any way, introduce minute and therefore unarticulated elements that can be
indigenized by a dominant culture in unnoticed ways. In addition, the dynamics of cultural
superiority-inferiroty can be considered as barriers of intangible cultural and literary influences.
Traditionally, however, lesser cultures are depicted as mere receivers.
trade route (Luga, 2002, 20). Malay traders and religious figures had established Muslim
settlements in Sulu by the last quarter of the 13th century (Cline, 2000, 115-138).
In 1000, Arab traders had established themselves in ports in Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and
the Philippines. It might be noted that the early Arabs traders in the Philippines were not
Muslims (Liclican, 2014). Before Islam, the dominant religion in pre-Islamic Arabia was a mix
of Christian, Judaism, and Iranian religions. Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism and Mazdakism were
practiced in Mecca. (Wikipedia, Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia).
In 1250, small Muslim states had been established in Sumatra (Robequain, 1958, 68-69).
In the mid-1300s, international trade and commerce were flourishing in the Sulu islands
(Aquino, 2009, 19). The seaborne trade was dominated by Arab Muslims, early Arab traders and
Islamic missionaries who brought Islam from Morocco to the Philippines, and to China (Majul,
1974, 3; Estranero, 2007).
In the 1370s or earlier some sources say before Malacca was even founded Muslim
traders from Borneo and Sulawesi entered the Philippines from the south, claiming to be from
Sumatra or Arabia (Niel, 1992). The Sulu archipelago in S Mindanao allowed nearby countries
to establish a sea trade route for early Malay and Arab merchants (Aquino, 2009, 19; Wikipedia,
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao).
In 1380, an Arabian scholar from Mecca named Mukdum had converted Malaccans to
Islam and went to Sulu to do the same (Zaide, 1939, 46-47; Pisano, 1992, 26). He built the first
Mosque in Simunul (Baldonado, 2005; Liclican, 2014).85 On the other hand, Carpio & Sunga
(1998) say that Tuan Mashaika introduced Islam to Jolo where the natives adored stones and
idols followed by Baginda ten years later.
It would seem that the Hindunized Arab missionary mindset, as opposed Sinic goal of
profit orientitaion, would be more likelty to share stories of their culture, with the purpose of
winning hearts and minds. At this point in history, how Indic epics came to be known to the
inhabitants of S Philippines might be explained. While the Sinic merchants were solely interested
in trade and commerce, their Hindunized Arab counterparts appears to have been motivated by
more; they tried to build better bonds by sharing their own stories.
85
At this time, a certain Siat Saen tried to spread Islam in Batangas but failed (Liclican, 2014).
Shortly after the arrival of Islamic missionaries, Islamic armies began a conquest of SE
Asia. Inspired by Tamerlanes successful alternating of peaceful means and force in India, these
missionaries and armies spread a Hindunized Islam in SE Asia, which the natives readily
accepted (Robequain, 1958, 68-69; Pisano, 1992, 26). It is said that Raja Baguinda introduced
the first firearms to Sulu in 1390.
Sources say that, in 1390, Rajah Baguinda, an Islamic prince of the Menankabaw
Kingdom in Sumatra, led an army to Sulu, where his firearms overcame the resistance of the
Islamic rulers, as had the Madjapahit before him (Zaide, 1939, 46-47). After peacefully
concluding relations with the native rulers, Baguinda replaced their somewhat informal state
Mohammedanism with a formal Islamic dynasty (Majul, 1973, 55, 63; Pisano, 1992, 27).
Cotabato, Manila, and Mindoro followed:
Sharif Muhammad Kabungsuwan arrived in Cotabato in 1478 (and became) the
first sultan in Mindanao. In 1600, Muslim businessmen and missionaries brought the
religion to Manila, Tondo, and Mindoro. In the 16th century, Fort Santiago was a
Muslim community ruled by Raja Matanda, nephew of Raja Soliman (p. 24).
In 1400 and thereafter, Arab traders and missionaries began to arrive and increased
Muslim conversions. When the newcomers introduced firearms, other natives even more greatly
feared the Moro who grew very daring (with) long trips on the sea to the north and south,
carrying on trade and making many surprise attacks for loot and slaves (Cole, 1916). Some
visitors became powerful rulers who, in time and under the Islamic faith, unified many
settlements that had been at war with each other (Cole, 1916).
By 1500, Hindunized Muslim merchants from China or Malaysia had organized trade and
developed state systems in Maritime Asia (Niel, 1992).86 After Abu Bakrs first Sultanate of Sulu
and Sherif Muhammad Kabungsuwan the establishment of Sultanate of Maguindanao (Liclican,
2014), the sultanate form of governance Mindanao.
In 1435 and after, the Ming dynasty began a slow withdrawal from SE Asia (Beyer, 1932,
130) that quickened the pace of the Islamic conquest and consolidation throughout the region,
including the islands of Ma-i (Steiger, 1936, 334).
In 1450, Abu Bakr, a Muslim from Johore, arrived at Sulu and married Rajah Baguindas
daughter, Princess Paramisuli. He established the Sultanate of Sulu, which was the first Muslim
86
It was this rather recent creation of a state that Legazpi encountered when the center of Spanish control in the
Philippines was shifted from Cebu to Manila in 1571.
sultanate in Mindanao, (Magdalena, n. d.). When Baguinda died, he became sultan, reshaped
governance as a traditional Arabian sultanate, and modified local customs according to Koranic
laws. His rule lasted until his death in 1480.
By1460, Islamic culture had changed many Mindanao communities into sultanates and
principalities87 that were active in the maritime trade with SE Asia, India, Japan, and China.
In 1475, Johores Muslim leader, Sharif Kabungsuwan, and his men arrived from Johore
(now Malaysia), converted natives to Islam, and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao,
making him as the first sultan in Mindanao (Agoncillo & Alfonso, 1967, 26; Zaide, 1939, 46-47;
Pisano, 1992, 27).
In 1478, Madjapahit succumbed to the Islamic armies of Rajah Bonang (Zaide, 1939, 4647), and the Mohammedan-Malay Empire of Malacca emerged. At the height of its power,
Malacca controlled the former Sinic colonies: Malaysia, Borneo, Sulu, Mindanao, the Moluccas,
the north coast of Java, and much of Sumatra. Malacca grew in power and riches by controlling
international Asian trade but was constantly pressured by competition from the Siamese
Kingdom.
In 1511, Malacca surrendered when the Portuguese systematically destroyed the the
Mohammedan-Malay Empire. (Beyer, 1932, 130-131; Pisano, 1992, 27-28)
Meanwhile, operating as sovereign states, the early Muslim sultanates in Sulu were the
first to develop cohesive political organizations, considered the most advanced in the Philippine
islands at that time (Tuminez, 2007, 77-91; Gowing & McAmis, 1974, ix; Cline, 2000, 117).
These sultanates established nationhood: a territory, people, government, and sovereignty
(Santos, 2005, 67). The sultanates provided Mindanao Muslims with an identity as peoples
distinct from the inhabitants of Luzon and the Visayas (Muslim & Cagoco-Guiam 1999). The
political influence of the sultanates extended to what is known today as Brunei, as well as the
provinces of Cebu, Panay, Mindoro, and Ilocos (Aquino, 2009, 22-23, from Abreau, 2008, 18).
By mid-1500s, Islamic political institutions had become prominent (Cline, 2000, 115138). Mindanao and Sulu were places of flourishing Islamic communities and settlements under
the sultanates that had been established and that provided a system of rules and governance
87
other tribes in Luzon and the Visayas remained scattered and unconsolidated
(Buendia, 2005). During this period, the Moros comprised more than 90% of the populations of
Mindanao and Sulu (Bacani, 2005).
The international trading ports in Jolo and Maguindanao at that time, even before the
reported discovery of the Philippines by Magellan, werre said to be already receiving ships and
visitors from Arabia, China, Spain, France, the Netherlands, and Britain (Luga, 2002, 2). An
early Sulu manuscript indicates that, in the century before the arrival of the Spaniards, up to five
hundred junks arrived each year from Cambodia, Champa, and China (Beyer, 1921, 862; Pisano,
1992, 12).
By the end of the 15th century, Islamic missionaries had established sultanates in Lanao
and Cotabato, with Islam had spreading to Luzon, skipping most of the Visayans who were more
resistant to the Moslems. In Manila, Muslim leaders Rajah Sulaiman Mahmud, Rajah Matanda,
and Rajah Lakandula had also established their respective sultanates (Aquino, 2009, 21).
To this day, traces of Hindunized Muslim influences in the Philippines abound.,
Philippine vocabulary includes sultan (king), raha (heir), dayang (princess) and kali (judge)
from Arabic (Liclican, 2014). Muslim arts in Mindanao now include the Maranao sarimanok,
said to be an adaptation of the mythical Indic fowl, the garuda. The onion-shaped minarets of
mosques echo Arabic architecture.
In 1521, the sultan and datus of Magindanao ruled the southern and western shores of
Mindanao (Saleeby, 1905. pp. 7-8; 25-26) Spanish and American colonizers failed to subjugate
them. Mindanao and Sulu could not be covered by the Spanish agrarian system (or) other
land tenurial arrangements (as) in the Visayas and Mindanao (Luga, 2002, 2).
As a result, the other islands spoke of the Moro in fear. They became ferocious pirates
infesting the southern seas and preying upon the rich trade which the Spaniards carried on with
Mexico. Stone walls and watch towers were built at advantageous points to guard against them,
but bays and creeks which afforded opportunities for lurking, surprise, and attack continued to be
frequented by the treacherous warriors (Cole, 1916).
Some versions of the Syair Awang Semaun trace the foundation of Brunei to
fourteen saudara (brothers and first cousins). Other versions say they were all sons of
Dewa Amas of Kayangan, a supernatural being who fell to earth in an egg at Ulu
Limbang, and fathered them by fourteen different aboriginal wives (Buyers, 2011)
Official documents, however, seem to find no need to use mythology. For instance, the
High Commission of India (2016) in Brunei echoes the official line, that in the 6th century,
Brunei was a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom but converted to Islam late in the 14the century when its
ruler, Awang Alak Betatar, married a Muslim Johore princess from Malacca (p. 3). In another
source, the 2011 annual report of the Brunei Prime Minister's Office says that three of its recent
Sultans can trace their ancestry straight back to the first Sultan, Mohammed Shah, who ruled
from 1363 to 1402 the first Muslim ruler of Brunei Darussalam, after converting to Islam at
the start of his reign (p. 19).
There are other sources, however, that interestingly support the aforementioned account.
Pisano (1992), for instance, states that sometime in mid-1500s, a Bisaya named Alak ber Tala
became Sultan Mohammed when he was crowned the king of the Islamic sultanate of Brunei, a
small empire close to the Philippines. Sultan Mohammed introduced Arabic doctrines into his
kingdom as well as the use of Arabic writing made his reign the beginning of Bruneis local
recorded history (p. 28).
However, Pisano does not specify if Tala is from the Bisaya of Borneo (Wikipedia,
Bisaya (Borneo) or if he was a Filipino Bisaya. Other sources are equally vague about his
genealogy, describing his rule from 1368, his conversion to Islam in the 1360s, and his death in
1402 (Sidhu, 2009, 20; Malay History; Elisseeff, 2000, pp. 145157) but not his origin, only
saying that The genealogy of Muhammad Shah is unclear and that The early life of
Muhammad Shah is unknown (Wikipedia, Muhammad Shah of Brunei).
Although the Shaer Awang Semaun, Bruneis foundation myth, would rather give him
legendary status (Bowman, 410) rather than establish that his Filipino roots emanate from a
Filipino or from a sub-ethnic Dayak tribe (Wikipedia, Bisaya (Borneo),88 Buyers (2011)
unequivocally states the aboriginal origins of the first sultan of Brunei:
88
The strategy of claiming mythological descent to legitimize rule is not without historical precedent; it has been
used by many ruling classes in various eras all over the world (Birenbaum-Carmeli & Carmell, 2010, 139; Kalt, 2004,
1; Alikuzai, 2013 p. 367; Hekster, 2015, 18; Haviland, et. al, 2013, 508; Chaix, 2004; & Genealogical Gleanings,
2004).
Paduka Sri Sultan Muhammad Shah, Sultan of Brunei, a younger son of Dewa
Amas of Kayangan, by an aboriginal lady. He was chosen by the saudara to become
the first ruler. Constructed his palace at Pirasung. He supposedly journeyed to Johor
and received confirmation as ruler and was invested with the title of Paduka Sri Sultan
Muhammad Shah by the Johor Sultan. m. [ca. 1365,] Dayang Sri Alam#2, a lady from
Johor. He [d. 1402, having] had issue, a son a one daughter
It should be noted that, at that time, Brunei was Indic territory. Hose and McDougall
(1912) cite evidence to prove that Bruni, before it became Mohammedan, was a Bisaya
kingdom under Buddhist sovereigns and Hindu influence (p1).89 In addition, they cite local
tradition regarding the Bisayan first sultan of Brunei:
How early the Arab doctrines were taught in Bruni is impossible to state with any
precision. Local tradition ascribes their introduction to the renowned Alak ber Tata,
afterwards known as Sultan Mohammed. Like most of his subjects this warrior was a
Bisaya, and in early life he was not a Mohammedan, not indeed a civilised potentate at
all, to judge by conventional standards; for the chief mark of his royal dignity was an
immense chawat, or loin-cloth, carried as he walked by eighty men, forty in front and
forty behind. He is the earliest monarch of whom the present Brunis have any
knowledge, a fact to be accounted for partly by the brilliance of his exploits, partly by
the introduction about that time of Arabic writing. After much fighting he subdued the
people of Igan, Kalaka, Seribas, Sadong, Semarahan, and Sarawak, and compelled
them to pay tribute. He stopped the annual payment to Majapahit of one jar of pinang
juice, a useless commodity though troublesome to collect (pp 17-19).
After Alak ber Tatas conversion to Islam, marriage to the daughter of Sultan Bakhei, and
proclamation as Sultan Johore, his claim to rule Sarawak was confirmed. It might be noted that
his rule was not strictly Islamic but rather Hindunized Islam. When his brother and then his
brother in law succeeded him, his Bisayan origin was always remembered:
the present royal house of Bruni is derived from three sources -- Arab, Bisaya,
and Chinese. The coronation ceremony as still maintained the principal minister
wears a turban and Haji outfit, the two next in rank are dressed in Chinese and Hindu
fashion, while the fourth wears a chawat over his trousers to represent the Bisayas
(Hose & McDougall, 1912, pp. 19-20)
In 1480 up to 1520 when Nadoka Ragam, the great-grandnephew of Sultan Mohammed
nee Alak ber Tata, became the fifth Sultan of Brunei, the kingdom extended its influence. At that
time, the power of Malacca was starting to decline. Ragam was able to bring all of Borneo,
Sulu, Palawan, Mindoro, south and central Luzon, parts of the Visayan Islands and Mindanao,
and the Moluccan archipelago under his control (Pisano, 1992, 28).
89
From Groeneveldt, Notes on Malay Aicchipelago and Malacca; and from Trubner, Essays Relating to Indo-China,
vol. i. p. 166).
In 1485, the Tondo Kingdom (Tungdu in Cantonese), the capital of the Luzon Empire,
had so strongly monopolized the China trade that forces of Sultan Bulkia of Brunei
attacked Todno, and then established on the opposite bank a Bruneian satellite-state named
Selurong90 (now Manila). To weaken the House of Lakandula of Tondo, Sultan Bolkia Islamized
Rajah Salalila and established the Salalila dynasty (Kasumi, 2009).
In 1513 until 1533, Buyers (2011) says that the reign of Sultan Bolkiah Shah Alam saw
Brunei becoming a great Imperial power in the region and extended its influence over large
parts of Borneo and the Philippines, including the sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao (2011).
Or Kota Seludong
islands with Borneo as well as confirmed that India then governed Luzon: (Pisano, 1992, 28-29;
Scott, 1994; Pangilinan, 2009a).
The Lucoes are about ten days sail beyond Borneo. They are nearly all heathen;
they have no king, but they are ruled by groups of elders. They are a robust people,
little thought of in Malacca. They have two or three junks, at the most. They take the
merchandise to Borneo and from there they come to Malacca.
The Borneans go to the lands of the Lucoes to buy gold, and foodstuffs as well,
and the gold which they bring to Malacca is from the Lucoes and from the
surrounding islands which are countless; they all have more or less trade with one
another. And the gold of these islands where they trade is of a low quality indeed
very low quality. The Lucoes have in their country plenty of foodstuffs, and wax and
honey; they take the same merchandise from here as the Borneans take.
They are almost one people; in Malacca there is no division between them. They
never used to be in Malacca as they are now; but the Tomunguo whom the Governor
of India appointed here was already beginning to gather many of them together, and
Figure 12: The Dutch Trade Route ca. 1650 (ireneses.files.wordpress.com)
they were already building many houses and shop (Cortesao, 1944, 133-134; Pisano,
1992, 29).
The preceding quote validates three points: Indias use of Borneo to govern Maritime
Asia, that the Philippines was then under India, and that Malacca -Philippines migrations and
trade was continuing91 (Pisano, 1992, 29).
