The LED is a light source which uses semiconductors and electroluminescence to create light.

There are two major kinds of light emitting diodes: LED and OLED. The LED is different
than EL lamp in that it uses a small semiconductor crystal with reflectors and other parts to make
the light brighter and focused into a single point. The OLED is very similar to the EL lamp in
design, using a flat sandwich of materials. It is different than the LED and EL lamp in that it uses
organic (carbon) molecules in the layer that emits light.

LEDs
Currently the LED lamp is popular due to it's efficiency and many believe it is a 'new'
technology. The LED as we know it has been around for over 50 years. The recent development
of white LEDs is what has brought it into the public eye as a replacement for other white light
sources.
Common uses: indication lights on devices, small and large lamps, traffic lights, large video
screens, signs, street lighting(although this is still not widespread)
Advantages:
-Energy efficient source of light for short
distances and small areas. The typical LED
requires only 30-60 milliwatts to operate
-Durable and shockproof unlike glass bulb
lamp types
-Directional nature is useful for some
applications like reducing stray light
pollution on streetlights
Disadvantages:
-May be unreliable in outside applications
with great variations in summer/winter
temperatures, more work is being done now
to solve this problem
-Semiconductors are sensitive to being
damaged by heat, so large heat sinks must be
Large LED array designed for use as a street lamp. employed to keep powerful arrays cool,
A massive aluminum heat sink is needed with the sometimes a fan is required. This adds to cost
and a fan greatly reduces the energy efficient
high wattage LEDs
advantage of LEDs, it is also prone to failure
which leads to unit failure
-Circuit board solder and thin copper
connections crack when flexed and cause
sections of arrays to go out
-Rare earth metals used in LEDs are subject
to price control monopolies by certain

nations
-Reduced lumen output over time

LED Statistics
*Lumens per watt: 28 - 150 (depends on
environment)
*Lamp life: 25,000 - 100,000 hours
*CRI (White LEDs) - 70
*Color Temperature (White LEDs) - 2540 10,000K
*Available in 0.01 - 3 W
Left: White LEDs became an affordable
commercial product in the 2000s

1. HOW THEY WORK

LEDs create light by electroluminescence in a semiconductor material. Electroluminescence is
the phenomenon of a material emitting light when electric current or an electric field is passed
through it - this happens when electrons are sent through the material and fill electron holes.
An electron hole exists where an atom lacks electrons (negatively charged) and therefore has a
positive charge. Semiconductor materials like germanium or silicon can be "doped" to create and
control the number of electron holes. Doping is the adding of other elements to the
semiconductor material to change its properties. By doping a semiconductor you can make two
separate types of semiconductors in the same crystal. The boundary between the two types is
called a p-n junction. The junction only allows current to pass through it one way, this is why
they are used as diodes. LEDs are made using p-n junctions. As electrons pass through one
crystal to the other they fill electron holes. They emit photons (light). This is also how
the semiconductor laser works.

Above: A 5 Watt LED, one of the most powerful LEDs available.

Above: A laser also creates light, but through a different construction. Read more about
semiconductor devices used in electronics here.

To understand p-n junctions and semiconductors better you will need to invest a good amount of
time in a lecture, it is not a simple phenomena and far too lengthy to cover here. See a 59 minute
introduction lecture to solid state (semiconductors) here.

Phosphors are used to help filter the light output of the LED. They create a more pure "harsh"
color.
Engineers had to figure out how to control the angle the light escapes the semiconductor, this
"light cone" is very narrow. They figured out how to make light refract or bounce off all surfaces

of the semiconductor crystal to intensify the light output. This is why LED displays traditionally
have been best viewed from one angle.

OLED: Organic Light Emitting Diodes

Introduction & Statistics
How They Work
Inventors and Developments
What is an OLED?
The Organic LED is made of a layer of organic electroluminescent material with p/n junction
sandwiched between to electrodes. At least one of the electrodes is transparent so the photons can
escape. Similar to an EL lamp, current is passed through a semiconductor (like the phosphor in
an EL lamp), however the difference is that an OLED uses a p/n junction were there is a
recombination of p and n carriers. EL (TDFEL, TFEL, powder EL) technology only uses a
material excited by current to make light.
The semiconductor in an OLED is organic which means it contains carbon. The OLED uses one
of two kinds of compounds: polymers or 'small molecule'. Read more about how it
works below.
Uses:
Lamps - short distance indoor lamps (produces a diffused light)
Displays - small: phones and media devices and large: televisions, computer monitors
Advantages:
-The units are lighter than traditional LEDs and can be made thinner as well
-OLEDs can provide a more energy efficient alternative to LCD computer and television
monitors
-Can be used in a myriad of new applications in which lighting technology has never been used
before
Disadvantages:
-The cost of OLEDs is still high and each unit produces less lumens than a normal LED
-The technology is still under development so the life of the OLED is being researched as new
materials are used and tested each year. Until more research is done we will not know how these
lamps with new materials compare with established technology.

