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THE ELEMENTS
OF
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
THE ELEMENTS
OF
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
BY
W.
S.
FRANKLIN
and
R. B^
WILLIAMSON
SECOND EDITION
REWRITTEN AND ENLARGED
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON
MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.

1907
All rights reserved
Copyright, 1899
By W.
S.
franklin
Copyright, 1901
By W.
S.
franklin
Set up and electrotyped August, 189Q. Reprinted August, 1900

New Edition, reset and electrotyped August, 1901
Reprinted January, 1903 ; February, 1904 ;

October, 1904 March, 1906;
;
January, 1907.
V
604394
PRF88 OF
The new Era printing Company

Lancaster, Pa.
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

Two
years' use of Franklin
and Williamson's Elements of Al-
many
valuable suggestions from friends,
ternating Currents, and
make it possible to issue

now offered to the public.
a greatly improved edition, which
be found easy reading, but
it is
ability
It is
is
not expected that this text will
certain that
any one of moderate
can gain by serious study of this text a clear understand-
ing of the principles of alternating currents and of the theory of

the various types of alternating current machinery.
Aside from the minor changes which occur on almost every
page of the book,
this
new
edition differs
from the old
in
having
a very complete series of practical problems with answers.
The
on the Alternator, on the Transformer,

on the Synchronous Motor, on the Rotary Converter and on the
alterations in the chapters
Induction Motor, are especially noteworthy.
The
last five
chapters have been added to give the student a
general description of
some of the ordinary types of
current apparatus and the conditions under which
These chapters are intended
to be read
in
alternating
it is
operated.
connection with the
corresponding chapters that treat on the theory of the apparatus
under consideration.
The authors' thanks are due to Professor Morgan Brooks for

many valuable suggestions, to Messrs. C. M. Crawford and H.
W. Brown for assistance in preparing copy, in solving problems
and in reading proof, and to the manufacturing companies who
have kindly furnished a number of the cuts used
in the chapters
W.
that have been added.
S.
R. B.
South Bethlehem,
July 30,
1 90 1.
F.
W.
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

This book represents the experience of seven years' teaching
of alternating currents, and almost every chapter has been subjected repeatedly to the test of class-room use.
The authors
have endeavored to include in the text only those things which

contribute to the fundamental understanding of the subject and
those things which are of importance in the engineering practice

of to-day.
It
may
be taken for granted that the authors are deeply
debted to Mr. C.
P. Steinmetz,
whose papers are unique
close touch with engineering realities.
South Bethlehem,
June, 1899.
vu
W.
in-
in their
S.
F.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
Inductance and Capacity.
CHAPTER
The Simple Alternator.
11.
Alternating Current and Alternating Electromotive Force.
CHAPTER
III.
Measuring Instruments.
CHAPTER
IV.
Harmonic Electromotive Force and Harmonic Current.
CHAPTER
V.
Problems of the Inductive Circuit and Resonance.
CHAPTER
VI.
The Use of Complex Quantity.
CHAPTER
The Problem of
VII.
The Problem of Coils

The Transformer without Iron.
Coils in Series.
CHAPTER
Polyphase Alternators.
CHAPTER
VIII.
Polyphase Systems.
IX.
The Theory of the Alternator.
CHAPTER
X.
The Theory of the Transformer.

ix
in Parallel.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
XI.
The Theory of the Transformer. Continued.
CHAPTER
XII,
The Theory of the Synchronous Motor.
CHAPTER
XIII.
The Theory of the Rotary Converter.
CHAPTER
XIV.
The Theory of the Induction Motor.
CHAPTER
XV.
Transmission Lines.
ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINERY.

CHAPTER
XVI.
Alternators.
CHAPTER
XVII.
Transformers.
CHAPTER
XVIII.
Induction Motors.
CHAPTER
XIX.
Synchronous Motors.
CHAPTER XX.
Rotary Converters and Motor Generators,
SYMBOLS.
i
mstantaneous value of current.
maximum
effective value of
value of an harmonic alternating current.
an alternating current.
instantaneous value of electromotive force.
maximum
value of an harmonic alternating electromo-
tive force.
effective value of
Rf resistance
r,
L
C
(r
an alternating electromotive
sometimes used for
inductance.
electrostatic capacity.
time.
turns of wire.
speed
per second.
in revolutions
frequency
in cycles
ft)
frequency
in radians
/^
magnetic permeability.
length.
per second.
per second.
sectional area.
magnetic
^j
flux-turns.
magnetic
square root of minus one, v^
X,
radius).
flux.
field intensity.
X^ reactance.
z, Z",
impedance.
base of Naperian logarithms.
XI
1.
force.
THE
ELEMENTS OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS.

CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION.
INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITY.
Magnetic
1.
flux.
Let
be the area of a surface at right
angles to the velocity of a moving fluid and

of the
Then
fluid.
volume per second.

of a magnetic
sv
let
v be the velocity
is the flux of fluid across the area in units
Similarly, the product of the intensity,
field into
an area,
s,
the magnetic flux across the area.
at right angles to
That
1/
is
//",
called
is
^^Hs
in
which

is
(i)
the magnetic flux across an area
right angles to a magnetic field of intensity
The
unit of magnetic flux
is
is
line of force
is
ing reason
this surface to
Imagine
lines of force
The term
line
field.
field
of unit intensity.
field in
For
the air gap between
offorce is used for the unit flux for the followImagine a surface drawn across this field.
be divided into parts across each of which there
drawn
in the
magnetic
through each of the parts of our surface.
anywhere
at
a line drawn in a magnetic field so as to be in the direction of
Consider a magnetic
Suppose
is
called a line of force * or simply a line.
example, the intensity of the magnetic
the field at each point.
which
the flux across one square centi-
meter of area at right angles to a magnetic

This unit flux
s^
H.
in the field will be equal to the
field so that
one
is
a unit
flux.
line of force passes
Then the magnetic flux across any area

number of these lines which cross the area.

the pole face of a dyiiamo and the armature core
units,
and
this field is
normal
to the pole face of
is,
say, 5,000
which the area
Fig. 1.
is
300 square centimeters, so that 1,500,000
lines of
magnetic
flux pass from the pole face into the armature core.
The
trend of the lines of force
shown
shown the
near the poles of a magnet

Fig.
in
In Fig. 2
I.
is
is
trend of the lines of force through

a coil of wire in which an electric
current
2.
e's- 2-
is
flowing.
Induced electromotive
When
a bundle
nected
in series
of
force.
wires con-
moves across
mag-
netic field so as to cut the lines of force, in each wire an electro-
motive force
is
induced which
lines of force are cut,
the bundle of wires
is
and the
equal to the
rate,
d^ldt, at which
total electromotive force
induced
e=- N d^
dt
Similarly,
when
in
is
(ii)
the magnetic flux through a coil changes, an
electromotive force
is
induced
in the coil,
such that
-N d^
(ii)
bis
~dt
in
which
rate of
The
is
the
number of
change of
flux,
negative sign
is
and
turns of wire in the

e is
coil,
d^jdt
is
the
the induced electromotive force.
chosen for the reason that an increasing
positive flux produces a left-handed electromotive force in the

coil.*
Examples.
(ci)
conductor on a dynamo armature cuts the
1,500,000 lines of force from one pole face

that
is,
at the rate of
75,000,000
lines
say, -^^ second,
in,
per second
and
this is
the electromotive force (in c.g.s. units) induced in the conductor.
(/;)
through which there

coil is
N turns of wire
having
coil,
are.<l> lines
surrounds a magnet NS^
of flux, as
shown
the whole operation being accomplished in

,
being reversed with respect to the
changing from
-f 4> to
seconds.
electromotive force
divided
by
gives 24>//, which
/,
so that the aver-
N 2^lt,
is
and
is
This
to be
to volts.
it
field as
units,
c.g.s.
flux
a seat of kinetic energy.
The magnetic
a kind of obscure motion of an all-pervading medium,
the ether
energy
expressed in
10^ to reduce
The magnetic
field is
is
the coil
in
The
being therefore 24>.
the average value of d^jdt during the time
age electromotive force induced
3.
The
I.
be considered as
coil, is to
4>, the total change
Dividing this total change of flux by the time

is
in Fig.
quickly removed from the magnet, reversed, and replaced,
in
and
The amount
motion represents energy.
this
a given portion of a magnetic
the square of the intensity of the

fact that the kinetic
field.
field is
This
is
of
proportional to
analogous to the
energy of a portion of a moving liquid
is
proportional to the square of the velocity of the liquid.

4.
Kinetic energy of the electric current in a
of inductance.
The
energy which resides

rent.
The
kinetic
square of the
kinetic
in the
energy
energy of an
magnetic
is,
is,
( ii)
is
the
to the square of the current.
That
field is
proportional to
is
yiLi'
* This, although an inadequate statement, must

sign in equation
is
produced by the cur-
field
Therefore the total kinetic energy of the
W^
Definition
each point, proportional to the
at
field intensity, that
the square of the current.
coil.
electric current
of no practical importance.
(I)
suffice
especially inasmuch as the
4
in
which
(^Z)
is
is
the total energy of a current
joules and
units
of current, then
The
tance.
When
called the henry.
equation (i)
in
amperes, then
i in
is
coil,
and
called the
coil.
When
Units of inductance.
given
in a
The quantity L
the proportionality factor.
inductance of the given
is
expressed
expressed
is
expressed
is
of inductance
c.g.s. unit
Wis
and
in ergs
in
expressed
in
terms of a unit
in
i in c.g.s.
units of induc-
c.g.s.
called the centimeter, for
is
the reason that the square of a current must be multiplied by a
length to give energy or
The henry
Example.
given
duces a magnetic
is
that
equal to
coil
inductance
is,
If the current
is
for this coil
expressed
in
expressed
of course, the unit
is,
with a current of 0.8
is
o^ centimeters of inductance.
c.g.s. unit
of which the total energy
field
ergs, so that the value of

ters.
and the unit of inductance
as a length
of length.
work
is
is
pro-
6,400,000
20,000,000 centime-
amperes and energy
in joules
then the total energy corresponding to 8 amperes would be 0.64

joules and the value of
Non-inductive
negligibly small
circuits.
is
would be 0.02 henry.

circuit of which the inductance
called a non-inductive circuit.
is
Since the in-
ductance of a circuit depends upon the energy of the magnetic

field,
a non-inductive circuit
field,
or a
field
which
the two wires. Fig.
is
3,
is
one which produces only a weak
confined to a very small region.
Thus,
constitute a non-inductive circuit, espe-
lamv9-^(^ (^
(|)
(^
Fig. 3.
cially
site
if
they are near together
for,
these two wires with oppo-
currents produce only a very feeble magnetic field in the
surrounding region.
The
wires
usually arranged non -inductively.

ling the wire
spool.
wires
back on
itself
used
in
This
and winding
resistance
boxes are
may be done by doubthis
double wire on a
In this case the electromotive force between adjacent
may be
great and they
may have
considerable electrostatic

make
In order to
capacity.
out this defect, the wire
a non-inductive resistance
may be wound,
in
one
paper cylinder so as to bring the terminals as

This cylindrical
(inside) in
coil
5.
which the magnetic
Moment
The
in
the various
inconsiderable.
The
moving
kinetic
particles
velocity (linear) of each particle of the wheel
the energy of each particle
kinetic
That
is
proportional to the square of
to the square of the speed.
is,
energy of the wheel
speed.
is
which
is,
îs
y^Kc^^
(2)
the total energy of a wheel rotating at angular
velocity and (jÂT)

A'is called the
6.
its
Therefore, the total
proportional to the square of the
IV=
is
is
proportional to the speed (angular velocity) of the wheel, and
velocity, that
in
This gives a non-
field is intense.
of inertia, analog-ue of inductance.
of the wheel.
with-
coil
on a thin
far apart as possible.
the electrostatic capacity
energy of a rotating wheel resides
is
layer,
then flattened so as to reduce the region
is
inductive coil of which
the proportionality factor.
is
The
quantity
moment of inertia of the wheel.
Proposition.
The
inductance of a coil
wound on a given
proportional to the square of the number of turns
spool
N of wire.
For example, a given spool wound with No. i6 wire has 500
turns and an inductance of, say, 0.025 henry; the same spool
wound
many
with No. 28 wire would have about ten times as
turns and
its
inductance would be about 100 times as great, or
2.5 henrys.
Proof.
To double the number of turns on a given spool would everywhere double
the field intensity for the
same
everywhere be quadrupled
current,
for a
and therefore the energy of the
field
would
given current so that the inductance would be quad-
rupled according to equation (i).
7.
Proposition.
portional to
its
ing unchanged.
The
linear dimensions, the
is
pro-
number of turns of wire becoil has an inductance of
For example, a given
0.022 henry, and a

etc.,
inductance of a coil of given shape
coil
three times as large in length, diameter,
has an inductance of 0.066 henry.
6
8.
Electromotive force required to
change.
A current once
would continue
to flow without the
force to maintain
upon
To
it
is
help of an electromotive
no resistance
motion of the
to the
increase the speed of the wheel a torque
the direction of
in
the current in a coil
just as a wheel v/hen once started continues
it
to turn, provided there
wheel.
make
established in a coil of zero resistance
its
rotation,
rent in the coil an electromotive force
must
act
and to increase the cur-
must
act
on the
coil in
the
direction of the current.
When
an electromotive force
e (over
and above the electro-
motive force required to overcome the resistance of the
upon a
-t:,
coil
the current
such that
^di
Proof of equation
we have
at
(3).
di
ei=: Li
Now
work used
to
ei is the rate,
this
equation by the current
dW
-y-, at which work
is
done on the
coil, in
dt
overcome
resistance,
and
which the kinetic energy of the current of the
equation (l)
{Id)
Multiplying both members of
dt
addition to the
to increase at a definite ratCy
e^Lj^
dt
made
is
coil) acts
dW
di
we have 7-- = Li -.
this
coil
must be equal
increases.
Therefore, equation (3)
is
to the rate
Differentiating
proven.
When
Torque required to make the speed of a wheel increase.
a torque 7" (over and above the torque required to overcome the
frictional resistance) acts
o)
of the wheel
is
upon a wheel, then the angular velocity

dda
to increase at a definite rate, j-,
made
r=^5
Proof of equation
(4).
(4)
Multiplying both members of

dio
w of the wheel we have Tid^Kior-.

velocity
'
this
Now Tw
done on the wheel, and
is
energy of the wheel increases.

Therefore equation (4)
9.
Magnetic
is
flux
this
must be equal
equation by the angular
dW
is
dt
work
such
the rate, -y
dt
to the rate at
Differentiating equation (2)
at
which
which the kinetic
we have
dlV
_ do)
=
=Ki)
JUt)
^
dt
dt
proven.
and
flux-turns.
In dealing with a
coil
of wire
frequently necessary to consider the product of the magnetic
it is
flux through the coil multiplied by the number of tut ns of wire in

This product is called the flux-turns, and it is reprethe coil.
sented by the single symbol
I..
in
which
mean
turn of the
4>^ is
coil),
The
the coil
/ in
is
is
7V^
the
(5)
coil (strictly
number
the flux through
of turns of wire in the
the flux-turns.
Proposition.-
rent
through the
4> is the flux
and
coil,
That
4>j.
flux-turns
O^ through a
coil
due to a cur-
is
^, = Li
in
which
proven
10.
in
is
(6)*
the inductance of the
the next
When one pushes on a wheel, causing
crease, the
is
Reaction of a changing
Self-induced electromotive force.
current.
This proposition
coil.
article.
its
speed to in-
wheel reacts and pushes back against the hand.
This
d(d
reacting torque
is
equal and opposite to the acting torque,
K- r,
[equation (4)], which is causing the increase of speed.

Thus,
the speed of the wheel is increasing, the reacting torque is in
when
a direction opposite to the speed, and,

ing, the reacting
Similarly
torque
when an
is
in
when
the speed
is
decreas-
the same direction as the speed.
electromotive force acts upon a circuit,
causing the current to increase, the increasing current reacts.
The
reacting electromotive force
is
equal and opposite to the act-
di
ing electromotive force

current to increase.
L^
[equation (3)] which

,
is
causing the
This reacting electromotive force
self-induced electromotive force.

force
is
The
is
called a
self-induced electromotive
therefore
^di
* In
this equation
and
must be expressed
corresponding to the ampere-henry
t Supposed
to
is
have zero resistance
in c.g.s. units
because the unit of flux
not viuch used.

for the sake of simplicity of statement.
(di
When
a current
is
increasing
electromotive force
is
opposed to the current, and when a cur-
(di
rent
decreasing
is
force
the
self-induced
-j negative
-j positive
the self-induced electromotive

J
the direction of the current, exactly as in the case of
is in
a rotating wheel.
Proof of equation (6).
we have d^^dt^ L
(6)
JV- d^jdt
But
is
If the current
a coil
i in
Therefore
equation (3^), shows that equation (6)
= L-
current.
According
which, being identical to
to equation (6) the inductance of a coil
equal to the quotient ^Ji, where

the coil,* due to the current
is
the flux-turns through
4>^ is
There are important
in the coil.
cases in which the flux through a
coil,
due to a given current,
be easily calculated and, therefore, the inductance of such
a coil
easily determined.
is
Long
radius
solenoid.
r,
the coil
The
dividing this
coil is
is 7rr^,
^).
Consider
of length
tensity in the
a long cylindrical coil of wire of
and having
//=
which
coil in
The
has
we
field in-
is
îr^r^NUl
N turns, so that ^^ = N^ = ^Tr^r^NHjl',
have, according to equation (6),
(7)
inductance in centimeters, r
is
the radius of the
centimeters and / the length of the coil in centimeters.
This equation
the wire
is
is strictly
wound
useful in enabling
in
is,
true only for very long coils on which
a thin layer
the equation
is,
however, very
one to calculate easily the approximate induct-
ance of even short thick

* That
of wire.
so that the flux through the opening
coil
by
is
N turns
îrNijl and the area of the opening of
i=
in
dildi^
is true.
Calculation of inductance in terms of flux-turns per unit
11.
(=
changing, then, from equation
di\dt,
or by the changing current.
may
is
and from equation (5) we have d^-^jdt^= JV- d^jd/.

the electromotive force, ^, induced in the coil by the changing flux,
-
the flux through a
coils.
mean
turn multiplied
by the number of turns of
wire.

Coil wound on
an
iron core.
on an iron ring / cm.
(mean) and
shown
coil
of
N turns of wire
is
wound
circumference
in
s cm.în sectional area, as
The
in Fig. 4.
coil
produces
through the ring a magnetic flux

<!>
where mjn.f. (=
m.nt.f.lm.r.y
îrNi)
is
the magnetomotive force due
and m.r.[
to the coil,
= ///lw)
the
is
magnetic reluctance of the iron core,

being the current
in
the coil and
Z=
Remark.
The
an iron core
is
permeability,
not a
Fig. 4.
= ;v =
or
magnetizing force.
the
Therefore,
permeability of the iron.
^,
ft
^Li
(8)
47rfisN^
ft,
of iron decreases with increasing
Therefore, the inductance of a coil

definite constant as in case of
wound on
a coil without
an iron core.
12.
Growth and decay of current in an inductive
a torque
is
applied to a wheel the wheel gains speed
of the applied torque

air, etc.
When
until the
whole
used to overcome the resistance of the
is
While the speed
overcomes
circuit.
this resistance
is
increasing part of the applied torque
and the remainder causes the speed to
increase.
When
in the circuit increases until
tive force is
the current
is
applied to a circuit the current
the whole of the applied electromo-
used to overcome the resistance of the

is
circuit.
While
growing part of the applied electromotive force
overcomes resistance and the remainder causes the current to

crease.
in-
Therefore,
di
E^Ri-^L dt
in
which
E is the applied
electromotive force,
(9)
i is
the instantane-
lO
ous value of the growing current,

cuit
and
its
Ri
inductance.
and
L -,-
is
the resistance of the cir-
is
the part of
is
di
resistance
E used
the part of
to
E used
make
to
overcome
the current in-
crease.
If
a circuit of inductance, Z, and resistance, R, with a given
current
is left
to itself without
the current, the current dies

tive force Ri,
the
which
any electromotive force
away or
electromotive
self-induced
overcomes the
at each instant
to maintain
decays, and the electromo-
force
Z di
-7-
resistance,
so that
at
is
each
at
di
mstant
Ri L^-
at
or
Examples.
An electromotive
of which the inductance
At
ohms.
di
^.
= Rt-\L-j
y.
is
force of
10 volts acts on a
0.04 henry and the resistance
i in
the coil
zero,
is
Ri
is
henry x dijdt
or
dijdt =
2750 amperes
per
10 volts
second.
the growing current has reached a value of 30 amperes,
equal to 90 volts, and the remainder of the
to cause the current to increase, that
is,
10 volts acts
20 volts =0.04 henry x
500 amperes per second.

a current is established in this coil and the
di/dt or dijdt
If
is
and the whole of the
electromotive force acts to increase the current, so that
= 0.24
coil,
the instant that the electromotive force begins to act,
the actual current
When
(10)
coil left to itself,
short circuited, without any electromotive force to maintain the
current
then, as the decaying current reaches a value
amperes, the electromotive force Ri

^
motive force
is
equal to
di
Z^-,
is
90
volts,
di
so that
is
and
of,
say,
30
this electro-
2250 amperes
per second.
13.
Problem I. An inductive circuit with a current flowing in it is left to itself,

At a certain instant, from which time is to be reckoned {t=o)y
short circuited.
the value of the current
is /.
It is required to find
an expression
for the
decaying

current at each succeeding instant
circuit
the resistance
and the inductance
of the
being given.
Let
be the value of the current at the instant
Proof.
To
=
is
The
that equation
lo)
Then
/.
= /e-l
(II)
establish the truth of equation (ii)
when /ô, and

I.
we have i
which
Differentiating equation (
it is
show that = /
= o in equation (li)
sufficient to
Substituting /
is satisfied.
we have
di
dt~
L*
equation (lo).
ordinates of the curve, Fig. 5,
show a decaying
current.
DECAYING CURRENT
I '<56.7amjo.
= 0.(H hQ-nru
hundred iJi^ ofa Second

Fi&. 5.
14.
Problem
resistance
II.
A constant electromotive
and inductance Z.
/ seconds after the electromotive force is
The
required expression
is
connected to the
connected to a circuit of
for the
growing current
circuit.
is
'
force
Required an expression
= R-R-'
To establish the truth of equation (12) it is sufficient to show that

Proof.
when t=zo and that equation (9) is satisfied.
The ordinates of the curve, Fig. 6, show the values of a growing current.
<")
=o
12
GROWING CURRENT
E = NO voli^
L
0.04-
Mnry
ame
hiiniredih ofa Second
Fig. 6.
15. Electric charge.
upon
The
electric current in
a wire
wire conveying a current
looked
The amount
as a transfer of electric charge along the wire.
of electric charge q, which in
is
seconds passes a given point of
i is
q=
it
(13)
or the rate dqjdt at which the charge passes a given point on a

wire
is
dq
(14)
'di
Units charge.
peres and
/ in
the coulomb.
When
seconds, q
That
charge which passes
ampere.
is
^'
When
i is
in
equation (13)
is
expressed
the coulomb
is,
in
expressed
expressed terms of the
in c.g.s. units
in this
way.
The charge
A very
uring the current
am-
amount of
electric
t.
and
t in
seconds, q
charge.
c.g.s. unit
Measurement of electric charge. An

determined by measuring the current
tion (13).
in
terms of a unit called
the
is
expressed
one second along a wire carrying one
in
during an observed time,
is
electric
i
which
Then q may be
charge
it
will maintain
is
determined
small charge cannot be measured

t,
for
be
calculated from equa-
capacity of storage batteries
and the time
may
by meas-
such a charge cannot
maintain a steady measurable current for a sufficient time.

small electric charge
is
measured by allowing
13
to pass quickly
it
through a galvanometer and observing the throw of the needle.

galvanomThe charge is sensibly proportional to the throw.
eter used in this
16.
way
is
called a ballistic galvanometer.
Electrostatic capacity.
Condensers.
When
of a battery are connected to two metal plates, as
momentary current flows

7,
cated by the arrows and the
a
the terminals
shown
in Fig.
as indielectric
charge which passes along the wire
momentary current is
stored upon the plates, for upon disduring
this
connecting the battery and connecting
momentary
the plates with a wire a

reversed
current
If a ballistic
may
be observed.
galvanometer be included
amount of charge which passes into the plates may

This amount of charge is proportional to the elec-
in the circuit the
be measured.
tromotive force e of the battery (other things being equal) that
q^Ce
in
which q
is
the plates, e
what
is
(15)
the electric charge which flows along the wire into

is
Two
plates arranged in this
called a condenser
static capacity of the
and
condenser.
factor
If,
in the
of a unit called a farad.
That
is,
one farad when one coulomb of
C is
ties
which
is
is
charge
commonly used
one millionth of a
because the farad
is
(i 5),
is
ex-
a condenser has a capacity of
electric
of condensers, electric cables,
microfarad
the
consti-
expressed in terms
a battery of which the electromotive force
unit of capacity
way
called the electro^
equation
C is
pressed in coulombs and e in volts, then
by
the electromotive force of the battery and
proportionality factor.
tute
is
pushed
one
into
volt.
it
The
to express the capaci-
etc., is
farad.
is
is
the microfarad.
The
microfarad
is
The
used
too large a unit to use conveniently.
Condensers to have a larce canacity
(as
much
as a microfarad)
14
are usually
made up
of alternate sheets of
or mica, as indicated in Fig.
8.
tinfoil
and waxed papev
Alternate metal sheets are con-
nected together as
shown, thus
practically forming
two plates of
large area.
^^* ^'
Hydrostatic analogue of the
17.
condenser.
Consider a chamber with
Fig. 9, separated
and B,
If a
ber.
pump
P is
by an
water-tight compartments,
elastic
diaphragm,
DD,
of rub-
connected to the com-
partments as shown, a
definite quantity of
water g will be forced through the pipe, out

of one compartment into the other, and this
quantity will be proportional to the difference

of pressure e generated in
pump.
That
^
in
which
much
condenser
18.
and
by the
Ce
C is the proportionality factor. The
diaphragm separating
very
is
and
is
subject to mechanical stress
as the insulator or dielectric between the plates of a

is
subject to electrical stress.
Indnctivity of dielectric.
of a condenser
is
The
material between the plates
The
called a dielectric.
capacity of a condenser
of given dimensions depends upon the material which
is
used as
The quotient, capacity of a condenser with a given

divided by its capacity with air as the dielectric, is culled
the dielectric.
dielectric
the inductivity of the given dielectric.
Table of Inductivities.
Air equal
3.00 to 10.00
Glass
Vulcanite.
to unity.
Mica
4.00 to 8.00
.2.50
Shellac
Turpentine.
Paraffine.
.1.68102.30
Beeswax.
1.86
Petroleum
2.95 to 3.60
.2.15102.43
2.04 to 2.42

The
capacity of a condenser
given by the equation
is
in
which a
ka
Caa.= 885X
lO
(i6)
the combined area in square centimeters of
is
leaves of dielectric between the condenser plates,
ness in centimeters of the dielectric leaves, and k
the
all
the thick-
is
the inductiv-
is
the dielectric used.
ity of
Mechanical and electrical analogies. The analogy between moment of

and inductance as pointed out in the discussion of inductance is but a small
part of an extended analogy between pure mechanics and electric. ty.
This extended
19.
inertia
analogy
is
here briefly outlined.
= vt
in
x
which x is
traveled in t seconds
bod> moving
(I)
the distance
by a
at velocity v.
in
which
4>
(j/
(2)
the angle
is
turned in / seconds by a
body turning
angular
at
velocity u.
W=:Fx
in
which
work
F in
pull-
in
which
(3)
;.
IV=^
(5)
work
the
is
^'^
flows through a circuit car-
rying a current
W=T
(4)
the
is
which ^ is the electric

charge which in / seconds
in
in
which IV
is
(6)
the
work
done by a torque T in turnbody through the
done by an electromotive
ing a body through the dis-
ing a
tance X.
angle
^ through a
done by a force
in
P=Fv
which P
the
is
developed by a force
^.
F=
(7)
which
To)
in
F act-
developed by a torque
the
body turning
ing upon a body moving at
acting on a
velocity v.
angular velocity u.
Wyimv^
in
which
is
m moving
in
which
is
is
(9)
power
developed by an electro-
at
motive force
(II)
the kinetic
inertia
circuit.
F=t
which F
the
energy of a wheel of mo-
ment of
at velocity v.
in
F in pushing a charge
a current
W=y^Ki^^
(10)
the kinetic
energy of a mass
(8)
power
power
is
force
K turning
in
in
pushing
through a
circuit.
W=%Lii
(12)
which JV
energy of a
is
the kinetic
coil
of induc-
tance L carrying a current i.
at angular velocity w.
^=4:
in
which
is
(-3)
the force re-
quired to cause the velocity

of a body of mass
to in-
in
which
T' is the torque
required to cause the angular velocity of a
wheel of
dv
moment
dt
increase at the rate
crease at the rate
of
inertia
to
47r^m
(16)
(19)
E=L
E the
is
motive force
(I5>
electro-
required
cause a current in a
inductance
coil
to
of
to increase at
dt_
the rate
7t
(17)
4^^/^
which
dti
dt
x^=aF
in
q=CE
47r2Z_
(20)
(i8>
I
(21>
WIRE
BODY
O^'"'
Fig. a.
Fig. b.
A body of mass m is supported by a
clamped
flat
spring Sy
in a vise as
shown
A force F pushing sidewise on m moves

jr,
which
portional
to
7% according
equation (i6).
started the
body
is
vibrations
is
coil
body and twist
tromotive
anywhere
which
is
proportional to
T, according
to
body
will vibrate
equation
started,
the
about the
wire as an axis and the

period r of
is
its
vibrations
determined by equation
An
force
in
as
elec-
acting
the
circuit
pushes into the condenser

a charge ^,
which
portional
, according
to
to
is
pro-
When
equation (18).
started the electric charge

will surge
back and forth
through the
ing what
(20).
of inductance
in Fig. c.
the wire through an angle
and
determined by
con-
shown
When
equation (19).
is
torque /"acting on the body
(17).
its
nected to the terminals of
m will con-
and the period r of
c.
condenser
A" is hung by a wire

as shown in Fig. b.
A
^,
When
tinue to vibrate back

forth
pro-
ertia
will turn the
it
a distance
Fig.
A body of moment of in-
in Fig. a.
to
is
coil, constitut-
called an oscil-
latory current and the period
of one oscillation
is
deter-
mined by equation (21).
PROBLEMS.
1.
The
intensity of the magnetic field in the air
the pole face and the armature core of a

units
and the pole
netic flux
2.
face
is
10 cm.
magnet.
gap between
is
5,000
c.g.s.
Required the magAns. 1,000,000 hnes.
of an alternator armature has 20 turns of wire and
engages the whole 1,500,000

field
x 20 cm.
from pole face to armature core.
coil
dynamo
In
j^-jj
second
lines
which flow from a pole of the
this coil
moves from a north pole

when the flux is
to an adjacent south pole of the field magnet,
Calculate the average electromotive force in the coil
reversed.
Ans.
during this interval.
The
3.
50
volts.
when magnetized has a
core of an induction coil
of 120,000
is
lines
passing through
When
it.
broken the flux through the core drops to 15,000
What
second.
is
induced
is
in
Find the approximate inductance,

25 cm. long and
of a cylindrical
Ans. 0.00022 henry.
Ans. 0.044 joule.
coil.
The above
rate, in
coil is
connected to
amperes per second,
lo-volt mains.
Find the
which the current begins to
at
Calculate the rate at which the current (problem 6)
when
creasing
ance of the
it
coil
in-
Ans. 500,000 amperes per second.
crease in the coil.