91
For instance, Pires writes how Philippine trade to Malacca included trading outposts in Borneo.
The preceding sections show how the Sri-Vishayan Empire governed the Philippines
through its vassal states in Borneo. Indias hold over the Philippines lasted until the arrival of the
Spaniards, which begun the Philippine colonial narrative. This precolonial narrative shows more
than 800 years of Hindu colonization prior to the Spanish regime. As Pisano (1992 citing Beyer,
1932, 131; and Craig, 1914, 12) points out:
The ties between Brunei and their Philippine dependencies were maintained
throughout the Madjapahit, Chinese, and Islamic periods. When the Portuguese
arrived in the Moluccas, and the Spaniards in the Philippines, the Brunei Sultanate
was their most influential rival in the region (28).
According to the Virtual Museum of the Museo Galileo, Ferdinand Magellan was not
even Spanish, and his island finds were accidental rather than calculated. The entry goes thus:
Ferdinand Magellan, 1480-1521: A Portuguese navigator employed by Spain,
Magellan believed in the existence of a passage from the West to the Indies.
Convinced Charles V (1500-1558) to fund the search. On September 20, 1519, left on
an expedition to the southern part of the American continent. Discovered Patagonia
and Tierra del Fuego. On November 28, 1520, crossed the strait that was later named
after him, venturing into a vast ocean where no westerners had ever sailed before. For
the entire three months of north-westerly navigation, the ocean remained calm,
prompting the travelers to call it the Pacific. Magellan sailed on to the Philippines,
where, on April 27, 1521, he was killed by natives on the small island of Mactan.
Nevertheless, he claimed the islands for his patron, and that ended any historical
possibility of the Filipinos to continue being Animist Buddhist or being Hindunized Moslems; or
to be known by some other name other than Filipino, the people of Felipe, the king of Spain.
Thus ended the prehistoric and the precolonial narratives of the archipelago we now
know as the Philippines.
3.3.1 Language
The omitted chapter discusses precolonial literacy, Indic cultural influences, and a survey
of Philippine languages so as to trace the transfer of Sanskrit words via the Champa Empire,
which is linked to the Harappan culture of the first Indus Valley civilization.
Although the chapter is omitted, the table of 216 Philippine languages in the Appendix
shows those which can be traced not only to Austronesian roots, but also to those related to the
languages of the ancient empires of India (See: Languages of the Philippines).
Subanon Sondayo and the Ag Tubig Nog Keboklogan; the Maranao kaiju, Bidasari, Darangen
Bantugan, Indarapatra Sulayman, and the Maharadia Lawana; the Tausug parang sabil, tigumtigum, masala, daman, pituwa, malikata, tilik, tarasul, katakata, salsila, parang sabil, the
Kaawin Kissa, Usula Kissa, the Kissa Parang Sabil ni Panglima Hassan, and the Panglima
Munggona; as well as literary traditions of the Jama Mapun, Samal, Badjao, Yakan, and Palawan
Moslem tribes. Arabic-inspired literature for use in rituals was in this omitted section.
The repercussions of omitting these chapters are discussed in the chapter on Humanistic
Analysis.
The next section, Empirical Analyses, explains the use of objective approaches to create a
rich body of textual analysis and literary criticism. Text samples included ethnographic as well
as literary texts. Intangibles such as superstitions and filial piety as well as other values were
included. Finally, procedures, instructions, and exercise charts / tables for skills practice in
mixed-methods research were provided.
EMPIRICAL ANALYSES
The pros and cons of applying empirical approaches to literary analysis have been
exhaustively debated in other published works. This chapter will focus on showing how
statistical procedures can be used to elicit meaningful data from selected ethnographic as well as
literary text samples. This is offered as a step prior to humanistic analysis, which is discussed in
the next chapter.
The ethnographic text samples include textual descriptions of 206 superstitions. Literary
text samples are summaries of epics from the literary traditions of precolonial Philippines.
The following table summarizes the information of the findings regarding the frequency
of the values of filial piety as reflected in current folk beliefs in the Philippines.
Table 16: Values of Folk Beliefs in the Philippines
1st
2nd
3rd
3rd
4th
4th
5th
6th
6th
7th
7th
7th
TOTALS
RANK
11
7
0
9
3
7
0
5
8
1
1
1
53
1st
2
2
5
3
1
1
9
3
0
0
8
0
34
2nd
0
7
0
5
0
0
0
1
0
10
0
7
30
3rd
7
5
2
0
0
3
4
0
3
0
0
0
24
4th
15
3
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
21
5th
7
1
0
0
4
3
0
1
0
0
0
3
19
6th
2
0
14
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
18
7th
0
0
0
5
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
8th
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
3
9th
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
10th
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
th
10
Total
Awareness of
Nature
Unknown or
Uncertain
Health and
Safety
SelfAwareness
Proper
Behavior
Hospitality or
Charity
Family and
Marriage
Routines or
Traditions
Filial Piety
Folk Beliefs
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Positive
Outlook
Rank
Values
44
25
22
22
15
15
13
12
12
11
11
11
206
Overall Frequency Rank: 3rd. The preceding table indicates that Filial Piety is a
relatively important value in Filipino folk beliefs. Overall, it ranks third in frequency,
after Uncertainty Avoidance, and Positive Outlook; higher than the values of Awareness
of Nature, Health and Safety, proper behavior, and tradition.
Group Frequency Rank: 1st. The table shows that Filial Piety ranks highest in folk
beliefs related to Infants and children, second in Pregnancy and Childbirth, and third in
Love, Courtship, and Marriage. Other findings include:
Frequency Rank 1st: Filial Piety ranks first in frequency in folk beliefs related to:
Pregnancy (See Table: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Pregnancy); Childbirth (See
Table: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Childbirth); Infants (See Table: Beliefs &
Superstitions Related to Infants); Children (See Table: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to
Children); and Death (See Table: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Death).
Frequency Rank 2nd: Filial Piety ranks second in frequency in folk beliefs related to
Love, Courtship, and Marriage. (See Table: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Love,
Courtship, & Marriage).
Frequency Rank 4th: Filial Piety ranks fourth in folk beliefs related to Numbers and
Colors (See Table: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Numbers & Colors) and the Human
Body (See Table: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to the Human Body).
Zero Frequency: Filial Piety does not appear in this set of folk beliefs related to Luck,
Numbers & Colors, Money and Wealth, or Food and Eating.
4.2 Superstitions
As of this writing, folk beliefs or superstitions remain alive not only in the hinterlands
and the provinces but also in the most modern areas of large cities.
The perceived powers of these beliefs remain the same, whether the Filipino has Chinese
or animist ancestors. Superstitions survive for their power to attract and increase positive forces
as well as to ward away negative forces.
Filipinos have a number of folk beliefs about life, family, luck, wealth, etc.. The
Tagalog terms for folk beliefs and superstitions are: paniniwala (beliefs), kasabihan ng mga
matatanda92, and pamahiin93 (Cruz, 1996).
92
TOTALS
RANK
11
7
0
9
3
7
0
5
8
1
1
1
53
1st
2
2
5
3
1
1
9
3
0
0
8
0
34
2nd
7
5
2
0
0
3
4
0
3
0
0
0
24
4th
15
3
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
21
5th
7
1
0
0
4
3
0
1
0
0
0
3
19
6th
2
0
14
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
18
7th
0
0
0
5
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
8th
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
3
9th
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
10th
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
10th
%
RANK
Others
24
23
21
19
18
Routines or
Traditions
Filial Piety
34
Family and
Marriage
Awareness of
Nature
53
Health and
Safety
SelfAwareness
Proper
Behavior
Hospitality or
Charity
Positive
Outlook
FOLK
BELIEFS
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Total
206
25.7 16.5 11.6 11.2 10.29 9.2 8.7 4.4 1.4 0.5 0.5
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 10th
From the frequency counts in the preceding table, it can be argued that folk values in the
Philippines today place much importance on Uncertainty Avoidance, which includes mental
preparations for possibilities, probabilities, and likelihoods, regardless of whether or not these
would happen.
This argument is directly related to maintaining equanimity also known as coping or
sanity in complex and uncertain environments. Equanimity can be argued as a primary goal for
keeping a Positive Outlook, which ranks second in frequency after Uncertainty Avoidance.
Total
0
7
0
5
0
0
0
1
0
10
0
7
30
3rd
Health and
Safety
SelfAwareness
Proper
Behavior
Hospitality
or Charity
Family and
Marriage
Routines or
Traditions
Others
Awareness
of Nature
Folk Beliefs
Filial Piety
1st
2nd
3rd
3rd
4th
4th
5th
6th
6th
7th
7th
7th
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Positive
Outlook
Rank
Values
44
25
22
22
15
15
13
12
12
11
11
11
206
That the most unpredictable and uncontrollable elements are those of nature appears to
be tacitly acknowledged by the Filipino culture as reflected in its value system, where the values
of respect for natural forces rank third in frequency
In this connection, the geography and meteorology of the Philippine Archipelago
includes extreme winds, heat, drought, as well as heavy rainfall and volcanic-tectonic events in
addition to tsunamis and annual typhoons.
Secondary in power but higher in frequency are negative human behaviors such as crime,
corruption, abuse of power, and human errors; as well as increasing populations and decreasing
resources and opportunities. All these require a higher level of equanimity than living in other
locations, thus the highest frequencies of Uncertainty Avoidance and Positive Outlook in the
preceding table.
Folk beliefs can be of two types: explicit-prescriptive (Dos and Donts) which comprise
a high 61.5%; and implicit-symbolic (signs and portents) which comprise a low 38.5% of the
sample of 219 folk beliefs. It can thus be argued that practical beliefs are 23% more frequent
than purely superstitious beliefs.
Filial Piety
Health and
Safety
Positive
Outlook
Others
Awareness
of Nature
Proper
Behavior
SelfAwareness
Hospitality
or Charity
Family and
Marriage
Routines or
Traditions
Dos &
Donts
%
RANK
Uncertainty
Avoidance
26
20
19
19
15
13
123
21.1
1st
16.3
2nd
15.4
3rd
15.4
3rd
12.2
4th
10.6
5th
5.7
6th
2.4
7th
0.8
8th
0.0
0.0
59.7%
%
RANK
SelfAwareness
Positive
Outlook
Awareness of
Nature
Others
Hospitality or
Charity
Proper
Behavior
Filial Piety
Family and
Marriage
Routines or
Traditions
Health and
Safety
signs &
portents
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Out of
206
27
15
15
11
81
2.5
5th
2.5
5th
2.6
6th
1.2
6th
1.2
6th
0.0
39.3%
The highest ranking signs and portents are: Uncertainty Avoidance (33.3%); SelfAwareness and Keeping a Positive Outlook in negative or uncertain situations (18.5% each), and
Awareness of Nature (13.5%). Filial Piety ranks sixth after hospitality and proper behavior, but
ranks the same as family and marriage, tradition, as well as Health and Safety. The preceding
tables indicate that filial piety is more explicit-prescriptive than implicit-symbolic.95
This preceding table lays the argument for equanimity as a strong element of a culturally
survivalist-pragmatic mindset in terms of implicit or symbolic folk beliefs. These highestranking frequencies of Uncertainty Avoidance, Self-Awareness, and Keeping a Positive Outlook
are contributive factors to mental equanimity, as well as to a pragmatic-survivalist set of
behavioral frameworks.
95
As stated before, the traditional core unit of Filipino society is the family rather than the individual. This
importance accorded to the family unit means that folk beliefs would instead of leaving family roles and
relationships to chance or to subtexts clearly explicate family structures, roles, and functions.
Table 21: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to House, Home, and Family
Rank
1st
2nd
3rd
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Values
Positive Outlook
Awareness of Nature
Uncertainty Avoidance
Self-Awareness
Health and Safety
Proper Behavior
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Filial Piety
Unknown or Uncertain
Total
%
Signs &
Portents
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
13.33
Total
9
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
13
86.67
9
4
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
60.00
26.67
13.33
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
15
100
With regards to folk beliefs or superstitions that are related to house, home, and family,
the ranked frequency values are Positive Outlook (60%), followed by Awareness of Nature
(26.67%), and then by Uncertainty Avoidance (13.33%). Filial Piety does not appear in this set
of folk beliefs related to house, home, and family.
Values
Health and Safety
Uncertainty Avoidance
Proper Behavior
Self-Awareness
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Positive Outlook
Filial Piety
Awareness of Nature
Unknown or Uncertain
Total
%
Total
4
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
%
28.60
20.20
20.20
06.00
06.00
06.00
06.00
07.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
14
100
With regards to folk beliefs or superstitions that are related to food and food
consumption, the ranked frequency values are safety first, followed by Uncertainty Avoidance,
and then by expected behaviors. Filial Piety does not appear in this set of folk beliefs related to
food and eating.
Values
Positive Outlook
Self-Awareness
Uncertainty Avoidance
Hospitality or Charity
Health and Safety
Proper Behavior
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Filial Piety
Awareness of Nature
Unknown or Uncertain
Total
%
Total
8
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%
74.50
08.50
08.50
08.50
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
11
100
Values
Uncertainty Avoidance
Proper Behavior
Filial Piety
Positive Outlook
Self-Awareness
Health and Safety
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Awareness of Nature
Unknown or Uncertain
Total
%
Total
9
5
5
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%
40.90
22.72
22.72
13.63
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
22
100
4.3.9 Pregnancy
There are eight (8) samples of superstitions or folk beliefs related to Pregnancy. This
includes two (2) implicit-symbolic signs and portents that can be said to support or promote the
values of Filial Piety and of Uncertainty Avoidance (See detailed Signs & Portents Related to
Pregnancy); as well as six (6) explicit-prescriptive Dos and Donts that can be said to support or
promote the values of Filial Piety, Health and Safety, and of Uncertainty Avoidance (See
detailed Dos & Donts Related to Pregnancy).
With regards to folk beliefs or superstitions that are related to Pregnancy, the ranked
frequency values are Filial Piety (5%), Health or Safety (37.5%), and Uncertainty Avoidance
(12.5%). The following table summarizes the information.
Table 25: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Pregnancy
Rank
1st
2nd
3rd
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Values
Filial Piety
Health and Safety
Uncertainty Avoidance
Positive Outlook
Self-Awareness
Proper Behavior
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Awareness of Nature
Unknown or Uncertain
Total
%
Total
4
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%
50.00
37.50
12.50
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
100
4.3.10 Childbirth
The phenomenon of lower population rates among more educated or wealthier people has
long been discussed but never empirically proven. In this analysis, it would seem that Childbirth,
though fraught with danger and pain, could be considered less urgent or more routine than other
values examined in the research.
There are three (3) samples of superstitions or folk beliefs related to Childbirth. This
includes no (0) implicit-symbolic signs and portents; as well as three (3) explicit-prescriptive
Dos and Donts that can be said to support or promote the values of Filial Piety (See detailed
Dos & Donts Related to Childbirth).
With regards to folk beliefs or superstitions that are related to Childbirth, only values of
filial piety are indicated. There seems to be no other values in this group of folk beliefs. The
following table summarizes the information.
Table 26: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Childbirth
Rank
1st
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Values
Filial Piety
Positive Outlook
Self-Awareness
Uncertainty Avoidance
Health and Safety
Proper Behavior
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Total
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%
100.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
Rank
0
0
Values
Awareness of Nature
Unknown or Uncertain
Total
%
Total
0
0
%
00.00
00.00
100
4.3.11 Infants
The ethnological data shows considerable attention to Infants in relation to Uncertainty
Avoidance and in training them in family values.
There are seven (7) samples of superstitions or folk beliefs related to Infants. This
includes no (0) implicit-symbolic signs and portents. However, there are seven (7) explicitprescriptive Dos and Donts that can be said to support or promote the values of Filial Piety (6)
and Uncertainty Avoidance. (See detailed Dos & Donts Related to Infants).
With regards to folk beliefs or superstitions that are related to Infants, the ranked
frequency values are filial piety first (85.72%) followed by uncertainty avoidanc (14.28%). The
following table summarizes the information.
Table 27: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Infants
Rank
1st
2nd
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Values
Filial Piety
Uncertainty Avoidance
Positive Outlook
Self-Awareness
Health and Safety
Proper Behavior
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Awareness of Nature
Unknown or Uncertain
Total
%
Total
6
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%
85.72
14.28
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
100
4.3.12 Children
There are four (4) superstitions or folk beliefs related to children. This includes no (0)
implicit-symbolic signs and portents but includes four (4) explicit-prescriptive Dos and Donts
that can be said to support or promote the values of Filial Piety (4; See detailed Dos & Donts
Related to Children).
With regards to folk beliefs or superstitions that are related to children, the ranked
frequency values are Filial Piety (100.00%). The following table summarizes the information.