OLED Statistics
*Lumens per watt: up to 50 in lamps (as of 2/2012)
*Lamp life: still under research
*CRI (White OLEDs) - still under research
*Color Temperature (White LEDs) - various whites are in development
*Available wattage: N/A

Patent by OLED co-inventor Stephen Van Slyke

Displays (computer monitors, televisions, mobile phone screens):
The OLED display is made by using multiple layer construction along with transistors which
control whether each pixel is on or off. This is very similar to EL displays. The OLED display
has the potential to be more efficient and thinner than the LCD. One advantage is that does not
need a cold cathode fluorescent backlight like an LCD. The lack of a backlight means it can
better display blacks (the back light always seeps through in black areas of the screen). The
OLED display can also provide better contrast ratios than an LCD. The OLED display may also
be made into a thin flexible material which could roll up like a newspaper. Currently the OLED
is not as bright as EL or LCD displays it works better in areas with less ambient light. That may
change as engineers work to increase luminosity.
Below: our simple video on OLED use in monitors and smart phones:

The diagram above is a simple modern OLED. There are a many new ways to construct the
OLED using a variety of layer configurations. Displays will have additional layers such as an
active matrix TFT (thin film transistor) which control pixel regions.
How the OLED Works:
Layers:
Early OLEDs had one layer of organic material between two electrodes.
Modern OLEDs are bi-layer, they have an emissive layer and conductive layer sandwiched
between two electrodes (see diagram above).
1. Electric current passes from the cathode to the anode. It passes through two layers of organic
molecules.
2. The first layer the electrons pass into what is called the emissive layer. Electrons leave
the conductive layermaking 'holes' (positive charge). Meanwhile in the emissive layer there are
excessive electrons (negative). The 'holes' jump to the emissive layer along the border of the two
layers where they recombine with electrons (this place is the p/n junction). When the electrons
join the holes light is emitted.

Light color is dependent on the materials used in the organic or polymer layers

Photo: Wikipedia: Tobias G.

Types of OLEDs:
LEC - Electrochemical Cell - this has ions added to the OLED
PMOLED - Passive-matrix OLED - the first display technology, developed in the mid 90s
AMOLED - Active-matrix OLED - used in displays, it has a switch built into it in the form of a
thin film transistor backplane. The transistor allows the unit to be switched on and off.
PLED - polymer LED
Polymer LEDs use a plastic to emit light. They have the properties of semiconductors yet are
versatile and low cost to produce. The layers that emit light are similar to an ink and will be very
cheap to manufacture once stable compounds and processes are developed.
Deeper understanding of these improvements requires a basic background in chemistry and
physics, you also can read more detail here.
The Future:
OLEDs will allow for thinner TV and computer displays, transparent "heads up" displays,
flexible displays, flat roll-on surface lights on the sides of buildings or vehicles, changing
camouflage displays for military vehicles, new photovoltaic applications, and much more. We

can expect a lower production cost compared to LEDs due to less part assembly. At the moment
OLEDs need more lab work to reach full potential.

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits visible light when an
electric current passes through it. The light is not particularly bright, but in most LEDs it is
monochromatic, occurring at a single wavelength. The output from an LED can range from red
(at a wavelength of approximately 700 nanometers) to blue-violet (about 400 nanometers). Some
LEDs emit infrared (IR) energy (830 nanometers or longer); such a device is known as
an infrared-emitting diode (IRED).
An LED or IRED consists of two elements of processed material called P-type semiconductors
and N-type semiconductors. These two elements are placed in direct contact, forming a region
called the P-N junction. In this respect, the LED or IRED resembles most other diodetypes, but
there are important differences. The LED or IRED has a transparent package, allowing visible or
IR energy to pass through. Also, the LED or IRED has a large PN-junction area whose shape is
tailored to the application.