7.
in henrys,
Calculate the kinetic energy of a current of 20 amperes in
the above
6.
volts.
cm. mean diameter, wound with one layer
of wire containing 150 turns.

5.
^J^
the secondary coil which
Ans. 78,750
has 150,000 turns of wire?

4.
lines in
the average value during this interval of the
electromotive force which
coil
flux
the primary circuit
has reached the value of 10 amperes, the
being 2.5 ohm.
is
in-
resist-
Ans. 386,262.6 amperes per
second.
8.
coil of
which the resistance
is
2.5
ance 0.04 henry has a current started in

short circuited and the current
amperes per second,
rate, in
it
at
left
ohms and the

it.
The coil
to die away.
which the current
passes the value of 10 amperes.
Ans.
inductis
then
Calculate the
is
decreasing as
625
amperes per
second.
9.
A coil of wire has
an inductance of 0.035 henry.
Calculate
the magnetic flux-turns through the coil due to a current of

c.g.s. units in
late the
the
The
coil.
number of
has 1,500 turns of wire
lines of flux
175,000,000 line-turns,
10.
coil
16,666
calcu-
through a mean turn.
Ans.
lines.
condenser has a capacity of 1.2 microfarads.
the charge which
is
pushed
motive force of 1,000
volts,
into this condenser
Calculate
by an
electro-
and calculate the time during which
charge would maintain a current of one ampere.
this
Ans.
O.OOI2 coulomb, O.OOI2 second.

1 1
condenser
is
up of leaves of mica, each
built
meter thick, between sheets of

the
number
x lo
centimeters.
milli-
Find
of mica leaves required to give a capacity of one
(The inductivity of mica
microfarad.
269
tinfoil
o.
may
be taken as
6.)
Ans.
leaves.
12.
condenser, consisting of two sheets of
tinfoil
30 x 30
centimeters pasted on the two sides of a pane of glass 2 milli-
meters thick (inductivity of glass equals

a
centimeters in
6), is
discharged through
wound on
250
diameter and 30 centimeters long.
turns of wire
consisting of
coil
proximate periodic time of the
glass tube 3
Find the
ap-i
(See Arti^
electrical oscillations.
Ans. 0.00000417 second.
cle 19.)
The field coils of a shunt dynamo have a resistance of

100 ohms and an inductance of 20 henrys. An electromotive
13. *
force of
500 volts
is
applied.
current to reach a value of

14.
Calculate the time required for the
4 amperes.
Ans. 0.322 second.
telegraph line has 3.6 henrys inductance and 2,500
ohms
resistance.
reach
^^
Calculate the time required for the current to

value, EjR, after the circuit
i^^ full
is
closed.
Ans.
laminated.
When
0.00157 second.
* This problem applies
the field magnet
is
made
to the case in
which the
while, at the
when
the iron
is
magnet
is
it
during mag-
grow very quickly to nearly its fiill

same time, the magnetization of the core grows more slowly than
netization permit the current in the field coils to
value
field
of solid iron the eddy currents produced in
laminated.
CHAPTER
II.
THE SIMPLE ALTERNATOR.

20.
The
alternator.
Definition of altcrnatiîg electromotive force
and of alternating current. The alternator is an arrangement by

means of which mechanical energy or work is used to cause the
magnetic flux from a magnet to pass through the opening of a
coil of
wire
first in
one direction and then
in the
other direction.
This vaiying magnetic flux induces an electromotive force

first in
coil
other direction.
in the
in
the
This
electromotive force, called an alternating electromotive force, pro-
duces an alternating current
Examples.
tioned
coil
move
is
alternator the above-men-
each other.
relatively to
essential features of
which
in the circuit
coil.
In the common type of
magnet and
shows the
and
in the coil
connected to the terminals of the
such an alternator.
Fig. lo
The
poles of
a multipolar magnet, called the field magnet, project
radially
inwards toward the passing teeth of a rotating mass of laminated

iron A,
and upon these teeth are wound the
the alternating electromotive force
mass of iron with
On
its
is
windings of wire
coils of wire in
induced.
is
which
This rotating
called the armature.
the armature shaft, at the one end of the armature, are
mounted two insulated metal
rings called collecting rings.
These
metal rings are connected to the ends of the armature wire, and
metal brushes rub on these rings, thus keeping the ends of the
armature winding in continuous contact with the terminals of the

external circuit to which the alternator supplies alternating current.
The
electromotive forces induced
coils are in opposite directions at
in
adjacent armature
each instant and the
coils are
so connected together that these electromotive forces do not op19
20
pose each other.

every alternate
This
coil,
the coils in Fig. lo.
is
done by reversing the connections of
as indicated
by the dotted
The electromagnetic
alternator depends only
upon the
relative
lines
connecting
action of this type of
motion of
field
magnet
Fig. 10.
and armature, and large machines are often

ary armature and rotating
field
built with station-
magnet.
In another type of alternator, called the inductor alternator, the
magnet and the wire

is
in
which the alternating electromotive force
induced are both stationary, and a moving mass of laminated
iron causes the magnetic flux from the
magnet
the stationary coils in the desired manner.

essential features of the inductor alternator.
field
magnet
poles.
mediate projections
by
The armature
AAA,
wire
is
to pass
Fig.
NSNS,
through
shows the
1 1
etc.,
wound on
are the
the inter-
and the inductors /// are supported
a spider keyed to a rotating shaft.

The
exciter.
The
field
electromagnet which
is
21
magnet of an alternator
is
usually an
excited by a continuous electric current
by an indepen-
supplied
dent generator, generally
by an
auxiliary continuous
current
exciter.
dynamo called the

The exciting cur-
rent flows through coils of
wire
wound on
ing poles
lO and
Armature
shown
in Figs.
II.
and
cores
of
armature
lo
in Fig.
ar-
The
windings.
mattire
type
the project-
NSNS
is
core
called
the toothed armature core,
and the winding
is
Fig. 11.
said to
be concentrated, that
few heavy bunches.
is,
the armature conductors are grouped in a
Armature cores are
also
made with many
small slots, in which the armature conductors are grouped in small
bunches.
This type of core
is
called a multi-slotted core,
winding
The
said to be
is
and the
distributed.
various types of armature wind-
ings are described in Chapter IX.

In
some of the
earlier types of
alternators the armature core consisted of a
smooth, cylindrical mass
of laminated iron, upon the face of
which the conductors were arranged

in
bands side by
more
depth.
in
armature
is
side,
one layer or
This
type
of
called the smooth core
Fig. 12.
armature.
TJie
pump
hydraidic analogue of the alternator.

P, Fig.
2,
of which the piston
is
Consider
a valveless
pushed rapidly back and
22
Th'is to-and-fro
forth,
motion of the piston produces an
alter-
nating hydrostatic pressure-difference between the outlet and inlet
of the
pump, and causes the water
through the
21.
The
to surge
back and forth
circuit of pipe.
Advantages and disadvantages of alternating currents.

electric transmission of a given
amount of power may be
accomplished by a large current at low electromotive
by a small current
high electromotive force.
at
In the
force, or
first
case
very large and expensive transmission wires must be used, or the

loss of
power
in
the transmission line will be excessive.
In the
second case comparatively small and inexpensive transmission

wires
may be
Thus
used.
high electromotive forces
High electromotive
a practical necessity to employ
is
it
in long-distance transmission of
power.
forces are dangerous under the conditions
which ordinarily obtain among users of
electric light
and power,
and many types of apparatus, such as incandescent lamps, operate satisfactorily only with medium or low electromotive forces.
Therefore, means must be provided at a receiving station for
transforming the power which

tive
force and small current,
current
if
delivered,
is
long-distance transmission
lies
is
to
be successful.
The advantage
called step-down transformation.
current over direct current
from high electromo-
low electromotive force and large
to
almost wholly
This
is
of alternating
in the
cheapness
of construction, the cheapness of operation and the high
effi-
ciency of the alternating current as compared with the directcurrent apparatus that
is
required for transformation.
In step-down transformation of direct current a motor takes a
small current from the

mains, and drives a
vice mains at
high electromotive force transmission
dynamo which
low electromotive
equivalent, the dynamotor,

attention in operation,
and
is
its
delivers large current to ser-
This apparatus, or
force.
expensive to construct,
efficiency
is
it
its
requires
never, perhaps, above
90 per cent.
The step-down transformation of alternating currents is accomplished by means of the alternating current transformer,

which
The alternating current transdynamo and motor of the
described in Chapter X.
is
former
much cheaper
very
is
23
than a
requires no attention in operation,
same output,
it
ciency under
full
load
is
and
its
effi-
usually greater than 97 per cent.
Alternating current has some minor advantages over direct

current,
on account of the
fact that alternating current
machines
are frequently simpler in construction than direct current
In particular, the commutator
chines.
of an alternating current machine.

alternator
is
ma-
not an essential part
In the case of the inductor
and the induction motor, the rotating part may not
have any sliding
The simple
electrical contacts whatever.
alternating current
for the alternating current
For uninterrupted
is
not suited to motor service,
motor does not
service the synchronous
start satisfactorily.
motor
is
frequently
by an auxiliary engine or other

The synchronous motor is described in
used, the starting being effected
independent mover.
Chapter XII.
The synchronous motor

ing
The
induction motor
is
not satisfactory
is
For such
necessary.
is
described in Chapter
tion motor, to start satisfactorily,
more
frequent start-
motor
sion.
This
lines.
It is
is
is
used.
The induc-
XIV.
must be supplied with two or
distinct alternating currents, transmitted to the
separate
motor over
called the polyphase system of transmis-
described in Chapter VIII.
For some purposes, especially

which are used on a large scale
current only can be used.
nating current,
the conversion
is
when
service the induction
is
is
for the electrolytic processes,
in electro-chemical
When
works, direct
power, transmitted by alter-
to be delivered in the form of direct current,

effected
by means of the rotary
converter, which
described in Chapter XIII.
The
rectifier is
sometimes used for converting alternating cur-
rent into direct current.
The
the
The
rectifier is
described in Article 2S,
rectifier is used in American practice only in connection with

compounding of the field of the alternator as described in
Article 94.
24
22. Characteristic
features of alternating-current problems.
Alternating-current problems
from direct-current prob-
differ
lems chiefly for two reasons, as follows
The
{a)
rapid changing
of the alternating current produces an electromotive force reac-
any
which has inductance, and a portion of the

electromotive force which acts upon the circuit is necessarily used
tion in
in
circuit
overcoming
this reaction,
(b)
The
rapid changing of an alter-
nating electromotive force causes the various parts of a circuit to
become
alternately charged
and discharged with
a portion of the alternating current which

cuit does not flow
through the entire
charges the various parts of the

current
phenomena
differ
is
circuit,
circuit.
electricity,
and
delivered to a cir-
but charges and
dis-
In short, alternating-
from direct-current phenomena because
of the effects of inductance and capacity.

In
many
capacity
is
of the practical problems in alternating currents the
concentrated at one part of the circuit in the form of
a condenser.
These problems, which are comparatively simple,
are treated in Chapters V., VI. and VII.
case the capacity
words
all
In the most general
distributed throughout the circuit, or in other
is
portions of the circuit are charged and discharged per-
ceptibly as the alternating electromotive force which acts upon
the circuit pulsates.
The phenomena
exhibited
by long
trans-
mission lines depend very materially upon the effects of distrib-
uted capacity.
These phenomena are discussed
A clear idea of the effects
of distributed capacity
in
Chapter
may be
XV.
obtained
by considering Fig. 1 2. Imagine the circuit of pipe in this figure

made of a distensible rubber tube. Then at a given instant
to be
the flow of water through the tube at one point will not be the
same
as the flow through the tube at another point
difference of flow at the
two points
will
and the
be accommodated by ex-
pansion and contraction of the intervening portion of the tube.

23.
Speed and frequency.
The electromotive
force of an alter-
nator passes through a set of positive values, while a given coil

of the armature
is
passing from a south to a north pole of the

field
25
magnet, and through a similar set of negative values, while
the coil
passing from a north pole to a south pole, or vice
is
The complete
versa.
repeatedly passes,
alternating current)
number of
set of values, including positive
cycles per second
Let/ be
the
number
is
is
magnet
o{ pairs of field
is
evident
poles, the revo-
the frequency of the
Then
electromotive force of the alternator.
This
The
called a cycle.
called the frequency, f.
per second of the armature, and
lutions
and nega-
through which an alternating electromotive force (or
tive values,
f=pn
(17)
when we consider
that the electromotive force
passes through a complete cycle of values while an armature
tooth
passing from a north pole to the next north pole, so
is
there are
cycles of electromotive force for each revolution of
the armature.
Electromotive force and current curves.
24.
The
successive
instantaneous values of the electromotive force of an alternator
may be
represented by the ordinates of points on a curve, the
abscissas representing time elapsed from

resulting curve
is
manner the
of an alternating current
elapsed times
by
the
called the electromotive force curve of the alter-
In a similar
nator.
some chosen epoch
may be
successive instantaneous values
represented
by
ordinates and the
abscissas giving a current curve.
These curves
are determined with the help of the contact-maker as explained

in Article 30.
Examples.
The
full-line curve, Fig. 13, represents the electro-
motive force of an alternator with a distributed armature winding
and the dotted curve represents the current which
tromotive force produces

is
in a
non-inductive
circuit.
This current
by the
a maximum when
at each instant equal to the electromotive force divided
resistance of the circuit, so that the current
the electromotive force

to
this elec-
be
in
is
maximum.
phase with the electromotive
Chapter IV.
The
is
current
is
then said
force, as is explained in
26.
Fig. 13.
The
full-line curve, Fig. 14, represents the electromotive force
of an alternator with a distributed armature winding, and the
<^J
y^{^^
t'
Fig. 14.
dotted curve represents the current which this electromotive

force produces in an inductive circuit.
electromotive force
is,
at
In this case part of the
each instant, used to cause the current
Fig. 15.

The
to increase or decrease.
equation
(3),
part so used
and the remainder, equal to Rt,
When
the resistance of the circuit.

since
or
Ri
minimum
is
according to
used to overcome
the current
is
zero then
all
used to cause the current to change,
is
di
"r
at
When
zero.
is
is
27
is
zero, the current
is
at
its
maximum
value, and, at this instant, all the electromotive force
used to overcome the resistance of the circuit since L dildt is

The time /', Fig. 14, at which the current reaches its
zero.
is
maximum
value
later
is
motive force reaches
may
current
the
ever,
its
than the time,
maximum
reach
its
/,
value.
at
In
maximum
which the electro-
some
cases,
how-
value before the
electromotive force.
The curve
in
Fig.
15
represents the electromotive force of
an alternator
arma-
with concentrated
ture windings, the armature
being
core
shape shown
25.
The
of
the
in Fig. 10.
representation of al-
ternating electromotive force and
by polar coordinates.
The successive instantaneous values
current
an
of
alternating
force, or current,
may be
vector, elapsed time
Fig. 16.
electromotive
represented by the varying lengths of a rotating radius
being represented by the angle between the moving radius
vector and a fixed axis of reference.
Thus, in Fig. 16,
OE represents
the value at a
given instant of an alternating electromotive force and 6)/the value at the same instant of
an alternating current, and the angle
chosen instant.
represents the time elapsed since a
This Fig. 16 represents the same electromotive force and current
as are represented by Fig. 14.
26.
tor.
Instantaneous and averagê power delivered by an alterna-
Let
be the value at a given instant of the electromotive
force of an alternator
and
the value of the current at the same
28
instant.
Then
ei is
the
power
in watts
which
is
delivered
by the
alternator at the given instant, and the average value of ei
is
the
average power delivered by the alternator.
Examples.
In Fig. 17 the full-line curve represents the elec-
tromotive force of an alternator and the dotted curve represents
Fig. 17.
by the alternator to a receiving circuit havThe ordinates of the dot-dash curve represent
the current delivered
ing inductance.
the successive instantaneous values of the power,
shown
ei.
As
is
in the figure, the power has both positive and negative
work on the circuit when ei is posipower to the alternator when ei is

tive
negative, and, of course, while ei is negative, the dynamo is momentarily a motor, and may for the moment return power to the
values, the alternator does
and the
circuit
returns
fly-wheel of the engine.
When
the inductance of the receiving circuit
electromotive force and current curves are as
is
very large, the
shown
in Fig. 18,
Fig. 18.
the instantaneous
power
lar sets of positive
and negative values as shown by the dot-and-
ei
passes through approximately simi-
dash curve, and the average power
is
approximately zero.

Average values and
27.
effective values.
The
of an alternating current or electromotive force

as similar sets of positive
29
is
average value
inasmuch
zero,
The
and negative values occur.
aver-
age value of an electromotive force or current during the positive

(or negative^
part of a
cycle
average of mean value, and

Effective values.
is
is
Consider an
instantaneous value
is
i.
The
usually spoken of briefly as the
not zero.
alternating current, of which the
rate at
which heat
a circuit through which the current flows

resistance of the circuit,
and the average
generated
in the circuit is
multiplied
is Ri"^,
rate at
is
generated
R is
where
which heat
would be one of which the square
value of
i'
is
by the average value of t^.
continuous current which would produce the same heating
fect
in
the
or of which the actual value
is
is
ef-
equal to the average
equal to v^ average
i"^.
This square root of the average square of an alternating current

is
called the effective value of the alternating current.
Similarly
the square root of the average square of an alternating electro-
motive force
called the effective value of the alternating elec-
is
tromotive force.
Ammeters and voltmeters used for measuring alternating currents
and
and
alternating electromotive forces always give effective values^

in specifying a?i alternating electromotive force or current its
effective
value
Example.
rated
sum
by
always used.
successive instantaneous values (sepa-
equal time intervals) of an alternating current.
of these values divided
value.
divide
sult
is
Consider the
is
by
their
number
Square each instantaneous value.
by
their
number and
The
gives their average
Add
these squares,
extract the square root, and the re-
the square -root-of-average -square, or effective, value of
the current.
Form factor of an alternating electromotive force

effective value of
an alternating electromotive
The
quotient,
force, divided
by
the average value of the electromotive force during half a cycle,

is
called the/<?rw factor of the electromotive force,
this ratio
inasmuch as
depends upon the shape of the electromotive force curve.
30
In the case of a sine-curve-electromotive-force the form factor

is
equal to
1 1
as
shown
is
in
greater than
28.
The form
Chapter IV.
of the electromotive force represented
by the curve
factor
in Fig.
5 is
an arrangement for
re-
1 1
The alternating current
rectifier is
versing the connections of a receiving circuit with each reversal

of the current from the alternator, so that the current
always
fier is
in the
same
may
The
direction in the receiving circuit.
flow
recti-
frequently used on alternators for rectifying the main cur-
rent in the series coils
on the
field for
the purpose of providing
increase of field excitation with increase of current output of the
In this case the
alternator.
on the armature
a commutator mounted
rectifier is
This commutator has as
shaft.
many
bars as
magnet of the alternator. These bars

are wide and separated by quite narrow spaces filled with mica.
Let these bars be numbered in order around the commutator.
there are poles of the field
The even-numbered
bars are connected together and the odd-
numbered bars are connected
together.
The connecting
wire
leading from one terminal of the alternator armature to one of

cut and the two ends thus formed are con-
the collector rings
is
nected, one to the
even-numbered bars of the
tator
is
and the other
to the
odd-numbered
to receive the rectified current
which rub on the
rectifying
is
rectifying
The
bars.
commu-
circuit
which
connected to two brushes
commutator, these brushes being so
spaced that one touches an odd-numbered bar when the other

touches an even-numbered bar.
rocker arm, which
is
These brushes are carried
moved forwards
in
or backwards until the
brushes are passing from one bar to the next at the instant that
the alternating current from the alternator
The proper adjustment

minimum of sparking.
the value zero.
cated
29.
by a
The fundamental equation
which expresses the

an alternator
in
effective
is
passing through
of the brushes
of the alternator.
is
indi-
The equation
value of the electromotive force of
terms of the armature speed
n^
the
number of

magnet poles
pairs of field
31
/, the flux 4> from
one pole of the
magnet, and the total number of armature conductors
field
which cross the face of the armature

equation of the alternator.
called the fundamental
This equation
is
important
in design-
derived as follows
It is
ing.
is
which the arma-
for the case in
are concen-
ture conductors
trated in 2/ slots, one to each
pole as shown
field
Let
<l>
be the
in Fig. 19.
lines of flux
from one pole, then one armature conductor in one revoluFig. 19.
tion cuts 2/4> lines, *
one second
and
in
cuts 2j>^n lines, which
it
is
the average electromotive
force (in c.g.s. units) induced in one armature conductor.
We
have, therefore.
Average f electromotive force of alternator
in volts
2p^Nn
(18)
The
ratio, effective
motive force,
to
1 1
is,
electromotive force divided by average electro-
for
commercial alternators, approximately equal
Therefore, the effective electromotive force of an
alternator with concentrated armature winding
E=
or, sincQ
pn
is
approximately
p^Nn
(19)
10
the frequency according to equation (17)
=
* Since we
2.22
is
we have
2.22^Nf
(20)
10
are concerned with the average value during half a cycle the change of
sign during the two halves of a cycle
from south poles
is
to
is
to
be ignored and the
flux
from north and
be treated without regard to sign.
f That is the average during half a cycle as explained in Article 27.

during a whole cycle is zero.
J See Article 27.
The average
32
in
which
<l>
is
the magnetic flux from one pole, and
N the
total
number of conductors on the armature which are connected in

Sometimes it is more convenient to have the equation
series.
given in terms of armature turns instead of armature conductors.
The formula then becomes
E=
T being
the
number
(21)
of armature turns in series between the col-
lector rings.
30.
Experimental determination of electromotive force curves.
The contact-maker.
disc
DD^
Fig.
to
20
Figs.
(a)
and 20
shaft, carries
electrical contact,
a pin /, which
once per revolution, with a
jet of
conducting liquid which issues from a nozzle
zle is
carried on a pivoted
arm
a,
(b), fixed
(a).
and rotating with the armature
makes momentary
20
n.
and can be moved
position being read off the divided circle
cc.
One
This nozat will, its
terminal of an

electrostatic voltmeter
is
33
connected directly to one brush of
the alternator, while the other terminal of the voltmeter
nected through the jet and

as
shown
in Fig.
20
pm
con-
to the other brush of the alternator
The voltmeter then
(a).
is
indicates the value
of the electromotive force of the alternator at the instant of contact oi ;et
and
By
pin.
shifting the jet, step
Fig.
20
by
step,
around the
(b).
circle successive instantaneous values of the electromotive force
may be
The
determined.
electromotive force passes through a
complete cycle of values while the
^ of a
revolution,
being the number of pairs of poles of the alternator.
In order
jet is shifted
that the electromotive force acting upon the electrostatic volt-
meter
may
not
fall
off appreciably in the intervals
sive contacts of pin

in
Fig. 20(a).
and
The
jet,
a condenser
is
between succes-
connected as shown
indications of an electrostatic voltmeter are
not accurate for small deflections and in using such an instru-
ment
for
measuring a comparatively small electromotive force a
may
battery of
known
circuit so
as to raise the electromotive force to an accurately
measurable value.
electromotive force
be connected in the
34
In the determination of an alternating current curve, the current
sent through anon-inductive resistance
is
Fig. 21,
i?,
and
the electromotive force between the

terminals of this resistance
mined
The
furnishing the cur-
current at each instant
is
vided by R.
HWVNAAAi
Remark.
I
is
equal to the electromotive force di-
being
the armature shaft of the
alternator which
rent.
deter-
DD
as before, the disc
fixed to
is
brush
is
flat
metal spring or
sometimes used instead of
Fig. 21.
the liquid jet in Fig. 20.
the pin
is
by a
replaced
strip
In this case
of metal set in the edge of a
cular disc of hard rubber and the spring rubs continuously
cir-
upon
the edge of this disc, touching the metal strip momentarily once
per revolution of the
disc.
PROBLEMS.
15.
An
alternator has 16 poles and
What
tions per minute.
force
What
is
is
its
speed
the frequency of
the duration of one cycle
is
its
900 revolu-
electromotive
Ans.
20 cycles
per second, -^^ second.