Values
Filial Piety
Positive Outlook
Self-Awareness
Uncertainty Avoidance
Health and Safety
Proper Behavior
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Awareness of Nature
Unknown or Uncertain
Total
%
Total
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%
100.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
100
Values
Uncertainty Avoidance
Positive Outlook
Awareness of Nature
Hospitality or Charity
Filial Piety
Self-Awareness
Health and Safety
Proper Behavior
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Total
14
5
2
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
%
60.87
21.74
08.69
04.35
04.35
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
Rank
0
Values
Unknown or Uncertain
Total
%
Total
0
%
00.00
23
100
Values
Awareness of Nature
Positive Outlook
Unknown or Uncertain
Self-Awareness
Health and Safety
Uncertainty Avoidance
Proper Behavior
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Filial Piety
Total
%
Total
2
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
%
33.36
16.66
16.66
16.66
16.66
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
100
4.3.15 Death
There are twenty-one (21) samples of superstitions or folk beliefs related to death. This
includes ten (10) implicit-symbolic signs and portents that can be said to support or promote the
values of Uncertainty Avoidance [6], Filial Piety, Awareness of Nature, Unknown or Uncertain,
Positive Outlook, and of Health and Safety (See details in Signs & Portents Related to Death;
and in Signs & Portents Related to Wakes); as well as eleven (11) explicit-prescriptive Dos and
Donts that can be said to support or promote the values of Uncertainty Avoidance, Filial Piety
[6], Awareness of Nature [2], and an Unknown or Uncertain value (See details in Dos & Donts
Related to Death; in Dos & Donts Related to Wakes; and in Dos & Donts Related to
Funerals).
With regards to folk beliefs or superstitions that are related to death, the ranked frequency
values are uncertainy avoidance and Filial Piety (33.33% each), followed by Awareness of
Nature (14.28%), one Unknown or Uncertain value, and then by Positive Outlook and Health
and Safety (4.76% each. The following table summarizes the information.
Table 31: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Death
Rank
1st
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
4th
0
0
0
0
0
Values
Uncertainty Avoidance
Filial Piety
Awareness of Nature
Unknown or Uncertain
Positive Outlook
Health and Safety
Self-Awareness
Proper Behavior
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Total
%
Total
7
7
3
2
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
%
33.33
33.33
14.28
09.54
04.76
04.76
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
21
100
Values
Uncertainty Avoidance
Positive Outlook
Unknown or Uncertain
Health and Safety
Filial Piety
Self-Awareness
Proper Behavior
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Awareness of Nature
Total
%
Total
5
3
2
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
%
41.67
25.00
16.67
08.33
08.33
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
12
100
Values
Uncertainty Avoidance
Awareness of Nature
Unknown or Uncertain
Positive Outlook
Self-Awareness
Health and Safety
Proper Behavior
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Filial Piety
Total
%
Total
8
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%
66.67
25.00
08.33
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
12
100
promote the values of Uncertainty Avoidance [2], and of Awareness of Nature [3] (See details in
Signs & Portents Related to Bad & Good Luck); as well as ten (10) explicit-prescriptive Dos
and Donts that can be said to support or promote the values of Uncertainty Avoidance [5],
Health or Safety [3], Positive Outlook, and proper behavior (See details in Dos & Donts
Related to Good & Bad Luck).
With regards to folk beliefs or superstitions that are related to Good and Bad Luck, the
ranked frequency values are Uncertainty Avoidance (469.66%), Health or Safety and Awareness
of Nature (20% each), Positive Outlook and proper behavior (6.67% each). Filial Piety does not
appear in this set of folk beliefs related to Good and Bad Luck. The following table summarizes
the information.
Table 34: Beliefs & Superstitions Related to Bad & Good Luck
Rank
1st
2nd
2nd
3rd
3rd
0
0
0
0
0
0
Values
Uncertainty Avoidance
Health and Safety
Awareness of Nature
Positive Outlook
Proper Behavior
Self-Awareness
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Filial Piety
Unknown or Uncertain
Total
%
Total
7
3
3
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
%
46.66
20.00
20.00
06.67
06.67
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
100
There are forty-four (44) samples of other superstitions or folk beliefs. This includes
three (3) implicit-symbolic signs and portents that can be said to support or promote the values of
Unknown or Uncertain value, Uncertainty Avoidance, and of Self-Awareness (See details in
Signs & Portents Related to Sleeping & Dreaming; and in Signs & Portents Related to Some
Days); as well as forty-one (41) explicit-prescriptive Dos and Donts that can be said to support
or promote the values of Unknown or Uncertain value [14], Uncertainty Avoidance [10], Health
or Safety [7], Awareness of Nature [7], Positive Outlook [2], and Self-Awareness (See details in
Dos & Donts Related to Sleeping & Dreaming; in Dos & Donts Related to Nightfall; in Dos
& Donts Related to Some Days; in Dos & Donts Related to Bathing & Showering; and in
Other Dos & Donts).
With regards to folk beliefs or superstitions that are related to Other Folk Beliefs, the
ranked frequency values are Unknown or Uncertain value (34.10%), Uncertainty Avoidance
(25%), Health or Safety and Awareness of Nature (15.9% each), Positive Outlook and SelfAwareness (4.55% each). Filial Piety does not appear in Other Folk Beliefs. The following table
summarizes the information.
Table 35: Other Folk Beliefs & Superstitions
Rank
1st
2nd
3rd
3rd
4th
5th
0
0
0
0
0
Values
Unknown or Uncertain
Uncertainty Avoidance
Health and Safety
Awareness of Nature
Positive Outlook
Self-Awareness
Proper Behavior
Hospitality or Charity
Family and Marriage
Tradition, Routines
Filial Piety
Total
%
Total
15
11
7
7
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
%
34.10
25.00
15.90
15.90
04.55
04.55
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00
44
100
How the results of the preceding empirical analyses can be used with the humanistic
approach to examine intangibles such as filial piety or superstitions in selected precolonial
Philippine folk epics will be explained in the next chapter (Humanistic Analysis).
Prior to that, however, the next section (Value Frequency Counts) shows how simple
statistical procedures can be used to not only elicit but also examine and prove intangible
elements in literary texts.
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Title or Label
3
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
3
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
8
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
14
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
TBC
The derivations of the summary data in the preceding table are detailed in each of the
sections that follow.
The primary goal of this chapter is the exemplification of the mixed-methods approach in
literary analysis. On the assumption that analysis of folk literature in English usually involves the
analysis of with English translations rather than original text, it is also assumed that truncated
versions or modified texts are available to most researchers.
Between what is lost in translation and what can be lost by using statistical processes on
literary texts, there is reason to argue against mixed methods research approaches in literary
analyses.
However, the following sections will show that even a researcher with minimal literary
knowledge can create richer, more in-depth textual analyses from the hidden patterns and
relationships that are revealed by simple frequency counts of selected elements or values in a
body of text, regardless of textual length, tone, or language.
It is for this reason that this research precludes the explication of more sophisticated
statistical procedures. Rather, the discussion is limited to simpler numbers processing such as
tabulation, frequency counting, addition, and averaging. The purpose is a gentle introduction to
meaningful use of statistics among the nonmathematical population of researchers.
Question: How would the table look like if only two elements are being analyzed?
Answer: The table would look like the table that follows.
Question: What is the purpose of the column Other Values in the other examples?
Answer: Those values can be used to create another table that identifies all the possible
values that can be found in the texts being examined.
Question: If the text is different from the examples in this paper, will the procedure
differ? Answer: The procedure will be the same as described here. However, the results
will differ from the examples in this paper.
To exemplify the preceding answers and questions, the following summary of Darangen
Bantugan with 23 sentences or lines is used in the next table, which is unlike one example with
83 sentences, or another example with seven (07) sentences.
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
FB
FP
#
20
21
22
23
1.1.1.8.
FB
FP
10
Table Labels
The Darangen is tabulated and numbered (#) by sections for ease of analysis and
reference. The sections are divided according to content, not according to tradition. In addition:
The penultimate column is for scoring all obvious or currently recognizable instances of
superstitions or Folk Beliefs (FB).
The ultimate column is for scoring all obvious or currently recognizable instances of
Filial Piety (FP).
Each occurence is scored as one (1). The ultimate row shows the total frequencies of folk
beliefs and filial piety.
Analysis refers to the number of each section on the first column (#). These descriptions
are shown in the table Frequency of Folk Beliefs and Filial Piety in the Darangen Epic.
1.1.1.9.
The clear elements of Filial Piety in the text of the summary of Darangen Bantugan
include respect for elders and siblings. This is when Prince Bantugan leaves his kingdom in
sadness, accepting the proclamation of his brother, King Agaanon Dalinan. Another instance is
when the King asks for Prince Bantugans forgiveness at the end of the tale.
The objective analysis shows three instances of Filial Piety or filial love in the Darangen
Bantugan.
The first instance is when Bantugan left the palace, respecting his brother, the kings
edict of silence (#4).
The second instance is when he spoke to his nephew Daromimbang and his son
Baratamai Lumna before beginning his journey (#5).
The third instance is when his sister, Princess Liaminna, oils and combs his hair, then
prepares his betel nut; while his son Baratamai Lumna who wishes to come along, obeys his
order to stay (#6).
1.1.1.10.
Elements of Superstitions
The elemnts of Supersittions in the Darangen Bantugan include folk beliefs in sorcery, in
magic and in magic spells, in dreams and omens, in life after death, and in the angel of death.
The objective analysis shows ten (10) instances of folk beliefs or superstitions in the
Darangen Bantugan. One instance is when Bantugan calls on his diwata Magaw who flies him
to the tower of Princess Timbang (#8). Another instance is when sorcerers of Natangkopan a
Ragat were among those summoned to find a cure for Prince Bantugan (#10).
Another example is when Princess Lawanan dreams of Prince Bantugan being carried by
the angel of death to the sky, and this omen is later confirmed true (#14). Other examples include
in the belief of a place in the sky for the departed (#14, 16, 17, 18) as well as in heroic virility of
warriors, as well as in polygamy and the preeminence of males over females (#22, 23).
1.1.1.11.
Aside from Filial Piety, at least nine other values are in the epic: social peace,
responsibility in leadership, acting upon ones errors, magnanimity, faithfulness, social
responsibility, loyalty, beauty, and right triumphs over wrong (see Table: Frequency of Folk
Beliefs and Filial Piety in the Darangen Epic).
1.1.1.12.
One advantage of a table containing bilingual text is that a bilingual reader can spot
errors in translation, which can be colored for ease of identification. In the following table, the
cells are left blank to be used for practicing the statistical processes for acquiring skills in using
the empirical approach in literary analysis.
The procedural explanations are in preceding sections: tabulation method, gross
qualitative analysis, pure qualitative analysis. Preceding sections include examples of
statistically-supported text analysis of elements of filial piety, of elements of superstitious
beliefs, and other elements in literary works.
01
02
03
Darangen (Pilipino)
05
08
Total
Filial
Piety
Superstition
Other
Values
The preceding section begins by explaining the use of an empirical approach in literary
analysis by using simple statistical processes such as counting, recording, totaling, and
averaging. As well, the preceding section describes the tables, how they are labeled, and how
they are used.
How the statistical results are used in analyzing intangible elements in literary works are
exemplified in the analysis of filial piety, of superstitions belifes, as well as of other cultural
values that might happen to be identifiable in the text.
In the following section, a longer summary of the same epic, Darangen Bantugan, is
taken from another source and then analyzed in the same manner. However, two concepts are
introduced: the use of gross qualitative analysis, and the use of pure qualitative analysis.
Tabulation Method
The first column (##) numbers each row. In the second column (Summary) each sentence
of the epic is separated at one sentence per row. The third column (Superstition) and the fourth
column (Filial Piety) is used to score the frequency of each element, at 1 point per occurrence.
The last column (Other Values) is used to identify other cultural and literary values, not by
scoring but by textual description. These descriptive paragraph and the instructions therein are
exemplified in the following table.
Supers- Filial
tition Piety
1
Other Values
Democratic
consultation
0
0
0
0
Value of
youthful
abilities
Democratic
rule,
consultation
##
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
In the meantime Bantugan had been preparing everything for the marriage
which he expected to take place at the appointed time.
But as the days went by and Balatama did not return, they became
38
alarmed, fearing he was dead.
After three months had passed, Bantugan prepared a great expedition to
39 go in search of his son, and the great warship was decorated with flags of
gold.
As they came in sight of the Sultans city, they saw the Spanish fleet in the
40 harbor, and one of his brothers advised Bantugan not to enter until the
Spaniards left. They then brought their ship to anchor.
But all were disappointed that they could not go farther, and one said,
Why do we not go on? Even if the blades of grass turn into Spaniards we
41
need not fear.
37
Another said: Why do we fear? Even if the cannon-balls come like rain, we
can always fight.
Finally some wanted to return to their homes and Bantugan said: No, let
43 us seek my son. Even though we must enter the harbor where the
Spaniards are, let us continue our search.
So at his command the anchors were lifted, and they sailed into the harbor
44 where the Spanish fleet lay.
42
45
Now at this very time the Spanish general and his brother were with the
Sultan, intending to call upon the Princess.
Supers- Filial
tition Piety
Other Values
Democratic
counsel
Freedom to
share
personal
perspectives
Valor, courage
A win by the
underdog
Foreign threat;
fearful natives
Literary
element:
Complication
of the
narrative
Literary
element: rising
action
##
Supers- Filial
tition Piety
46 toward the window, and looking down they saw Bantugans ships entering
47
the harbor. They could not tell whose flags the ships bore.
Neither could the Sultan when he was called.
Then he sent his brother to bring his father who was a very old man, to see
45 if he could tell.
The father was kept in a little dark room by himself that he might not get
hurt, and the Sultan said to his brother: If he is so bent with age that he
49 cannot see, talk, or walk, tickle him in the ribs and that will make him young
again; and, my Brother, carry him here yourself lest one of the slaves
should let him fall and he should hurt himself.
So the old man was brought, and when he looked out upon the ships he
saw that the flags were those of the father of Bantugan who had been a
50 great friend of his in his youth.
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
And he told them that he and Bantugans father years ago had made a
contract that their children and childrens children should intermarry, and
now since the Sultan had promised his daughter to two people, he foresaw
that great trouble would come to the land.
Then the Sultan said to the General: Here are two claimants to my
daughters hand. Go aboard your ships and you and Bantugan make war
on each other, and the victor shall have my daughter.
So the Spaniards opened fire upon Bantugan, and for three days the earth
was so covered with smoke from the battle that neither could see his
enemy.
Then the Spanish general said: I cannot see Bantugan or the fleet
anywhere, so let us go and claim the Princess.
But the Sultan said: We must wait until the smoke rises to make sure that
Bantugan is gone.
When the smoke rose, the ships of Bantugan were apparently unharmed
and the Sultan said:
Bantugan has surely won, for his fleet is uninjured while yours is badly
damaged. You have lost.
No, said the General, we will fight it out on dry land.
So they both landed their troops and their cannon, and a great fight took
place, and soon the ground was covered with dead bodies.
And the Sultan commanded them to stop, as the women and children in
60
the city were being killed by the cannon-balls, but the General said:
If you give your daughter to Bantugan we shall fight forever or until we
61
die.
62 Then the Sultan sent for Bantugan and said:
We must deceive the Spaniard in order to get him to go away. Let us tell
63 him that neither of you will marry my daughter, and then after he has gone,
we shall have the wedding.
Bantugan agreed to this, and word was sent to the Spaniards that the
64
fighting must cease since many women and children were being killed.
So it was agreed between the Spaniard and Bantugan that neither of them
65
should marry the Princess.
66 Then they both sailed away to their homes.
Bantugan soon returned, however, and married the Princess, and on the
67
way back to his home they found his son and took him with them.
For about a week the Spanish general sailed toward his home and then he,
68
too, turned about to go back, planning to take the Princess by force.
When he found that she had already been carried away by Bantugan, his
69 wrath knew no bounds.
59
70
Other Values
Wisdom of the
aged
Value of
traditional
knowledge
Literary
element:
Complication
of the
narrative
Literary
element of
Flasback
Vivid imagery
Native
cunning
Literary
element of
foreshadowing
##
71
72
73
74
75
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
Supers- Filial
tition Piety
TOTALS
Other Values
Human
emotion
Self-sacrifice
Nationalism
Unequal
gender roles
Houris in a
Moslem
paradise
10
21
An example of a gross qualitative analysis can involve looking at the totals only. For
instance, the totals can be processed by using percentage averaging: each total can be divided by
the number of sentences (83) to elicit a percentage (of total). The figures can be ranked in order
of highest to lowest percentages. The result would be similar to the tabulated display in the
following table:
Table 40: Darangen Bantugan Percentage Averages of Totals
Rank
Total sentences
83
Of Total
1st
16
19.27%
2nd
10
12.04%
3rd
08.43%
4th
06.02%
TOTAL
38
1.1.1.14.
In the phrase gross qualitative analysis, the term gross refers to looking at the totals
only, which gives an overall view, not a detailed (or fine) view. Qualitative analysis refers to the
interpretation of numbers into sentences that describe qualities. In this manner, a qualitative
report includes statistical data to support each assertion. For instance, the preceding table can
support qualitative statements such as:
The epic Darangen Bantugan is primarily designed for entertainment. The sentences
containing obvious literary elements rank first, outranking the second element by 7.23%.
The second rank includes sentences containing elements of filial piety. This would seem
to be giver more importance (12.04%) than superstitions (08.43%), a difference of
3.61%.
Above all, the Darangen Bantugan is designed for storytelling. Of the 83 sentences
summarizing the narration, only 38 (or 45.78%) contain cultural values, folk beliefs, or
literary elements. More than 54% of the text is devoted to advancing the tension and
action, describing the literary characters, or resolving the dramatic conflict.
1.1.1.15.
In the phrase pure qualitative analysis, the term pure refers to the analysis of text-based
qualities that do not involve numerical measures, or number values. Qualitative analysis refers to
the discussion of qualities that are not measurable.
For instance, a qualitative analysis of this epic might take issue with the UNESCOattributed source giving the tale a prehispanic provenance despite Spanish soldiers and ships
figuring prominently in the story. In terms of believable visualization, or for the essential
element of fiction called willing suspension of disbelief, one might ask why one sinking ship
would draw in all other ships to sink as well: are there strings involved, or a whirlpool? In
terms of logical consistency, one might ask: if the hero can destroy the sultan, his city, and all its
people, why could he not destroy a riverful of uncountable ships? Is there a need for the dramatic
element of self-sacrifice to tug at the audience heartstrings?
The following short summary (seven lines) can be used to practice the method described in
the preceding sections. For familiarity, the summary is still of the same epic, Darangen
Bantugan.The following table can be used for practicing the statistical processes for acquiring
skills in using the empirical approach in literary analysis. The procedural explanations are in
preceding sections: tabulation method, gross qualitative analysis, pure qualitative analysis.
Preceding sections include examples of statistically-supported text analysis of elements of filial
piety, of elements of superstitious beliefs, and other elements in literary works.
Table 41: Darangen (07) Summary Practice Chart
##
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
Ullalim Banna
TOTAL
Supers- Filial
tition
Piety
Other Values
Justice,
Fairness
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
The next summary is almost as short (10 lines), and can be used to practice the method
described in the preceding sections. This time, the summary is of an Ifugao epic, the alim, a part
of the Hudhud epic cycle of north Philippines. It is sung rather than chanted. The primary subject
of the alim is the Ifugao pantheon of gods of the Ifugao culture (ICHCAP; Oxford Reference,
Alim Epic).
According the table detailing Indic elements in Philippine precolonial literature, the alim
includes elements from Indian literary tradition, particularly the Mahabharata (Sanskrit word for
great story). For instance, Balituk obtained water from a rock with his arrow, as did Arjuna in
the Hindu Mahabharata (Khatnani, 1969; Reyes & Perez III, n. d.).
The epic Alim is always chanted in an all-night a ritual and celebration that involves
much merriment and drinking of fermented rice wine drawn from stone jars (ICHCAP. n. d.).
The following summary used the informal English skills of a student.
The following table can be used for practicing the statistical processes for acquiring skills
in using the empirical approach in literary analysis. The procedural explanations are in preceding
sections: tabulation method, gross qualitative analysis, pure qualitative analysis. Preceding
sections include examples of statistically-supported text analysis of elements of filial piety, of
elements of superstitious beliefs, and other elements in literary works.
Table 44: Alim (10) Summary Practice Chart
##
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
Summary: Alim
The gods got pissed because people were asses and sent a
great flood to kill everyone and everything.
Siblings Wigan and Bugan survived by climbing Mt.
Amuyaw and Mt Kalawitan respectively.
Wigan stayed on his mountain til the waters subsided and
found Bugan half-buried.They built a home by the shore and
ate fish.
Bugan got pregnant! O.o She was going to drown herself
when their god Makanungan appeared and told her not to.
He married them and they had 5 boys and 4 girls.
There was a famine and they sacrificed a rat to Makanungan.
It didnt work, so they sacrificed the bunso Igon.
The famine stopped and Makanungan said they were crazy for
sacrificing a kid.
He then spread them to the four corners of the earth and they
now fight every time they get near each other as punishment
TOTAL
Supers
-tition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
The next exercise is is a 30-line summary. The table can be used to practice the method
described in the preceding sections. This time, the summary is of an Iloco epic, the Biag ni Lamang, which comes from unknown origins. Unlike the preceding examples, this is neither chanted
nor sung but recited in the style of the dallot, a poetic debate between the sexes (Maranan, et.
al. 2015). The following summary is by Daniel-Jay Pascual (2007).
The following table can be used for practicing the statistical processes for acquiring skills
in using the empirical approach in literary analysis. The procedural explanations are in preceding
sections: tabulation method, gross qualitative analysis, pure qualitative analysis. Preceding
sections include examples of statistically-supported text analysis of elements of filial piety, of
elements of superstitious beliefs, and other elements in literary works.
Table 45: Biag ni Lam-ang (30) Summary Practice Chart
##
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
The following table can be used for practicing the statistical processes for acquiring skills
in using the empirical approach in literary analysis. The procedural explanations are in preceding
sections: tabulation method, gross qualitative analysis, pure qualitative analysis. Preceding
Superstitions
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
01
This series of adventures started with his search for his lost father who
was murdered by the head-hunting Igorots in the Igorot country.
05
The serpent having been ignored challenged him into a fight which
cost the serpent its heads.
06
07
08
He asked the Igorots why they killed his father, but the Igorots instead
09 advised him to go home if he did not want to suffer the same fate
which his father suffered.
10
13
14
15
16
He resisted her blandishments, for his feeling for Cannoyan was far
greater for anyone to take.
17
18
With the help of his pets - the cock and the dog - he was able to catch
Cannoyans attention.
19 He asked her to go with him to the river along with her lady-friends.
##
20 She acceded.
Superstitions
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
While washing himself in the river, the river swelled, and the shrimps,
21 fishes and other creatures in the river were agitated for the dirt washed
23
He dove back into the water and engaged with the creature in a fierce
fight until the creature was subdued.
24
He brought it ashore and instructed the ladies to pull its teeth to serve
as amulets against danger during journeys.
25
He had to set aside his alibi that he went there to ask Cannoyan and
her friends to accompany him to the river, and told them, through his
26
spokesman - the cock - that he came to ask for Cannoyans hand in
marriage.
27
28 her and his townspeople to attend his wedding which was to take
30
There were fireworks, musical band, and display of attractive items like
the glasses, the mirror, the slippers, clothes and nice food.
31
After the wedding, Lam-angs party plus his wife and her town mates
went back to their town of Nalbuan, where festivities were resumed.
32
33
34
35
36
Cannoyan mourned and for a while she thought there was no way to
retrieve her lost husband.
37
But the rooster indicated that if only all the bones could be gathered
back, Lam-ang could be brought to life again.
38
She then enlisted the aid of a certain diver named Marcus, who was
ready to come to her aid to look for the bones.
39
When all Lam-angs bones were gathered, the rooster crowed and the
bones moved.
40
The dog barked, and Lam-ang arose and was finally resurrected.
41
42
For his deep appreciation for the help of his pets - the cock and the
dog - and of Marcus the diver, he promised that each other would get
his or its due reward.
##
43
Superstitions
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
Summary of Bidasari
The people in Kembayat were fussed in a giant bird
that eats human.
When the giant bird came back, they all hid out of fear.
The sultana, whos pregnant, however, was lost in the
woods.
Out of fear, she gave birth and forgot about the baby
when she left.
Luckily, a merchant saw the baby and a bowl
containing a live goldfish.
The merchant realized that the life of the baby was
attached to the live goldfish.
If the fish leaves the water, the baby will die.
The merchant adopted the baby.
Later on, the baby grew up into a very beautiful young
woman.
In the kingdom, the king has just remarried a beautiful
woman named Permaisuri.
Permaisuri was afraid that the king will fall in love with
someone else.
When the queen found out about Bidasari, she was
brought in the castle.
There, she became a slave but Permaisuri wasnt
satisfied.
So, when she found out about the secret of Bidasari,
she took the fish and made it into a necklace.
Thus, Bidasari died and was put in a beautiful tomb
located in the woods.
One day, the king went hunting in the woods and saw
the beautiful tomb.
He went inside and saw Bidasari sleeping.
The king waited Bidasari to wake up for two days.
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
#
19
20
21
22
23
24
Summary of Bidasari
Meanwhile, in the palace, the queen was taking a bath
and the fish managed to break free.
Thus, Bidasari was awakened.
The king talked to Bidasari and she told everything to
the king.
The king was so enraged.
Later on, the king took Bidasari and they got married.
Thus, Bidasari became the new queen of the kingdom
TOTAL
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Summary of Bidasari
When a simple merchant, his young son and mute servant are
01 out in the woods, they chance upon a drifting boat, in which
there is a baby girl and a bowl containing a live goldfish.
The merchant realises that the baby is unusual because her life
02 is bonded to the fish: if the fish leaves the water, she stops
breathing.
The merchant adopts the baby as his own and names her
03
Bidasari.
Years later Bidasari grows up into a beautiful young woman
04
while the merchant has prospered into a wealthy businessman.
At the royal palace of this kingdom, the King has just remarried
05
a beautiful woman, the Permaisuri (Queen).
The Permaisuri is a proud woman who secretly practises
06
witchcraft.
Hidden in her chambers is a magic mirror that can show her
07
anything she asks.
08 She uses it to ask who the most beautiful in all the land is.
One day when she asks the mirror this question, the image of
09
Bidasari appears in it.
She is enraged by this and carries out a search to find who
10
Bidasari is.
11 Her search leads her to the merchant's house.
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
Summary of Bidasari
32
33
34
35
36
37
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
Summary of Bidasari
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
38
39
40
41
42
43
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Pilipino
04
05
06
07
English
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
Pilipino
16
17
18
19
English
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
Pilipino
English
Naging matalik na
22 magkaibigan sina Aliguyon
at Pumbakhayon.
Nang sapat na ang gulang ni
Aliguyon, pinili niyang asawa
23 si Bugan, ang batang-batang
kapatid na babae ni
Pumbakhayon.
Inalagaan niya sa bahay si
Buganhanggang lumaki itong
24
napaka-gandang dalaga.
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
The following table can be used for practicing the statistical processes for acquiring skills
in using the empirical approach in literary analysis. The procedural explanations are in preceding
sections: tabulation method, gross qualitative analysis, pure qualitative analysis. Preceding
sections include examples of statistically-supported text analysis of elements of filial piety, of
elements of superstitious beliefs, and other elements in literary works. The use of informal
English in this summary is evident.
Table 51: Ibalon (15) Summary Practice Chart
##
Summary: Ibalon
Baltog, from the land of Botavora and the Lipod clan came to
01 Ibalon because there were lots of monsters, kinda like
Beowulf.
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
Summary: Ibalon
02 He makes a gabi field and the giant boar Tandayag ruins it.
He hunts it down and wrestles it, and kills it with his bare
03
hands, kinda like Beowulf.
He hangs the jawbones on a tree outside his house, kinda
04
like Beowulf.
05 The had a feast, kinda like Beowulf.
People from the Panikwason and Asog came to see the
06
jawbones.
07 Handyong comes into the story, fights a lot.
Notable events: Ponong, a three necked, one eyed monster,
Triburon, flying sharks, tamed tamaraws, drove away the
08
Sarimao, giants with huge fingernails, giant crocs as big as
boats and the savage monkeys got scared of all the blood.
09 He and his men couldnt kill Oryol.
10 It could shapeshift.
He spent days tracking it, then it helped him kill other
11
monsters.
12 Handyong puts up the town in Ligmanan.
13 Laws are same for slaves and masters.
14 They named the rice after him.
Handyong invents the boat, Kimantong made the plow and
other farming stuff, Hablom made the abaca loom, Dinahing,
15
an Agta that made the stove, pot, clay jar and other kitchen
stuff, and Sural who started writing
TOTAL
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Yling
Usipi kami, Kadunung
Iling
Tell us, Cadunung, the history
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
01b
01c
01d
05
05b
05c
05d
09
09b
09c
09d
13
13b
13c
13d
17
17b
17c
17d
21
21b
21c
21d
Yling
si kaidtong panahon ni Handyong
gamit sa imong barimbaw
awiton awit na mahamis ni Aslon.
Ika sana minaawit
na magayon asin mabansa
si kaidtong mga usipon
na libot an satuyang runa.
Mga hadi awiton
isog ninda pinahiling
iriwal na uminagi
sagkod nadaog si Uryol
Agi-agi mo isabi
usipon kan gurang na Asog
an aki na Masaraga
an anuyon na Isarog.
Marhay na parasaysay
mahamis na pararanga
danaw saimong nahiling
dumian si Takay buswak na.
Nagdadangog kami
Sa imong magayon na awit
ngunyan tukaw naman kami
sa limpoy kaining daod.
Iling
of the times of Handiong
with that silver lyre
sing the sweet song of Aslon.
That you alone can sing
So beautifully and with feeling
the various mysterious events
that surround this region.
Sing and tell us of their kings
of lineage and courage
and the war that took place
until the defeat of Oriol.
Give us also your knowledge
of the history of old Asog,
of the youthful Masaraga
and of ancient Isarog.
You are the affable poet
the sweetest and seductive
many times you have seen the lake
where Tacay is blooming.
Sing, then, we are attentive
to your beautiful narration
while we are here seated
under the shadow of a daod.
Totals
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Superstition
Filial Piety
Other
Values
##
03
04
05
06
Superstition
Filial Piety
Other
Values
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
##
15
16
17
19
20
21
22
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
96
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
The term Magindanao can also refer to the dynasty which ruled in Mindanao to distinguish it from the one
which ruled in Bwayan. The Magindanao rulers originally held its capital in the Magindanao settlement. At various
times, the capital was the old Simway.
97
The word Kabalalan means the place of the rattan, because the rattan plant used to grow abundantly on the
mountain and its base.
##
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
98
The second was called Tarabusar. This ugly creature had the form
of a man, but was very much larger. It was extremely voracious
and spread terror far and wide. It haunted Mount Matutun and its
neighborhood.
The third was a monstrous bird called Pah.98 This bird was so large
when on the wing that it covered the sun and produced darkness
underneath. It was as large as a house. It haunted Mount Bita and
the eastern Ranao region. It devoured the people and devastated
the land.
The fourth was a dreadful bird, also, which had seven heads. It
lived in Mount Gurayn and the adjacent country.
The people were awe-struck, and those who escaped hid
themselves in the caves of the mountains. The havoc was
complete and the ruin of the land was awful. The sad news found
its way to strange and far lands, and all nations felt sorry for the
fate that befell Mindanao. (Saleeby, p.8; 26)
When the news reached Raja Indarapatra, the King of Mantapuli, it
grieved him very much and filled his heart with sympathy. Raja
Indarapatra called his brother. Raja Sulayman99 and asked him to
come to Mindanao to save the land from those destructive Animals.
Raja Sulayman was moved with sorrow, mingled with enthusiasm
and zeal, and consented to come. Raja Indarapatra handed to his
brother his ring and his kris, Juru Pakal,100 and wished him safety
and success.
But before they parted Raja Indarapatra took a sapling and planted
it in the ground in front of his window. This he thought was a sure
sign by which he could tell what would happen to Sulayman after
his departure. He said to Sulayman, If this tree lives, you will live
also; and if this tree dies, you will die too.
Raja Sulayman left Mantapuli101 102 and came over to Mindanao in
the air. He neither walked nor used a boat.
The first place he reached was Kabalalan. There he stood on the
summit of the mountain and viewed the land and the villages, but
he could not see a single human being anywhere. The sight was
woeful, and Raja Sulayman exclaimed, Alas, how pitiful and
dreadful is this devastation!
As Sulayman uttered these words the whole mountain moved and
shook, and suddenly there came out of the ground a dreadful
animal which attacked Sulayman and fixed its claws in his flesh.
The minute Sulayman saw the Kurita he knew that it was the evil
scourge of the land, and he immediately drew his sword and cut
the Kurita to pieces.
From there Sulayman went to Matutun.103 There he saw greater
devastation and a more awful condition of affairs. As he stood on
the mountain he heard a noise in the forest and saw a movement
in the trees. Soon there appeared Tarabusaw, which drew near
and gave a loud yell. It cautioned Sulayman and threatened to
devour him. Sulayman in his turn threatened to kill Tarabusaw.
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
This word may be a corruption of the name of the bird Rock or Rokh, mentioned in the Arabian Nights.
Solomon
100
This word is a corruption of the Arabic word Thul-Fakar, the name of the famous sword of the Caliph Ali. Ali
was a noted warrior.
101
Mantapuli can be found in the west of Mindanao, in the far land where the sun sets (translated by researcher)
(Cambronero, 2011).
102
"Mantapuli is a place in Borneo in Indonesia" (Ganz, 2010).
103
There is a Mount Matutum that can be seen from the Dole Pineapple Plantation in Polomolok in South
Cotabato.
99
##
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
104
The animal said to Sulayman, If you kill me, I shall die the death of
a martyr, and as it spoke, it broke large branches from the trees
and assailed Sulayman. The struggle lasted a long while until, at
last, the animal was exhausted and fell to the ground; thereupon
Sulayman struck it with his sword and killed it.