16.
A four-pole alternator makes 1,800 revolutions per minute.
Each pole
face has
400 square centimeters of area and spans
54 of the circumference of the armature, the angle between the
The armature
adjacent pole tips being 36.

that
in
is,
not slotted,
the gap space
is
its
length
6,000
units.
four wires, one per field pole.
armature
apart,
rings.
is
The armature
These wires
parallel to the axis of the shaft,
and they are connected
core
is
smooth,
30 cm., and the field intensity
in series
lie
is
wound with
on the
face of the
they are spaced 90
between the collecting
Calculate the electromotive force induced in the four wires
when they
are
moving under the pole
pieces.
Plot the electro-
35
motive force curve of the alternator, and find
Ans. 9.6
form factor
volts,
factor.
1.29.
The armature winding
17.
of the above alternator consists of
bands, each band 30 wide.
in four
100 conductors arranjêd
form
its
These four bands replace the four single conductors described in

problem
16,
and
tor
100 conductors are
calculate the electromotive force
of the alternator and find
same
of alternator the
18.
between the col-
when the bands
are
Plot the electromotive force curve
half under the pole pieces.
volts,
in series
the bands of conductors are wholly under the pole
when
pieces
all
Calculate the electromotive force of the alterna-
lecting rings.
form
its
as in
Speed and dimensions
factor.
problem
Ans. 240
16.
120
volts,
form factor 1.165.
The field
intensity in the
gap space
in
problem 16 changes
uniformly from 4,500 units under the leading pole tips to 7,500
units
under the
Plot the electromotive force
trailing pole tips.
curve of the four conductor winding and find
Ans. form factor

19.
The
form
its
Speed and dimensions of alternator the same as
in
factor.
problem
16.
1.38.
adjacent
pole tips of an alternator touch each
field
other, the field intensity in the
gap space
is
uniform, and the
armature winding consists of one concentrated bundle of conductors for each field pole.
factor
20.
What
is
the form factor
Ans. form
unity.
The
electromotive force of an alternator passes through a
complete cycle of values, while the magnetic

armature
coil,
flux,
through an
passes through a cycle of values, starting out from
any given value and coming back
to that value again.
Show
that the electromotive force of an inductor alternator of the
type shown
in Fig.
1 1
passes through 2/ cycles per revolution
of the set of inductors,
magnet
2
poles,
An
NS, NS,
being the number of pairs of
alternator has 8 poles,
per minute.
The
field
etc.
and
its
flux from one pole
speed
is
is
900 revolutions
2,200,000
lines.
The
36
armature winding
is
i,ooo conductors,
all
concentrated in 8
slots,
and
of which are connected in
it
consists of
What
series.
is
the effective electromotive force obtained between the collector
Assume
rings?
3,060
22.
the form factor to have the value 1.16.
An
alternator has 10 poles,
and runs
at a speed of 1,500
revolutions per minute, generating 2,000 volts.
one pole
is
2,250,000
the armature
if
The
How many
lines.
they are
form factor to be
23.
Ans.
volts.
all
connected
turns
The
flux from
must there be on
in series ?
Assume
the
Ans. 306.
1.16.
following are instantaneous values, in volts, of the
electromotive force of an alternator, taken at equal intervals during an entire cycle
o, 30, 60, 80, 90, 95, 90, 80, 60, 30, o,
60, 80, 90, 95, 90, 80, 60, 30 and

corresponding values,
in
45, - 25, o, 25, 45, 65,

65, 75, 78, 75
o.
amperes, of the current are
75, 78, 75, 65, 45, 25, o, -- 25,
and 65.
30,
The
65,
- 45,
Find the instantaneous
values of the power, plot the curves of electromotive force, of

current and of power, and find the average power.
CHAPTER
III.
ALTERNATING AMMETERS, VOLTMETERS AND

WATTMETERS.
31.
The hot-wire ammeter and voltmeter.* In these instruis sent through a stretched
ments the current to be measured
The
wire.
wire, heated
by the
and actuates
current, lengthens
a pointer which plays over a divided scale.
The hot-wire
instrumeftt,
when
calibrated by continuous currents,
and when
indicates effective values of alternating currents,
brated by continuous electromotive forces
it
cali-
indicates effective values
of alternating electromotive forces.

Proof.
Consider an alternating current and a continuous current C which give the

These currents generate heat in the wire at the same average rate.
same reading.
This rate
current,
is
for the continuous current
and
R X average
i^ for
i*
or
C^^ average
i^
or
proof for electromotive forces
Remark.
C= >/ average
is
i^.
the alternating
Therefore
being the instantaneous value of the alternating current.
RyîxvQXz.'gt
The
RC^
RC^=z
Q- E. D.
similar to this proof for currents.
The readings of a hot-wire voltmeter cannot be
re-
duced to current by dividing by a constant factor the resistance

of the instrument, as can the readings of most other types of
voltmeters, inasmuch as the resistance of the instrument varies
greatly with the changing temperature of the wire.

32.
tial
The electro-dynamometer used as an ammeter.
parts of the electro-dynamometer are
and 22
is,
(b).
shown
The
in Figs.
essen-
22
(a)
These figures show the arrangement of the parts
in
* All voltmeters, except the electrostatic voltmeter, are essentially ammeters.
That
which actuates the
instru-
the electromotive force to be measured produces a current
ment.
The
scale over
which the pointer plays may be arranged
value of the current or the value of the electromotive force.
37
to indicate either the
38
The
Siemens' type of instrument.
coil
the frame of the instrument, while the coil
angles to
is
and
is
hung from a
is
held stationary by
B is
mounted
at right
This movable
suspension.
coil
provided with flexible or mercury-cup connections aa, and the
current to be measured
is
a helical spring
b,
balanced by carefully twisting
is
one end of which
the other to the torsion head
by means of the
pointer
is
attached to the coil
The observed angle
c.
necessary to bring the swinging

off
The
sent through both coils in series.
force action between the coils
B and
of twist
coil to its zero position is
d and
the graduated scale
pointer
attached
shows when
to
it
of
spring affords a
the
The observed
of the
twist
force action
is
helical
measure of the
coils
and
proportional
to
between the
current
The
e.
the coil
to
has been brought
zero position.
its
angle
read
the square root of this angle of
In other forms of electro-
twist.
Fig.
22
Fig.
(a).
22
(b).
dynamometer the force action between the coils moves the suspended coil and causes the attached pointer to play over a
divided scale.
The electro-dynamometer when standardized by direct currents

indicates effective values of alternating currents.
Proof.
A given deflection of the suspended
or constant force action between the
coils.
coil
The
depends upon a
force action
due
definite average
to a constant cur-
AMMETERS, VOLTMETERS AND WATTMETERS.

rent c
is
current
kc^ (proportional to c^),
is
X average
>6
= ky^ average
kc^
i^,
so that
i^,
or c^
and the average

if
!',
or <
due to an alternating
same deflection, we have
force action
these currents gave the
= average
39
= |/ average
Q. E. D.
1'.
Remark. The electro -dynamometer is the standard instrument for measuring alternating currents, and it is always used in
accurate measurements.
The electro-dynamometer used as a voltmeter.
33.
When used
as a voltmeter the coils of the electro-dynamometer are

fine wire,
and an auxiliary non-inductive resistance
connected
in series
When
such an
with the
made of
is
usually
coils.
the inductattce of the electro-dynamometer coils is small

i?istru7ne?ity
zvhen calibrated by continuous electrofnotive
forces, indicates effective values of alternating electromotive forces.
When
eter
is
certain that the inductance of an electro -dynamom-
it is
may
negligibly small the instrument
be used
in refined
alternating electromotive force measurements.
Inductance error of the electro-dynamometer used as a voltmeter.

An electrocalibrated by continuous electromotive force indicates
dynamometer which has been

less
The
than the effective value of an alternating electromotive force.
cussion of this error for the case of harmonic electromotive
following dis-
force presupp>oses a
knowledge of Chapters IV. and V. Let J^ be the reading of an electro-dynamometer voltmeter, when an alternating electromotive force (harmonic), of which the effective value is
E,
is
connected to
its
terminals, that
is,
J^
is
the continuous electro-
motive force, which gives the same deflection as E^ and, since

deflection as J^,
it
follows that the effective current produced by
continuous current produced by JJ, that
E gives the same

E equal to the
is
is.
(22)
V R^ûiÛin
which
where
(22) for
R is
is
the total resistance of the instrument,
is,
its
inductance, and
= inf
Solving equation
E we have
E=
that
the frequency of the alternating electromotive force.
J^
the reading of the instrument must be multiplied
(23)
by the
factor
R
to give the true effective value of
an harmonic alternating electromotive
Plunger type voltmeters have inductance errors
also.
force.
40
The
34.
electrostatic voltmeter.
which are connected
Two
insulated metal plates,
to the terminals of a battery, or to
any
source of electromotive force, attract each other with a force
which
This principle
which consists
to
proportional to the square of the electromotive
is strictly
force.
which a pointer
tive force to
applied
is
in
the
The
attached.
is
voltmeter,
electrostatic
and a suspended plate
essentially of a fixed plate
terminals of the electromo-
be measured are connected to these plates.
Such an instrument, when calibrated by continuous
electromotive
force, indicates effective values of alternating electromotive force.

Proof.
A given deflection of the suspended plate depends upon a

The
or constant force action between the plates.

tromotive force J^
is
K^^
A'X
give equal deflections the force KEi'^
is
= average
The
e'^,
or
due
to
definite average
a constant elec-
(proportional to J5^), and the average force action due to
an alternating electromotive force îs
that ]^^
force action
average
^ = V^ average A
voltmeter
electrostatic
If these electromotive forces
<?2.
equal to the average force
A'X average e^
so
Q. E. D.
is
instrument for
the standard
measuring alternating electromotive
forces,
measurement of very high electromotive
especially for the
Further, with
force.
high electromotive forces the electrostatic attraction of parallel

metal
plates
great
is
enough to be
rately measured by a
accu-
balance and
in this
case

^
MMBM
between
the
plates
(constant electromotive
force, or effective value
of an alternating elec-
tromotive force)
tions of
may be
any kind.
An
calculated
independently of calibra-
instrument arranged for the absolute*
measurement of electromotive force
in this
way
is
called an abso-
lute electrometer.
The absolute electrometer consists of two parallel metal
AaA
and BB, Fig.
* That
is,
23.
The
central
portion a of the
plates,
upper
the measurement in terms of mechanical units of force, distance, etc.

remaining
plate, while
in
communication with AA,
electrical
\s
detached and suspended from one arm of a balance beam as

shown. The electromotive force E between AaA and BB^ in
given by the formula
volts, is
720,OOOrTrd^F
(24)
a
in
which
F is
the observed
downward
pull
distance apart of the plates in centimeters
cn^ of the detached portion

35.
The spark gauge.
on a
in
and a
dynes,
d is
the
the area in
is
a.
The high
electromotive forces used in
by means of the spark

This consists of an adjustable air gap which is adjusted
gauge.
until the electromotive force to be measured is just able to strike
break-down tests are usually measured
across in the form of a spark.
The electromotive
force
is
then
taken from empirical tables based upon previous measurements

of the
electromotive
required
to
strike
across various
In the spark gauge of the General Electric Co.
widths of gap.
the spark gap
force
is
between metal points, one of which
is
attached
by means of which the gap space may

be adjusted and measured. The striking distance in any spark
gauge varies greatly with the condition of the points. It is,
to a micrometer screw
therefore, necessary to see that the points are well polished before taking
36.
this
measurements.
Plunger type ammeters and voltmeters.
In instruments of
type the current to be measured passes through a
coil
of
wire which magnetizes and attracts a movable piece of soft iron

to
which the pointer
fixed.
is
plunger meter (ammeter or voltmeter) should be calibrated
under the conditions

instrument
is
in
which
it is
to be used.
Thus,
if
a plunger
to be used as an ammeter for alternating currents
of a given frequency
it
should be calibrated by currents of this
frequency, these currents being, for the purpose of the calibration,
measured by a standard alternating current ammeter, such
42
The
as an electrodynamometer.
ment do
indications of a plunger instru-
however, vary greatly with frequency and such
not,
in-
struments are used for approximate measurements without regard

to frequency.
The Thomson inclined

of the plunger type.
shown
in Fig. 24.
coil 7neter
of the General Electric Co.
is
The
essential parts of this instrument are
coil
A, through which flows the current
Fig. 24.
to be measured,
vertical spindle
A
is mounted with its axis inclined as shown.
mounted in jeweled bearings and controlled by a
hair-spring passes through the
coil,
and
to this spindle are fixed
a pointer b and a vane of thin sheet-iron

is
mounted
zero point of the scale the iron vane a
of the
coil,
a.
When
obliquely to the spindle.
lies
This vane of iron

the pointer
nearly across the axis
and when a current passes through the
tends to turn until
it is
at the
is
parallel to the axis of the
coil the
coil,
vane
thus turn-
ing the spindle and moving the attached pointer over the cali-
brated scale.
37.
The potential method
for
measuring alternating current.
The alternating current to be measured is passed through a

known non-inductive resistance R and the electromotive force
between the terminals of
meter.
The
motive force
this resistance is
current (effective value)

(effective value) divided
The calorimetric method
The
for
current to be nxeasured
is
is
measured by a
volt-
then equal to the electro-
by the
resistance.
measuring alternating current.

passed through a
known
resist-
AMMETERS. VOLTMETERS AND WATTMETERS.

ance which
is
submerged
H which
is
terval of time
heat
joules
is
a calorimeter by means of which the
in
generated
43
the resistance in an observed in-
in
This heat being expressed
determined.
in
we have
(25)
in
which /is the
effective value of the current.
Measurement of Power
38.
Alternating Circuits.*
in
The three -voltmeter method.
mdin
non-inductive resistance
connected
in
series with the
R, Fig. 25,
is
circuit be in
which the power P, to be deter-
mined,
is
expended. The electromotive forces
E^ between
ae, are
ab, E.^
between be and E^ between
observed by means of a voltmeter as
Then
nearly simultaneously as possible.
-^
P^ E^
WUXin
Proof.
Let
e-^,
e^
and
E.^-El
(26)
2R
fg,
be the instantaneous
electro-
motive forces between ab^ be and aCy respectively, then
Fig. 25.
= average
but E^ = average e^^ E^ = average
Average e^
e-^-^-o.
stantaneous current in abc, -^
e..
is
e^^
average
and E^^
e-ê^ -f-
average e^ f
= average
the instantaneous
f^^.
(iii)
Further
power expended
in be
is
the in-
and aver-
i\
age (-)^'^2) or
average
(î<?2)
"=X
average
=-RP-
{eê^) is the
Therefore equation
E^^
alternating circuits
(iii)
expended
in be so that
becomes
= E^^\-2RPÊ^^
P=
*In
average power
7^
2_/r 2
2R
(iv)
Q. E. D.
power cannot be measured by means of an ammeter and a
voltmeter as in the case of direct current for the reason that the power expended
is
in
general less than the product of effective electromotive force into effective current on
account of the difference in phase of the current and electromotive force.

j-
For proof of
(iii)
see proposition, Article 49.
44
The three-ammeter method
39.
CC, Fig. 26,
cuit
in
measuring power.
for
which the power

pended,
is
to be
The
measured
connected
cir-
ex-
is
in parallel
with
a non-inductive resistance R, and

three ammeters are placed as shown.
Then
P=%{h'-I^-I^)
which /^
in
and
I^
are the currents
by the three ammeters.
indicated
Proof.
I^
(27)
Let
i^,
i^
and
neous values of the currents
be the instanta-
i^
/j, I^
and
I^.
Then
Fig. 26.
or
H^
= H^-\-'2.hHî^
(")
or
average /g^^r average i^
But
/j2
= average
i-^^y
\-
2 average
^2^= average i^^
{iii^) 4*
and
/g^
average
i^^
= average
/g^.
Further, the instantaneous electromotive force between the terminals of

Ri^y so that ^?2?i
is
the average
tion (iii)
is
the instantaneous
power /'expended
in
power expended
CC.
in
CC, and
(iii)
R or of CC is
^X average
Therefore, average {ixh)
p and
=-p
{i-î^)
equa-
becomes
2P
h^^h^\-^^-h^
P=^W-h'
Combination method,
ing power
may be
measuring
I^,
for
measur-
modified by using the potential method for
Fig. 26.
voltmeter, so that I^
40.
Q. E. D.
h')
The three-ammeter method
In this case the electromotive force be-
tween the terminals of R, Fig. 26,
eter,
(iv)
= -~ where E^
The wattmeter.
The
of which one coil
measured by means of a
is
is
the voltmeter reading.
wattmeter
a^ Fig, 27,
made
is
an electrodynamom-
of fine wire,
to the terminals of the circuit CC, in which the
is
connected
power
to
be
AMMETERS. VOLTMETERS AND WATTMETERS.

measured
is
wire coil a
fine
carries
^,
made
of large wire,
is
JnaiTi
movable, and
is
which
pointer
the
other coil
CC, as shown.
in series with
connected
The
The
expended.
45
indicates
the watts expended in CC.
Such an instrument when calibrated
and
with continuons current
electromo-
indicates poiver
tive force
ivhen used with
accurately
alternating currents,
provided the inductance of the
ar
is
circuit
Fig. 27.
small.
A given deflection of the movable
Proof.
constant force action between the
which produces a current

tween the
coils.
ma and
coils is proportional to the
force action
is
C,
where
-t
is
coil
a depends upon a certain average or
Consider a continuous electromotive force
C in CC and
a current
b.
The
product of the currents in a and
b, that is, the
a constant.
Consider an alternating electromotive force of which the instantaneous value

this
rent
produces a current
/
in
CC and b.
The
force action be-
through a (provided the inductance of a
is
\s
and a cur-
zero)
instantaneous force action between thecoils
is
and
k
the average force action
gives the
same
is
average ().
If this alternating electromotive force
deflection as the continuous electromotive force then
average
iêi)
= :EiC k-
or average [êi)^='EiC.
That
is,
the given deflection indicates the
alternating or direct.
Remark.
A good
measuring power
same power whether the currents are
Q. E. D.
wattmeter
is
the standard instrument for
in alternating-current circuits.
The three-am-
meter and the three-voltmeter methods are troublesome and

slight errors of observation
may
in
some
cases lead to very great
errors in the result.

The compensated wattmeter of the Weston Electrical Instrument Co.
* Small,
r, Fig. 27,
In the above
that
is,
andyis
in
comparison with
-. ;
where r
is
the total resistance of a
the frequency of the alternating current.
and
46
proof the current flowing through a and
Fig. 27,
r.
is
assumed
This
the current in CC.

indicates the total
CC and
not, however, always the case.
power expended
in a, in
a be the current in a and
let
upon the movable
action
is
and
/-,
Then
r.
is
sensibly the
same as
In fact the instrument
Let
in CC.
the current in
coil is proportional to the
be negligible in com-
to
parison with the current in CC, so that the current in the coil b
<^
be the current in
C-f- , and the force
is
product a( C-j- ), instead of being
proportional to the product aC.
Weston Co.
In the compensated wattmeter of the

a,
connected as shown,
Then
C4-
current
is
flows
and the result
down through
the
same
b,
and every turn of wire in coil b.

current a flows back alongside of the wire
the current a were subtracted from the current
of coil
b,
C-f-
so far as the magnetic action of the coil b
o.
41.
is
as
if
The recording wattmeter
is
concerned.
is
an instrument for summing up
work or energy expended
the total
the wire leading over to the coil
laid alongside of each
a circuit.
in
The Thomson recording

luattmeter
a small electric
is
motor without
field
the
iron,
and armature
coils of
which constitute an
elec-
trodynamometer. The field
BB
coils
of this
motor,
Fig. 28, are connected in
CC
series with the circuit
which the work to be
in
measured
is
expended.
The armature A,
gether with
to-
an auxiliary
non-inductive resistance-/?,
is
connected between the terminals of the
Current
led into the armature
is
Discussion of the Thomson recording wattmeter.
to the
proportional to the rate at which
is
power expended,
as explained in Article 41
that the speed of the armature
That
spent in CC.
at
which work
is
by the armature
To make
is,
done
is
is
CC, as shown.
by means of the brushes dd
pressing on a small silver commutator
the armature,
circuit
e.
The driving
work
).
is
torque, acting
upon
spent in the circuit CCiî.
The instrument
is
proportional to this driving torque or to the
the rate of turning of the armature
is
e.,
so constructed
power
proportional to the rate
number of revolutions turned

work expended in the circuit CC.
in the circuit CC, so that the total
proportional to the total
the armature speed proportional to the driving torque the armature
is

mounted so
as to be as nearly as possible free from ordinary friction
f^ Fig. 28,
is
permanent
mounted on the armature spindle so
steel
portional to
its
MM. To
magnets
47
and a copper disk
between the poles of
as to rotate
drive such a disk requires a driving torque pro-
speed.
The starting
coil.
In the above discussion
is
it
assumed that
the torque which opposes the motion of the armature A, Fig.

is
proportional lo the speed of the armature.
this
opposing torque
torque to overcome
may be
friction,
considered
and
in
In
fact,
two parts
2'^^
however,
:
st,
the
2d, the torque required to over-
come the damping action of the magnets on the copper disk.

The first part of the torque may be taken to be approximately
constant, while the second part
speed.
is
accurately proportional to the
Therefore an arrangement for exerting on the armature
a constant torque, sufficient to overcome

eliminate errors due to friction.
This
Thomson meter by supplementing

with an auxiliary
This auxiliary
field coil
in
a starting
would largely
accomplished
the field
connected
field coil is called
friction,
is
in
the
coils B, Fig. 28,
the armature
circuit.
So long
coil.
as the
electromotive force between the mains does not vary, the current
in the starting coil is constant
torque upon the armature.
between the mains
and
If,
varies, the
it,
therefore, exerts a constant
however, the electromotive force

torque due to the starting
coil
varies with the square of the electromotive force.
Remark.
The
It is described in
induction wattmeter
is
a sort of induction motor.
Chapter XIV.
PROBLEMS.
24.
The
spring of a Siemens electrodynamometer
is
twisted
through an angle of 220 to balance the force action of a current
What
of 18.8 amperes.
current will require a twist of 165?
Ans. 9.35 amperes.

25.
The angle
be read to
of twist of a Siemens electrodynamometer can
of a degree.
What
are the relative errors in cur-
rent due to an error of J^ of a degree when the
total twist is
10
48
and when the

is
total twist is
ioo
Ans. The
3.16 times as great in case of the smaller deflection, and the
percentage error
The
26.
ten times as great.
is
electromotive force
which produces a
scale divisions of an electrostatic voltmeter

e
error, in amperes,
= ky/d.
What
100 divisions
d
:
are the relative errors in electromotive force
due to an error of
total deflection is
deflection
approximately
is
Jg-
of a division in the reading
when
the
10 divisions, and when the total deflection
is
Ans. 10:1.
27. The fine wire coil of a wattmeter has 500 ohms resistance.
The wattmeter indicates 62 watts when used to measure the
power delivered
to a
lo-volt lamp, the fine wire coil being con-
What
nected to the terminals of the lamp.

delivered to the
When
28.
lamp ?
Ans.
is
the true power,
3 8 watts.
a hot-wire voltmeter indicates 50 volts a current
When
of 0.05 ampere flows through the instrument.
the
same
voltmeter indicates 100 volts, 0.07 ampere flows through the in-
What
strument.
is
the resistance of the instrument in each
Ans. 1,000 ohms, 1,428.6 ohms.
case?
29.
75 watts
Thomson wattmeter without a starting coil starts at

load.
The wattmeter is adjusted to give true record
when run at a 5 00- watt load. What will the instrument indicate
when run on a constant load at 200 watts for 4 hours, running
being assumed to be equal to half the starting
friction
friction ?
Ans. 702.6 watthours.

30.
The above wattmeter
to start with a 40-watt load

will
the instrument start on
31.
The above wattmeter
is
provided with a starting
on no-volt mains.
5
-volt
with
its
mains?
load will
it
Let
in first case
be required watts.
minus running
load
is
adjusted to
At what
lo-volt mains.
read correctly on 55-volt mains?
Suggestion.
torque
so as
Ans. 66.25 watts.
starting coil
read correctly at a load of 500 watts on
coil
At what
Ans. 5,750 watts.
The
friction is to
total
be to
driving
total
ing torque in second case minus running friction as 500
is
drivto x.
CHAPTER
IV.
HARMONIC ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND CURRENT.

42. Definition of
line
OPy
harmonic electromotive force and current.
f revolutions
29, rotates at a uniform rate,
Y'\g.
per sec-
ond, about a point 0, in the direction of

the arrow gh.
Consider the projection
Ob of this rotating line upon the fixed

AB, this projection being considered
positive when above O and negative when
line
An harmonic electromotive force
below 0.
(or cii7'renf)
is
current^ zvhich
an
is
electromotive force (or
tional to the line Ob, Fig. 29.
Ob
The
line
represents at each instant the actual
value e of the
harmonic electromotive
force to a definite scale,
of the line
the
Jl
q^
at each instant propor-
OP (which
maximum
same
scale.
is
Fig. 29.
and the length

the
maximum
length of Ob^ represents
value J5 of the harmonic electromotive force to the
The
line
Ob
passes through a complete cycle of
values during one revolution of OP, and so also does the har-
monic electromotive force

lutions per second
e.
Therefore the revo-
of the line
OP
is
the fre-
quency of the harmonic electromotive force e.

rotating lines JS and J, Fig. 30, of which
The
the projections on a fixed line (not
shown
in
the
figure) represent the actual instantaneous values

e
and
of an harmonic
electromotive
force
and an harmonic
current are said to represent the harmonic electromotive force and

49
50
current respectively.
J is
Of
course, the rotation of the lines
harmonic electromotive force and
43. Algebraic expression of
current.
The
line
and, therefore,
it
OP, Fig. 29, makes / revolutions per second,

turns through 277/ radians per second, since
there are 27r radians in a revolution, that
CO
in
which
273/
(28)
OP in
radians per
OP coin-
Let time be reckoned from the instant that
cides with Oa, then after
the angle
is
the angular velocity of the line
is
co
second.
^=
(9^ represents
have turned through
= OP sin
OP sin
/3=
cot
the actual value e of the harmonic electromo-
time
tive force at the
OP will
seconds
and from Fig. 29 we have
cot,
Od
But
E and
a thing merely to be imagined.
OP represents
and
its
maximum
value
E,
therefore
^
is
= J5
(29)
an algebraic expression for the actual value e of an harmonic
electromotive force at time

e,
sin (ot
and
f,
being the
maximum
value of
being the frequency according to equation (28).
Similarly
/= J sin
is
(ot
/ô)
an algebraic expression for the actual value
current at time
Remark
i.
t,
I being
If time
the
maximum
value of
of an harmonic
i.
reckoned from the instant that OP,
is
Fig. 29, coincides with the line Ob, then equations (29)
and (30)
become
e
=E
cos
i= I cos
Remark
2.
The curve which
(ot
(ot
represents an harmonic electro-
motive force or an harmonic current (see Article 24)

of sines.
is
a curve

Remark
distributed
j.
many
great
alternators, especially those with
armature windings,
generate electromotive
the
enough
design of alternating current apparatus
are
when the electromotive
to be practicable only
forces
Calculations in connection
which are very nearly harmonic.

with
currents are assumed to be harmonic.
simple
forces
Hereafter, then,
speaking of alternating electromotive forces and currents,
and
when
it
will
be understood that they are harmonic, unless the contrary
is
expressly stated.
44. Dej&nitions."^
(positive
Cj'c/e.
cycle
is
one complete set of values
and negative) through which an electromotive force or
current repeatedly passes.
The/reîieucy
The period
passed through per second.
is
the
number of cycles
the duration of one
is
For example, an alternator generates electromotive force
cycle.
at a frequency of
60 cycles per second
the period
is g^ of a
OP, Fig. 29, is 60
revolutions per second or 377 radians per second ( = ).
second and the angular velocity of the
Synchronism.
Two
line
alternating electromotive forces or currents
when they have the same frequency.

to run in synchronism when their
are said to be in synchronism
Two
alternators
are said
electromotive forces are in synchronism.