As the animal was dying it looked up to Sulayman and
congratulated him on his success. Sulay man answered and said,
Your previous deeds brought this death on you (Saleeby, 1905. p.
9; 27).
The next place Sulayman went to was Mount Bita. Here the
devastation was worse still. Sulayman passed by many houses,
but they were all vacant and not a soul lived there. Alas, what
havoc and what misfortune has befallen this country! he
exclaimed, as he went on.
But suddenly there came a darkness upon the land and Sulayman
wondered what it could mean. He looked up to the sky and beheld
a wonderful and huge bird descending from the sky upon him. He
at once recognized the bird and understood its purpose, and as
quick as he could draw his sword he struck the bird and cut off its
wing. The bird fell dead, but its wing fell on Sulayman and killed
him.
At this same time Raja Indarapatra was sitting in his window, and
he looked and saw the little tree wither and dry up. Alas! he said,
Raja Sulayman is dead; and he wept.
Sad at heart but full of determination and desire for revenge, he got
up, put on his sword and belt, and came over to Mindanao to
search for his brother. He traveled in the air with wonderful speed
and came to Kabalalan first. There he looked around and saw the
bones of the Kunta and concluded that his brother had been there
and had gone.
At Matutun he saw the bones of Tarabusaw, but Sulayman was not
there.
So he passed on to Mount Bita and resumed the search. There he
saw the dead bird lying on the ground, and as he lifted the severed
wing, he saw the bones of Sulayman, and recognized them by
means of the sword that was lying by their side. As he looked at
the sword and at the bones he was overwhelmed with grief and
wept with tears.
Raising up his head he turned around and beheld a small jar of
water near him. He knew that the jar was sent down from heaven,
so he took it and poured its water on the bones of his brother, and
his brother came to life again.
Sulayman stood up, greeted his brother, and talked with him. Raja
Indarapatra had thought that Sulayman was dead, but Sulayman
assured him that he had not been dead, but that he had been
asleep. Raja Indarapatra rejoiced and life and happiness filled his
heart.
Raja Sulayman returned after that to Mantapuli, but Raja
Indarapatra continued his march to Mount Gurayn. There he met
the dreadful bird that had seven heads and killed it with his sword,
Juru Pakal.104 This sword was given by the Prophet Muhammad to
his cousin and son-in-law Ali as a gift.
Having destroyed all these noxious Animals, and having restored
peace and safety to the land, Raja Indarapatra set himself
searching for the people that might have escaped destruction. He
was of the opinion that some people must have contrived to hide in
the earth and that they might be alive yet.
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
From Zul Figar, Arabic for The lord of the vertebrae of the back (Saleeby, 1905. p. 10; 28)
##
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
These two persons are supposed to be the ancestors of some of the Ranao tribes or datus.
A long, long time ago, Mindanao was covered with water, and
01 the sea covered all the lowlands so that nothing could be
seen but the mountains jutting from it.
There were many people living in the country and all the
02
highlands were dotted with villages and settlements.
For many years the people prospered, living in peace and
03
contentment.
Suddenly there appeared in the land four horrible monsters
04 which, in short time has devoured every human being they
could find (Diasanta, n d.).
Kurita, a terrible creature with many limbs, lived partly on the
land and partly on sea, but its favorite haunt was the mountain
05
where the rattan palm grew; and here it brought utter
destruction on every living thing.
The second monster, Tarabusaw, an ugly creature in the form
06
of a man, lived on Mt.
Matutum, and far and wide from that place he devoured the
07
people, laying waste the land.
The third, an enormous bird called Pah, was so large that,
08 when on the wing, it covered the sun and brought darkness to
the earth.
09 Its egg was as large as a house.
Mt. Bita was its haunt; and there the only people who escaped
10
its voracity were those who hid in the mountain caves.
The fourth monster was also a dreadful bird, having seven
11
heads and the power to see in all directions at the same time.
Mt. Gurayan was its home and like the others, it wrought
12
havoc to its region (Diasanta, n d.).
"The fourth monster, Kuraya, was a dreadful bird also, having
13 seven heads and the power to see in all directions at the
same time (Quiogue, 2013).
So great was the death and destruction caused by these
terrible creatures that at length, the news spread even to the
14
most distant lands - and all nations grieved to hear the sad
fate of Mindanao (Diasanta, n d.).
Now far across the sea, in the land of the golden sunset, was
15 a city so great that to look at its many people would injure the
eyes of men.
When tidings of these great disasters reached this distant city,
the heart of King Indarapatra was filled with compassion, and
16
he called his brother, Sulayman, and begged hem to save the
land of Mindanao from the monsters (Diasanta, n d.).
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Then although he was very sad, he was filled with a desire for
revenge.
Putting on his sword and belt, he started for Mindanao, in
44
search for his brother.
He, too, traveled through the air with great speed until he
45
came to the mountain where the rattan grew.
43
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
##
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
Superstition
0
Filial
Piety
0
Other
Values
0
01
02
03
04
Summary: Kamanduan
In this upper portion of Agusan, the brave Taghimayats was ruled by Apo
Todow, a shaman, a war general and Chief Justice of the village (babaylan,
bagani and an Apo Manigaon.) His shirt was very colorful with backdrop of
white and badges of red and black. He has a beautiful, charming,
intelligent, obedient, industrious wife, Bae Sabuyakan Tisay. Tisay is as
sweet as the red bush roses that grow along the ever powerful Agusan
River in the Adgawan portion.
The couple has two kids- a boy called Uto ay and a girl named
Kamanduan. These two kids are the life and light of the village. They are
the future leaders of Adgawan. Uto ay was around four summers old,
Kamanduan, older by two summers. Of course, there is no winter in
Agusan, but they have rainy days, and much more heavier rainy days.
Summer is always a welcome time when the sun is always up the whole
day, passionately kissing over the vast woodlands.
Uto-ay and Kamanduan played a lot, roaming freely around the village and
they are well loved by the tribe. Bae Sabuyakan Tisay stayed in the house,
being the first wife and the queen of the tribe. She is being tended to be the
other four wives of Apo Todow, all relatives and two are sisters of
Sabuyakan. Duway (plural marriage of one man and four women is an
institution among Manobos, the fact that the tribe has more women than
men.
Men being early death casualties in constant warfare engaged in by the
tribe.) The four other wives of Datu Todow serve in the palace as cooks,
laundrywomen, housekeeper, care for the children, entertain guest and
visitors if any and attend to the need of Datu Todow if the Queen is
indisposed to do so. Other Baganis and men in the village practice duway
as this is their customary law regarding marriage. A man must be
responsible for the tending of at least five women in the tribe.
Superstitions
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
Summary: Kamanduan
So, every afternoon, when the sun is not anymore hot Uto-ay and
05 Kamanduan go to the stump of a dead tree overlooking the river. From this
stump, they took turns in jumping to the deep still river of the Agusan.
This activity of the kids has become daily ritual for the entire summer
months. All the nature surrounding Agusan including the favor of the
Diwatas, the good spirits has known this activity and apparently approves
06 together with the nodding of the heads of the little cicadas and crickets on
top of the Durian and the marang trees and the different varieties of birds
including the migratory birds from other countries hopping lazily from twig
to branches of the trees in the vast woodland.
Then, one day, the sun appears gloomy. Cloud formation seems to
threaten the smile of the happy sun, foretelling that something foreboding
unwanted event might happen seemingly Uto ay and Kamanduan did not
07
bother to care to notice the change in scenery around them for going to
that stump of the tree during summer had been an addiction and a ritual for
the two kids. Apparently, the day will not be complete without it.
So, Uto ay was the first to dive. While Kamanduan waited for Uto ay to
emerge out from the deep river. Then once Uto ay get out from the water,
Kamanduan takes the turn to dive. This has been the process of the game.
Then it was Kamanduans turn to dive, and she did. Uto ay waited for her to
get out of the waters. Uto ay waited and waited..waited and waited.. the
seconds turn to minutes.. the minutes to hours Uto ay was already
08
apprehensive. What has happened to her sister? Why has she not got out
of the waters till now? Is she drowned? Is she dead? Many questions play
in Utos mind. But the sun was about to set and no Kamanduan has got out
of the waters. The vicinities and surrounding areas starts to darken. Uto
was afraid, running home with fear. What will father and mother do now?
Wheres his sister?
Bae Sabuyakan Tisay met Uto halfway down the road. Her colorful skirt
bearing colors of red, black and white telling of stories of warfare and how
09 the family had escaped and survived swayed reaching the ground as she
ran toward Uto asking him questions of what had happened. What took
them so long to return home and where is Kamanduan?
Uto has a hard time opening his mouth and between sobs and falling tears
with shaking body, he said that Duan dove from the stump of the tree, he
waited for her to come out of the waters but that was the last time he saw
10
her. She never got out of the waters again. The sun was halfway down the
sky when Duan dove and now the sun has set and Duan never emerged
again.
Bae Sabuyakan Tisay run to where her husband was, together with the rest
of the Apos and the Baganis and told them of Duans predicament. The
whole village was in commotion. The gong was beaten informing the
inhabitants that something bad has happened in their village. The
manigaons and the minonas gathered together seeking wisdom from the
diwatas and from each other as to what to do and how this issue be
addressed. Then Apo Suday, a minona said: we will have to ask Datu
11
Buada of the nearby village, to do the task for us- for among all datus, he is
the only one with the power, the skill to swim to that deepest part of the
river and stayed there for long and to know where and what happened to
Duan. So, emissaries were sent to Datu Buada telling him of the
predicament of Duan and asking him if he could help, that whatever it is he
will ask as payment for this gigantic task of finding Duan will be given to
him with additional offers attached to the award.
Datu Buada met Datu Todow with their men and conglomerated near the
stump of the tree where Duan dove. A ritual was made invoking the spirits
of the crocodile of the river, from there Buada dive. Buada spent many
hours under water. Many of the villagers were weeping, crying out loud,
12 and invoking the Diwatas for the safety of Kamanduan. The sound of the
gongs and the drums continued till the wee hours in the morning. Nobody
slept in the village except for the small kids and children. The men and
women were in full alert, heart beating in anticipation as to what has
happened to their little princess.
Superstitions
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
Summary: Kamanduan
13
14
15
16
17
106
It was about early morning that Buada came out of the river , in his arms
lay the limp but alive body of Kamanduan.
The people shouted with joy! It was a great day for every body! How the
people rejoiced. They praised Datu Buada for a feat unsurpassed, which is
bringing the life back of their beautiful little princess. The gongs and drums
beat now joyfully announcing to one and all that the princess is found and
there is a reason for great rejoicing in the village!!! The Manigaons,
minonas, baganis of the two tribes gathered around Datu Buada ready to
listen to what transpired under water. Datu Buada was given buyot (bettle
nut for chewing put in between his right teeth protruding in the lower lip),
started to narrate his escapade under water. Under the influence of the
Buada Spirit (spirit of the crocodile god) the Datu narrated the event in a
form of a chant (tud-om): Oh oh oh down under, I saw Kamanduan
in the lap of a very big lumod (mermaid of the river, the spirit of the river
Agusan). The lumod was singing lullaby to the princess for her to go to
sleep. Soon Kamanduan fell asleep, but it took a long time for the lumod to
fall asleep. She was watching Kamanduan carefully it was about dawn
when the lumod fall asleep. I, Buada hid in the under water bushes, when I
saw that the Lumod had fallen asleep. I immediately swam silently towards
where Kamanduan was, carefully I snatched her from the lap of the lumod
who was soundly snoring, and brought her up towards the surface of the
waters limp but very much alive The village men started chanting thanks
to the good diwatas of the river agusan and the woodlands.. Datu Todow
asked Datu Buada what will be the prize for such conquest , twenty boars,
twenty chicken, twenty sacks of gabi (taro). Twenty women slaves... what
will satisfy Buada? Datu Buada shook his majestic head and said: I dont
want any of what you offer me. All I want is that when Kamanduan reaches
womanhood indicated by menarche I want that she be wedded to my son
Sundi. Datu Todow just like any gentleman sealed the pact of agreement
with Datu Buada, giving honor to his word that whatever be the prize that
Buadawould like to get after he is able to save Kamanduan will be granted
to him. So the pact was sealed. In due time Kamanduan was to marry
Prince Sundi of the Buada Tribe. The ritual for betrothal was performed
offering the lives of the two children to the Diwatas that in appropriate time
they will become man and woman and the Tribes of the Taghimayat and
the Buadas will be one.
After that heart palpitating incident, time and seasons became normal once
again for the Manobos of Agusan. Uto now growing to manhood, and soon
being recruited to the baganiship. Young Kamanduan however, every night
is being visited by the lumod, the god of the river agusan telling her to go
back to the stump of the tree for in it is an oil which she has to use
everyday for her hair and for her skin. At first Kamanduan was very
apprehensive, but she cannot anymore contain the instructions of the
lumod but to comply for it appeared nightly in her nightmarish dreams.
Kamanduan found a jar of oil at the foot of the stump. Religiously,
Kamanduan followed the lumads instruction that is to apply the oil to her
skin and to her hair every time she bathe in the vast Agusan River. Thus,
Kamanduan grow up to be so white skinned that even the food she ate
could be seen passing through her throat. Her hair so long that it reaches
to the ground, which she formed into a beautiful bun hanging at the right
side of her face and bangs of hair on the forehead indicating that the girl is
a virgin. For if the bun is on the left side the girl now is married to one
husband and if the bun is at the back indicating that she is married by
duway.106
Princess Kamanduan then was the most beautiful girl found in the
Manoboland that time. Many men were enthralled by her and would like to
pursue her with ardor. But alas, her fate had been sealed for in proper time
she would be wedded to Sundi the only son of Datu Buada.
Superstitions
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
##
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Summary: Kamanduan
But who can ever dictate the heart? Kamanduan fell in love not with Sundi
but with Sundey, the son of Datu Mati. The love was so ardous that even
the birds and the bees want to join with the two when ever they went
around the highly forested lands of Agusan. The flowers bloomed
whenever the two passed by. And as they say, affairs like this can never be
kept a secret. At first, whispers went around the village Psst, Do you
know, Kamanduan and Sundey are in love with each other.. OH Apo,
Diwatas... what will be the reaction of Datu Buada and Prince Sundi if they
learned this? The whispers became loud voices of antagonism. No, this
cannot happen. The gods will not allow this to happen. This is injustice to
the Buada Tribe a breach of contract, and indespicable act. And so as
the tale went on, Buada came to hear of the news
He stomped his feet in a savaged outrage. Todow should not allow this to
happen. What has happened to the contract made the time Kamanduan
was saved by Buada under water that she was to marry Prince Sundi. So,
the Buadas planned a magahat against the tribe of Todow. The order was
to kill all of Todows people. But like all Manobos that time, all children are
betrothed but parents left alone their children most of the time and very little
parental concern is being given to their kids. Todow was the last person to
know of Kamanduans affair, but too late No amicable settlement could
be made for in the baganis law... any injustices committed by any Manobo
should always be punished with death.
So, the warfare started, killings were made in the name of the tribe, Buada
killing Todows men. Todows men killing Buadas people... men, women,
children, not sparing any one including their Animals.
Agusan was in bad shape; even those belonging to other tribes cannot
contain the warfare. Todow decided to put Kamanduan into auction.. Duan
was put into public bidding, but no man will take her now. She was
considered accursed Buada will not take her for the Buadas believed that
only her death can pay the honor and dignity of the tribe besmirched by her
reputation of falling in love with another man and not to his betrothed.
Knowing this predicament of Kamanduan, Prince Sundey faced all the
obstacles of warfare and hatred, took her beloved Kamanduan and
together they fought for their love and together they died in the hands of
the Buadas. The tragedy did not end with the death of the lover. Now the
tribe of Sundey are in red and black... the warfare escalated... blood for
blood...honor for honor justice for justice in the name of love and tribal
dignity
Many in Agusan so tired of the warfare moved out of the vast Agusan
Valley. Those who reached Lake Lanao became the Maranaws. Those who
reached Cotabato became the Maguindanaos, others went to Butuan and
became the Lapaknons. There were those who went to far Davao and
became the Bagobo.
To this date, warfare is still in the blood of the Manobos in Agusan.. A little
injustice against their domain will cause bloodshed for still in their veins run
the blood and deep desire for justice and revenge. If there is no justice in
this earth except warfare, then in death there is, for even how many people
had been killed by a Manobo, there is no concept of hell.. In death, All will
go to paradise, where the god Maubuyan lives, near Bukidnon..Where food
abound, lanzones as big as the head of a baby, corn found aplenty, rice,
mud fish, everything provided for and there is no need to fight .True love,
real love is in paradise with Maubuyan and as the tale ends, there
Sundey and Kamanduan lived happily ever after
TOTAL
(Sabuyakan, 2011)
Superstitions
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
The following table can be used for practicing the statistical processes required in the
empirical approach of literary analysis. The procedural explanations are in preceding sections:
tabulation method, gross qualitative analysis, pure qualitative analysis. Other sections include
examples of statistically-supported text analysis of elements of filial piety, of elements of
superstitious beliefs, and other elements in literary works. For ease of use, the literary text in the
following table has been separated into lines, and each line is numbered. For convenience, the
column headings are pre-labeled. This 8-line summary of Keg Sumba neg Sandayo is from
Maranan, et al (2015).
Table 58: Keg Sumba neg Sandayo (08L) Summary Practice Chart
##
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
For ease of use, the literary text in the following table has been separated into lines, and
each line is numbered. For convenience, the column headings are pre-labeled. This 8-paragraph
summary of Keg Sumba neg Sandayo is from Peralta (2007).
One goal of using a practice using thick paragraphs is to determine the level of ease or of
difficulty of assessing the selected values. If ease is significantly high, this can be adopted for
standard use. If difficulty is significantly high, the sentences can be separated, as shown in the
other examples.
Table 59: Keg Sumba neg Sandayo (08P) Summary Practice Chart
##
01
02
03
04
05
##
Sondayo falls ill when he returns to Liyasan. He asks his magical scarf,
monsala, to fetch Bolak Sonday and Benebong, but they arrive too late.
Sondayo is already dead. Bolak Sonday looks for his spirit in the underworld,
while Benebong searches the upper world. Three weeks pass but they could
not find him. Benebong then searches the heavens, while Sonday focuses on
earth. But still they fail. Finally, two birds tell them that they should search for
Sondayos soul in Tubig Piksiipan, where he is a captive of amazons. They ride
06
on their own magical monsala with the help of lightning. They fight the amazons
for two months for Sondayos spirit and defeat them. They wake Sondayo up
from his deathly sleep and quench his thirst with the sweat of the sun which he
asked for. They bring it to him in a golden cup then they all return
home.Disaster befalls Bolak Sonday when she cuts herself while preparing
betel-nut quid. She dies. In return, Sondayo and his kindred search for her
spirit.
The two birds again reveal that her spirit is in Katonawan, a prisoner of a datu.
Sondayo battles the datu and frees the spirit of Sonday. He revives her and
they both return to Liyasan where everyone celebrates. Later, his cousins
07
request for his assistance in obtaining the dowry needed for Datu Tulog to
marry Lengotubig. He goes to Tubig Sumina. Sondayo, with his magic, obtains
the dowry.
He returns to Liyasan. There, he dreams of a buklog being celebrated. He
wakes and gets his kin and wives to go with him to join in the celebration. They
08 ride their monsala to Manelangan where the buklog is being held. The buklogan
rises entirely to heaven and when it descends again, Sondayo and his relatives
are not in it anymore. They have remained in heaven.
TOTAL
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
##
34
35
36
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
37
38
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
##
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
51
52
53
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
column headings are pre-labeled. This 33-line summary of Tuwaang is from an unattributed
source.
Table 61: Tuwaang (33) Summary Practice Chart
##
Summary: Tuwaang
TOTAL
Superstition
Filial
Piety
Other
Values
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
The next section on Humanistic Analysis examines the literary texts in terms of human
elements: the writer and the reader or, in this case, the writer of the literary text and the writer of
the summary. More significantly, the discussion focuses on mixed methods analyses that
combine literary and statistical data to produce well-rounded research.
HUMANISTIC ANALYSIS
For instance, the omitted chapter Elements of Literary Tradition discusses elements of
literary tradition such as community practices, languages, and writing systems as well as folk
beliefs and superstitions prevalent in precolonial Philippines. The chapter discusses precolonial
literacy, Indic cultural influences, and a survey of 216 Philippine languages so as to trace the
transfer of Sanskrit words via the Champa Empire, which is linked to the Harappan culture of the
first Indus Valley civilization. The omitted section on writing systems includes the Asian
abugidas, Hanunoo, Islamic, Indic, Arabic, Pallava, and Kawi scripts; the Surat Mangyan, Sulat
Kapampangan, Buid, Baybayin, Alibata, Ambahan, and Eskaya scripts.
These elements of literary tradition are essential in the humanistic analysis of literary
works, particularly in illuminating what can be found and what has been lost. However, a
precursor survey of Philippine languages is included as a table in the Appendix (See: Languages
of the Philippines). This table shows the 216 languages used in the Philippines, the tribes that use
them and where they are located. More significantly, it shows how many are extinct, how many
are nearly extinct, and which ones can be traced to prehistoric sources.
For the same reason, the omitted chapter titled Precolonial Literature is important. The
chapter describes the variety of literary forms in precolonial Philippines, mostly oral traditions
such as riddles, proverbs, poetry, folk songs and narratives including folk epics. Overviews of
the folk epics of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao are presented. Literary elements that contain
influences from Hindu sources are discussed. This omitted chapter discusses the epics of Luzon
such as the Banna Bidian, the Kalinga Ulalim; the Gaddang Lumalindaw; the Ifugao Hudhud
and the Ifugao Alim, the Aliguyon nak Amtalaw and the Aliguyon nak Binenwahen, the Bugan an
imbayaga, the Bugan nak pangaiwan, the Ilocano Biag ni Lam-ang, the Bicol Ibalon, the
Gisumbi, the Dulimanan, and the Biuag at Malana. Also discussed are ancient Eastern Visayan
literary forms such as the Waray candu, haya, ambahan, canogon, bical, balac, siday and awit;
the narratives susmaton and posong, the W Visayan bangianay, hurobaton, paktakun, sugidanun
and amba in Old Kinaray-a, and epics such as the Hinilawod, Maragtas, and the Cebu Aginid:
Bayok sa Atong Tawarik which relates how a minor prince of the Chola dynasty, a Sri Lumay,
established the Rajahnate of Cebu (Abellana, 1952).
The humanistic analysis of selected literary texts would be incomplete without the
inclusion of such background material, which is interwoven with the precolonial narrative.
The omitted section on the ancient epics of Mindanao discusses the tarsila of the
Magindanao, the Manobos religious ballads and literature including epics such as the Uwaging,
the Agyu, the Bukidnon Matabagka Nalandagan, the S Agusan Manobo Kamanduan, the
Subanon Sondayo and the Ag Tubig Nog Keboklogan; the Maranao kaiju, Bidasari, Darangen
Bantugan, Indarapatra Sulayman, and the Maharadia Lawana; the Tausug parang sabil, tigumtigum, masala, daman, pituwa, malikata, tilik, tarasul, katakata, salsila, parang sabil, the
Kaawin Kissa, Usula Kissa, the Kissa Parang Sabil ni Panglima Hassan, and the Panglima
Munggona; as well as literary traditions of the Jama Mapun, Samal, Badjao, Yakan, and Palawan
Moslem tribes. Arabic-inspired literature such as those used in rituals.
Yet another omitted chapter titled Moslem Philippines discusses precolonial culture, with
a focus on customs, traditions, and folk beliefs. The repercussions of omitting the
aforementioned chapters are discussed in the final chapter (Conclusions and Recommendations).
These last two chapters are particularly relevant in the analysis of oral literary traditions
of Moslem Philippines. However, future research can explore the connections between events
and ideas, and how these connections influenced surviving literature.
5.2 Recapitulation
Chapter 1 presents the research assignment; a prcis of the answers to the research
questions; operational definitions of the key terms used in the research, and the organization of
the paper. The period of Philippine literature relevant to the study is presented in relation to the
entirety of the field.
The discussion on Research Methodology presents the methods and tools for examining
selected intangible elements such as superstions and filial piety. The objects of the study are a
sample of 200+ Filipino superstitions. The method for applying to procedure to a literary
tradition, such as a folk epic, is explained.
The discussion on Empirical Analyses shows how objective procedures can be used to
analyze intangibles such as filial piety and superstitions. More specifically, text analysis is
carried out on selected ethnographc materials related to filial piety and folk beliefs as well as on
selected folk epics from precolonial Philippines.
In the chapter on Narrative Reconstruction the lost narrative of Philippine prehistory is
reconstructed through the lenses of palenteology, maritime science, genetic analysis, language
analysis, and archaeological artifacts indicate that the first humans and inhabitants of the
Philippines came from Africa by way of mainland Asia, travelling via land bridges as well as by
sea when melting ice caps and tectonic shifts caused Sundaland to be indundated by rising sea
levels, which created the islands of Maritime Asia and, for generations, isolated the early human
communities there.
The chapter on Humanistic Analysis shows how statistical proof can be used to create a
richer humanistic approach when examining intangibles such as filial piety or superstitions in
selected ethnographic or literary texts.
Human Body
The values found in the folk beliefs or superstitions are classified into 11 groups. In
alphabetical order, the groups are:
Awareness of Nature
Proper Behavior
Family or Marriage
Routines or Tradition
Filial Piety
Self- Awareness
Health or Safety
Uncertainty Avoidance
Hospitality or Charity
Positive Outlook
Details are in the Table: Values in Beliefs & Superstitions.
The research includes three phases. The first phase involves the reconstruction of lost
narratives, which includes prehistoric and precolonial accounts. The second phase uses the
empirical approach to prove that intangible elements in text samples can be objectively
examined. This was proven by examining ethnographic texts (superstitions) for instances of filial
piety. To apply the procedure to literary analysis, selected samples of regional literary works
were examined for instances of superstitions and filial piety. In the process, charts of several folk
epics were created for future practice in mixed-methods analysis of literary works. The third
phase of humanistic analysis is severely hampered by the omission of several key chapters due to
technical and technological limitations.
An origin from mainland South China107 (Ko, et. al., 2014, pp. 426436; Ho, 2002, 17
19);
An origin from the Sundaland continental shelf prior to the sea level rise at the end of the
last glacial period (c. 10,000 BC; Anon., 2008; Donohue & Denham, 2010, 223-256) or
A combination of the two108 which advocates cultural diffusion rather than a series of
linear migrations (Wilhelm, 2002, 3966).
Although the rising seas buried the land bridges and isolated the migrants into island
societies, they were not without foreign contact. As ancient empires rose on Mainland Asia, their
need for power, people, and products meant that they extracted tribute from increasing numbers
of colonies, as well as from increasingly distant trading outposts. Thus, the islands were touched
by foreign cultures due to seafarers seeking new lands, new products, and new converts.
Another strong factor of cultural formation is foreign contact. Filipinos come from
Austronesian blood with various degrees of Indian, Arab, Spanish, and Chinese lineages, most
plausibly related to early cultural influences in the Philippines that have mostly been from
Hindunized Islam, Indic, and Chinese cultures. As Pisano puts it:
The inhabitants of the Philippines are among the most racially heterogeneous
group in SE Asia. They are predominantly of Malayan origin but, due to oceanic
migrations, possess Negrito, Indonesian, Hindu, Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, American,
and European blood (1992, 7).
Negrito, proto-Malay, and Malay peoples were the first inhabitants of the Philippine
archipelago. The Negritos are believed to have migrated by land bridges some 30,000 years ago,
during the last glacial period. Later migrations were by water and took place over several
thousand years in repeated movements before and after the start of the Christian era (Country
Studies).
107
linking them to the Liangzhu culture and the Tapengkeng culture, later displaced or assimilated by the
expansion of Sino-Tibetan peoples
108108
the Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network hypothesis
While it would seem that Chinese trade enabled transfer but not exchange, the absence of
records is not proof that Filipino culture did not influence Chinese culture. Any lesser culture can
introduce minute and therefore unarticulated elements that can be indigenized by a dominant
culture in unnoticed ways. Meanwhile, historical records have focused on depicting lesser
cultures in the role of receivers.
During the precolonial period, the archipelagos inhabitants were not unified. They were
a collection of independent or loosely affiliated coastal communities with a local leader (Pisano,
1992, 30). The occasional dominion of foreign powers over any of these communities focused
mainly on collecting tribute or continuing trade. These foreign conquests or affiliations focused
on a small percentage of the archipelago; only the richest and most populated communities were
affected (Pisano, 1992, 30). The rest went about their lives without foreign incursions.
The earliest relations between the Philippines and the Indian empires of Sri-Vishaya and
Majapahit were commercial. At that time, the Philippines traded with Borneo, Celebes, Java,
Sumatra, and other countries of SE Asia that were vassal states of these two empires. However,
due to large geographic separation and the difficulty of travel in precolonial times, early
Philippine contacts with India were indirect. Sources assert that early contact between India and
the Philippines were decidedly indirect, via Malaysia (Shivavishnu, 1969; Reyes & Perez III,
n. d.).
In Chapter 3 (Narratives Reconstruction), the discussion on the prehistory of the
Philippine Archipelago is in two sections: (1) the first humans and (2) the first inhabitants of the
Philippines. The lost narrative of Philippine prehistory is reconstructed through the lenses of
palenteology, maritime science, genetic analysis, language analysis, and archaeological artifacts
indicate that the first humans and inhabitants of the Philippines came from Africa by way of
mainland Asia, travelling via land bridges as well as by sea when melting ice caps and tectonic
shifts caused Sundaland to be indundated by rising sea levels, which creating the islands of
Maritime Asia and, for generations, isolating the early human communities there.
The migrants developed and the rudiments of hunting, farming, seafaring, cooking, tooluse, communication, and warfare. Although there is no proof that writing, literacy, or literature
was developed, various cultural elements developed over centuries and spread over huge
distances of foot travel to later affect cultures and literatures, from areas to be later known as
Mainland and Maritime Asia including India, China, Japan, Taiwan, Borneo, and Brunei, to
mention a few. These elements shaped the foundations of precolonial Philippine culture.
Although the aforementioned studies suggest that population explosion caused the mass
migrations, other studies suggest that this was caused by the rising sea levels that submerged the
Sunda shelf at the end of the last ice age (Gray et al, 2009). Moreover, instead of migrations
from Taiwan to the Philippines, studies suggest that sea migrations happened from Maritime SE
Asia to the Philippines, and thence to Taiwan.
These studies suggest that, between 150,000 BP and 17,000 BP, ancient
shorelines fluctuated, connecting the Malay Archipelago area with Maritime SE Asia
and the Philippines. The resulting land bridges between 50,000 BP and 13,000 BP
couild have enabled ancient migrations from Maritime SE Asia into the Philippines
(Voris, 2000, 11531167).
Gray et al (2009) suggest that this was a two-pronged expansion: one moved north
through the Philippines and into Taiwan, while another migration wave moved east along the
New Guinea coast and into Oceania and Polynesia.
In the precolonial focus on tracing the development of active trading centers on some
islands in the Philippine archipelago, their commercial ties with Hindu and Hindu-Arabic traders,
and the various cultures that migrated to, traded with, attacked, governed, or preached to the
inhabitiants of the islands that would later be known as the Philippine Archipelago. Forays from
Brunei, Borneo, Portugal, China, and Japan are discussed. The cultural elements prevalent in
precolonial Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao are summarized.
During the discussed prehistoric points of the reconstructed narrative, there seem to be no
source indications of the use of scripts for recording literary tradition. However, later history
would show the development of early scripts for recording numbers of goods, slaves and
products in a rudimentary form of accounting, as well as for taxation in emerging empires. Later
narratives would show that, as religions and folk beliefs are established, basic symbols for
divination and oraculation preceded the development of scripts for liturgy. However, the absence
of written literature is not indicative of the absence of literature. Oral traditions later narratives
would include various literary forms, ranging from simple riddles, to more complex verbal jousts
to even more complex legends, myths, and folk epics
While literacy in precolonial Philippines can be proven, the same cannot be said
regarding the factual provenance of oral literary traditions. Early cultures, civilizations, and
empires that affected trade, invasion, governance, and religion include China and Japan, but
mostly India through its vassal states Brunei and Malaysia, and then again mostly via migrants or
traders. After the initial waves of migration and then indirect Indic governance, events of
invasion and religion were minimal.
The input of Indic literary elements can only be surmised due to the absence of written
literature, which can be attributed to the destructive forces of culture, geography, climate, and the
use of perishable materials for writing. In addition, this loss was exacerbated by the misinformed
zeal of the Spanish.
The precolonial narrative of the history of the Philippines ends in 1521 when Ferdinand
Magellan claimed the islands for Spain109 (Bergreen, 2003). In the years just prior, most pygmy
Negritos living on the coasts and along main tributaries had been replaced by Austronesians and
Malayo-Polynesians whose initial harbor towns, plutocracies, and maritime trading centers had
already become competing thalassocracies: kingdoms, rajahnates, principalities, confederations
and sultanates (Wikipedia).
The precolonial narrative traces the development of active trading centers on some
islands in the Philippine archipelago, their commercial ties with Hindu and Hindu-Arabic traders,
and the various cultures that migrated to, traded with, attacked, governed, or preached to the
inhabitiants of the islands that would later be known as the Philippine Archipelago. Forays from
Brunei, Borneo, Portugal, China, and Japan are discussed. The cultural elements prevalent in
precolonial Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao are summarized.
After centuries of indirect trade relations, two Indian vassal states, Borneos
Bandjarmasin and Brunei, obeyed Indias orders to colonize the Philippines (Pisano, 1992). The
nature of this colonial activity was primarily trade and tax collection. At the time, the two vassal
states were Hindu, as were most of the larger settlements in the Philippines.