45.
Phase
difference.
electromotive forces
its
maximum
The
Consider
and
value before
definitions of cycle
the sake of clearness.

rents
e^
e^
e^^.
two synchronous harmonic

Suppose that e^ passes through
then
e^
and frequency given
and
e.^
in Article 23 are here repeated for
All definitions given in this article apply to alternating cur-
and electromotive forces of any character as well as

and currents.
forces
are said to differ in
to
harmonic electromotive
52
The
^j, Fig. 31, which represents e^ must be ahead

of the hne ^^ which represents e^ as shown in the figure.
The
angle Q is called \kiQ phase difference of e^ and e^.
The lines ^^
phase.
line
and M^ are supposed
to be rotating
about
a counter-clock-
6> in
wise direction as explained in Article 42.
When
the angle
case the
together
Fig. 31,
0,
and
e^
electromotive
;
that
is,
e,^
e^ is
e^ is
32, the
In this
when
also zero,
e^ is
at its
etc.
33, the
Fig.
in
forces are said to be in quadrature.
two electromotive
In this case one electromo-
when
tive force is zero
mum,
Fig.
in
together and decrease
increase
zero
maximum value so also is e^,

When ^=90, as shown
shown
are said to be in phase.
forces
when
zero, as
is
the other
a maxi-
is
etc.
When
180, as
two electromotive
shown
in
Fig.
34, the
forces are said to be in op-
î
^L.
Fig. 33.
position.
Fig. 34.
In this case the two electromotive forces are at each
instant opposite in sign
the other
is
and when one
at its negative
maximum,
is
at its positive
maximum
etc.
46. Composition
and resolution
of harmonic electromotive forces
and currents,
(a) Composition.
Consider two synchronous harmonic electromotive forces e^ and

e^
represented
by the
lines -E^
Fig. 35.
^2 is
and ^2, Fig. 35. The sum e^ +

an harmonic electromotive force of the same frequency and
it is
represented
by the
line
^.
This
is
evident
when we
consider

any
that the projection, on

is
sum
equal to the
ogram.
Corollary.
The
of the diagonal of a parallelogram
line,
of the projections of the sides of the parallel-
sum
number of synchronous
of any
motive forces (or currents)
magnitude by the
is
which
line
is
represented in phase and
sum
the vector
is
of the lines which
represent the given electromotive forces (or currents).

lines
^1 ^2
,
^'^^ -^3
electro-
another electromotive force (or cur-
same frequency which
rent) of the
53
Thus the
^^S- 3^' represent three
given synchronous harmonic electromotive

forces
and the
^j ^2
,
line
(the vector
^^<^ -^3) represents
tromotive force which
is
sum
of
an harmonic elec-
the
sum
of the given
electromotive forces.
Resolution.
(U)
A given
tromotive force (or current)
harmonic elec-
may
be broken
number of harmonic parts of the

same frequency by reversing the process of
up
into a
For example, the
composition.
harmonic electromotive force which
may be
into the three electromotive forces represented
by the
36, represents a given

split
up
Fig. 36.
line 'B, Fig.
lines
Taain
^^
47.
J52
and
JB,.
Examples of composition and reso-
lution.
(a)
fej
"
Two
alternators
and
running
jnam
Fig. 37.
in
synchronism are connected
shown
in Fig. 37.
If the
in
series
between the mains as
electromotive forces of
phase the electromotive force between the mains

the numerical
sum
of the electromotive forces of
and
will
B are in
be simply
and B.
If,
54
on the other hand, the electromotive forces of

phase the state of
which the
lines
affairs will
and
be as represented
and
differ in
in Fig.
38
in
represent the electromotive forces of the

alternators
main
tively,
ence of
line
and
respec-
is
the phase
and B, and the
differ-
represents the elec-
tromotive force between the

.mains.
Two alternators A and
(b)
running
in
synchronism
Fig. 39.
are
between the mains as shown
connected
in
parallel
lines A and
B respectively,
Let the
in Fig. 39.
B^ Fig. 40, represent the currents given by
and
the phase difference being 6)
the main
then the current
in
line is represented
by /.
A and B
(c)
Two
connected
circuits
in series
are
between the
Fig. 40.
mains of an alternator as shown

in Fig. 41.
The
line
E,
Fig. 42, represents the electromotive
force between the mains, the line
main
represents the electromotive
force between the

circuit
A, and the
terminals of the
line
represents
the electromotive force between the
terminals of the circuit B.
The
cir-
jnain
Fig. 41,
cuits
circuits
and
or
B are supposed to have inductance. If one of the

B contains a condenser, then the electromotive forces
and B, Fig. 42, may be nearly opposite
to each other in phase,

and
55
B may each be indefinitely greater than the electroE between the mains.
A and B, Fig. 43, are connected in parallel
circuits
Two
and
motive force
(d)
across the terminals of
from the alternator

^"^^
The
an alternator as shown.
currents
If
A and B
one of the
as
is
shown
circuits
current
related to the
or
in Fig. 44.
contains
Fie. 43.
a condenser, then the currents
indefinitely greater than the current
/ from the
alternator.
Rate of change of harmonic electromotive forces and cur-
48.
rents.
B may be nearly opposite

A and B may each be
and
phase and the currents
to each other in
Consider the harmonic current

2
When
this current is sent
= J sin
[see equation (30)]

{d)
(ot
through an inductive
di
motive force
L -.-
is
increase or decrease.
ductive circuits
it is,
at
each instant required to
circuit
an electro-
make
the current
In the study of alternating currents in intherefore, necessary to consider the rate of
change -r of the current.

i
with respect to time
90)
(31)
Differentiating the above expression for
we have
= J cos
ft)
df
ft)/
or
dt
= J sin
ft)
di
(ft)/
56
di
This equation shows that the rate of change

current
may
--j,
of an harmonic
be represented by the projection * of the Hne

Fig. 45, which
is
I which
of the hne
coj,
90 ahead
represents
the current.
The
/ixed
liJXG
*^'
the
rent
The
t.
46,
clearly
curve
-r.
is
shown by the
diagram.
Thus
harmonic
the
represents
and
cur-
steepness of this curve at each point represents
di
the value of
Fig.
curve,
full-line
most
sine
'
relation of i
The
-y;.
steepness of this curve
is
greatest at the
Fig. 46.
point a where the curve crosses the axis, hence the value of
di
is
dt
maximum 90
before
reaches
its
maximum.
The
ordi-
di^
nates of the dotted curve represent the values of

dt'
Remark.
portion
It is to
di
of the total electromo-
on the
tive force acting

is
line <oLly Fig.
* On a
47
the line
vertical fixed line not
is
I represents the
shown
circuit,
which
used to cause the current to increase
and decrease,
Fig. 47.
be noted that the
in the figure.
represented by the
current in the circuit.

49.
Average or mean value of an harmonic electromotive
or current.
Consider any varying quantity y.
during an interval of time from
/'
to /"
is -,,
Its
That
being extended throughout the interval.
5/
force
average value
the summation
is,
r"
(32)
If the successive values of
be represented by the ordinates
of the curve, Fig. 48, and the corresponding values of the time /
^ydt
shaded portion and ^,

t'l^'dc
_ ^ H^^^
^^
the area of the
is
^^^ height of a rectangle
of the same area as the curve and having the same base.
The average ordinate of such a curve
48 may be obtained quite

by measuring the lengths of
as Fig.
closely
number of equidistant ordinates.

The sum of these ordinates divided
by the number of ordinates gives the
average ordinate of the curve.

Proposition.
The average value of the sum
of a number of quantities
is
equal to the
sum
of
Fig. 48.
the average values of each.
Proof.
Let Xy y,
z,
...
Then, by
be the quantities.
Av. (^4.;,+
definition
we have
.+ ,..)=-^^j^'(x+y + z...)dt
(i)
but
= Av. X -^ Av. y
= Av. X Av. y
-\-
Therefore
Av. [x -\-y
50. Proposition.
-\- z ...)
The
(ii)
..
-\-
-\-
Av.
\-
...
average value of an harmonic electro-
motive force or current during half a cycle

i(Ot
IS
O to
2
{ZZ)
Q. E. D.
CO/
TT,
or
maximum
=o
value
to
58
Proof.
for
u>t
Let <?= J^ sin ut be the harmonic electromotive
in equation (32)
Av.
Substituting
for w/,
force.
sin
to o)tz=Tz,
we
Substitute
and we have
e
= ~- JB
and remembering
nt"
sin
U dt
that the limits are from
ut7=o
have
smxax=z
e= Jo
Av.
TT
TT
cos
jr
Since
tt.
= .636,
it
may
Remark.
The
Proposition.
0.636 times the
is
maximum
twice the
value
maximum
value.
average value of an harmonic electromotive
force or current during one or
51.
is
be stated that the average value of an
also
harmonic electromotive force, or current,
(^4.^
^'^''
77
or the average value of the harmonic electromotive force
divided by
Lo
more whole
The square
root of
cycles
mean
zero.
is
square, or effective
value, of an alternating electromotive force or current during one or

-
maximum
more whole cycles is equal to

Proof.
Let = JJ
<?
value of e^=L
E^
sin ut
sin^ ut
it is
value
-=^
or o. 707
x maximum.
be a harmonic electromotive
force.
To
find the average
necessary to find the average value of the square of the
We
sine of the uniformly variable angle ut.
have the general relation
so that by equation (33)
Av.
Now,
sin2 ut -\-
Av. cos^ 6;/=
(^)
the cosine of a uniformly variable angle passes similarly through the same set
of values during a cycle as the sine, hence Av. sin^ ui and Av. cos^ ui are equal, so
that from [b)
we have
2 Av. sin2
ut=l
or
Av.
The average
value of
sin2 w/
=^
e^ is
Av.
^2
= ^2 Av.
sin2
w/
or
Av.
^2=^2
and
s/A..e^
(35)
^^
Q. E. D.
Note.
The square
root of
electromotive force or current
mean square value of an harmonic

is
often
spoken of as the
effective
When
value of the electromotive force or current.

that an alternating current
is
so
square root of mean square value
many amperes,
is
stated
it is
the effective or
The same
always meant.
E will
symbol
be used to designate the
is
Here-
also true with regard to alternating electromotive forces.

after the
59
effective
value
of an electromotive force and / to designate the effective value
In case the currents and electromotive
of an alternating current.
we have
forces are harmonic
in
which J5 and
force
1 are
the
the relations
^=;?j
(36)
maximum
values of the electromotive
and current respectively.
Note.
The
form factor of an harmonic electromotive force
(see Article 27)

52.
Power.
equal to \^\ or to
is
As
i.i i.
pointed out in Article 26, Chapter
II.,
the
power developed by an alternating electromotive force pulsates

and
in
which
most
problems
practical
the important
is
it is
the average
consideration.
Let
power developed
=^
sin
at be
an harmonic electromotive force acting on a
i= I sin
circuit
and
duced
in the circuit
(cot
;
6)
the current pro-
in
phase of the electromotive force and current
as
shown
in
developed
We
The power developed
Fig, 49,
at a given instant
is ei
we must
and
find
have
ei
^
^^^q
6 being the difference
in
order to estimate the average power
an expression for the average value of
Ml sin
/ sin (/
ci.
&)
6) = sin (ot cos 6 cos (ot sin 6, we have

ei = MI cos 6 sin^ cot MI sin
sin cot cos cot
or since sin (wt
Hence by equation
Average
ei
(33)
= MI cos
6 Av.
sin^ cot
MI sin
6 Av.
sin cot
cos
cot.
6o
The average
is
value of sin
cos
(tit
and negative values
positive
^.
it
The average
passes through
value of
sin^ (at
Therefore,
Average ei^ Power

It is
zero since
to/ is
alike.
more convenient
have
to
this
cos d
(38)
product expressed
in
terms
of the effective values of the current and electromotive force.
Hence
(36)
substitute for J5
and
(îj)
and
their values given
by equations
and we have
Power
Power factor.
The
= EI cos
factor cos 6
(39)
which depends upon the
in-
ductance and resistance of the circuit which is receiving the

power (see Article 54) is called the poiver factor of the circuit.
Remark. The expression for the instantaneous power, namely
ei,
may
be reduced to the form
p
in
which
and
is
is
= P A
cos {2(at
the instantaneous power
equal
to P cos
6.
6)
P is
ei,
Therefore
the average power,
consists of a constant
part and a part which alternates at a frequency twice as great as
the frequency of ^ and
i.
Steinmetz method of representing an harmonic alternating electromotive force or current.
In Fig.
6 the successive instanta-
neous values of electromotive force (and of current) are represented by the varying length of a radius vector as explained in
The curve
Article 25.
a circle
when
traced
by the end of the
the electromotive force which
radius vector
represented
is
is
har-
Steinmetz uses the diameter of this circle to represent the
monic.
alternati?ig electromotive foixe ;
a current
is
and
which
The proof
whe7t, in Steinmetz' s notation,
behind an electromotive force in phase the
represents the current is reached by

the line
is
a counter-clockwise
line
which
rotation of
represe7its the electromotive force.
of the propositions concerning the composition and
and harmonic cursomewhat more obscure in Steinmetz's
resolution of harmonic electromotive forces

rents (see Article 46) are
HARMONIC ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND CURRENT. 6

method of representation than they are
in
the
method of
repre-
sentation used in this text.
PROBLEMS.
An
harmonic alternating current of 65 amperes, frequency

What is the
133 cycles per second, flows through a circuit.
maximum rate of change of the current, and what is the value of
32.
the current at the instant of
maximum
rate of
change
cuit contains an inductance of 0.08 henry.
What
mum
is
value of the electromotive force which
the current change
6,144
The
is
the maxi-
required to
make
Ans. 76,800 amperes per second, o amperes,
volts.
What
33.
is
the average value during half a cycle of an alter-
nating current of
maximum
value 10 amperes
current, having a frequency of
This alternating
60 cycles per second, flows
When
and out of a condenser.
is
+ q,
and when the
current next reaches zero the charge on the condenser
What is
the value of q in coulombs
What would
the frequency were twice as great?
if
into
the current passes through the
value zero the charge on the condenser
of ^
cir-
is
q.
be the value
Ans. 6.37 amperes,
0.0264 coulomb, 0.0132 coulomb.
Two
34.
alternators
and
The
are connected in series.
electromotive force of A\?> 1,100 volts, and the electromotive

force of
B is
1,200 volts.
The
electromotive force of
ahead of the electromotive force of
combined electromotive force
in phase.
The two
What
is
is
90
their
alternators give a cur-
rent of 125 amperes which lags 30*^ behind their resultant electro-
motive force
nator?
35.
135
in phase.
Ans. 1,628
What
volts,
is
the power output of each alter-
29,750 watts, 146,470 watts.
The electromotive force of alternator A, problem 34, is

ahead of the electromotive force of alternator B in phase.
current of
30 behind
20 amperes flows through both alternators, lagging
their resultant electromotive forces.
What is
the out-
62
put of each alternator?
Ans. 28,750 watts negative, 121,500
watts positive.
36.
harmonic electromotive force
a circuit a current
= I sin (cot 6)
behind the electromotive force
power/
taneous
where
P is
is
to a receiving circuit of
= ^,
An
which the power factor
power = a
31.8
tive values of
An
39.
is
in
that the instan-
cos
a, d,
and 6
i,
100 volts
0.85 at a given
is
the expression
in
(20)/ ^).
at
18,700 = ^,
Ans.
^.
alternator having a harmonic electromotive force of
Find the
0.70.
is
produces
current
this
20 amperes of current
140 volts delivers 200 amperes to a

factor
sin co^
Show
in phase.
Find the values of
instantaneous
38.
.fi"
is,
the average power.
frequency.
22,000
equal to
An alternator supplies
37.
that
ei.
maximum
circuit of
positive
Ans. 47,600 watts,
alternator delivers
which the power
and
maximum
nega-
8,400 watts.
200 amperes of current
to
glow
lamps, and 75 amperes to start an induction motor.
The power
Find the
total current.
factor of the
motor while
starting
is
0.3.
Ans. 233.7 amperes.
Two
40.
force
series
90
alternators each give
apart in phase.
20 volts
are connected in
and they deliver 200 amperes of current to a receiving
cuit.
livered
cir-
This current lags in phase 15 behind the resultant elec-
tromotive force of the two machines.
each.
effective electromotive
The two machines
by
Find the
total
power de-
the two machines, and find the power delivered
Ans. 32,775, 12,000, 20,775 watts.
by
CHAPTER
FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS
53.
Problem III.*
To
IN
V.
ALTERNATING CURRENTS.
determine the electromotive force re-
quired to maintain a harmonic alternating current in a non-induc-
Let
tive circuit.
= J sin
The
be the given harmonic current.

is
(a)
(jut
required electromotive force e
used wholly to overcome the resistance

therefore, equal to
is,
Ri
of the circuit and
so that
e^ Rl sin
o)/
This electromotive force
maximum
value
the current
is
RI
and
Thus the
/.
it
(^)
harmonic,
is
it is
in
its
phase with
line J, Fig. 50, rep-
resents the given harmonic alternating current
and the
line
jRJ represents the electromotive
force required to maintain the given current

^^
Fig. 50.
Problem IV.
54.
^ non-inductive
To
circuit.
determine the electromotive force re-
quired to maintain a harmonic alternating current in a circuit of

resistance
R and
inductance L.
i=^
be the given harmonic current.

consists of
I.
The
two
its
I sin
(ot
The
required electromotive force
namely
part used to overcome the resistance of the circuit.
This part
and
parts,
Let
is
at each instant equal to Ri\
maximum
* Problems
I.
and
value
II. are
is
RI.
given in Chapter
63
I.
it
is in
phase with i
64
The
2.
part used to
make
the current increase and decrease,
or briefly to overcome the inductance.

stant equal to
according to equation (3)
-r
phase (see Article 48) and
i in
This part
is
at
each
in-
di
its
it is
maximum
value
90 ahead of
is
Let
(uLI.
the given harmonic alternating current
be represented by the line
Fig.
Rl is the
Then
represents Ri\ (oLI
represents
-j
J,
which
the line which
di
the
resents
is
line
and the
line
M rep-
electromotive
total
force required to maintain the given
From
current.
the diagram
we have
B = I^R'^(o''D
in
which
is
the
maximum
value of the required electromotive
and further
force,
tan d
in
which 6
force
-^
(41)
the phase difference between the electromotive
is
and current.
The
effective value of the electromotive force is
the effective value of the current
and
(40)
is
/=
-_= [by equations
and \/2/
for
When
is
When
(oL
is
is
and
this
effect of induc-
problem reduces to problem
III.
very large compared with Ry the angle 6 ap-
proaches 90 and the power
though
in
(42)
very small compared with R, the
negligible,
oaL
we have
E=Is/R^J^co''D
tance
(36)
(37)], therefore substituting s^ 2E for J^
equation (40),
E= B_, and
E and / may both
rent, lagging as
it
EI
cos 6 becomes very small, al-
be considerable.
In this case the cur-
does 90 behind the electromotive force,
is
FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS.
65
Thus the alternating current in a coil of

wound on a laminated iron core is approximately wattless.
Corollary.
The current which is maintained in an inductive
called a wattless current.
wire
by a given harmonic alternating electromotive
circuit
E
current of which the effective value
and which lags behind the electromotive
(42),
of which the tangent
Remark.
The
-^ by equation
is
force,
motive force and current (harmonic)
is
is
equation
by the angle
(41).
maximum
between
relation
== by
,-^
is
force
values of electro-
every case the same as
in
the relation between effective values, and henceforth effective

values
mum
^,
values will be indicated in the text by bold-faced letters,
Q,
ly
etc.
effective values
stantaneous values by
65.
after
Problem V.
e, i,
by the
force,
JJ
in
sin w/, is
an inductive
according to problem IV.
can exist in the
circuit
in-
immediately
circuit
connected to the
circuit.
current which can be maintained by the given electromotive force
i'
and
letters , /, etc.,
q, etc.
To determine the current
an harmonic electromotive
The
Maxi-
a rule, be used in equations and diagrams.
will, as
sin (w/
is
0)
(a)
and the decaying current
independently of
all
outside electromotive force,
C being
a con-
shown by Problem I., Chapter L Therefore the current which can exist
an inductive circuit upon which an harmonic electromotive force acts i= ' -j- i'' or
stant, as
in
which
t is
the Napierian base, B
constant.
This constant
the instant
when
is
is
the angle defined
by equation (41
determined by the condition that
is
connected to the
i is
")
and
is
in
equal to zero at
circuit.
Let
t^
be the
given instant at which the harmonic electromotive force begins to act upon the circuit
Substitute the pair of values
unknown
quantity
.~
[in
equation (43) and solve for C, the only
then substituting this value of
in equation (43)
we have
the
expression for the actual current which flows in the circuit during the time that the
maintained current
force
is
is
being established.
In a very short lime after the electromotive
connected to the circuit the second term of equation (43) disappears and the
66
value of the current at each instant

rent
given by the
is
first
term, which expresses the cur-
which the given electromotive force can maintain.
Problem VI.
56.
coil
a condenser of capacity
of resistance
C are
connected
and inductance Z, and
in series across alternat-
ing current mains as

JTiaiTl
An
in Fig. 52.
and
alternating current flows back
forth
shown
through the
condenser
in
coil
and charges the
one direction and the other
CD-
O
o
I
JTiaiTi
Fig. 52.
The problem
alternately.
rent in the coil
reduced to
its
of finding the relation between the cur-
and the electromotive force between the mains
simplest form as follows
To detennine
q on
Fig. 53.
the electromotive force necessary to
the condenser
which
rate,
ser.
and
t is
elapsed time,
is
the
make
the charge
vary so that
q = Q
in
cot is
is
(a)
sin (ot
an angle increasing at a constant
maximum value of the charge in the condenmay be represented by the projection
This varying charge
The
of the rotating line Q, Fig. 53.

rate, -~, at
current in the circuit
which the charge on the condenser changes.
is
the
That
IS
or irom equation (a)
we have
z
That
is,
value
is
the current
coQ and
the symbol
I for
it is
the
is
(oQ cos
90 ahead of q
represented
maximum
(c)
(ot
by the
in phase, its
maximum
line coQ, Fig. 53.
value of the current
Using
we have
The
to
required electromotive force
overcome the resistance
is
67
at each instant used in part
of the
coil, in
current to increase and decrease in the
coil,
part to cause the
and
hold
in part to
the charge on the condenser.
The
with
2.
/,
first
and
its
part
is
equal to Ri at each instant.
maximum
The second
part
The
third part
is
is
equal to
is
ahead of the current and

3.
value
its
^,
phase
^7.
di
.
maximum
at each instant.
value
is
its
It is
90
(oLI.
equal to -^ * at each instant.
with q or 90 behind the current, and

or
It is in
maximum
It is in
phase
value
is
from' equation {d).
Let the
line J, Fig. 54, represent the current.
Then
resents the portion of the electromotive force used to

resistance, the line
RI
rep-
overcome
(dLI 90 ahead
of the current represents the electro-
motive force required to overcome

inductance and the line 7, 90
be-
0)6
hind the current represents the electromotive force required to hold the
The line
sum of RIy
charge on the condenser.
which
6)ZJand
is
the
vector
represents the total re-
quired electromotive force.

sides are
RL
(oLI
7,,
From
Fig. 54.
the right triangle of which the
and E, we have
^=jj^^+(.z-^y
or
^=^>+('^-iy
Since
^= Ce according to equation
(I5) Chapter
I.
(44)
68
and
J
tan
Corollary.
~^
\^
(45)
A given harmonic electromotive
circuit containing a
resistance
e =
condenser of capacity
R maintains a
C,
force acting
inductance
upon a
current of which the effective value
and
is
7=
and which lags behind the electromotive force by the angle
by equation
defined
(45).
The
positive or negative according as g)Z or
the current
may
-^ is
be either behind or ahead of the electromotive
Connection of condensers in
through two condensers

in
be either
the greater so that
In fact the limiting values of 6 are
force in phase.
and HC' are
^ may
quantity &)Z
in series
When
90.
flows
the electromotive forces
I'wC
series.
a current
phase with each other, so that the
total electro-
motive force required to overcome the reaction of the two condensers
The
is
oscillatory current.
^=
If (nL
o then the impressed
electromotive force has only to overcome the resistance of the

cuit,
and problem VI. reduces
form to problem
in
resistance of the circuit in this case
electromotive force at
harmonic current.
all
called an oscillatory current.
self-sustained
to maintain the given
harmonic current
In this case, from (nL
p,
0)6
have
cir-
If the
were negligibly small then no
would be required
Such a
III.
f~j~
is
= o, we
or since
co
27r/ [equation (28)]
This equation expresses what
69
we have
is
called the properfrequency of
In case the
oscillation of the inductive circuit of a condenser.
resistance of the circuit
is
not zero,
which
is
of course the only
then the only current which can exist in the circuit in-
real case,
dependently of any impressed electromotive force

oscillatory
current the discussion of which
is
is
a decaying
beyond the scope of
The character of this decaying oscillatory current is

this text.
shown by the curve, Fig. 55. The ordinates of this curve represent the successive values of the current produced when a
charged condenser
is
discharged through an inductive
circuit.
Fig. 55.
57. Electric resonance.
By
inspecting equation (46)
that an electromotive force of given effective value
the greatest current in the circuit, Fig. ^2 {R,
when
the frequency
tion of
ical
is
such that (oL
^ is
and
we
given),
This produc-
zero.
a greatest current by a given electromotive force at a
frequency
is
called electric resonance.
see
produces
Thus the
crit-
ordinates of
the curve, Fig. 56, represent the values of effective current at

various
values
frequencies
(abscissas).
= 200 volts, R^2
The curve
ohms,
Z=
is
based on the
.352 henry and
(7= 20
70
The maximum
microfarads.
would appear from the

defined that
it
When
ure.
point of the curve
figure,
but the
is
maximum
cannot be properly represented
not a cusp, as
is
in so
so sharply-
small a
the frequency of the electromotive force
is
fig-
zero,
no
'^nn
r
,
20
y
i
IC
vl
80
73
90
100
no
Fig. 56.
which
the case
is
when a continuous
the circuit, the current
which
is
electromotive force acts on
zero except for the very slight current,
conducted through the
When
plates.
is
dielectric
between the condenser
the frequency of the electromotive force
is
very-
great the current approaches zero, inasmuch as a very small current of high frequency
rate,
and
to
produce
electromotive force
kept
down
current
is
Remark
in
is
At
2.
in
At low frequency
the current
is
value by the inductance.
critical
(46) becomes simply
Remark
required.
value by the condenser, and at high frequency the
kept down
i.
must increase and decrease at a very rapid

and decrease a very great
this rapid increase
^=o
frequency, (nL
and equation
E
-^'
While an electromotive
between the plates of a condenser the
force
is
dielectric
being established
is
subjected to an
increasing electrical stress and this increasing electrical stress
is
magnetic action, to an
electric current
flowing through the dielectric from plate to plate.
Magnetically,
exactly equivalent, in
its
therefore, a circuit containing a condenser
is
a complete
circuit.
Increasing (or decreasing) electrical stress
is
called displacement
current.
Multiplication of electromotive force by resonance.
nance exists
in
in
reso-
electromotive force taLI between the
the alternating
series,
When
a circuit containing an inductance and a condenser
terminals of the inductance, and the alternating electromotive
between the terminals of the condenser,
force IjaiC
much
upon the
This
circuit.
mechanical analogue.
upon a weight which

will
be
force
may
each be
greater than the alternating electromotive force which acts
is
same
the
The
understood by means of the
even a very weak periodic force act
If
suspended by a
set into violent vibration,
is
body.
fact is easily
spiral spring, the
weight
provided the frequency of the
as the proper frequency of oscillation of the
forces acting on the spring
may
reach enormously
greater values than the periodic force which maintains the motion
of the system.
duce
Also
\\\^
forces which act upon the weight to pro-
up and down acceleration may greatly exceed
its
in
value
the periodic force which maintains the motion.
Example.
sistance
in
The
and
its
is
60
The
electromotive force between the mains
frequency
is
fre-
critical
cycles per second, according to equa-
The
60 cycles per second.
200
is
current in
is
13,270 volts
(=
//ft)Q.
Multiplication of current by resonance.
as
re-
100 amperes, according to equation (46), and the

electromotive force between the condenser terminals is
the circuit
in a
ohms
of 0.352 henry inductance and 2
this circuit
tion (48).
effective
coil
between alternating current mains.
series
quency of
volts
and a condenser of 20 microfarads capacity, are connected
circuit containing
shown
in Fig. 57,
When resonance
an inductance and a condenser
the alternating current in each branch
greatly exceed in value the alternating current
ered to the system.

tive force
between the branch points a and
is
/,
which
is
may
deliv-
Let OE, Fig. 58, represent the electromo-
the electromotive force of the alternator.
condenser
exists
in parallel,
nearly 90 ahead of
b.
The
E in phase,
Fig. 57
current
that
L^ in
is,
the
and the current /^
72
in the inductance,
resultant of /^
and
is
E in phase,
nearly 90 behind
I^ is small, as
shown
in Fig. 58.
so that the
.
Fig. 58.
Fig. 57.
This multiplication of current by resonance
is
easily under-
stood by means of the mechanical analogue as follows
suspended at the center carries a weight
A lever
on one end, while the
Fig. 59.
other end
the lever
is
is
down by a spiral spring C. If

moved up and down to a very slight
held
proper frequency, the system
will
be
the center of
extent at the
set into violent vibration
and the
exceed
velocities /^
of the ends of the lever will greatly
I^
value the velocity / of the center of the lever, although
in
half the
and
73
sum
of the velocities of the ends of the lever
at
is
each
instant equal to the velocity of the center of the lever, just as the
sum
of the currents I^ and
to the current
in Fig. 58, is at
/g,
each instant equal
/.
PROBLEMS.
41.
circuit
R=6 ohms.
L = o.2
has inductance
henry and a resistance
Calculate the current produced
frequency being 60 cycles per second.
by 100
volts,
the
Calculate the phase
dif-
ference between the electromotive force and current.
Ans. 1.325 amperes, 85 27', 10.84 watts.
power developed.
42.
A circuit has
Calculate the
An
circuit of
160 ohms resistance and 0.2 henry inductance.
power
factor of the circuit for a frequency of
60
Ans. 0.9046.
cycles per second.

43.
Calculate
electromotive force
of.
20,000 volts acts on a receiving
is
0.85.
Find the component
of electromotive force parallel to the current and the component

of electromotive force perpendicular to the current.
volts,
44.
Ans. 17,000-
10,536 volts.
Show
that
EI cos
= RP in
a circuit of resistance R, of
inductance Z, and containing a condenser of capacity C.