109
There is not much evidence found by archeologists that proves the direct
influence of India to the Philippines. But during the reign of the two empires in India
(Sri-Visjaya & Majapahit), there are evidences that the Filipino culture was indeed
had been influenced by India (2014).
Before the 10th century, the Sri-Vishayan Empire ordered its vassal states Brunei and
Borneo to to colonize Mai-i and its neighboring countries. The rule of India over the Philippines
lasted until the arrival of the Spaniards in 1621, which marked the start of the so-called
Philippine colonial era.
The Malay empires of Srivijaya and Malacca covered modern day Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, and Singapore while the Burmese, Vietnamese and Khmer
peoples governed much of Indochina. Wikipedia, History of SE Asia)
As of this writing, teachers in Philippine schools tell every student that Philippine history
begins on March 16 1521, when Spain began its stranglehold of the Philippine islands for 333
years. This research, however, shows that a historical narrative of about 600 years of Hindu
colonization of the Philippines that began in the 900s until the 1500s some 600 years of distant
rule via Brunei and Borneo. Records supporting this notion are available, such as:
In 670 AD, the Buddhist Empire of SriVishaya assumed complete control of the
maritime trade routes between India and China and remained in control for about 640
years (Muoz, 2006). Its capital in Suwarnadwipa (Sumatra) became the center of
learning in Tantric (Vajrayana) Buddhism in the Far East. Now Tantric Buddhism
exists in Tibet and Japan, thanks to Atisha who studied in SriVishaya under Serlingpa
(Dharmarakshita; Pangilinan, 2009, 7-8).
Each new migration with better weaponry or more complex societies and social
organizations prevailed over previous residents. Intermarriages are followed by more immigrants
from China, Japan, and Arabia. These populations comprised the people found by the Spaniards
when they first arrived in the Philippines iun 1521 (Zaide, 1939, 30-31; Beyer, 1932, 129;
Pisano, 1992, 11).
Sometime around 900, the efforts of the Champa, Sri-Vishayan, and Madjapahit empires
to colonize SE Asia and Malaysia pushed more migrations from mainland Asia to Maritime Asia
(Pisano, 1992, 10).
The first intances of cultural influences from India to the Philippines can be traced to
Hindunized Malays from India who brought cultural customs with them, along with the Sanskrit
and Hindu styles of writing110 to the Pallava Kingdoms vassal states, colonies, and trading
outposts, and then on to the archipelagos.
Later, when Islam supplanted the Indic power, the Islamic empires of Malacca and
Borneo created settlements in the Philippine islands and increased Hindunized Muslim
influences there (Zaide, 1939, 27-28).
There is insufficient data to indicate that the Sanskrit and Hindu styles of writing were
used to record oral literature. However, sources attest to the use of these scripts in religious
communitites, but most records of the period dealt with trade from the islands to other countries.
On the other hand, destructive forces might have contributed to this dearth.
110
After the Spanish conquest of the Philippines, Hinduism was already a small minority in
the Christian Philippines. It had declined through the centuries. However, Indian culture and
literature has traces in Filipino life especially in the ideas, language, and the arts and literature of
the Filipinos (UNESCO ICT).
Islam never had a predominant hold of the Philippines and even before Spain came, it
was still a minority religion, outside of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago (Small, N. D.).
The non-Muslim areas of Visayas, Palawan, and the rest of Mindanao and Luzon,
comprising about 60% to 80% of the islands, resisted Islam and continued to practice a mixture
of Hinduism, animist, and Buddhism, particularly the Visayan rajahnates who hated the
Muslims. The Ilocanos and Kalingas of the far north as well as the Palawanos remained staunch
Buddhists or animists (Small, N. D.).
The Muslims of Luzon were converted by the Spanish missionaries because Islam arrived
in Luzon only a few decades before Spain discovered the Philippines. In Mindanao and Sulu,
Islam had already existed for for several centuries (Small, N. D.).
CONCLUSIONS
This is a research study on the prevalence of folk beliefs (superstitions) and filial piety in
the literature from the Philippine pre-colonial period.
It would seem that nothing is truly original. In tracing the first human populations to the
last migrations, trade, and conquests, the research shows that, at the onset, there was no culture
present in the group of islands later known as the Philipines. Everything seems to have been
imported, first by the Negritos some 57,000 yeas ago and by Austronesians some 44,000 years
ago during the prehistoric eras; then by traders from various outposts of a series of Hindu
empires, China, Japan, and Arabia, Portugal, and Borneo during the precolonial eras.
In the chapter on narratives reconstruction, anthropologists theorize that Filipino origins
can be traced to a series of of human migrations as proven by archaeology and genetic analysis.
The theory posits that the first Filipinos were Paleolithic migrations over land bridges some
250,000 years ago (Zaide, 1949, 24).111 Among the discovered fossil remains and artifacts
recovered are crudely made hand axes indicating that economic life was directed by hunting and
gathering (Fox, 1959, 12-13) but it is not known if they used fire or other tools (Jocano, 1967,
140; Pisano, 1992, 7-8). In addition, there seems to be no proof indicating the use of any writing
system.
correcting the errors made in the recording of our history as a people. As a result of
his researches, Dr. Abella laments (1966) what he refers to as the sad state of Philippine
historiography where:
instead of consulting the actual historical and archeological records, many
Filipino historians prefer to quote the works of other Filipino authors to suit their own
biases or preferences.
This has caused what Dr. Abella refers to as a profusion of errors in Philippine history,
which need to be rectified, since many reputable foreign scholars and our own students, have
been led astray on some facts of Philippine history (Rausa-Gomez, 97).
One intervening variable is English, the lingua franca used by most scholars, which can
account for the predominance of eurocentric writings of SE Asian historigraphy (Rausa-Gomez,
97).
111
there is a danger of bias in one direction or the other when it comes to the
assessment of European imperialism in the area. The bulk of readily assessible
materials are those of the European colonizers themselves; this increases the danger
that the historic events of the period will be seen only in terms of Western values. Or
else a Westem historians bias might affect his assessment of which factors have been
significant in shaping the course of events. Thus, if SE Asian history is seen from the
viewpoint of the European there will be a natural tendency to judge the event of the
period in terms of Western standards, and also to view the influence of Europeans as
having been the decisive factors in determining the historic course of events. (RausaGomez, 97-98).
This problem is particulary endemic among Asian historians who, in their treatment of
regional or area histories of SE Asia, tend to accept Western categories of historical judgments,
while they reject the value judgments of their Western colleagues (Rausa-Gomez, 98). As
Morgenthau so correctly stated in his introduction to Darling (1965:3):
Scholarship... must perform the function of a collective memory. It must remind
statesmen and public of the historic roots of contemporary propositions and
alignments. By doing this, it sereves not only historic truth but also the political
interests of the nation. (Rausa-Gomez, 99).
6.1 Findings
The research finds three concepts of significant to the field of Philippine literature:
that Indic cultural elements have been found in Philippine literature; parallels to Indias
Mahabharata and Ramayana have been identified; and
that intangible elements such as filial piety and superstion are not only evident in
Philippine folk literature, they are also measurable.
Austronesian and lived in small communities. All culture on the islands originated from what
they remembered and practiced from their ancestors.
At the start of the precolonial narrative (ca. 200), the inhabitants of the Philippines as
well as their cultures were all of foreign origins. There are no records of language, writing
systems, or literature in use at that time. However, these elements of literary tradition had begun
to be shaped in these primitive societies. By the middle of the precolonial narrative (ca. 1500),
foreign migrants and traders brought cultural elements into the islands.
All these foreign literary elements have been indigenized to create the existing regional
and tribal literary traditions.
6.4 Recommendations
Aside from future research to include the aforementioned chapters that have been omitted
from this study, some recommendations follow.
Future research could show that, if the Chinese Empire was strong enough to defeat the
Mongol and the Muslim invasions of its borders, the Mussulman Empire would not have made
its way to SE Asia, which would have remained Buddhists under Indic rule. S Philippines could
have land borders with Malaysia today, all with decidedly Indic cultures and literatures.
Further research into later ages could show that, if the Iberian civilizations had a more
positive history with the Moors, Spanish occupation of the Philippines would have been less
virulent, enough for more prehistoric records to have survived to give the Filipinos a longer
history that begins further back in time, long before Magellans arrival in Limasawa in 1521. As
well, the Spanish Cortez would have continued Filipino representation under a rule that would
have been much more benign, so much so that the North American incursion might have failed.
The attempt to reconstruct the lost narratives of Indic colonization of the Philippines
makes one realize that, but for the twists and turns of nature and fate, Filipinos would be known
by some other name as well as would look less European and more like Indonesians, Malaysians,
or Chinese as they look like today.
Most important in uncovering more empirical truths about the past, the research
recommends a less heterogenic-centered philosophy and approach for future research. Among
other authors, Pangilinan (2009) bemoans the lack of vision and originality in research:
If Sri-Vishayas influence was felt all over SE Asia and reached as far as China,
Japan and Tibet, its absence in Philippine history is a bit frustrating. Despite the
progress made in Philippine archaeology and the wealth of records that can be found
in the archives of neighboring Asian countries, scholarship in Philippine history has
remained Eurocentric and solely dependent on Spanish colonial records. Thus, in
order for anthropologists and linguists to explain the traces of Indian influences in
Philippine languages and culture, they would have to be their own historian (p. 8).
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APPENDICES
Table 62: Philippine Timeline Up To 1521
Timeline
25 - 30,000 B.C.
3 - 6,000 B.C.
1,500 B.C.
800 - 500 B.C.
Events
Ancestors of theNegriflJs stan arriving from the south (Borneo) through land bridges.
Austronesians arrive from Indonesia and other parts of SE Asia.
Migrants arrive in northern Luzon from Indochina, South China and Formosa.
Another wave of migrants arrive from SE Asia and South Chinabelieved to be the ancestors
of present-day Kalingas, Apayaos, Ibanags, Tagbanuas, Mandayas, Manobos, Bagobos,
Kulinans, Bilaans, Tirurays, and Subanons.
400 - 100 B.C.
More migrants referred to as the Kalanay and Novaliches people arrive from the coasts
of Indochina and settle in the Visayan islands, Mindoro, Marinduque, the Calamianes
islands, and Palawan.
300 - 200 B.C.
Another group of migratory Mawy people from the westem coast of Bomeo arrive and settle
in Mindanao, parts of Visayas and Luzon. They introduce irrigated agricuIture, smelting,
forging and manufacture of iron and other metals, the art o fweaving on a handloom, and
the manufacture of beads, bracelets and other ornaments.
100 1200 A.D.
Another group of Malays arrive, the ancestors of the llokanos, Tagalogs, Bisayans,
Pampangos, Bicols, Pangasinans.
670 A.D.
The Buddhist SriVishaya Empire controls the maritime trade routes between India and
China for about 640 years
960-1279 A.D.
Recotds indicate contact and trade between China and people in the Philippines during the
Sung Dynasty.
1300 -1390 A.D.
Muslim traders and religious teachers from India and Arabia arrive. Muslim sultanates in
SuIu are established.
1366 1644 A.D.
Records indicate contact between China and people in the Philippines during the Ming
Dynasty.
1400 A.D.
Manila founded as a trading port between Canton, Moluccas and SuIu.
1450 A.D.
A powerful Muslim sultanate is set up in SuIu after marriage between Abu Baker from
Sumatra (Indonesia) and daughter of Rajah Baginda of SuIu.
1520 (Nov. 28)
Magellan and his crew enter the Pacific Ocean for the first time and give it its name.
1521 (March 17)
Magellan's expedition arrives in Suluan island in Samar, the first Europeans to set foot on
Philippine shores. They name the entire archipelago Islas de San Lazaro.
1521 (March 30)
Magellan celebrates Easter Sunday with Mazaua Rajah Siaiu and his brother, Butuan Rajah
Colambu on Limasawa island, the first mass held in the Philippines. Later inthe day, a cross
is erected and MagelIan claims the islands for the king of Spain.
1521 (April 7)
Magellan and his crew reach Cebu and make a blood compact with Rajah Humabon.
OnSunday, 14 April, more than 800 natives, including Rajah Humabon andhis family, are
baptized and given Christian names, and made to recognize Spain's sovereignty over them.
1521 (April 27)
Lapu-lapu and his men kill Magellan and drive off the rest of his forces in a fierce battle on
the island of Mactan. With 18 surviving men aboard, the Victoria arrives in Spain on 8 Nov.
1522, becoming the first Europeans to circumnavigate the world, and proving the existence
of a water route to the Moluccas by sailing west.
Adapted from Alegado, 1992, 34
Table 63: Timele of Origin and Development of Writing Scripts
Est Timeleine
c. 3500 BCE
3200 BCE
2000 BCE
1700 BCE
1600 BCE
Canaanite alphabet.
c. 1400 BCE
1100 BCE
Phoenician alphabet.
Est Timeleine
c. 1000 BCE
Death of Ahiram (or Ahirom) of Byblos, whose sarcophagus bears the oldest
inscription of the Phoenician alphabet.
c. 350 CE - c. 950 CE
#
1
The
Mahabharata
350
BCE
formation of Hindu
identity; panoramic view
of everything from
spirituality to morality
Languages
Abaknon
002
Abiyan
Adasen
003
004
005
006
007
008
009
010
011
012
013
014
015
Also:
Also: Capul, Capul Samal, Capuleno,
Inabaknon, Inbaknon, Kapul, Sama
Camarinas Norte Agta (See: Manide)
Also: Addasen, Addasen Tinguian, Itneg
Adasen
Also: Alabat Island Dumagat (Nearly extinct)
Also: Casiguran Dumagat
Also: Labin Agta
Also: Dicamay Dumagat (Extinct),
Also: Dupaningan Agta, Eastern Cagayan
Agta (Threatened)
(Nearly Extinct)
Also: Inagta of Mt. Iraya, Itbeg Rugnot, Lake
Buhi, Rugnot of Lake Buhi East
Also: Lake Buhi West, Mount Iriga Negrito,
San Ramon Inagta
Also: Umiray Agta, Umirey Dumagat
(Extinct)
Pahanan, Palanan Agta
Also: Agutayno, Agutaynon
Location
Capul Island, NW Samar, facing the San Bernardino Strait
Note
Visayas
Luzon
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
C Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
NE Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Luzon
NE Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
E Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
S Philippines
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
#
016
017
018
019
020
021
022
023
024
025
026
027
028
029
030
031
032
033
034
035
Languages
Alta, Northern
Also:
Also: Edimala
Alta, Southern
Applai
Arta
Arumanen
Ata
Ati or Inati
Atta Faire
Atta Pamplona
Atta Pudtol
Attaw
(Nearly Extinct).
Also: Sogodnin in N. Panay (Reportedly
Extinct)
Also: Southern Atta (Threatened)
Also: Atta, Northern Cagayan Negrito
Also: Bagobo, Clata, Diangan, Giangan,
Guingan, Guiangan, Gulanga, Jangan, Klata,
Manobo, Obo
Ayta Abellen
Ayta Ambala
Ayta Bataan
Ayta Mag-anchi
Ayta Magbukun
Ayta Mag-Indi
Ayta Sorsogon
Ayta Tayabas
Ayta Villaviciosa
Also: Mag-antsi
Also: Bataan Ayta, Bataan Sambal,
Mariveles Ayta (Threatened)
Also: Indi Ayta, Mag-Indi Sambal
(Nearly Extinct)
(Extinct)
(Extinct)
Location
Aeta, Negrito: Aurora Province, San Luis municipality, Bayanihan area,
Diteki River
Aeta, Negrito: Quezon Prov. coastal areas, E Nueva Ecija, Sierra Madre,
& San Miguel town; Bulacan Provi, a large community in remote San
Miguel. N of the Umiray Dumaget
W Bontoc; W Bontok, Sabangan, Sagada, Tadian, & Besao
Note
E Luzon
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
N. Phil
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Philippine, Northern Luzon, MesoCordilleran
Luzon
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Panay
Diff fr Ata
Manobo or
Atta
W Visayas
Rizal, Cagayan,
NW Cagayan Prov., Cordillera
Apayao Prov., Pudtol, & Abulog River Sof Pamplona
Davao Sur, Davao City, Mt Apo E slopes
Luzon
N Luzon
N Luzon
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
S Luzon
C Luzon
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
#
036
037
038
039
040
041
042
043
044
045
046
047
Languages
Blaan Koronadal
Blaan Sarangani
Balangao
Balangingi
Bantayanon
Bantoanon
Banwaon
Basque
Batak
Baybayanon
Bicol
Bicolano Buhinon
Bicolano Central
048
049
050
Bicolano Iriga
Bicolano Libon
Also:
Also: Baraan, Bilanes, Biraan, Koronadal
Bilaan, Tagalagad
Also: Balud, Bilaan, Tumanao
Also: Balangao Bontoc, Balangaw, Farangao
or Finallig
Baangingi, Balanguingui, Bangingi,
Bangingih, Bangingih Sama, Northern Sama,
Sama Bangingih, Samal
Reportedly similar to Hiligaynon
Also: Asi, Asiq.