Suggestion.
/,
R, L, C, and
and
Substitute in
co,
/ cos
6 the value of
and the value of cos
in
in
terms of
terms of R, Z, C,
ft).
45.
non-inductive resistance of 20 ohms, a resistanceless
inductance of 0.06 henry, and a condenser of 105 microfarads

capacity are connected
in
series
to
lo-volt 60-cycle
Find the electromotive force between the terminals of the
mains.
resist-
ance, between the terminals of the inductance, and between the
terminals of the condenser.
when
the circuit
is
Find the same electromotive forces
connected to
10-volt 120-cycIe mains.
Ans.
74
123.3 volts, 138 volts; {b) 57.5 volts, 130.1
109.06 volts,
{a)
volts, 126.3 volts.
An
46.
inductance of
o.
henry and a resistance
nected in series to iio-volt 60-cycle mains.
equals
when
rent values
5
ohms, when
ohms, when
when
equals zero,
are con-
equals one ohm,
equals 10 ohms,
when
when
equals 50 ohms, and
Calculate the cur-
when
equals 20
equals 100 ohms,
and plot a curve of which the abscissas represent
R and
the ordi-
Ans. 2.919
nates represent corresponding values of the current.
amperes, 2.917 amperes, 2.893 amperes, 2.821 amperes, 2.578

amperes, 1.757 amperes, 1.029 amperes.
A circuit
47.
contains a constant inductance and a variable re-
Show
sistance.
force
resistance so long as the resistance
48.
is
Show
in
in the cir-
nearly independent of the
is
small compared with (oL.
circuit contains a constant resistance
ductance.
and a variable
in-
general that the current produced in the
by a given electromotive
circuit
produced
in general that the current
by a given electromotive
cuit
inductance so long as (oL
is
force
is
nearly independent of the
small compared with R.
49. Alternating current mains deliver 100 amperes of current
glow lamps
to a non-inductive circuit, to
ductive circuit of negligible resistance
mains and
livered
it
by the mains ?
Two
50.
takes 10 amperes.
1
What
for
example.
An
in-
then connected to the

is
the total current de-
00. 5 amperes.
condensers, each of negligible resistance, have capac-
of 0.5 and
ities
Ans.
is
0.05 microfarad respectively.
The two con-
densers are connected in series to 1,100-volt alternating current

mains.
What
is
the electromotive force between the terminals
of each condenser?
5
farad
An
its
is b.
deflection
The
of the instrument
volts
volts,
1,000 volts.
electrostatic voltmeter has a capacity of
when
deflection
Ans. 100
when
its
is
is
0.0006 micro-
a and 0.0008 microfarad
when
its
electromotive force between the terminals
75 volts
deflection
is b.
when
An
its
deflection
is a,
and 125
auxiliary condenser of 0.007
microfarad capacity
connected
is
75
series with the instrument.
in
Find electromotive forces necessary to produce deflections a and
Ans. 81.4
b.
52.
volts, 139.3 volts.
direct-reading
microfarad capacity
is
voltmeter having o.cxx)6
electrostatic
connected through 50,000
ohms
non-in-
60 cycle mains. Find the percentage error *

of the readings of the instrument and state whether it indicates
ductive resistance to
too high or too low.

53.
The above
Ans. 0.0064 per cent, too low.
electrostatic voltmeter is connected in series
with an inductance of 2 henrys, resistance negligible.
Find the
percentage error of the voltmeter readings when a frequency of
60 cycles
low.
54.
is
and
used,
state
whether
it
indicates too high or too
Ans. 0.0017 per cent, too high.
An
electrometer having an inductance of 0.02 henry and
a resistance of 1,500 ohms gives the same deflection for a certain

60-cycle electromotive force as
What
electromotive force
55.
When
An
is
it
does for 127.5 volts direct
the effective value of the 60-cycle
Ans. 127,5017
volts.
electrodynamometer has a resistance of 500 ohms.
used as an alternating voltmeter at a frequency of 60

What is
its percentage error is J^ per cent.
cycles per second

its
inductance?
* In
Ans. 0.0594 henry.
and subsequent problems the percentage error of an instrument is underthe difference between the instrument reading and the true value of the
quantity measured, divided by the true value of the quantity.
stood to
this
mean
CHAPTER
.
VI.
THE USE OF COMPLEX QUANTITY. STEINMETZ'S

METHOD.
Methods in alternating
58.
the trigonometrical method.
nating currents
may be
The graphical method and
currents.
All fundamental problems
solved by the graphical method, in which
the various electromotive forces, currents,

lines in a
etc.,
are represented
In practical problems, however, the different
quantities under consideration differ so greatly in

difficult to scale off results
is
The
by
diagram and the required results are measured off as
in graphical statics.
it
* in alter-
graphical
method
clear representations,
is,
magnitude that
with any degree of accuracy.
however, particularly useful for giving
and trigonometric formulas may be used
in
connection with graphical diagrams in every case.
The
trigonometric formulas in the
more complicated problems,
however, become very unwieldy and are not suitable for easily
obtaining numerical results.
Steinmetz's method.
calculations are
most
Numerical
veloped mainly by Steinmetz,
This method
is
results in alternating current
easily obtained
in
by means of a method de-
which complex quantity
purely algebraic and
is
called
is
used.
by Steinmetz the
symbolic method.
59.
is
Simple quantity.
Complex quantity.
A simple
quantity
a quantity which depends upon a single numerical specification.
* The fundamental problems are those which treat of harmonic electromotive force
and harmonic current. It is a mistake to suppose that differential equations furnish a
method for treating alternating currents distinct from the three methods mentioned
above.
In the application of
more harmonic expressions

development
is
differential equations the first step is to derive
for electromotive force
precisely the one or the other of the above-mentioned methods.
76
one or
and current and the subsequent
THE USE OF COMPLEX QUANTITY.
7/
A complex
more independent numerical Sf)ecificavalue.
For example, if wealth depends
Simple quantities are often called scalar quantities.

quantity requires two or
tions to entirely fix its
upon the possession of horses

agreement exists as to the
fact
any such agreement
(/r)
and
cattle
then,
(r),
relative value of horses
and
if
no
cattle (in
essentially arbitrary), the specification
is
of the wealth of an individual would require the specification of
both horses and
be
5//
cattle.
The two
loor.
Thus the wealth of an individual might

or more numbers which go to make up
a complex quantity are called the elements of the quantity.

Two complex quantities are added
Addition and subtraction.
or subtracted by adding or subtracting the similar numerical
Thus
elements of the quantities.

gives iih
-\-
1 1
5r,
and 2h
5//
-f-
\ooc added to 6h
2^c subtracted from
-{
5//
-f
15^
looc gives
3/r+75r.
Midtiplication
5// 4-
2c and
and
division.
3/^ -f 4<f in
surate units, say horses
expressions by the
Consider two complex
which
and
and
//
cattle.
c are independent
Multiplying the
quantities
incommen-
first
of these
using the ordinary rules of algebra^
latter,
we
have
(5/^
Now
in
2r) (3/^
two complex
60. Vectors.
5/5^
6hc
-f
20ch
%(p-
(P'y
I^,
ch and
depends upon arbitrarily chosen meanings
A vector
A
is
a quantity which has both magni-
vector
may be
specified
by giving
its
com-
the direction of arbitrarily chosen axes of reference.
In specifying a vector
it
and products of units.
tude and direction.

in
so that the significance of the product of
quantities
these squares
ponents
4r)
general the squares and products of units
he have no meaning
for
distinctly stated
component.*
This
by
which
may
its
is
components,
its
it
is
necessary to have
x component and
w^hich
is its
be done either by verbal statement or
by marking one of the components by a distinguishing index.

Further it is allowable to connect the two components with the
* We are at present concerned only with vectors in one plane.
78
Thus a
sign of addition.
of which the
x component
is
y component
a and the
index
te
a specification of the vector
-\-jb is
letter
vector
the
used to mark the
j being
component.
is
This expression of a
a complex quantity, the in-
is
dependent units of which are
vertical
and horizontal distances or compo-
For example, the vector OP,
nents.
Fig. 60, is specified by the horizontal

component a and the vertical compo^^^" ^'
nent
specified
by the expression a
that b
the vertical component.
is
Numerical value and

value of a vector
its
is
components.
is
The
b.
may
vector
therefore be
the indexy being used to
-\-jb
direction of
vector.
sum
the square root of the
The
show
numerical
of the squares of
Thus the numerical value of the vector a
-\<jb
V?T^
The angle between
of which the tangent

^
the vector and the
is
that
value and direction of a vector
is
is
tan 6
axis
-\
is
the angle
0,
This matter of
an important consideration in
alternating current problems.
Addition
vectors
is
and subtraction of
X components
ponent
is
the
Thus the sum
The sum
x component
is
of a
number of
the
sum
of the several vectors, and of which the
sum
of the
y components
difference of the
of the
y com-
of the several vectors.
of the vectors a +jb, a' +jb',
(aâ'
The
vectors.
a vector of which the
a''
\-jb"
is
+ a")^.j{b^b' + b")
two vectors a +jb,
a' -\-jb' is
{a-a')+j{b-b')
Mtdtiplication of vectors.
a' -\-jb'.
Consider the two vectors a
-\-jb
and
Multiply these two expressions, using the formal rules
of algebra, and
we have
for the
product
aa' -\-jab' ^-ja'b -^fbb'

Each term
in this
79
product must be interpreted arbitrarily or
according to convention in order that this product

definite
In the
first
place,
we may take aa\ which
is
the index y, to be a horizontal quantity, and
and
may have
meaning.
a' b to
not affected by
we may
take ab^
be vertical quantities or vertical components of a vec-
tor.
As
index
j the
term yhb' we
may
note that the index letter j,

used once, indicates that a quantity is vertical, while without the
to the
quantity would be understood to be horizontal and
to the right (see Fig. 60); that
as turning a quantity
the letter
tity
/when
upon which
it
It
the positive direction, that
in
or/W)
{jjbb'
operates through
taken as equal to
as turning the quan-
180, or as reversing
That
rection, and, therefore, its algebraic sign.
bb'
be thought of
therefore, convenient to think of
is,
used twice
/may
the letter
through 90
counter-clockwise.
is,
is,
is,
j^b'
its di-
is
to be
or
two vectors a
so that the product of the
-\-
ja' and b
-\-
jb'
is
to
be interpreted as the vector

{ab
Quotient of two
- a'b') -{-jiab' + a'b
vectors.
Consider the quotient
multiply both numerator and denominator by a'

bering thaty^ = 1,
a
a'
jb\ remem-
and we have
+ jb
+ jb'
aa! -f- bb'
a"-^b''
(a'b
ab'\
+J
which leads to the conception of the quotient of the two vectors

as a vector of
which the
x component
aa'-^bb'
and the
y component
is
a'b-âV
a'''
b""
is
8o
The fundamental equations in the application of complex
61.
quantity to alternating current problems.
The
problem which
forms the basis of nearly every discussion of alternating current
phenomena
is
problem VI., which
discussed in Article 56.
is
This problem deals with the relation between electromotive force
and current
in
a circuit of resistance
r,
has a component,
component
phase.
axis,
r/,
wL
which
^^
/,
is in
which
Therefore, using the
we have
of inductance
The
taining a condenser of capacity C.
and con-
electromotive force
phase with the current

is
90*^
/,
and a
ahead of the current
current vector
as
the
E
in
reference
the following complex expression for the electro-
motive force
E^rl^ji^L-Î
This equation
the factor
is
(nL
so often used that

-^
by the
single
it is
(49)
convenient to represent
symbol
That
x.
is
^='"^-.^
Using
this abbreviation,
(50)
equation (49) becomes
E=-rI-\-jxI
or
E^(r+jx)I
(SI)
The complex quantity [r -\-jx} is called the impedance

The factor x is called the reactance of the circuit.
of the
Resistance and reactance are both expressed in ohms.
The
circuit.
numerical value of impedance, namely, s/r^
-f x^, is
expressed in
ohms.
When ft)Z is greater than \\oiC the reactance x is positive.

When l/w^'is greater than (nL the reactance is negative. When
reactance
to
is
positive the
/ is 90 ahead
component of
phase.
component of E which is
W^hen reactance
of / in phase.
E which
is
at right angles to
is
at right angles
is
negative the
90 behind /
in

some problems
In
it
convenient to take the electromotive
is
force vector as the reference axis,
of
components
its
to express current in terms
and
and perpendicular to
parallel to
Thus solving equation
(51) for
/we
E respectively.
have
r-\-Jx
or
E
or
^-{^-J'rrh^^
The complex quantity
The
quantity
parallel to
The
is
[^
j-
is
^ [
by which
is
called the a</V/tf^ôf the circuit.
multiplied to give the component of
^ [
Equation (52)
is
is
by which
is
multiplied to give the component of
which
is
the conductance of the circuit and b
Remark.
called the susceptance of the circuit.
sometimes written
I={g-jb)E
in
called the conductance of the circuit.
quantity
perpendicular to
(52)
Algebraic developments
(53)
is its
susceptance.
based upon equations (51)
and (53) ahvays give electromotive forces and currents in terms of

their rectangular components.
When
sum
a numerical value
is
required the square root of the
of the squares of the components
When
the phase angle between a calculated electromotive
force or current
and the reference axis
the angle whose tangent

62.
must be taken.
is
is
desired
it
is
found as
equal to the ratio of the components.
Expression for power.
Consider an electromotive
force
Eâ^ja^
(i)
which maintains a current
in a circuit.
The power developed by
is
82
E and / into the

between E and / as ex-
equal to the product of the numerical values of

cosine of the angular phase difference
When E and /are
plained in Article 52.
rectangular components, as in equations
more convenient
to calculate
and (ii) above, it

power by means of the formula
P=ab +
that
is,
power
the
given in terms of their

(i)
a'b'
is
(54)
equal to the product of ;r-components of
is
electromotive force and current plus the product of j^-compo-
When
nents of electromotive force and current.

posite in direction their product
is
are opposite in direction their product
is
a and b are op-
and when
negative,
a'
and
^'
negative.
PROBLEMS.
56. Separate the
components of the complex expression
find the numerical value of the expression,
of the angle between

of
a, b, c, d, e
57.
it
and the axis of
reference, each in terms
current of which the components, referred to an arbi-
10
which the complex expression
tively, or of
through a
is
find the tangent
and/.
trary axis of reference, are 25 amperes and
actance
and
circuit of
-f
ohms.
is
is
amperes respec-
2510/', flows
ohms and
the re-
Find the components of the electromo-
find the power develby the use of equation (54) and also
by multiplying the resistance of the circuit by the square of the
Ans. x component =320 volts,
numerical value of the current.
tive force
which maintains the current and
Calculate the power
oped.
y component = 220
58.
What
A
is
circuit
has
volts,
5
5,800 watts.
ohms
resistance
and
-}-
ohms
ohms ?
the numerical value of the impedance in
reactance.
What
is
the inductance of the circuit in henrys, the frequency being 133
83
cycles per second, no condenser being connected in the circuit
Ans. 6 ohms, o.cx)359 henry.

$9.
An
electromotive force of which the components are 50
and 75 volts respectively, that is, the electromotive force is

-f 757, produces a current through a circuit of
volts
expressed by 50
is
ohms and
10
the reactance
Find the components of the current, and
ohms.
power de-
by the use of equation (54) and

by multiplying the resistance of the circuit by the square of
Ans. ;r-component of cur-
the numerical value of the current.
= 0.368 amperes, j-component

power = 597.4 watts.
rent
61. Separate the
Ans.
e-''^
cos
Suggestio7i.
this series.
-\-
7.72 amperes,
e^^.
j sin y.
Look up
the series for
e^.
Substitute yj/ for
series with the series for cos
Show that ^(cos
its
Separate real and imaginary terms into two
and compare these

62.
of current
60. Separate the
that
find the
Calculate the power
veloped.
also
is
numerical value
B
is
-\-
j sin
&) is
d^ ahead of
and
x in
series,
sin y.
^ in phase and
equal to the numerical value of E.
CHAPTER
VII.
FURTHER PROBLEMS.
APPLICATION OF THE SYMBOLIC
63.
Problem VII.
tive force
Fig.
61
E acts
It is
Coils in series.
upon two
coils
An
METHOD
alternating electromo-
connected
in series as
required to find E^ and E^ each in terms of E^
and
x^.
Let / be the current
and /
in
the
circuit.
shown
relation
between E,
figure
given in order that the following equations
(c)
is
maybe more
in
r^,
Fig. 62.
Fig. 61.
^2, x^,
shown
E^, E^,
is
easily understood.
in
The
general
Fig. 62.
(a), {b),
This
and
According to equation (51)
we have
and
E,= {r,+jx^y
Further, the total electromotive force
E^ as shown
E is
{b)
the resultant of E^ and
in Fig. 62, so that
E,
+ E, = E
84
(c)
APPLICATION OF
This
is
THE SYMBOLIC METHOD.
of course a complex equation.
of E^ and E^ from {a) and (p) in
(c)
85
Substituting the values
and solving
for /,
we have
E
('')
Substituting this value in {a) and (b)
we have
and
These equations
and ^2
^"
(^)
and (/) express the electromotive forces E^

known quantities E, r^, r^, x^ and
For
terms of the
;tr2.
purposes of numerical calculation

separated into components, that
{e)
is,
[and likewise
into real
of the
sum
must be
and imaginary
and the numerical value of E^ (and likewise of
by taking the square root
(/")]
E^
is
parts,
then found
of the squares of these
Thus, multiplying numerator and denominator of

by r^ + ^2 j(x^ + x^, we remove j from the denominator,
and may then separate the components, namely,
components.
(c)
77
The
allel to
^1(^1
first
+ ^2) + ^1(^1 + ^2)
term of
E and
this
expression
'p
-^1(^1
is
the
+ O - ^1(^1 + -^
2) /
component of E^ paris the component of
the second term, dropping y,
E^ perpendicular to E^ and the numerical value of E^
square root of the
sum
The
final result is
the
phenomenon under
it
is
^x
is
the
of the squares of 'these components.*
of no use whatever in giving a conception of

consideration.
useful only
It is
desired to carry out numerical calculations.
generally the case that the use of the symbolic

solution of the alternating current problems
is
It is,
method
when
indeed,
in
the
simple and instruc-
tive in its initial steps only, while the final solution itself is unin-
^1 (numerical value) :=
VE
S6
The
telligible.
be written out
final results will, therefore,
only when the student
is
expected to use them
in
in full
numerical cal-
culations.
The
following simple cases of the problem under consideration
are particularly interesting.
When
1.
x^
= o and x^^ o;
then , E^, E^, and / are parallel
E= E^-\- E^ (numerically).
and
When
2.
other and
all
then E, E^, and E^ are parallel to each
are ahead of
/ in
phase,
X
tangent
is
3.
to
When
/ and E^
figure
is,
is
of which the
E= E^-\- E^ (numerically).
In this case, also,
by the angle
X
very small and
is
at right angles to
/,
very large; then E^

as
shown
in
of course, a particular case of Fig. 62.
case the numerical relation between E, E^ and
is
parallel
Fig. d^.
This
In the present
E.^ is
E=VE^-\-E.^
and when E^
Example.
is
small E^
is
sensibly equal to E, numerically.
transmission line of large resistance
r^
and small
reactance x^ supplies current to a receiving circuit of large react-
ance x^ and small resistance
very large.
The
E,
so that
X
is
very small and
-j is
electromotive force E^, Fig. 63, consumed in
the line
E^
X
r^,
is
is
due almost wholly to resistance and
not very large then E^
That
is
is
if
very nearly equal to
the resistance drop in a transmission line
E,
Fig. 63.
produces but very
little
diminution of electromotive force at the
terminals of a receiving circuit of large reactance.
APPLICATION OF THE SYMBOLIC METHOD.
is
shown
resistance
ance
r^
Fig. 64,
if
That
very small the state of
E = V E^ + E.^,
and
A transmission
affairs
numerically.
and small
line of large reactance x^
supplies current to a receiving circuit of large resist-
r^
and small reactance
x^.
consumed
is
E^
is,
very large and
is
in Fig. 64,
Example.
and
When
4.
87
the line
in
The
not very large, then E^
is
electromotive
force E^,
due almost wholly to reactance

is
very nearly equal to E.
the reactance drop in a transmission line affects the elec-
tromotive force at the terminals of a non-inductive receiving

cuit but
5.
When
then E^
is
large and positive
nearly 90 ahead of
is
shown
as
in
Fig. 65.
The
and
-f 00
motive force
Examples.
and
E^
00
but negative,
(a)
In this case the total electro-
E.^.
A transmission line
r^
1^
and large react-
state of affairs
is
shown
and the electromotive force
at the terminals of the
E by the amount E^.
^^
in
condenser
exceeds the generator electromotive

force
large,
/ and E^ is nearly 90 behind /,

shows the limiting case for
ance x^ supplies current to a conden-
Fig. 65
is
numerically equal
is
of small resistance
The
figure
to the difference between E^ and
ser.
X
which
cir-
little.
I-
Therefore
'^'
reactance drop in a transmission line
'
increases the electromotive force at the terminals of a receiving

circuit of negative reactance.
(p)
transmission line of small resistance
r^
and large react-
ance x^ supplies current to a synchronous motor running at light

load, electromotive force of
force of generator.
motor being greater than electromotive
In this case the electromotive force at the
terminals of the receiving circuit
is
nearly 90 behind the current
88
in phase, as in case of the condenser,
and the electromotive force
at the receiving circuit terminals
increased
drop
(c)
the
in
An
is
line.
inductance
is
connected
in series
tween alternating current mains.

is
by the reactance
with a condenser be-
If the resistance of the circuit
comparatively small the electromotive force at the condenser
terminals
is
sum
nearly equal to the
of the electromotive force
between mains plus the electromotive force between the terminals

(See Articles 56 and 57.)
of the inductance.
Problem VIII.
64.
Coils in parallel
/ divides between two

Fig. 66.
^2,
x^
and
shown
It is
required to find
x^.
The
in Fig. 67.
ing equations
is
and
/^
in
/,
alternating current
parallel as
each
general relation between
This figure
may be more
under discussion
An
connected
coils
is
in
/,
shown
terms of
/j, I^
in
/, r^,
and
is
given in order that the follow-
easily understood.
greatly simplified
if
we
The problem
use conductance
and
susceptance d of each circuit instead of resistance and reactance.
According to the
definitions given in Article 61
we have
'"i
r,'
+ ^.'
K = r,' +
î
^.^
(d)
'-2
Si
r^
^2
V + ^2
'
From
equation (52)
we have
A=
+ ^/
.
{-.- A) -E
and
Furthermore the
so that
total current
is
the vector
sum
of
/^
and
/g,
APPLICATION OF
Fig. 66.
This
of course,
is,
values of
and
/^
I^
89
Fig. 67.
from
complex equation.
and
(U)
(c)
Substituting
and solving
in (^)
the
for
we have
Substituting this value of
E in
(p)
W
and
j_
{g.-j\)i
J^
(^2-A)^
(r)
we have
(/)
and
(^)
These equations (/) and {g) express the currents /^ and I^ in

terms of the known quantities, /, g^, g^, b^ and b.^.
For purposes
of numerical calculations the components of each
I^
and
/g
must
The numerical value of each is then found by taksquare root of the sum of the squares of its components.
be separated.
ing the
The
following simple cases of the problem under consideration
are interesting.
1.
When
and I =
;irj
= o and x^ = o\
I^-\- I^
/, 7^, I^
and
are parallel
= then 7, and I^ are parallel to each other

^2
and all behind E in phase by the angle of which the tangent is
In this case, also, 1= I^-\- 1^ (numercally).
2.
When
then
(numerically).
^1
7^,
90
3.
When is
very small and
this case I^ is parallel to
E and
as
is
very large (or vice versa).
I^ is
shown
90 behind
in
Figs.
E (or
In
vice versa)
68 and 69.
These
figures are particular cases of Fig.
^'j.
In the present case the numerical re-
between
lation
Fig. 68.
V I^ + I^
and when either
tive,
is
I^
or
I^ is
large and positive
which
/2
is
-f 00
small the other
sensibly
is
/.
I is nearly 90 behind
shown in Fig. 70. The
X
X
then
of E^ as
for
When
and
Fig. 69.
equal (numerically) to
4.
I^
/,
E, and
figure
and
and
I^
large but nega-
is
is
nearly 90 ahead
shows the
limiting case
In this case
co.
/= / /,
numerically.
Examples of case
4.
A condenser and an inductance
nected in parallel in an alternating current

I
in
the
circuit.
circuit
divides
are con-
The
in
current
two
the
branches formed by the inductance and
The currents /^ and

two branches are nearly op-
the condenser.
I.,
in these
posite to each other in phase
current
is
difference of I^
It
equal then
/^
and
I^ will
is
/.
I^.
such that (oL and
be nearly equal
be very much greater than
and
the frequency of the alternating
current
Fig. 70.
and the
numerically equal to the
and
/^
and
0)6
I^ will
are
each

Compensation
65.
lagging current in a receiving
for
transmission line delivers a lagging current
circuit of resistance
and
reactance
shown
in
72.
a receiving
/2 to
and
circuit.
transmission h'ne
as
x.^,
Figs. 7
r.^
91
^^ ^
^
v_
condenser con-
<
nected in parallel with

the
receiving
circuit
takes current
/^,
which
90 ahead
in
phase
is
of
jff
electromotive
the
force
c
c
transmission line
which acts upon
the receiving
circuit.
tant alternator
reduced
Fig- 7i.
The
total current,
generated by the dis-
/,
and delivered by the transmission
in value
and brought
into phase with E,
if
line
may
of the condenser
is
so chosen
that the current taken
condenser
which
is
component of
/g
r.
is,
I^
at right angles to E.
Discussion.
Fig. 72.
by the
equal and op-
is
posite to the
be
the reactance
The
by equation
current
(5 1),
+J^2
or
/o
-J'
SO that the
x,E
r,E
=
2
'
component of
I^
^2
"^2
I"
^2
perpendicular to
x^
is
^>2'
and, to bring the resultant current /into phase with E, as

in
Fig. 72, this
component of
I^
<
must be equal and opposite
the current Ejjx^, which flows into the condenser.
shown
Ex.
^2
Therefore
to
92
or
^2
which expresses the value of the negative reactance of the con-
by
denser, in order that the current delivered
may
lines
be
in
the transmission
phase with the electromotive force acting on the
receiving circuit.
Remark
i.
This
arrangement
is
seldom used
in practice, on*
account of the large and expensive condensers required and on

account of the very considerable loss of power in such large
See problem 65.
condensers.
Remark
2.
motor running
It is
tive force is greater
alternator.
in
Chapter XII. that the synchronous
than the electromotive force of the generating
Such a synchronous motor,
chronous motor,
66.
shown
at light load has negative reactance, if its electromo-
may
called an over-excited syn-
be used to compensate for lagging currents.
The transformer without
iron.
Two
coils of wire
and B^
Fig. 73, are placed near together, but not electrically connected.
The
coil
A, called the primary
from a generator
The
coil
its
B, called the secondary
alternating current
coil, receivês
resistance
is
r^
coil, is
and
its
The
circuit.
of coil
cuit
B and
is r^,
tance
find
inductance
is
receiving cir-
and the
Z^.
the
total resistance
its
It is
total induc-
required to
electromotive
force
which must act upon

maintain in
current
Fig. 73.
7^.
it
to
a given harmonic
To
solve
this
problem, one must consider
the electromotive force induced in each coil

rent in the other coil.
L^.
is
connected to a receiving
by the changing
in
one
cur-
ôil
is
proportional to the rate of change of the current in the other

coil,
and the proportionality factor J/ has a

two coils.
for the
definite
mutual value

Determination of the secondary current
current
induces in
which
at
is
secondary
the
each instant equal

is
(oMI^,
and
its
X.o
is
^The given primary
coil
-^
I^.
'
90 ahead of
symbolic expression
/,, its
effective value
jaaMI^, and according to
is
equation (51) this electromotive force produces

coil
93
in
the secondary
a current
^^
= ;^ +>z;
(")
Reaction of the secondary current upon the primary
secondary current
tive force
which
motive force
odM/^,
and
tive force
at each instant equal to
phase,
I^ in
complex expression
induced
coil.
The
induces in the primary coil an electromo-
90 ahead of
is
its
is
I^
is
--^'
its
This electro-
effective value is
joaML^.
This electromo-
primary by the secondary current must
in the
be overcome by the electromotive force which acts upon the
The
mary.
balances the reaction of the secondary current

reaction
pri-
portion of the acting electromotive force which thus
and opposite to
it
in
sign
and
is,
is
equal to this
therefore, equal to
Determination of total electromotive foixe acting on primary.
This total electromotive force consists of three parts as follows

1.
The
part described above which balances the reaction of
This part
the secondary current.
the value of I^ from equation {a)
is
equal to jayMT^ or using
we have
for this part of the
"^
2.
coil.
r^/j,
3.
The
part used to overcome the resistance of the primary
This
and
its
The
r,-\-jcDL^
is
at
each instant equal to
complex expression
part used to
is r^/^
r^Zp its effective
since
it is
in
value
is
phase with ly
overcome the inductance of the primary
94
This
coil.
/p
its
j(oLÎy
is
at
each instant equal to L^^.^
and
effective value is (oLJ^,
Therefore the total
complex expression
its
electromotive
maintain the given primary current
90 ahead of
is
it
force
required
is
to
is
= ./.+y.V. +
^^^^
(.)
or separating components
shows the primary current

the electromotive ioxc^jwMI^ induced
Fig.
/,
74
the secondary
in
current
coil,
the
secondary
the portion of the primary
/g,
electromotive
j(oMT^
force
used to
balance the reaction of the secondary

the portion
current,
electromotive force
of
rÎ^
the
primary
used to over-
come primary resistance, and the portion

of
the
primary
y^Zj^/j used to
ductance.
The
electromotive
force
overcome primary
total
in-
primary electro-
-JcJiUJ- motive force is the vector sum of

j(oMI^, rj^ and JodLJ^.
Fig. 74.
Equation
{c)
shows that the
make the primary

by the amount
and
its
coil
effect
behave as
inductance decreased
of the secondary
if its
resistance
coil is to
were increased
by the amount
Zft>2J/^
^/
Â^
It was shown in Article 41 that a watt6T. Inductance error of the wattmeter.

meter which has been calibrated with continuous electromotive force and current indi-

cates
power
when used with
correctly
the shunt coil
When
zero.
is
alternating current, provided the inductance of
the shunt circuit has inductance,
however, the watt-
meter indicates incorrectly when used with alternating currents.

cussion refers to
P'ig.
27,
Weston compensating
and
it
The
assumed that the wattmeter
is
95
coil so that the current in coil ^, Pig. 27,
following dis^
provided with a
is
may be assumed
to be
equal to the current in the receiving circuit CC.
Let
be the resistance of the receiving circuit and
the resistance of the shunt circuit and
its
its
reactance
Imagine the wattmeter connected to direct current mains as shown

that a continuous current
C flows
through the
coil b
is
The
CRjr.
force action
proportional to the product of the two currents
the watts expended in the receiving circuit,
Imagine the wattmeter connected

so that an alternating current
is
to
is
uct * of the
same
two
7^
and the product of
currents,
.viz
to
and the cur-
C^Rjr
W.
mains, as shown
is
coils is
and
OR^
in Fig. 27,
The
/{R-{-jX), and
The component of this
component
The
CA*,
is
the coil b and the receiving circuit.
this
27 so
the wattmeter reading
electromotive force between the terminals of the receiving circuit

is
r be
circuit.
between the wattmeter
and CRjr, or
to alternating current
/ flows through
the current in the shunt circuit
let
in Fig.
and the receiving
electromotive force between the terminals of the receiving circuit

rent in the shunt circuit
and
reactance.
/ gives
into
current parallel
the average prod-
If this alternating current gives the
deflection of the wattmeter as the above-mentioned direct current
we have
C^R_ /2{Rr Xx)

r
^*^
r^-{.x^
since equal deflections require equal force actions,
and equal
force actions
depend upon
equal current-products.
Multiply both members of (i) by R, write /^(wattmeter reading) for C^R, and
write
F for /^R,
this
alternating current,
being the watts actually expended in the receiving circuit by the
and we have,
after solving for
Py
r{RrXx)
That
is,
the wattmeter reading
power expended
^must
be multiplied by -y-^
yAr
to give the
in the receiving circuit
PROBLEMS.
63.
transmission line having an inductance of 0.02 henry
and a resistance of 25 ohms supplies current

* Compare Article
52.
at
60 cycles per
96
second to a condenser of which the capacity
The generator
electromotive force
is
20,000
24 microfarads.
is
What
volts.
electromotive force at the condenser terminals
the
is
Ans. 20,870
volts.
64.
a consists of 50 ohms resistance and 2 henrys

another circuit b consists of 50 ohms resistance and
circuit
inductance
The two
a 0.75 microfarad condenser.
nected in parallel in a circuit in
ampere
current
b=
1 1
is
which a 125-cycle current of

a
in
the
is
12.02 amperes, current in
amperes.
alternator delivers 100 amperes at 1,100 volts
cycles to a receiving circuit of which the
What
a and b are con-
the current in a and what
Ans. Current
b'>
An
65.
What
flowing.
is
circuits
power
factor
and 60
is
0.85.
capacity condenser would be required to compensate for
lagging current
What number
of leaves of a paraffined paper
condenser 20 by 25 centimeters would be required for

denser, thickness of paraffined
this
paper being 0.08 cm.?
inductivity of paraffined paper equal to
con-
Take
Ans. 127. 1 micro-
2.
farads, 114,875 leaves.
66.
transformer (without iron) consists of two long cylin-
drical coils each
(one
layer).
cm. and
having 10 turns of wire per centimeter of length
The
each 50 cm. long and their
coils are
cm. respectively, the smaller
coil
radii are 2
being inside the
Calculate the value and phase of the electromotive force
larger.
required to maintain a current of 10 amperes at 60 cycles per
second
and
in the outer coil
calculate the true
sistance of the outer
and the inner
coil
short-circuited.*
calculate the current in the inner coil,
and apparent reactance and apparent
coil.
has
Ans.
* The mutual inductance,
}4
re-
The outer coil has 2 ohms resistance

ohms resistance and its terminals are
21.123
in henrys, of
volts,
62i'
phase difference,
two coaxial solenoids
is,
approximately,
J/=47rV^V2^V-- io9
in which
z-'
and
z^^ are the turns of wire
the radius of the inside
coil,
and
per unit length on the respective
/ is the length of the coils.
coils, r^^ is
APPLICATION OF
9/
1.5384 amperes, 0.66967 true reactance, 0.66896 ohms reactance,

2.0036 ohms resistance.
The expression
6^.
may be
{c\ Article 66,
written
A=[(î + ^)+y(î-^)]A
where
is
the apparent change of resistance of the primary coil
is the apparent
due to the presence of the secondary coil and
change of reactance of the primary coil due to the presence of
the secondary
The primary
coil.
has
coil
Assume
will.
negligible.
Show
(numerical value) of the primary circuit
presence of the secondary
when
r^jx^
is
greater than
68.
factor
A
is
when
that
is
it
an
be varied at
and
to r^
x^ so
impedance
the
not altered by the

is
circuit affected
than
r^ is
less
on a
circuit of
x^RjX
the im-
by the
when
rj
x^RjX}
wattmeter
0.85.
may
= RjX. How
pedance (numerical value) of the primary

presence of the secondary
r^
X are small compared
R and
that
R^ and X"^ are
that
with
in circuit
adjustable non-inductive resistance so that
is
The
to be used
which the power
resistance of the shunt circuit
is
1,000 ohms.
Find the four values of reactance of shunt circuit for which the
true
ing.
power
will differ
from the reading by d= 0.005 of the read-
x=
or
608.75.
Ans. Reading too great
ing too
small x= 8.
-j-
7.45
or
631.05, read-
CHAPTER
VIII.
SINGLE-PHASE AND POLYPHASE ALTERNATORS.

68.
The single -phase alternator and
alternator described in Chapter

nator.
It
11. is
its limitations.
has one pair of collector rings to which the terminals
The
of the armature windings are connected.
the single-phase alternator

tion of electric
glow lamps,
heating
only,
effect,
fairly satisfactory for
the
of
difficult to
it is
which
make
is
which
For
not satisfactory,
under load.
For electrochemical
processes the alternating current cannot be used.

currents for motive
tory use of alternating
The
satisfac-
purposes depends
mainly upon the use of the induction motor described

It is
in
important.
is
a single-phase alternating-current motor
will start satisfactorily
XIII.
by
the operation
purposes
all
current
motive purposes the simple alternating current

as
current given
entirely satisfactory for the opera-
is
of electric arc lamps, and in general for
the
The simple
called the single-phase alter-
in
Chapter
the requirements of this motor which have led to the
development of the polyphase systems.

69.
The two-phase
alternator.
Consider two
idly
on the same
shaft,
the same crown of
B is
shown
tures are so
field
inside of
magnet
and
poles.
and inde-
In the figure, armature
for the sake of clearness.
mounted on the
under the poles when the

as shown.
similar
and B, Fig. 75, mounted rigone beside the other, and revolving inside
pendent single-phase armatures
Under these
shaft that the slots of
slots of
These arma-
are
midway
B are midway between the
poles
conditions the electromotive forces of
are so related in their pulsations that the electromotive
force of
is
at its
maximum when
98
the electromotive force of
B is
zero, that
is,
the electromotive forces are 90 apart in phase,
Two
or in quadrature with each other.

(mechanically) in the
constitute
indicated
phase
alternators connected
manner
hvo-
The two
alternator.
distinct
99
and independent
elec-
tromotive forces generated by
such a machine are used to

supply two distinct and indedis-
^"^y
circuits.
^>
pendent currents to two

tinct
In
and independent
alternator
is
two-phase
the
practice
made by
placing
the armature windings of
and
same armature body.

twice as
A
Fig. 75.
upon one and the
many
slots as
For
this
purpose the armature body has
or B^ Fig. 75.
Fig.
an
slots
a^
shows such
'j6
The
armature.
marked
a^^
receive
etc.,
conductors
a.^^
the
belong-
ing to phase A, and
those marked
b^, etc.,
^^, b^^
receive those
belonging to phase
B.
The
winding
would pass up*

^j,
down
a.^,
up
a^
slot
and
so on, the terminals
of the winding being
connected to two
lector rings.
slot
*
Up
<^p
down
^2,
and down being
armature.
up
^3,
winding would pass
Fig. 76.
up
col-
The
and so on,
its
terminals being connected
parallel to the armature shaft to
and from one end of the
lOO
to
is
two collector rings
distinct
from those to which the
winding
connected.
The armature windings
and
here described are of the con-
centrated type (see Article 20), having only one slot per pole for
Distributed windings also are frequently used for
each winding.
Thus
two-phase alternators.
phase armature with
its
Fig. yy
shows a portion of a two-
A and B windings each distributed
in
two
Fig. 77.
slots
The
per pole.
coils
belonging to windings
differently
shaded to distinguish them.
are connected together in a
winding
The
coils
manner
dotted Hnes and the coils belonging to winding
together as indicated by the
and
common
are
belonging to
indicated
B are
by the
connected
(See Article 84.)
full lines.
Two-phase alternators are usually provided with two

collector rings
sets of
one ring may, however, be made to serve as a
connection for the two armature windings, as shown in
ring
ringl
pM^^
ring
^maitl 1
onain'i
Tnain
Fig. 78.

In this case a three- wire transmission line
Fig. 78.
the separate receiving circuits
The
the figure.
x and y
used and
shown in
when the
is
are connected as
objection to this arrangement
that
is
lOI
x and y are inductive the electromotive forces

of x and y respectively are not equal and not 90*^
receiving circuits
at the terminals
apart in phase on account of the electromotive force lost in the
common main
This disarrangement
3.
of the electromotive forces in a polyphase
system
called distortion.
is
Two-phase
70.
and currents.
Fig.
The two
A
and
lines
the
represent
79,
forces of the
forces
and B,
electromotive
/
I
windings respec-
two-phase alternator.
tively of a
circuit
electromotive
If the
which receives current from
6^^^
is
^'^- ^^
of the same resistance and reactance as

the circuit which receives current from
to be balanced
then the system
and each current lags behind
its
is
said
electromotive force
In this case the currents are equal and in
by the same amount.
quadrature with each other and are represented by the two dotted
hnes a and b
in Fig. 79.
Electromotive force and current relations in two-phase three-wire system.

The electromotive force between the mains I and 2, Fig. 78, is
This electromotive
the vector sum* of the electromotive forces A and B, Fig. 79.
force is therefore represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram constructed on A
71.
Electromotive force.
and By Fig.
79.
It is
45 behind
common effective
Current.
The current
is
the
and
2,
namely a and
b.
in
phase and
in
main 3
Fig. 79.
is
the vector
This current
is
onal of the parallelogram constructed on a and
phase and
rents a
its effective
and
to
two
*Or
effective value is
value
is
sum*
of the currents in mains I
therefore represented
b, Fig.
1/2/ where /is the common
V 2E where
and B.
79;
it
is
by the diag-
45 behind a in
effective value of the cur-
b.
Effect of line drop in the
system.
its
value of the electromotive forces
^Â
common main of a two-phase
three-wire
two-phase alternator supplies current over three wires
similar inductive receiving circuits
difference according to convention as to signs.
x and y
as
shown
in
102
Fig. 78.
The
lines
and B, Fig. 80, represent the generator
electromotive forces, a represents the current in main

sents the current in
common main
main
The
3.
2,
and
i,
b repre-
c represents the current in the
lines Re, parallel to
r,
represent the elec-
Fig. 80.
tromotive force lost in main
3,
the line
to
represents the
electromotive force between the terminals of receiving circuit
and the
to
line
represents the electromotive force between
The
the terminals of receiving circuit y.

lost in
mains
much
as they
,r,
and 2 are not considered
do not tend
in this discussion inas-
to distort the two-phase electromotive
forces.
72.
The three-phase
phase armatures, A,
alternator.
B and
C,
in the
same
Consider
mounted
shaft
and revolved
many
slots as there are field poles.
certain armature slot of
stant that this slot
which elapses as
is
and
field,
let
side
armature
side
on the same
Fix the attention upon a
time be reckoned from the in-
slot passes
iV-pole to the center of the next TV-pole.
be so fixed to the shaft that
its slots
and the armature
Let
be the time
from the center of one
The armature
B is
to
are squarely under the poles
is
to be so fixed that
its
under the poles at the instant JÂ While a

from the center of one A^-pole to the center of the
slots are squarely
slot passes
by
each armature having as
squarely under an TV-pole.
this
at the instant j^/,
three similar single-
103
next A^-pole the electromotive force passes through one complete
Hence the electromotive
cycle.
arranged as above,
120 apart
in
shown
Fig.
in
which the
lines
will
forces given
by three armatures,
be
phase, as
81,
A,
in
B and
represent the respec-
tive electromotive forces.
The
currents
the
armatures
given
to
by
three
similar receiving circuits
lag
equally behind
respective
the
electromotive
forces and are represented
by the dotted
and
c.
^*^-^-
lines a, b
This combination of three alternators is called a three-phase
alternator.
In practice the three distinct windings A,
B and C are
Fig. 82.
placed upon one and the same armature body.

the armature body has three times as
many
For
slots as
this
A^
purpose
B or
C.
I04
shows the arrangement of the
Fig. 82
The
slots
marked
belonging to phase
a^y
a^,
etc.
are
drawn
Those belonging
dotted and those belonging to phase
The
winding would pass up
B winding,
up
b^,
slots for
down
b^,
up
heavy
in
down
a^,
lines
to phase
C are shown
slot a^,
b^, etc.;
such a winding.
and are
shown
are
in light lines.
up
and similarly
the
a^, etc.;
for
phase
C.
Fig. 83.
The windings Ay
and
here described are of the concen-
trated type, having only one slot per pole for each winding.
Dis-
tributed windings also are frequently used for three-phase alter-
Fig. 84.
Thus
nators.
with
pole.
its
Ay
The
Fig. 83
shows a portion of a three-phase armature
B and C windings
coils
each distributed
belonging to windings A,
are differently shaded to distinguish them.
necting the coils of each winding

If the three circuits
is
in
two
B and C
slots per
respectively
The manner
of con-
described in Article 84.
of a three-phase alternator are to be en-
independent six collector rings must be used, two for each
tirely
winding
ent
I05
however, the circuits
may be
kept practically independ-
by using four collector
rings and four mains, as
shown
in
Fig.
The
84.
main 4 serves as a com-
mon
return wire for the
independent
mains
i,
currents
and
in
When
3.
the three receiving circuits

are equal in resistance
reactance,
the system
that
is
is,
and
when
balanced, the
currents are equal
three
and 120 apart
in
phase
Fig. 85.
(each current lagging be-
hind
is
at
its
by
each instant equal to zero
carries
ring
electromotive force
no current and
may be
this
same amount) and their sum

in which case main 4, Fig. 84,
the
:
main and the corresponding collector
dispensed with, the three windings being connected
together at the point N, called the
common
"^^
This ar-
junction.
angement,
shown
the
in
symmetrical diagram, Fig.

85,
is
called the Y, or star,
scheme of connecting the

three windings A,
B and
Another scheme
C.
for con-
necting the three windings
A,
and
(also for bal-
anced loads) called the

(delta) or
shown
A
Fig. 86.
between rings
and 2 and winding
in
is
rings 3
mesh scheme is
Fig. 86. Winding
connected
and
I,
between
winding
between rings 2
and
3.
io6
The
which the electromotive force or
direction in a circuit in
current
is
considered as a positive electromotive force or current
is
called the positive direction through the circuit.
is
chosen
The arrows
arbitrarily.
the positive directions in the

It
must be remembered
in
This direction
and 86
Figs. 85
indicate
mains and through the windings.
that these arrows
do not represent the
actual directions of the electromotive forces or currents at
any
given instant, but merely the directions of positive electromotive

forces or currents.
positive
when
collecting rings
73.
Thus
in Fig.
flowing from the
85 the currents are considered
common
and the currents are never
junction towards the

all
of the same sign.
Electromotive force and current relations in Y-connected

Electromotive force
armatures.
relations.
Passing through
the
Fig, 87.
windings
winding
* Which
A and B from ring 2 to

A is passed through in the
is
ring
i,* in
Fig. 85, the
positive direction
and the
the direction in which an electromotive force must be generated to give
an electromotive
force, acting
upon a receiving
circuit
from main
to
main
2.

winding
Therefore the electro-
negative direction.
the
in
motive force between mains
and 2
is
A B. Similarly
3 is B C and
electromotive force between mains 2 and

electromotive force between mains 3 and
differences are
shown
tween mains
and
and
ilar
2,
effective value is
its
mon
The
in Fig. Sy.
A B,
namely,
cos 30
107
is
is
the
the
These
A.
electromotive force be-
30 behind
in
phase
^3/i, where îs the com-
value of each of the electromotive forces A,
B and
C.
Sim-
statements hold concerning the electromotive forces between
mains 2 and
and between mains
and
i.
Hence the
electro-
motive force between any pair of mains leading from a three-
phase alternator with a Y-connected armature
equal to the
is
electromotive force generated per phase multiplied
by
^^3.
connection the currents in the
mains are equal to the currents
in the respective windings, as is
Ctirrent relations.
In the
evident from Fig. 85.
74.
Electromotive force and current relations in A-connected

Electromotive force relations.
armatures.
the
forces
between the mains
or
In A-connected arma-
electromotive
tures
are
rings
collector
equal to the electromotive

forces
the
of
windings,
as
respective
is
evident
from Fig. 86.

Ctirrent relations.
Re-
%6 we see
ferring to Fig.
that a positive current in
winding
produces
positive current in
main
a
i
and that a negative current

in
winding
produces a
^
positive current in
Fig. 88.
main
therefore the current in
i,
main
is
-b when
is
the current
io8
in
is
and b
is
the current in B.
and the current
in
ences are shown in Fig. 88.
30 behind a
the
common
phases.
3
is
in
phase and
its
Similarly the current in main
a.
current in
i,
main
The
is
effective value
is
These
differ-
namely ab^
is
/ when /
is
v/3
effective value of the currents a, b, c in the different
Similar statements hold for the currents in mains 2 and
so that the current in each main of a A-connected armature
\/3 times the current

75.
in
each winding.
Connection of receiving circuits to three-phase mains.
similar circuits {imbalanced system).
When the
receiving circuits
which take current from three-phase mains are
mam
Dis-
dissimilar, four
mains should be employed

1
as
indicated
each receiving
Fig.
circuit
84
being
connected from main 4 to

one of the other mains. It
mam z
in
is,
however, desirable to
keep the three windings A,
B
maind
and
of the alternator
as nearly equally loaded as

Fig. 89.
possible,
and the receiving
circuits are so disposed in practice as to satisfy this condition as
nearly as possible.
Similar circuits {balanced
systein).
When three-phase
currents
are used to drive induction motors, synchronous motors or rotary

converters,
each
takes
unit
current equally from the three
mains, and since three-phase

currents are utilized mainly in
the operation of the machines
mentioned, the system

ally balanced.
is
In this
three mains only are
and each receiving
usucase
employed
Fig. 90.
unit has three similar receiving circuits connected

to the mains according to either the
of connecting receiving circuits

of each receiving circuit
is
it
is
circuit
is
The
connected.
in Fig. 89.
connected to a main and the other ter-
is
minals are connected together at N.
each receiving
The Y method
One terminal
Y or A method.
shown
IO9
In this case the current in
equal to the current in the main to which
electromotive force between the terminals
of each receiving circuit
equal to
is
where
the electro-
is
motive force between any pair of mains.
The A method
of connecting receiving circuits
Here the three receiving
Fig. 90.
circuits are
is
shown
in
connected between
the respective pairs of mains, the electromotive force acting on
each receiving
circuit
the electromotive force between
is
mains, and the current in each receiving circuit
the
- where /
is
is
^3
the current in each main.
Power
76.
in polyphase systems.
polyphase system are

ent,
and the
power delivered
total
The
circuits of
several
in general entirely separate
to a receiving apparatus
is
be found by measuring the power delivered to each separate

ceiving circuit
the total
amounts delivered
power delivered
the
sum
to
re-
of the
to the different receiving circuits.
Balanced systems.
When
a polyphase system
several circuits are entirely similar

is
is
and independ-
is
balanced the
and the same amount of power
delivered to each receiving circuit of a given piece of receiving
apparatus.
Balanced two-phase.
phase,
circuits,
force of each
and cos d the power factor of each receiving
Then EI cos Q
total
Let E be the electromotive
the current furnished to each of two similar receiving
is
the
power delivered
power delivered
to each circuit, so that the
is
P=2EIcose
Balanced three-phase.
circuit.
Let
^55)
be the electromotive force be-
tween the terminals of each receiving
circuit,
/ the
current in each
no
receiving circuit, and cos 6 the
Then EI cos
is
the
power factor of each circuit.

power deHvered to each receiving circuit, so
power deHvered
that the total
is
P=3^/cos<9
in
which, as must be remembered,
(56)
E is the electromotive force at
the terminals of each receiving circuit and
On
receiving circuit.
P ^ V^ EI cos
in
which
/ is
Equation (57)
circuit.
by considering
that the current
connection for example,
77.
(57)
is
the power factor of
may
be derived from (56)
the current in each main, and cos 6
^for /in
the current in each
the electromotive force between each pair of mains,
is
each receiving
/ is
the other hand,
in
each main, for the case of
equal to n/3
we have
equation (56)
The flow
is
/,
so that, substituting
equation (57).
of energy in balanced polyphase systems.
pointed out in Article 26 that the power developed
by a
It
was
single-
phase alternator pulsates with the alternations of electromotive

force
The power
and current.
sations,
but
is
entirely steady
and constant
Discussion for a two-phase alternator.

not subject to pul-
in value.
Consider a single-phase
^= J5 sin
t
= jrsin
i= I sin
ot cos 6
or
instantaneous power
ei
is
alternator of
which
is
and which gives a current
The
by
delivered to a balanced system
a polyphase generator, on the other hand,
(w/
(a)
u)t
^)
I cos ut
sin d
(3)
is
= Î cos 6
sin^ ut
Î
sin 6 sin ut cos w/
which pulsates with a frequency twice as great as the frequency of
and
i.
Let equations {a) and [b) express the electromotive force and current of one phase
of a (balanced) two-phase alternator, then electromotive force and current of the
other phase are
e^
= 1^ cos ut
i'
= I cos {ut 6) = I cos ut
(<r)
cos,
-\-
1 sin
ut sin d
{d)

The
instantaneous
power output of
e'i'
this
phase
is
= 1^1 cos a cosW ^1

-f-
sin d sin ut cos
Therefore the total power output of the two-phase machine

ei
which
4-
= JÎ cos 6
= J5Jcos^
e'i'
sin ut
(
-|-
ut
is
co8 at)
constant.
is
Remark.
The
torque of a single-phase alternator pulsates
with the pulsations of the power output.
phase alternator, however, the torque

does not pulsate
converters,
78.
Ill
also
is
In a balanced poly-
power
steady, since the
polyphase synchronous motors, rotary
and induction motors are driven by a steady torque.
Measurement
of
power in polyphase systems.
In a
poly-
phase system, balanced or unbalanced, the power taken by any

unit,
such as an induction motor,
ing the power taken

the results.
by each
may be
determined by measur-
single receiving circuit
receiving circuit the current coil of the wattmeter

series
and adding
In order to measure the power taken by a single
with the circuit and the
terminals of the circuit.
fine
wire coil
is
The inconvenience
is
connected
in
connected to the
of connecting and
main a
Fig. 91.
disconnecting the wattmeters
makes
wattmeter for each receiving
circuit.
cient for the
it
necessary to use a separate
Two
wattmeters are
suffi-
complete measurements of the power taken by any
three-phase receiving unit.
The
connections are
shown
in Fig.
112
The
91.
receiving circuit
connected
Proof.
circuits
Let
may be
balanced or unbalanced and
or A.
the positive direction in the mains a
symmetrically with respect to the two wattmeters.

the receiving circuits be i\
main
rent in
and
and in the three receiving

These directions are chosen
be chosen as indicated by the arrows in Fig. 91.
a,
and
The reading
let b
i^^ ,
and
i^^' as
shown.
Let the instantaneous currents in

Let a be the instantaneous cur-
be the instantaneous current in main
of the upper wattmeter
is
Then
b.
equal to the average value of the prod-
uct of the current a which flows through the current coil of the instrument into the
electromotive force e' which acts upon the shunt circuit of the instrument.
^''
Similarly
W^''''
Substituting the above values of a
=
e'f
e'
is
= average ae^
= average
be'^
and
b in the expression for
W^ 4" ^^' =^ average eî^ -\- average e^î^^ -j- average

But
That
W^ -j- W^^ we have
[e^
e^^) i'^^
e''' so that
-\-
W'^ ^= average
e^t^ -\-
average
e^î^^ -\-
average e'^î^^^
Q. E. D.
In a balanced polyphase system, a condition which

strictly realized, the
circuits
is
seldom
power taken by one only of the receiving
need be measured.
PROBLEMS.
69.
common
return wire
equal to 100 amperes.
Ans.
turn wire?
The
70.
wires
71.
What
is
used for the two currents of a

is
balanced and each current
the current in the
common
is
Ans. 707
Three
is
re-
4 1. 4 amperes.
electromotive force of each phase, problem
What
volts.
is
The system
two-phase system.
i, is
500
between the outside
volts.
similar receiving circuits are A-connected to 3 -phase
mains, the electromotive force between each pair of mains being
no
volts.
The power
delivered to the three circuits
is
150

power
kilowatts and the
factor of each circuit
the current in each circuit and
in
each main
is .90.
II3
What
is
Ans. 505 am-
885 amperes.
peres,
Three similar receiving
72.
phase mains, problem 71
circuits are
the total
Y-connected to the 3-
power delivered
watts and the power factor of each circuit

current in each circuit and in
each main
is
and what
is
150
What
.90.
kilois
the
is
the electro-
motive force between the terminals of each circuit?
Ans. 885
amperes, 885 amperes, 63.5
73.
volts.
three-phase alternator
is
provided with 4 collecting rings
and 4 mains as shown in Fig. 84. Three similar receiving cirone from main i to main 4, one
cuits are connected as follows
:
and one from main 3 to main 4. Each

W^hen the armature windtakes 150 amperes.
from main 2 to main

receiving circuit
4,
ings are properly connected to the collector rings the current in
main 4 is zero. What is the current in main 4 when one armaDraw a diagram
ture winding has its connections reversed ?
showing the phase relations between the currents
in
mains
i,
2,
and 4 when the armature winding A, Fig. 84, is reversed. In

constructing this diagram consider directions out from machine
3,
as the positive direction in each main.
The
74.
Ans. 3CK) amperes.
three windings of a three-phase alternator are Y-con-
nected to three mains as shown in Fig. 85.

force of each winding
main
75.
Draw
reversed.
are
forces from
3 to
main
The
alternator
main
to
The
125 volts.
The
electromotive
connections of winding
a diagram representing electromotive
main
2,
from main 2 to main
3,
and from
i.
distance from center to center of adjacent poles of an
measured on the surface of the armature
How
far apart
there
may be
induced
is
is
10.4 inches.
must two armature conductors be placed so that
a phase difference of
in the respective
in
55
conductors
the electromotive forces
Ans. 3.18 inches.
CHAPTER
IX.
ALTERNATORS.
(
79.
Armature
reaction.
Continued.
The amoGnt of magnetic
flux entering
the armature core from the field poles and the manner of
its dis-
depend upon the combined magnetic

current and of the armature current.
tribution over the pole faces,
action of the field
Distortion offield.
The armature
current in an alternator tends
to concentrate the magnetic flux under the trailing horns of the
pole pieces very

effect of this
much
as in the direct-current
concentration of flux
is
dynamo.
to slightly increase the
The
mag-
netic reluctance of the saturated portions of the pole pieces
armature core.
and
This increase of magnetic reluctance causes a
decrease of flux and a consequent decrease of the electromotive

of the alternator, other things being equal.
force
may
by
be appreciable, but
it
This
effect
cannot be predetermined accurately
calculation.
Magnetizing and demagnetizing action of the armature current.