Also: Adgawanon, Banuaonon, Banwanon,
Higaonon-Banwaon, Manobo
Also: Euskara (Language Isolate)
Location
E of S Cotabato & Sarangani Prov.s; Sultan Kudarat Prov., Lutayan area;
Also: in Davao del Sur Prov.
Sarangani Prov.; S Cotabato Prov., Gen Santos & N; Davao Sur across
Sarangani N border
C Mountain Prov.; into Kalinga Prov., Tanudan Muni.
Note
Mindanao
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
N Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Sulu
archipelago
C Visayas
Visayas
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
S Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
E Visayas
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
#
051
052
053
054
055
056
057
Languages
Bicolano MIraya
Bicolano N
Catanduanes
Bicolano S
Catanduanes
Bicolano W Albay
Bicolano,
Rinconada
Binukid
050
051
052
053
054
055
Binukidnon
Bolinao
Bontoc
Bontoc Central
Bontoc, Eastern
058
059
Also:
Bontoc, Northern
Bontoc, Southern
Bontoc,
Southwestern
Buhid
Also: Bontoc
Also: Bangon, Batangan, Bukil
Location
Albay Prov., Guinobatan, Camalig, Daraga, & Jovellar towns; Sorsogon
Prov., Donsol town
Catanduanes Province, Pandan, Caramonan, Viga, Panganiban, & Bato.
Note
Luzon
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
C Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
NC
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
S Philippines
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
N Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
N Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
N Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian;
Meso-Cordilleran
N Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
N Luzon
#
056
057
058
059
060
051
062
063
064
065
066
067
068
069
070
071
072
073
Languages
Bukidnon
Butuanon
Caluyanon
Capiznon
Cebuano
Chavacano
Caviteo
Chavacano
Cotabateo
Chavacano
Davaweo
Chavacano
Emitao
Chavacano
Ternateo
Chavacano
Zamboangueo
Chinese Mandarin
Chinese Min Nan
Chinese Yue
Cuyonon
Davao Chavacano
Davawenyo
Dibabawon
Also:
Also: Binokid, Binukid, Bukidnon, Central
Bukidnon, Manobo
Also: Lapaknon swamp dweller
Also:Caluyanen, Caluyanhon
Also: Capisano, Capiseo
Also Binisaya, Bisayan, Sebuano,
Sugbuanon, Sugbuhanon, Visayan
Location
Bukidnon, Cotabato, Agusan Sur, some in Agusan & Misamis Oriental
Note
Mindanao
Classification
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
W Visayas
W. Visayas
S Philippines
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Cavite
Luzon
Cotabato City
Mindanao
Davao
Mindanao
Luzon
Ternate
Luzon
Mindanao
S Luzon
Sino-Tibetan, Chinese
Sino-Tibetan, Chinese
Sino-Tibetan, Chinese
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
#
074
075
Languages
Dumagat
Remontado
English
Eskayan
076
077
078
079
080
081
082
Also:
Also: Hatang-Kayey, Remontado Agta,
Sinauna, Sinauna Tagalog (Reporedly
Highly Endangered)
Also: Bisayan Declarado, Bisayan Diklaradu,
Bisayan-Eskaya, Eskaya, Ineskaya,
Iniskaya, Iskaya (Dormant)
Filipino
Finallig
Gadang
Gaddang
Also: Cagayan
Giangan
Hanunoo
Higaonon
083
Hiligaynon
084
085
086
Ibaloi
Ibanag
Location
Quezon Prov., General Nakar, Paimohuan; Rizal Prov., Santa Inez;
Laguna Prov., Santa Maria Muni.
National Statutory working language (1987, Constitution, Article 14(7)).
C Visayas, Bohol Prov, Cadapdapan, Biabas, Lundag, Taytay, and
Canta-ub villages.
Note
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Created from
Boholoano,
Cebuano,
Spanish,
English
Widespread
NLuzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
C Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
N Luzon
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
#
087
088
089
090
091
092
093
094
095
096
Languages
Ibatan
Also:
Also: Ivatan, Chirin nu Ivatan
Batanes, N. Philippines
Note
N Luzon
Ifugao Amganad
Luzon
Ifugao Batad
Ifugao Mayoyao
Ifugao Tuwali
S Ifugao Prov.
Ilocano
Ilongot
Inabaknon
Inakeanon
Inonhan
Iranun
097
098
099
112
113
Iraya
Isinai
Location
Widespread
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Bashiic
Malayo-Polynesian, MesoCordilleran
Malayo-Polynesian, MesoCordilleran
Malayo-Polynesian, MesoCordilleran
Malayo-Polynesian, MesoCordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Malayo-Polynesian, MesoCordilleran
E Visayas
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Greater Barito,
W Visayas
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Languages
Isnag
Also:
Also: Apayao, Dibagat-Kabugao-Isneg,
Isneg, Maragat. Dialects: Bayag, DibagatKabugao, Calanasan, Karagawan
(Daragawan), Talifugu-Ripang (Tawini)
Also: Itawes, Itawis, Tawit, Itawiq, Tawish,
Itawi, Itaves, Itabes. Dialects: Malaweg
(Malaueg), Itawis
Also: Banao, Banaw, Itneg, Timggian,
Tinguian; Dialects: Malibcong Banao, Banao
Pikekj, Gubang Itneg
Also: Tingguian, Tinguian, Tingguian
Location
Northern two thirds of Apayao Prov.; Cagayan Prov., Claveria & Santa
Praxedes munis; Abra & Ilocos Norte provs, scattered areas along
Apayao W border
Kalinga Prov., Balbalan & Pasil munis.; Abra Prov., Daguioman &
Malibcong munis.
Dialects: Banao Pikekj, Gubang Itneg, Malibcong Banao
Ba-ay Valley, Licuan-Baay, Licuan in Abra
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Luzon
Itneg Inlaod114
N Luzon
Itneg Maeng
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Itneg Masadiit
Abra: Sallapadan, Bucloc, & Boliney munis.; Kalinga Prov., W border strip N Luzon
Abra Prov.
N Luzon
N Luzon
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
Itawit
Itneg Banao
Itneg Binongan
Itneg Moyadan
Ivatan
108
109
110
111
114
I-wak
Jama Mapun
Kabihug
Note
N Luzon
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
N Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Bashiic
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
#
112
Languages
Kagayanen
Also:
Also: Cagayano, Kagay-anen, Kinagayanen;
Dialects: Calamian Kagayanen
Kalagan
Kalagan Kagan115
Kalagan
Tagakaulu
113
114
115
Kalanguya
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
115
Kalinga Butbut
Kalinga Limos
Kalinga Lower
Tanudan
Kalinga Lubuagan
Kalinga Mabaka
Valley
Kalinga
Madukayang
Location
Manobo: Palawan, Cagayan Island betw Negros & Palawan; Palawan
coastal communities; S Palawan, Balabac Island, Quezon & Rizal areas;
N Palawan, Busuanga, Coron Muni.; Iloilo, Silay, Negros, & Manila.
Davao Sur Prov., SW of Davao city, inland along coast; Compostela
Valley & Davao Norte provs, incl Samal and assoc islands, & inland on E
shores of Davao Gulf; Davao Oriental Prov., highlands; some in N
Cotabato Prov.;
Sirawan, Davao City; Tagum; near Digos City
Sarangani, Davao Sur, Mt. Apo, Malita, Lais, Talaguton Rivers, Malalog
Note
S Luzon
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Kalinga
Dialects: Guinaang, Balbalasang, AblegSalegseg, Balatok-Kalinga (Balatok-Itneg)
Also: Kal-Uwan, Mabaka, Mabaka Itneg
N Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Languages
Kalinga Southern
Also:
Also: Madlango Kalinga, Tinglayan Kalinga
Location
Kalinga Prov., Lubuapan Muni.; Mountain Prov., Sadanga & Sagada
municiplities, 13 villages; some in Tabuk
Kalinga Tanudan
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
Kalinga, Tanudan
Kallahan Kayapa
Kallahan Keley-I
Kankanaey
Kinaray-a
Lambangian
Lapuyan
Kamayo
Karolanos
Kasiguranin
Katabaga
Kinabalian
N Luzon
Kalinga
Kallahan Tinoc
Kankanay
Northern
Karao
Note
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Luzon
Luzon
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
#
140
141
142
143
Languages
Magahat
Maguindanao
Malaynon
Mamanwa
Mandaya
144
145
146
147
148
149
Mandaya
Cataelano
Mandaya Karaga
Mandaya Sangab
Mangkayan
Manide
Manobo Agusan
150
151
152
153
154
Also:
Also: Corolanos, or Southern Binukidnon, a
mix of Hiligaynon & Sugbuhanon
Manobo Ata
Manobo
Cinamiguin
Manobo Cotabato
Manobo
Dibabawon
Location
Aeta: Basay mountain in Negros
Note
Classification
E Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
#
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
Languages
Manobo Ilianen116
Also:
Also: Ilianen. Dialects: Arakan, Livunganen,
Pulangiyan
Manobo
Matigsalug
Manobo Obo
Manobo Rajah
Kabunsuwan
Manobo
Sarangani
Manobo Western
Bukidnon
Mansaka
Manuvu
Mapun
163
164
165
166
167
116
Maranao
Masbatenyo
Molbog
Palawano
Brooke's Pt
Location
N Cotabato, N & C watershed of Mindanao River; Bukidnon, Kandingilan,
Kibawe, & Darnulong munis.; Maguindanao, N Kambutalan & Datu
Montawal munis.
S C Bukidnon, NE Cotabato & NW Davao del Sur
Note
Mindanao
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
#
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
Languages
Palawano Central
Palawano
Southwest
Pampangan
Pampangan
179
180
Pangasinan
Paranan
Porohanon
Ratagnon
Romblomanon
Also: Camotes
Also: Aradigi, Datagnon, Lactan, Latagnun,
Latan
Also: Romblon
Sama Pangutaran
Also: Siyama
Sama Southern
178
Also:
Also: Palawanon, Pinalawan, Palawan,
Palawano, Palawanen, Palaweo, Quezon
Palawano
Location
SW Palawan N of Quezon to N of Rizal; E Abu Abu area, mostly along
upland rivers, some along the coast
S Palawan: S of Apu Rauan on the W coast & S of Abu Abu on the E
coast
Mankayan, Bakun, Kubungan, Buguias Munis. & half of Kapangan in
Benguet, Tarlac Prov.; most of Pampanga Prov. W of Pampanga River;
Sw Nueva Ecija Prov.; & Zambales Prov, scattered areas along E border.
Luzon, S half, Tarlac; most of Pampanga W of Pampanga river; SW
Nueva Ecija, & Zambales, scattered areas along E border.
Pangasinan
Note
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon,
southern half
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Luzon
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Meso-Cordilleran
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
E coast Isabela Prov., betw Divilacan Bay & Dinapigue town & inland to
San Mariano.
Cebu, Camotes Islands (Pacijun, Poro, Ponsoon) betw Cebu & Leyte.,
Mindoro Occidental, S extreme tip, incl Ilin Islands; Mindoro Oriental, S
tip, Bulalacao Muni.
Romblon & Sibuyan Islands, NE of Tablas Island (San Agustin), N of
Panay
W Mindanao, W central Sulu, Pangutaran Island, W of Jolo; S Palawan,
Cagayan de Tawi-Tawi
Muslim Mindanao autonomous region, S Sulu, Tawi-Tawi Simunul,
Sibutu, & other major Islands
Luzon
W Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Greater Barito
S Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Greater Barito
C Visayas
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
W Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
S Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Greater Barito
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian,
Greater Barito
S Mindanao
#
181
182
Languages
Sambal
Sambal Botolan
Sangil
183
184
185
186
187
188
Sangir
Sinauna
Sorsoganon,
Northern
Sorsoganon,
Southern
Sorsogon
Spanish
Also:
Also: Sambali, Sambal, Tina (pej.), Tina
Sambal (pej.); Dialects: Santa Cruz,
Masinloc, Iba
Also: Aeta Negrito, Ayta Hambali, Botolan
Zambal, Hambali; Dialects: Ayta Hambali
(Hambali Botolan), Sambali Botolan
Also: Sanggil, Sangire, Sangihe, & Sangir
Pilipinas, Sangir, Sangu, Marore,
Sangirezen, Talaoerezen; Dialects:
Sarangani, Mindanao
Alternate Names: Sangih, Sangirese.
Classification: Austronesian, MalayoPolynesian, Philippine, Sangiric, Northern
Also: Northern Sorsogon, Sorsogon
Bicolano, Sorsogon, Masbate
Bikol Sorsogon, Gubat, Sorsogon, Waray,
Southern Sorsogon
Location
Zambales Prov., north, 5 towns; Tarlac Prov., western border;
Pangasinan Prov., 2 villages, Palawan Island, Quezon, Panitian village
Note
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Subanen Central
Subanen Eastern
Subanen Northern
Subanen Southern
191
192
193
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
See: Sangil
See: Dumagat Remontado
Sorsogon Prov., Sorsogon City, Casiguran & Juban.
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
S Sorsogon Prov.
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Masbate
Mainly in Manila and other large cities; Chavacano-speaking areas
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Indo-European, Italic, Romance,
Italo-Western, Western, GalloIberian, Ibero-Romance, West
Iberian, Castilian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
189
190
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
#
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
Languages
Subanon
Kolibugan
Also:
Also: Calibugan, Kalibugan, Kolibugan
Subanon Western
Subanun Lapuyan
Sulod
Surigaonon
Tadyawan
Tagabawa
Tagakaulo
Tagalog
Tagbanwa
Tagbanwa
Calamian
Tagbanwa Central
Talaandig
Tandaganon
Taut Batu
Location
Zamboanga Peninsula, Sur, head of Sibuguey Bay fr Kabasalan W to Ipil
& inland; Zamboanga Norte, Sulu Sea, coastal band fr Liloy to near
Kanapun, 2nd area further SW, fr Siocon to Sibuco; Zambo City, S fr N
border to Curuan.
Zamboanga Norte facing Sulu Sea, fr Labason town to S border, mostly
inland, on W slopes, Zamboanga Peninsula; Sibugay, Ipil, Rosseler T
Lim, & Tungawan munis., E slopes of peninsula.
Note
Mindanao
Classification
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Visayas
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Southern Phil
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Widespread
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Malayo-Polynesian
S Luzon
Malayo-Polynesian
S Luzon
Malayo-Polynesian
Mindanao
Mindanao
Malayo-Polynesian
#
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
Languages
Tausug
Tawbuid Eastern
Tawbuid Western
T'boli
Tiruray
Waray
Yakan117
Yogad
Also:
Also: Bahasa Sug, Jolohano, Moro Joloano,
Sinug, Sinug Tausug, Sulu, Suluk, Tausog,
Taw Sug
Also: Bangon, Barangan, Batangan,
Binatangan, Fanawbuid, Suri, Tabuid,
Taubuid, Tiron
Also: Batangan Taubuid, Fanawbuid,
Western Taubuid
Also: Kiamba, Tagabeli, Tagabulu, Tboli,
Tibole, Tiboli
Also: Teduray, Tirurai
Also: Binisaya, Samaran, Samareo,
Samarenyo, Samar-Leyte, Waray-Waray
Also: Yacan
Location
Jolo, Sulu Archipelago; Palawan Island; Basilan Island, Zamboanga City
& environs
Note
Mindanao
Classification
Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Sultan Kudarat & Maguindanao Provs; Maguindanao Prov SW, Datu Blah
T. Sinsuat, N Upi, & S Upi minis; Sultan Kudarat Prov. NW, Lebak Mun
E Visayas, Samar & associated Islands, E Biliran; Leyte, Carigara Bay, S
to Tacloban, along Leyte gulf shore S, inland area W to highlands.
Sulu Archipelago, Basilan, & small surrounding Islands; Sakol Island; W
Mindanao, Zamboanga E coast. Concentrated away fr the coast.
Luzon, Isabela Prov., Echague & nearby towns
Mindanao
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian
Adapted from Ethnic Groups Philippines, 2011; verbix.com; ethnicgroups.philippines.com; and nativeplanet.org.
i
For instance, the 11-page report, Merging Qualitative and Quantitative Data in Miexed Meethods Research: How To and Why Not (Driscoll et al, 2007) has a self-explanatory title. So does the paper,
Practical Strategies for Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Applications to Health Research (Morgan, 1998). See also Mixed methodology: Combining qualitative and quantitative
approaches (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998), and Designing and conducting mixed methods research (Creswell & Clar, 2007).
ii
such as in Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004); Advances in mixed methods research: Theories and applications (Bergman, 2008); as well
as Revisiting the quantitative-qualitative debate: Implications for mixed-methods research (Sale, et al, 2002)
iii
such as Frost, et al (2010) in Pluralism in qualitative research: The impact of different researchers and qualitative approaches on the analysis of qualitative data; Clandinin and Murphy (2009) in
Comments on Coulter and Smith: Relational ontological commitments in narrative research; Greenhalgh and Russell (2005) in Narrative methods in quality improvement research; Beach & Hynds (1991) in
Research on response to literature; and by Sandelowski (2000) in Focus on Research Methods: Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Sampling, Data Collection, and Analysis Techniques in Mixed-Method
Studies