When the current given by an alternator is in phase with its
'
electromotive force the only effect of the armature current upon

the field
rent
is
is
the cur-
not in phase with the electromotive force the distorting
effect is
decreased * and in addition there
or demagnetizing action upon the

is
When
the distorting effect described above.
field
is
a magnetizing action
according as the current
ahead of or behind the electromotive force

* The distorting
effect is
due
to the
motive force and the magnetizing
in phase.
component of the current
effect is
due
114
to the
parallel to the electro-
component
at right angles to the
ALTERNATORS.
Consider a bundle of TV armature wires, grouped in a
example.
slot, for
Let
^= ^ sin w/
be the alternating electromotive force induced in this bundle of conductors. 'Ihis
It is zero when
electromotive force is a maximum when the slot is at a, Fig. 92.
Therefore the value
the slot is at b and it is a minimum (negative maximum) at c.
of w/
90
is
180
at a,
wires
cuit
is
at
at
Let
c.
line
at
effect
(negative) * upon the
and
at c the effect will again
circuit,
be a given current flowing in the
of the bundle
is
If the bundle of
then Ni.
on the magnetic
b the ampere- turns will have their
be without appreciable
will
shown by the dotted
demagnetizing
magnetic
and 270
ampere turns
its
m m m
at b
The ampere-turns
bundle of wires.
effect
cir-
full
be zero.
Now,
cos
and zero
at
zero at a, negative unity at b
(j/ is
Ni
Therefore
c.
cos w/
is
an ex-
pression which gives the true magnetic effect of
the bundle of wires at , b
We
cvurent.
assume
and
for all points between a and

current in the bundle of wires
behind
hold
actual
is
the angle of lag of the current
is
electromotive
the
The
c.
= Jsin {utB)
which
in
with the given
this expression to
Therefore
force.
substituting this value of i in the expression
Ni
cos
idt
we have
m = NI cos
in
which
is
at the instant
average value of
Now
the
sin (ut
6)
the effective ampere-turns of the
bundle of wires
whence
o)t
To
/.
expand
member
value of cos* ut
is
6),
Pj
but the average value of sin ot cos
/ for
JT
m= )4 -Î
this
formula
is
* The current
which
demagnetizing
is
is
the two terms of
zero
and the average
sin 6
( ii )
o.
707
NI s\n 6
(58)
applied to an alternator the windings of. which are not too
widely distributed, iV is to be taken as the
by the number of poles.
tive force
o^t is
( i
)
we have
average magnetizing ampere-turns
When
gj.
Therefore
)4'
average
m = NI sin cot cos ut cos 6 NI cos^ ut sin 6

average value of m is the sum of the average values of
the right-hand
or putting
find the
sin (w/
total
number of armature conductors divided
This equation shows that when the current lags behind the
considered positive
induced under the
effect for all positions
when
it is
N pole.
in the direction of the electromo-
current in this direction has a
of the slot between a and
c.
Il6
electromotive force (angle 6 positive) the armature current weakens the field and vice
ver.a.
Remark.
The
and the magnetizing or demagnetizing action of the armature currents of a polyphase

distorting action
alternator supplying currents to a balanced receiving system are
steady in value, that
is,
they do not pulsate as
in the single-phase
alternator.
In the case of the two-phase alternator the constancy of the magnetizing action
is easily shown.
Let w, equation (i), be the instantaneous
of the armature currents
magnetizing action of the armature currents in the

Since the
and
and
B windings
have the same values
for
w/ 90
for
tit
m^
This gives
in equation (i).
= NT
The combined magnetizing
sin w/ cos w/ cos Q
m-\-m' -^
B winding
NI
sin2
NX
u>t -\-
obtained by substi-
is
sin^ ut sin Q
and
(iii)
B is
cos^ mt) sin Q
m-\-m' = Nl%\wQ
Remark.
action of the currents in
or
circuits,
both phases, and the instantaneous value of the
magnetizing action of the armature currents in the

tuting
winding of a two-phase machine.
supply current to entirely similar receiving
The pulsating
(iv)
magnetizing action of the armature
currents of an alternator (together with the varying reluctance
of the magnetic circuit in the case of armatures with large teeth)
causes the
flux to pulsate,
field
and
this pulsation of field flux
induces double frequency alternating electromotive forces in the

field
These alternating electromotive
windings.
their turn
a pulsation of the
field
current.
forces cause in
direct current
ammeter connected in the field circuit indicates the average current, which is slightly less than the square-root-of-mean-sqiiare
which is indicated by an alternating current ammeter. A directcurrent voltmeter connected to the terminals of a
field coil indi-
cates the average value of the electromotive force,
sometimes much
indicated
80.
by an
less
and
this is
than the square-root-of-mean-square value as
alternating-current voltmeter.
Armature inductance.
The value
of the inductance of an
alternator armature varies with the position of the armature coils
with respect to the
field
magnet
poles, so that the inductance of
ALTERNATORS.
11/
an armature pulsates at a frequency twice * as great as the
The
frequency of the electromotive force of the alternator.
armature of the alternator shown
Fig. lo, for example, has
in
about two times as great inductance when the armature teeth are
squarely under the
are
field
midway between
poles as
field
it
has when the armature teeth
That
poles.
the flux produced
is,
through the armature teeth by a given current

times as great in the
first
is
three or four
This
case as in the second case.
tuation of armature inductance
makes
very
it
difficult to
accurate calculations upon the action of the machine.

following discussion the armature inductance
is
fluc-
carry out
In the
assumed
to
be
constant.
The inductance
linear
of an alternator armature
is
proportional to the
dimensions of the armature, other things being equal
the inductance of an armature of given size

the winding
is
concentrated than
it
is
is
when
much
greater
the winding
and
when
is
dis-
tributed.
Armature inductance
is
advantageous
in
an alternator which
The armature inductance
especially liable to be short circuited.
keeps the current from becoming excessive.

tance
is
more or
less objectionable in
is
Armature induc-
an alternator which
is
to be
used to supply current at constant electromotive force on account

of the electromotive force lost in the armature as explained in
the next
article.
The inductance
of an armature
a measured alternating current
is
best determined by sending
/ through
it
at standstill
outside source, and measuring the electromotive force
the collector rings.
from which
L may
and the frequency

*The
coil
from an
E between
Then
be calculated when the armature resistance

(</27r)
are
known.
The value of L depends
electromotive force of an alternator passes through a cycle as an armature
passes from a north pole of the field to the next north pole.
The inductance
passes through a cycle of values as an armature coil passes from one field pole to the
next
field pole.
ii8
greatly upon the position in which the armature
is
held, as ex-
plained above.
For further information concerning armature inductance, see

Parshall and Hobart, ''Electric Generators," pages i6o to 175,
London, 1900, and London Engineering, Vol. 70, pages 141 to
August
145,
1900.
The electromotive
81.
drop.
3,
The electromotive
nator
is
Armature
force lost in the armature.
force at the collecting rings of an alter-
than the total electromotive force induced
less
in the
armature, for the reason that a portion of the induced electromo-
used to overcome the resistance, and a portion
tive force is
is
overcome the inductance of the armature windings.
also used to
The numerical
difference
between the electromotive force induced

in the
armature and the elec-
tromotive force between the
\^^J^ brushes
called the armature
is
drop.
General
case.
Let
/,
Fig.
93, be the current given
the alternator and
induced electromotive
Then (oLI is
the portion of
of the armature, and

resistance
E gives
E used
RI is the
to
force.
overcome the inductance
portion of
of the armature.
by
^ the total
L
E used to overcome the
Subtracting (oLI and
RI
from
the electromotive force at the collecting rings, or "exter-
nal electromotive force," E^.
Armature
phase with
duces
fore,
its
drop, non-inductive load.

/,
In
value, oaLI being nearly at right angles to E.
with a non-inductive receiving
circuit,
depends almost wholly upon the armature
Armature drop^ inductive

tween
E is nearly in
E scarcely re-
this case
and the subtraction of (uLI from
E and
load.
the armature drop
resistance.
When the phase
difference be-
/is nearly 90, then the subtraction of
scarcely reduces
its
value.
There-
RI
from
Therefore, with a highly inductive
ALTERNATORS.
119
receiving circuit, the armature drop depends almost wholly

the armature inductance.
Algebraic expression for armature drop.
by the
sent the current delivered
Let
alternator.
the total electromotive force induced
in
upon
Fig. 94, repre-
/,
Let
represent
the armature, let E^ be
the electromotive force lost in the armature, and let E^ be the
electromotive force between the collecting rings.
motive force
the vector sum of E^ and
is
the phase difference between E^ and
The
/.
E^.
and cos Q
The angle
factor of the receiving circuit.
ence between E^ and
/,
The electroThe angle Q is
usually large in comparison with E^,
and
E^y the
E^ cos
We
shall
yS
Q'
The numerical
armature drop,
= IVR^ +6)2^2
have occasion
ternator of Mr. E.
is
6.
proportional to
W.
is
power
the
phase
differ-
E and E
are
and E^ are therefore ap-
proximately parallel to each other, and the angle
mately equal to
is
0' is the
y3 is
approxi-
between
difference
approximately equal to
cos
==
/3
I >/ R"-
+ w^^^
in the discussion of the
ôs (Q'
- 6).
compensated
al-
Rice to remember that the armature drop
/ cos
(6^
0),
the factor \^J^
-|-
ay^L^
being a
constant for a given alternator.
Remark.
If
one considers the actual flux through a
due to the combined action of
all
circuit,
causes which tend to produce
I20
then the rate of change of this flux
flux,
no portion of which can be

inasmuch as the inductance flux
lost in
force,
ered.
Thus
will
an electromotive
is
overcoming inductance,
have already been consid-
the electromotive force lost in an armature because
may
of inductance
be allowed
for,
by subtracting wLI,
as above,
as a vector, of course, from the electromotive force E, which
would be produced by the given field excitation with no armature

current, or the demagnetizing ampere -turns on the armature may
be Gonsidered with the ampere-turns on the field spools, the actual flux
in the
due to both found, and the electromotive force induced
armature by
this net flux will all
be available as external
electromotive force, except that a portion of
coming the
82.
tained
The
by
it
lost in over-
is
resistance of the armature.
characteristic curve of the alternator.
The curve ob-
plotting observed values of the external electromotive

force
various
for
currents
2400
2200
"^"^^
^^
^1800
^^
1600
\B
.^1400
taken from an alternator
acteristic
curves are shown
Curve
Fig. 95.
is
in
for a
separately excited alternator
\
1000
-"
800
u:
600
having
but
inductance,
\
\
Uj
Such char-
of the alternator.
81200
I
is
called the characteristic curve
small
armature
and curve
is
400
for a separately excited alter-
200
nator having large armature
10
IS
20
25 30 as
40 45 50
inductance.
The shape
of the
characteristic curve of a given

Fig. 95.
alternator depends to a greater
or less extent upon the inductance of the receiving

falling off of electromotive force
in part to the
The
circuit.
with increase of current
is
due
demagnetizing action of the armature current,
which weakens the
field,
and
drop with increase of current.
in part to the increased
armature
ALTERNATORS.
83.
The constant current
alternator.
121
An
alternator of which
the armature has an excessive inductance, or an ordinary alterna-
which a large inductance
tor in circuit with
is
connected, gives a
current which does not vary greatly with the resistance * of the
receiving circuit.
This
may be shown
as follows
Let E, Fig.
96, be the total induced electromotive force of
an alternator sending current through a circuit

of which the reactance
compared with the

will
Z is constant and
large,
Then wLI
resistance R.
be large, compared with RI.
Further,
RI
and a)Z/ are at right angles to each other and
sum
E, so that the point
/*,
Fig.
on a semicircle constructed on
as a
their vector
96, lies
diameter.
is
Now, when
with E, then gjZ/
is
RI
is
compared
small,
very nearly equal to E, that
proximately constant and, therefore, I

84. Effect of distributed
an alternator. t
of
is
an armature winding
winding
concentrated winding, B,
ture in slots distant s from the
shown
set
and one
The
rotary converter.
is
II.
placed,
first
The
effective electro-
Suppose another simiupon the same arma-
The phase
set.
first
difference
large.
discussion in this article
is
manner
harmonic electromotive force
is
induced
is
on the
in
field
magnet
is
so dis-
each armature conductor.
would lead into the discussion of

beyond the scope of this text.
discussion for any other type of flux distribution
non-harmonic electromotive forces, which
in the chapter
based upon the assumption that the
magnetic flux passing into (and out of) the armature from the
tributed that a
concen-
set of slots, s being the angle
discussed in a slightly different
The
This figure shows one slot only of the
* Unless the resistance becomes very

t This question
is
only of the second
slot
ap-
10=
according to equation (21), Chapter
in Fig. 97.
is
is
A=
lar
aaLI
winding upon the electromotive force
Consider
this
is,
approximately constant.
trated in a set of slots, one slot per pole.
motive force of
Fig. 96.
122
between the electromotive forces
in these
two windings
angle-
the
is
360,
inas-
much as the angle ^

from iV to iV is equiva360 of phase
lent to
These two
difference.
electromotive forces are
represented by the lines
ând^, Fig. 98.

larly the lines
represent
Simi-
C and
the
electro-
motive forces
in
.two
additional similar wind-
concentrated
ings
two
slots c
If
in
additional sets of
and
d,
these
all
Fig. 97.
windings
are connected in series
the effective electromotive force
produced
be the vector sum
A, B,
Fig. 97.
and D.
E of
If
we
were to calculate the
effective electromotive force
on the assumption that
will
all
produced by A, B,
C and D in
series
the windings are concentrated in one
Fig. 98.
JQ.
ALTERNATORS.
set of slots, that
tive force
we were
is, if
123
to calculate the total electromo-
by means of
equation (21), using for
number
the total
turns in
all
the wind-
we would
ings,
get a
result greater than
E in
the ratio of the
sum
the sides A, B,
of
of
and
polygon to
of the
the chord E, Fig. 98.
This
ratio
may
the phase
called
be
con-
stant of the distributed
winding.
By
introducFig. 99.
ing the phase constant
equation (21) this equation becomes
in
(59)
This form of the fundamental equation of the alternator
The
plicable to armatures with distributed windings.

table gives the values of
The
slots for a given
ap-
for various degrees of distribution.
winding are always grouped so
pole and a group of slots
is
following
may
cover
^, ^,
i^, etc.,
many
per
of the space
Values of Phase Constant k for Distributed Windings.

Widths of groups of
Number
in
slots in fractional parts of
of slots
V.
each group.
1.
000
.980
.977
.976
Infinity.
975
Note.
000
group and
s is distance
Whole.
000
000
I. OCX)
.831
.707
.960
.958
.924
.912
.908
.80s
.795
.666
955
.901
.784
.637
1.
Column headed ^ applies
plies to 2-phase alternators.
Vi
N to S.
1.
to 3 -phase alternators.
Width of group
wj,
where n
from center to center of adjacent
slots.
1.
Column headed ^ apnumber of slots in a
is
24
from the center of an

in Fig.
99
N pole to the center of an 5 pole.
shown an 8-pole machine,
is
Thus
of which the armature
is
slotted for a distributed winding, there being three slots per pole,
these slots being grouped so as to cover y^ of the space from an
tV to an
ns where n
pole.
is
the
In the table the width of a group of slots
number of
slots in a
from center to center of adjacent

85.
is
is
s is the distance
slots.
The dotted
curve,
the characteristic curve of a given alternator.
This
Practical and ultimate limits of output.
Fig. lOO,
curve shows the relation be-
2600
400
tween the current output and
Z200
2000
tween the collecting rings, the
1800
field
1600
u:
group and
1400
70
1200
60
The
power outputs corres-
50
ponding to the
800
kept
ordinates of
the full-line curve represent

the
y.
uiiooo
being
excitation
constant.
be-
different cur-
rents (receiving circuit non-
600
30
400
20
inductive).
200
10
output of the alternator
10
curreni
current output
Fig. 100.
power output of an
this
maximum
siderations
The maximum
thus 68 kilowatts
25 30 35 40 45 50
20
15
5C
In
alternator
is
is
when the
38 amperes.
the
practice
is
allowable
limited to a smaller value than
output by one or the other of the following con-
(a) Electric lighting
and power service usually demands an ap-
proximately constant electromotive force and
it is
not permissible
to take from an alternator so large a current as to greatly reduce

its
This difficulty
by providing
for
an increase of
with increase of load as

field
winding.
is
done
may be
field excitation
in the alternator
(See Article 94.)
largely
overcome
of the alternator
with a
compound
ALTERxNATORS.
{b)
The
12$
current delivered by an alternator generates heat *
in
the armature of the alternator and the temperature of the armature

radiates heat as fast as heat
generated
in
by the
rises until
it
current.
Excessive heating of the armature endangers the insu-
lation of the
windings and
it is
it
not permissible to take from an
alternator so large a current as to heat
40
is
armature more than
its
or 50 C. above the temperature of the surrounding
air.
This heating effect of the armature currents usually fixes the

allowable output of an alternator, except
in
extreme steadiness of electromotive force

the alternator
is
is
required, or
where
not compounded.
Influence of inductance upon output.
according to the power
it
An
less
is
alternator
rated
is
can deliver steadily to a non-inductive
The amount
receiving circuit without overheating.
which an alternator can

ceiving circuit
those rare cases where
satisfactorily deliver to
than that which
it
of
power
an inductive re-
can deliver to a non-in-
ductive receiving circuit, because of the phase difference of elec-
The
tromotive force and current.

difference (cos ^)
is
cosine of the angle of phase
power factor of the receiving circuit

The power factor of lighting circuits is
called the
as before pointed out.
very nearly unity.
The power factor

rotary converters
is
86. Frequencies.
of induction motors, synchronous motors and
low as
often as
The
.75
and sometimes even
less.
frequencies employed in practice range
from 20 or 25 to 150 cycles per second.
Very low
frequencies
are not suitable for lighting on account of the tendency to pro-
duce flickering of the lights
on the other hand high frequencies,
which tend to make transformers cheaper for a given output, are

entirely satisfactory
High
and are often employed
for lighting.
frequencies are not well adapted for the operation of in-
duction motors, synchronous motors and rotary converters be-
cause high frequencies necessitate either great speed or a great

* Additional heat
is
generated in the armature by the hysteresis and eddy current
losses in the armature core.
26
number
For such purposes frequencies
of poles.
low as 25
as
per second are often employed.
frequency of 60 has been quite generally adopted for
machines used to operate both lights and motors.

87.
Speeds.
Number
may be
belt-driven
of poles.
machine which
driven as fast as
The allowable speed
strength and rigidity of the rotating part.
dynamos and
of rotation in ordinary
be
to
is
compatible with the
is
alternators
such as
is
will
give a peripheral velocity of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet per minute.
When
wheel
its
a machine
speed
The number
is
fixed
is
direct-connected to an engine or water-
by
that of the prime mover.
of poles depends upon the speed of an alternator
and the frequency
it is
Large
to give, according to equation (17).
machines as a rule must run slower than small ones, and they,
therefore,
have a greater number of poles.
table gives data as to speed, frequency,
a few recent American machines.
The accompanying
and number of poles of
Machines 7 and
8 are of the
direct-connected type.
Table.
60 Cycles.
125 Cycles.
No. of
No.
poles.
Output
K. W.
60
10
125
200
16
Speed
r. p. m.
No. of
No
1500
1070
937
poles.
75
12
150
250
250
750
16
36
40
88.
Armatures.
Alternator armatures
type or disc type.

ica,
while the disc
ple,
the Ferranti
Drum
TT.
Speed
r.
p. in.
900
600
450
200
180
drum
The former type is almost universal in Amertype is frequently used in England for examand Mordey machines have disc armatures.
are usually of the
armatures have laminated iron cores similar to the arma-
ture cores used for direct-current dynamos, while disc armatures

are usually
made up without
iron.
used only to a very limited extent.
Ring armatures have been
ALTERNATORS.
Drum
12/
modern machines, of the

are bedded in slots.
shortening
the gap space from
of
double
advantage
has
the
This
pole face to armature core and of protecting the armature conarmatures are,
nearly
in
all
The conductors
toothed or ironclad type.
ductors from injury.
One type
been shown
the heavy coils being
in Fig. lo,
and then pressed
of such an armature has already

first
on the armature
into position
tributed windings are used straight slots as
core.
shown in
Fig. 101.
often
in
manner
This
Fig. I02
shows a
commonly used
by the wooden wedge W.
discs should be varnished,
insulated from each other to
cores because the frequency
Armature windings.
is
japanned or
in
some
prevent eddy currents.
comparatively high.
Any
it
dynamo * may
polyphase alternator by pro-
direct-current
be converted into a single-phase or

viding
dis-
especially necessary in the case of alternator armature
is
89.
style of slot
coils are held in position
Armature core
When
Fig. loi are
Fig. 102.
employed.
which the
wound on forms
with collecting rings as explained in the chapter on the

Ordinarily, however, the armature windings
rotary converter.
of alternators are very different from the armature windings

of direct-current
dynamos.
In the type of winding most fre-
quently employed a number of distinct coils are arranged on the
armature
in these coils alternating
duced as they pass the

connected
in series
motive force
rings
if
is
field
electromotive forces are in-
magnet
poles,
and these
between the collecting rings
desired, or in parallel f
low electromotive force
is
if
coils are
high electro-
between the collecting
desired.
* Except the so-called unipolar dynamo.

f The
coils of a distributed
winding cannot
all
be connected in
parallel
betweea
128
Single-phase winding.
Fig. lo
shows a common type of
gle-phase winding having one coil per pole.
Fig. 103
sin-
shows
another type of concentrated single-phase winding having one

coil to
each pair of poles or one slot per pole.
Fig. 103, the
In the diagram,
heavy sector-shaped figures represent the
coils
and
the light lines represent the connections between the terminals of
the
coils.
The
radial parts of the sector-shaped figures repre-
Fig. 103.
sent the portions of the coils which
lie
curved parts represent the ends of the
coils.
in
the slots, and the
The
circles at the
center of the figure represent the collecting rings, one being
shown
inside the other for clearness.
The arrows
direction of the current at a given instant.
represent the
All electromotive
the collecting rings for the reason that the induced electromotive forces in the various
coils are
not exactly in phase and local currents would circulate in the coils
nected in parallel.
if
con-
ALTERNATORS.
129
forces under A^ poles are in one direction

forces induced under
5"
poles are
remarks apply to Figs. 103 to
in
no
all
electromotive
the coils being connected in series.
These
inclusive.
Fig. 104 repre-
two
slots per pole, all
sents a single-phase winding distributed in
ing which, for the
and
the opposite direction.
Fig. 104
is
a type of wind-
same number of conductors, has a smaller
inductance than the type shown in Fig. 103 and the armature
Fig. 104.
shown
in Fig.
104, for the
same number of conductors, gives a
smaller electromotive force than the armature
Two-phase windings.
The
shown
two-phase winding
in Fig. 103.
is
two inde-
pendent single-phase windings on the same armature, each being

connected to a separate pair of collecting rings, as shown
105 and 106.
ing,
one
Fig. 105
slot per pole for
phase winding distributed
in Figs.
shows a two-phase concentrated windeach phase.
in
two
Fig. 106
slots per pole for
shows a twoeach phase.
Fig. 105.
(130)
Fig. 106.
Fig. 108.
(131)
(132)
Fig. 110.
ALTERNATORS.
Three-phase windings.
133
The three-phase winding
three inde-
is
pendent single-phase windings on the same armature, the terminals of the individual windings being connected according to the
scheme or A scheme, as explained in Article 72. Fig. 107

shows a three-phase concentrated winding, one slot per pole for
Fig. 108 shows the same winding Aeach phase Y-connected.
;
The
connccted.
connection gives v/3 times as
motive force between collecting rings as the
The
same winding.
connection
tromotive force machines and
The
large current output.
more
winding distributed in
v/3 times as great as
A-connected armature.
in a
ranged
two
in
Fig.
two
being as
many
two
as there are slots, so that portions of
The
one above the other.

full
lines
dotted portions
lie in
The Y-connection.
nected to the
:
in Fig.
107
If winding
C must
The ^-connection.
total
when winding
maximum and
half as great.
B and
by
is
squarely under the pole as
is
connected so that
to
current
its
if
is
flowing
as
shown
the circuit
is
and Care
away from K^
The three
windings form a closed
circuit
when A-connected.
electromotive force around this circuit at any instant must be zero.
winding
90. Insulation of armatures.
be well insulated
be con-
may be determined
the currents in the other two phases
oppose the electromotive forces of windings
in cases
when
is
it
and
directly
conductor in each
slot.
bar of rectangular cross section.
There-
under the poles must
C.
Armatures
for alternators
must
where the electromotive force generated
high, as the electromotive force tending to break
*One
slot,
be connected so that their currents flow towards K.
fore the electromotive force in
is
each
portions of the coils represented
the electromotive force in this winding (and current also

is
The
on the armature
coils lie in
junction and to the collecting rings
non-inductive)
windings
each phase and ar-
coils
The terminals of the individual windings which are
common
slots
the bottoms of the same slots.
Consider the instant
fellows
Fig.
two
the upper parts of the slots and the adjacent
in
lie
in
10 shows a three-phase coil
slots per pole for
layers, there
for the
connection for machines for
109 shows a three-phase bar* winding distributed

per pole for each phase.
electro-
suitable for high elec-
line current is
each winding
the current in
is
much
A connection
This conductor
is
down
the
usually in the form of a copper
134
insulation
is
and
erated,
the
maximum
value of the electromotive force gen-
than the rated or effective
this is considerably greater
Concentrated or partially distributed wind-
ings admit of quite a high degree of insulation, inasmuch as the

slots
may
be made quite large and there are comparatively few
crossings of the coils at the ends of the armature.
Distributed
many
windings can not be so highly insulated because there are

crossings of the coils and the slots are necessarily small
windings
not suitable for the generation of high
are, therefore,
Alternators having this type of winding
electromotive forces.
should therefore be used

if
such
in
connection with step-up transformers
a high electromotive force
is
a stationary armature.
When
desired.
generate a high pressure directly,
it is
it
is
desired to
best to use a machine with
Such armatures have been
built for elec-
tromotive forces of 8,000 or 10,000 volts, thus doing away with

the necessity of step-up transformers for
There
of moderate length.
insulation
usually
power transmission lines

more room for thorough
on such armatures and the insulation
deteriorate as
it
is
is
less Hable to
way by motion
not disturbed in any
of the
Moreover, the use of the stationary armature does
armature.
away with
is
collector rings
and brushes
(for the
armature) and the
consequent necessity of their insulation for high potentials.
The
individual coils of an alternator armature are generally
heavily taped and treated with insulating
oil
or varnish, the slots
are lined with heavy tubes built up of paper and mica and
all
parts of the core which are near the coils are also covered with a
heavy layer of insulating

91.
Magnetic densities in armature and air gap.
ture core
fairly
material.
is
usually
low magnetic
made
density.
The
arma-
of sufficient cross section to insure a
This
is
done
in
order to keep
down
the hysteresis and eddy current losses which would otherwise be
high on account of the comparatively high frequencies employed.
The allowable magnetic

largely
density in
upon the frequency,
ê
armature core depends
since the density for a given loss
may
ALTERNATORS.
135
The
be higher the lower the frequency.
Kolben gives values of the density suitable
following table from
for various frequencies:

B.
40
Lines per cm*.
6,500 to 5,500
cycles
50
6,000 " 5,000
60
80
5,000 " 4,500
4,500 " 4,000
100
4,000 " 3,500
120
3,500
The allowable magnetic density in

some extent upon the material used
*'
3,000
the air gap will depend to
With
for the pole pieces.
cast-iron poles this density should not exceed 4,000 to 4,500
per sq. cm.; with wrought-iron pole pieces
lines
high as 6,000 to 7,000 lines per

92.
Current densities.
sq.
may
it
be as
cm.
The current
density in early alternator
armatures was often very high, not more than 300 circular mils
per ampere being allowed in
ran very hot at
full load.
many cases.
The current
Such armatures usually

densities used in
modem
machines are much lower, from 500 to 700 circular mils per am-
The
armature conductor is usually of ordinary cotton -covered magnet wire in the smaller machines, and when a conductor of considerable cross section is required a number of wires are grouped
pere being allowed, as in the case of direct current machines.
in multiple.
In larger machines copper bars are frequently used,
minimum
as these admit of a large cross section being put in a
Wire of rectangular
used in some cases.
space.
also
93.
cross section
Outline of alternator design.
An
and copper ribbon are
alternator
is
usually de-
signed to give an electromotive force of prescribed value and

frequency, and to be capable of delivering a prescribed current
without undue heating.
To
design an alternator
is
portion the parts as to satisfy the following conditions

(a)
The product
of revolutions per second into the
to so pro:
number
of
136
pairs of field
magnet poles must equal the prescribed frequency-
according to equation
{b)
(17).
Equation (59) namely

4.44
E=
must be
(c)
satisfied, to
k^Tf
10"
give the prescribed electromotive force.
Peripheral speed of armature must not exceed allowable
limits.
(<^)
The armature must have
total watts lost in the

teresis losses)
as follows
Case
I.
of temperature.
rise
distinct cases in the designing of
an alternator,
Where the
tions, as, for
case the
armature (including eddy current and hys-
without excessive
There are two
sufficient surface to radiate the
speed
example,
number
of poles
is
fixed
by independent considera-
direct-connected machines.
in
determined by the given speed and
is
The diameter
prescribed frequency.
In this
of the armature follows
Assuming from
from the allowable peripheral speed.*
2%
to
5 % t of total rated output as armature loss, the approximate

length of the armature is then determined by the radiating sur-
face required.
well-ventilated armature should radiate from
.05 to .06 watt per square inch (of cylindrical surface) per de-
gree Centigrade
temperature.
rise of
This constant of radiation
varies greatly with the style of construction of the armature
The
with peripheral speed.
when
length
may be
condition iU) comes to be considered.
termined from the flux density

pole face.
The combined
in the air
slightly modified
The
flux
area of the pole faces
words, the distance between

face.
<l>
is
de-
gap and the area of each

is
usually about
equal to half the cylindrical surface of the armature,
breadth of the pole
and
tips of adjacent poles is
or, in
other
equal to the
The number of armature turns T is then

The armature turns thus deter-
determined from equation (59).
* Direct- connected dynamos are scarcely ever run up

speed.
Speeds from 2,2cx>
t According to
size
to
2,600
feet
to the allowable peripheral
per minute are usual.
of machine, low percentage being for large machines.
ALTERNATORS.
may come
mined
137
out an odd or a fractional
number and must be
adjusted to suit the type of winding employed, that

required
number
The length
adjust
may
of the armature
is,
to give the
same number of
of coils each having the
turns.
then be changed slightly to
so that the required electromotive force will be pro-

The
duced with the adopted number of armature turns.

cross section of the armature conductors
is
fixed
area of
by the allow-
able current density and rated current output.
Case
tions.
II.
When speed
In this case a
is
trial
not fixed by independent considera-
combination of poles and speed
is
adopted, giving a speed suitable for the size of the armature.
The remainder
Remark.
of the design
When
of its behavior
is
a machine
then worked out as above.
is
provisionally designed the details
may be approximately
and refinement of design

provisional designs
is
attained
and calculating the
then the most satisfactory design
The proportioning of
may
way
details of their action
be recognized and adopted.
carried out in the
is
as in the case of a direct-current
Remark.
diflficulty,
the magnetic circuits and the calculation
of field windings of an alternator

eral
calculated without
by working out a number of
In designing a two-phase
alternator each winding
allowed to cover half of the armature surface.

three-phase alternator each winding
is
same gen-
dynamo.
is
In designing a
allowed to cover one-third
of the arinature surface.

94. Field excitation of alternators.
direct-current
dynamo
been pointed out
in
The
use of an auxiliary
for exciting the field of
The
Article 20.
way
alternator excited in this
falls
an alternator has
electromotive force of an
off greatly with increasing
current output, and to counteract this tendency an auxiliary field

excitation
is
frequently provided which increases with the current
For
output of the machine.

of the current given out
through the auxiliary

* Connections to
by
this
purpose the whole or a portion
the machine
is
rectified *
and sent
field coils.
field coils are
reversed with every reversal of main current so
that, in the field coils, the current is unidirectional.
138
Fig.
1 1 1
shows an alternator
excited from a direct-current
with
dynamo
its field coils
The two
E.
F separately
rheostats R
Fig. 111.
and
r,
in series
with the alternator and exciter
fields respectively,
are used to regulate the field

Fig. 112
current.
field coils
shows an
two
alternator with
F and C.
sets of
The coils
are separately excited as
known
compound
excited by the
The
before.
coils C,
as the series or
coils,
are
main current from the
One
nator.
alter-
terminal of the
armature winding
con-
is
nected directly to a collecting ring.

ture
one
The
terminal
other arma-
connects
fying commutator B.
^'^^^^'
the
to
set of bars in the recti-
rectifier
led through the winding C, thence back to the
From
the current
rectifier,
is
and
ALTERNATORS.
thence
second collecting
the
to
mutator
provided with as
is
poles on the machine.
ring.
The rectifying commany segments as there are
The commutator
tions of the terminals of the coils
current so
alternating
shaft.
shunt
used when
rent.
at every pulsation of the
B is
always
in
fixed to the armature
moving with the commutator
is
sometimes
desired to rectify only a portion of the cur-
is
it
reverses the connec-
that the current flows in
The commutator
the same direction.
139
stationary shunt
s' is
also frequently used to regulate
amount of current flowing around the coils C, thus giving a

method of adjusting the compounding.
Fig. 1 1 3 shows an alternator A with two sets of field coils F
and {7 as before. One armature terminal is connected to a collecting ring, and the
the
other armature terminal
^^
connects to the primary
of a transformer
and
thence to the other col-
The
lecting ring.
ter-
minals of the secondaiy

coil
T connect
of
of the
bars
rectifying
commutator
which
field
the
is
from
B,
compound
winding
is
sup-
The transformer
plied.
to the
usually placed in-
side the armature.
All
three
of the methods,
shown
in Figs,
and 113, are
in
in, 112
common
Fig. 113.
use for
excitation
field
of alternators.
which have
constant
Compounding
fairly
is
necessary only with alternators
high armature inductance, and which, with
field excitation,
would give poor
regulation.
For low
I40
machines the separate excitation alone
inductance
usually
is
sufficient.
The compensated alternator of the General Electric Company.
An
alternator with a
compound
that the armature drop
is
is
proportional to the current
is
and varies only with the current.

the armature drop
winding can be adjusted so
field
compensated by the compound wind-
provided the armature drop
ing,
In Article 8
proportional to
/cos
sion of algebraic expression in Article 8
and
6.
power
variation of the
{B'
shown
it is
that
See discus-
0).
for explanation of
/, 6^
factor of the receiving circuit
(cos 6) produces, therefore, variations of armature drop which
cannot be compensated by a compound
an auxiliary
field
However,
winding.
field
excitation proportional to
/cos
(0^
0)
could
be adjusted so as to completely compensate for armature drop.

This condition
W.
is
realized in the compensated alternator of Mr. E.
Rice.
The
action of this
upon the
compensated alternator depends,
fact that a direct-current
dynamo
in
the
first
(the exciter)
is
an alternator, as well as a direct-current dynamo, as explained
in
place,
Chapter XIII.;
in the
second place, upon the
by the
rent or currents delivered
fact that the cur-
alternator
may
be passed
through the exciter armature, so as to exert upon the exciter

field
a magnetizing action proportional to
exciter
cos ('
&)
if
the
driven at exactly the same frequency as the main alter-
is
nator and
if
the phase relation between the alternating electro-
motive force of the exciter and of the main alternator
upon the
is
properly
and
in
the third place
thus produced
in
the field magnetization of the exciter produces
adjusted
fact that the variation
a corresponding variation of the direct electromotive force of the

exciter, a
corresponding variation of
a corresponding variation of
The commercial form
its
main
to the case in
and
of the main alternator.
of Rice's alternator is usually a polyphase
alternator with the exciter armature

shaft of the
direct-current output
field excitation
alternator.
The
rigidly connected
to the
following description applies
which the exciter armature
is
mounted upon the
ALTERNATORS.
I4I
main shaft and rotates with the main armature.

from
currents
the
The polyphase
main armature pass by direct connection
through the exciter armature and thence by way of collecting

rings to the polyphase receiving system.
Imagine the main armature to be standing
in
the position in
which the polyphase electromotive forces of the main generator
maximum
arc at their
values.
Then the phase angle
<^,
that the
electromotive forces of the exciter, considered as an alternator
(its
electromotive forces being the electromotive forces between the

points at which the main alternating currents enter the exciter
armature), lag behind the electromotive forces of the main alter-
depends upon the position of the exciter
nator,
poles
and
this
exciter field
Now
field
magnet
angle can be changed at will by turning the
magnet about the
axis of the machine.
the polyphase currents from the main alternator lag 0^
behind the external electromotive forces of the main alternator,

so that the alternating currents which pass through the exciter
armature are (^ 6) ahead of the exciter electromotive forces

in phase.
Therefore these currents have upon the exciter field a
magnetizing action proportional to /
then
0) equals
sin (<^
cos {6'
be turned
magnetizing action becomes / cos

tional to the
6),
according to
= 90 0\
6) and the above expression for
If the exciter field
Article 79.
sin (<^
(6'
0).
until
<l>
But
this is
armature drop, according to Article 81.
propor-
Therefore
the magnetizing action of the main alternating currents upon the

exciter field
is
proportional to the armature drop in the main
alternator.
PROBLEMS.
76.
plies
is
A ten -pole alternator having 720 armature conductors sup30 amperes
0.866.
to the armature current.
yy.
An
Calculate the average demagnetizing ampere turns due
Ans. 763 ampere turns.
alternator with a toothed armature like Fig. 10, has
142
its
armature fixed with armature teeth squarely under
field poles.
26.7 amperes of 60-cycle current are passed through the armature from an auxiliary source, and the electromotive force be-
tween the collector rings
When
the armature
way between
is
is
65 volts.
held so that the armature teeth are mid-
the field poles, the electromotive force between the
43 volts with the same current as before.

When 34 amperes of direct current are sent through the armature, the electromotive force between the collector rings is obcollector rings
is
served to be 16 volts.
in
each position?
y^.
What
is
the inductance of the armature
Ans. 0.006337 henry, 0.004083 henry.
Calculate for the above alternator at a frequency of 133
cycles per second, the armature drop for various
power
factors
of receiving circuit and for a fixed current of 30 amperes.
As-
may be
sume the
total electromotive force to
assumed
to be in phase with the external electromotive force.
be so great that
it
Plot a curve showing the results, representing values of power

factor
by
79.
abscissas
and armature drops by ordinates.
so-called constant current alternator generates a total
electromotive force of 1,100 volts and has an armature inductance

of o. 1 2 henry or, at
of
94 ohms.
its
rated frequency, an armature reactance
by the
Calculate the current delivered
alternator
to a non-inductive receiving circuit of which the resistance
is
zero,
10 ohms, 20 ohms, and 30 ohms respectively, neglecting the resistance of the armature.
Ans.
11.7, 11.63,
ii-45j
^^d
11. 15
amperes.
80.
three-phase alternator has
series as a single-phase winding.
Ans. zero or
J^.
its
What
windings connected
is
its
in
phase constant
CHAPTER
X.
THE TRANSFORMER.
The transformer consists of a laminated iron core upon
which two separate and distinct coils of wire are wound. Alter95.
supplied to
nating current
is
one of these
coils
alternator or other
from an
source.
This alternating current pro-
duces rapid reversals of magnetization of the iron
and
these magnetic reversals in-
duce an alternating electromotive force in the other
which
coil,
alternating
delivers
current to a receiving circuit.
The
which the
coil to
nating current
called the
is
alter-
supplied
primary
coil,
is
and
the coil which delivers current to a receiving circuit

called the secondary
Fig.
tial
14 shows the essen-
features of a
type
of
commercial
transformer.
iron core forms a closed

netic
is
coil.
The
mag-
Fig. 114.
The primary
two parts, /Yând P' P' one of which, PP, is shown
The secondary also consists of two parts wound,
circuit.
coil is in
section.
143
in
in
144
this instance,
One
underneath the primary.
55
part
of the sec-
shown in section.
and step-down transformation. Usually one coil of a
transformer has many more turns of wire than the other. When
ondary
is
Step-up
the coil of few turns
is
the primary coil the transformer takes
large current at low electromotive force and delivers small current at high electromotive force.
This
called step-up trans-
is
formation.
When
many
the coil of
turns
the primary the transformer
is
takes small current at high electromotive force and delivers large
low electromotive
current at
The
transformation.
formation
96.
N'
The action
N"
coil.
called step-down
is
of the transformer.
In the following
number of turns of wire in

number of turns of wire
small and
discussion
the primary coil

in
the secondary
effect of the resistance of the coils is
usually quite
represents the
The
trans-
explained in Article 2 1
is
represents the
and
This
force.
of step-up and step-down
object
it is
ignored in the present discussion.
Ratio of primary current

resistance, the
to
secondary current.
Aside
from
only thing which opposes the flow of current
through the primary
coil
is
the reacting electromotive force in-
duced
coil
by
the reversals of magnetization of the
core.
primary
in the
The
greater the range of this magnetization the greater
the value of the reacting electromotive force.

netizing action of the
primary and secondary
The combined mag-
coils is
to magnetize the core to that degree which will
electromotive force in the
primary
foixe of the alternator which

coil.
Action
When
is
coil
is forcing
equal
always such as
make
the reacting
to the electromotive
current through the primary
equal to reaction.
the secondary coil
is
on open
circuit, just
enough cur-
rent flows through the primary coil to produce the degree of
magnetization above specified.

current,
which
by m.
When
is
Let
this value
of the primary
called the magnetizing current, be represented
current
is
taken from the secondary
coil,
addi-
THE TRANSFORMER.
145
and above w, flows through the primary

still suffices to magnetize the core, and the
tional current /', over

coil.
The
current
magnetizing action of I"
is
exactly neutralized by the equal and
The magnetizing action of /"

N"I",
and the magnetizing action
product
opposite magnetizing action of /'.

is
measured by the
of /'
NT,
measured by the product
is
braic signs,
so that, ignoring alge-
we have
N'l'
= N"I"
or
777
= 7v^
(60)
Ratio of primary electromotive force

force.
The
duce a certain electromotive force a

rounding
induced
the
in the
motive force
to
secondary electromotive
rapid reversals of magnetization of the iron core in-
in
Therefore
core.
in
each turn of wire sur-
total
the'
electromotive
force
N' a. This is the reacting electrothe primary coil and it is equal and opposite, as
primary
coil is
E which
pointed out above, to the electromotive force

ing current through the primary coil
push-
is
so that, ignoring signs,
we
have
E'
= N'a
Similarly, the total electromotive force,
secondary
E"
induced
in the
coil is
E" = N"a
Therefore
E"~N"
Remark.
The above
discussion should in strictness refer pri-
marily to instantaneous values of /' and

values of
E' and E''
posite to each other

at
Thus
and
i'
and
in the ratio
I''
and to instantaneous
i" are at
each instant op-
N"jN' and
;
each instant opposite to each other and
e'
and e" are
in the ratio
N'JN".
E'
Therefore /' and I" are opposite or 180 apart in phase and
and E'' are opposite or 180 apart

Approxi^nate equality of input
in phase.
and
output of power.
If the
146
secondary
coil
of a transformer delivers current to an inductive
receiving circuit, then
angle
E"
and I"
and since E' and
tively, therefore the
will differ in
phase by a certain
E"
I' are opposite to
and I" respec-
phase difference between E' and
also
is
Q.
The power output of the transformer is E" I" cos Q, the power
intake is E' P cos ^, and these are equal since E' P = E" P' acThe resistance of the coils
cording to equations (60) and (61).
is here ignored and the energy taken from the supply dynamo
by the magnetizing current in is not considered.
97. Particular cases {^for
rent).
/"
I.
harmonic electromotive force and cur-
Non-inductive receiving
are in phase and therefore
state of affairs
is
circuit.
E^ and
In this case
E"
and
/' are in phase also.
The
0^
repre-
The
represented in Fig. 115.
line
r
^
^^
i^'
Fig. 116.
Fig. 115.
sents the harmonically varying core flux,
OE'
electromotive force acting on the primary and
represents the
OE" represents
the
electromotive force induced in the secondary.

2.
Inductive secondary receiving circuit.
behind
E"
by the angle whose tangent
is
In
this case
^, where
is
P'
lags
the in-
THE TRANSFORMER.
ductance and
lags behind
in Fig.
R the
E' by
the
same
angle.
E"
shown
state of affairs is
is
the
a condenser.
by the angle whose tangent
the capacity of the condenser,
the connecting wires and
E' by
The
16.
ahead of
where
Also /'
resistance of the receiving circuit.
Receiving' circuit cojitainiyig
3.
147
same
is
R the irresistance.
The
angle.
In this case
is
^ wZ
is
is
-h-R,
J
the inductance of
Also, /'
state of affairs
/"
shown
is
ahead of
in Fig.
17.
P-^^^
E'
-4)
-^^
Fig. 118.
98.
Equivalent resistance and reactance of a transformer feeding
a given receiving circuit.
from the mains a

secondary
is
The
primary of a transformer takes
definite current at
a definite phase lag
supplying current to a given
simple circuit of resistance r and reactance
circuit.
when
the
Consider a
which, connected to
the mains, takes the same current as the primary of the transformer
and
at the
same phase
the transformer and
lag.
its
The
circuit is said to
secondary receiving
are called the equivalent primary resistance

tively of the
secondary receiving
circuit.
be equivalent to
circuit,
and r and x
and reacta?tce
respec-
148
Resolve the primary electromotive force E' Fig. 118, into

,
components parallel to /' and perpendicular to /' as shown.
The component
dicular to /'
xP
is
is
parallel to /'
xP
The
similar to the triangle
R and X being the

ary receiving
rP and
is
the component perpen-
whose
triangle
whose
sides are
sides are
E' rP and
,
E" RP'
,
and
XP\
given resistance and reactance of the second-
circuit.
Therefore
xP
E'
XP'~W
and
rP
E'
RP'^W
But
E^_N^
E"~W
and
P__N^
P'-Jp
so that
R
(62)
2
That
is,
a transformer supplying current from
a circuit of resistance
its
secondary to
and reactance X, takes from the mains
the same current at the same phase lag as would be taken by a

/N'
( N' \2
circuit of resistance ( ^r^ j
and of reactance I -^f j
con-
yR
nected directly to the mains.
99.
Maximum
core flux.
When
the electromotive force acting
on the primary of a transformer is harmonic there is a simple

and important relation between E' co, N' and the maximum
,
value of the core flux $.
Let
e'
be the instantaneous value of
THE TRANSFORMER.
the primary electromotive force.
Since
e'
149
assumed
is
to
be
^ harmonic we have
= J^'
e'
Let
sin 0)/
(i)
be the instantaneous flux through the core.
<^
Then
d^jdt
is
the instantaneous value of the electromotive force in-
duced
in
each turn of wire, so that
or
^-=^,smo,/
(u)
Therefore
^ = -^,
The constant
cos
0)/ -f
of integration
is
a constant
known
(iii)
to-be zero inasmuch as
during the reversals of magnetization of the core the flux passes
through positive and negative values

(iii)
alike.
Therefore equation
becomes
The
^' jcoN' is the maximum value reached by

maximum value of cos <ot is unity. Therefore, reprethe maximum value of the core flux by , we have
coefficient
</>
since the
senting
(dN'
or,
since the
force
is
maximum
value
equal to v/2 times
^
*=
100. Transformer losses.

is
less
than
former.
its
^'
of the primary electromotive
its effective
value
losses are
v/2^'
(63)
WVT^
The power output of a transformer
power intake because of the
These
E^ we have
(a)
The
losses in the trans-
iron or core losses
due to
ISO
eddy currents and
hysteresis
and
{b)
the copper losses due to
the resistances of the primary and secondary
The iron
coils.
same in amount at all loads,

and they depend upon the frequency and range of the flux density B, upon the quality and volume of the iron, and upon the
losses are practically the
thickness of the laminations.
The
hysteresis loss in watts
is
W^âVf^-^
where/
mum
(64)
the frequency in cycles per second,
is
flux density in lines per square centimeter,
of the iron in cubic centimeters, and ^
is
B is
the maxi-
Fis the volume
a constant depending
upon the magnetic quality of the iron. For annealed

wrought iron the value of a is about 3 x io~^^
The eddy current loss in watts is
refined
W^=^bVfH^B'
where
^
is
/ is the thickness of the
(65)
laminations in centimeters, and
a constant depending upon the specific electrical resistance
For ordinary iron the value of b
of the iron.
about
is
Insufficient insulation of laminations causes excessive
.6
x i o~
".
eddy cur-
rent loss.
Remark.
Equations
(64) ind (65)
maybe
used for calculating
the hysteresis and eddy current losses in any mass of laminated

iron subjected to periodic magnetization, such as alternator arma-
tures
and the rotor and
The copper
loss is
stator iron in an induction motor.
PF
This loss
is
= RT'' + R"!"''
nearly zero
when
(66)
the transformer
increases with the square of the current, and
when
the transformer
101. Efficiency
power intake
is
of
is
is
not loaded
it
becomes excessive
greatly overloaded.
transformers.
The
ratio
power output
called the efficiency of a transformer.
The
-j-
ac-
THE TRANSFORMER.
companying
shows the
table
full-load
151
efficiencies
of .various
sized transformers of a recent type.
Table of Transformer Efficiencies.

Pbr cent Efficibnct
Full Load.
Output
Kilowatts.
1
3.
4.
56.
8
9
10
15
transformer
is
output
is
creases
very low when
the
as
falls off
output
in-
in-
maximum,
when the
This
<6
small
creases, reaches a
and
it
output
again
very great.
is
falling off of efficiency
the output
.96.45
.96.65
.96.73
.96.85
.96.95
.97.2
96.8
96.9
is
great
is
Fig. 119
^
~
ry
it-
^, ^
when
due to
the great increase of copper

losses.
.95-75
.96.2
efficiency of a given
The
the
.94-8
shows the
.a
efficiency of a transformer at
/
various loads.
Calculation of efficiency.
The
-f-
is
IF, so that the intake
efficiency
E"I".
E'Î"
The
^ ^
'^
internal loss
+ W^+
ful Hoc
^'^-
is
"Of
transformer output (non-
inductive receiving circuit)
W^
fra. iion
lV^-\-
W^
\s>
W^-\-
and the
is
V
All-day
efficiency.
Usually
E'T
(^7)
a transformer
is
connected to the
152
mains continuously, and current

a few hours only, each day.
sant and the copper loss
is
The
total
is
inces-
work given
day may greatly exceed the
especially
it,
taken from the secondary for
intermittent.
to the transformer during the
work given out by
is
In this case the iron loss
if
total
the incessant iron losses are
not reduced to as low a value as possible.
The
ratio total
work
given out by the transformer -^ total work received by the trans-
former during
the
day
is
called the all-day efficiency of the trans-
former.
102. Practical
When
and ultimate
limits of output of a transformer.
the secondary current of a transformer
secondary electromotive force generally drops
is
off,
increased the
and the power
maximum as in
maximum power output is the
output increases with the current and reaches a

the case of the alternator.
This
ultimate limit of output of the transformer.
put of a transformer
maximum
limited to a
is
much
Practically the out-
smaller value than this
output because of the necessity of cool running, be-
cause in most cases
is
it
necessary that the secondary electro-
motive force be nearly constant, and because the efficiency of a

transformer
is
low
at excessive outputs.
Small transformers have relatively large radiating surfaces and

in
such transformers the requirements of close regulation, as a
rule,
determine the allowable output.
Large transformers have

their allowable output
perature.
Very
is
relatively small radiating surfaces
limited
by the permissible
rise in
and
tem-
large transformers are usually provided with air
made
by a fan. Sometimes transformers are submerged in oil, which, by convection,

carries heat from the transformer to the containing case, where
passages through which
it is
air is
to circulate
radiated.
Large transformers are much more
efficient,
under
full
load,
than small ones, and give closer regulation.

103.
Rating of transformers.
ing to the power
it
A transformer
is
rated accord-
can deliver steadily to a non-inductive receiv-
THE TRANSFORMER.
ing circuit without undue heating
tion,
153
and the
ratio of transforma-
together with a specification of the frequency and effective
value of the primary electromotive force to which the transformer

is
adapted, are given.
The
rating of a transformer
transformer
is
by no means
used to give more than
is
its
become somewhat more heated by the

regulation will not be so close.
If a
of flux density
B in
the core losses.
its
its
Thus,
losses
internal
transformer
primary electromotive force greater than

force or for a frequency lower than
rigid.
rated output
is
if
will
it
and
its
used for a
rated electromotive
rated frequency, the range
the core will be increased, which will increase
Some
generously, so that they
manufacturers rate their transformers
may be
greatly overloaded or used with
greatly increased primary electromotive force or decreased fre-
quency without
difficulty.
104. Outline of transformer design.
transformer
is
usually
designed to take current from mains at a prescribed electromotive

force
and frequency, and to deliver current
motive force to a receiving
circuit.
proportioned and of such size as to
at a prescribed electro-
The transformer must be so

deliver the prescribed amount
of current steadily without undue heating and without any great

variation of
its
secondary electromotive force from zero to
In the designing of a transformer there
which must be precisely met, namely, the

ondary turns must be equal to the
and secondary electromotive
is
full load.
but one condition
ratio of
primary to sec-
ratio of the prescribed
forces.
primary
All other points in design
are to a great extent matters of choice guided in a general
way
by experience.
The accompanying table gives magnetic flux densities which
are usually employed in transformer cores.
The allowable temperature rise varies greatly with different
makers, the extent of radiating surface required per watt of loss
per degree
limits,
rise
of temperature varies between extremely wide
and no simple
rule can be given covering this matter.
154
Magnetic Densities
for Transformer Cores.

Medium
Small
Frequency.
Large
Size
Transformers.
Transformers.
Transformers.
7500
6500
5000
4500
6750
5750
4750
4250
3750
3250
6000
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
25
40
60
80
100
120
4CX)o
3500
Given the required power output * of a transformer, the value
and frequency of the primary electromotive force and the value

of the secondary electromotive force, the design of the trans-
former
is
conveniently determined as follows
Find from the table the efficiency which can probably be

tained,
and calculate the
this total
loss.f
Of
about half should be iron loss and half copper
loss
The
total transformer loss at full load.
at-
total iron loss
is
W,â V/B^-^ +
according to equations (64) and
^ Vf'PB'
(68)
(65).
Having decided upon maximum flux density B (see accompanying table) and upon thickness % of laminations /, equation
(68) gives the volume V oi iron to be used in the transformer
core.
The core may be made of the type shown in Fig. 1 20 or
of the type
shown
The proportions
in Fig. 121.
sions) indicated in Figs.
20 and
will
(relative
dimen-
be found to give
factory results although the form of the core
may be
satis-
considerably
modified without greatly affecting the action of the transformer.

In
fact, it is
usually necessary to modify the core slightly after
the coils have been designed.

* Rated output
non-inductive
is
the output
which the transformer can
deliver satisfactorily to a
circuit.
t If the transformer
is to
be connected
to the
mains
all
day, but
is
to deliver cur-
rent only four hours per day, for example, then the iron loss during 24 hours should
be about equal to the copper loss during four hours, or under the
loss
should be several times as great as the iron
J 12 to 16 thousandths of
an inch
is
full
load the copper
loss.
the thickness usually employed.
THE TRANSFORMER.
155
Fig. 120.
The maximum
core flux
tional area of the magnetic
equal to the product of the sec-
is
circuit
(where
it
passes through the
a^
klSa-Za-)
-a*
^=
^_Z
4
hH
Fig. 121.
coils) into the
maximum
flux density B.
Then equation
(63)
determines the primary turns, namely,
N'
V2E'
io
==
ft)#
or
N'
The number
=
4.44r
of secondary turns
is
('^^
then determined by equation
(61) namely,
E"
(70)
156
From
together with
N' and
may be
N'^ gives the
primary and secondary.

chosen so that R'l''^ and
full -load
The
copper
The
size
total lengths of wire in
of this wire
R"I"^ may
of a
determined which
is
then easily
be each equal to half the
loss.
size of wires
for the coils
being thus determined the space necessary
and insulation can be estimated.
If the provisionally
designed core gives more or less space than

coils its
mean length
the provisionally designed core the
turn of primary and of secondary coils
dimensions
may be
required for the
is
altered to suit.
Transformer Connections.
105. Simple connection.
In parallel
In
series.
When
used
to supply current to lamps or motors from constant potential
/nam.
main
vmm
recieving\
recievin
circuit
circui
Ttdeuiny
circuiif
Fig. 122.
connected to the mains
mains the primary of the transformer
is
and the secondary of the transformer
connected to the terminals
of the receiving circuit.
When
is
number of
receiving circuits
Fig. 123.
are supplied through separate transformers the primaries of the
transformers are connected in parallel, as
shown
in Fig. 122.
THE TRANSFORMER.
When
current
157
supplied through transformers to a
is
number
of
arc lamps from a constant current alternator the transformer pri-
maries are connected
in series
respective secondaries, as
is
and the lamps are connected
shown
in Fig. 123.
to the
This arrangement
seldom employed.
106. Transformers
with divided
coils.
Alternators
for isolated
lighting plants give usually 1,000 or 2,000 volts electromotive
main
main
looV-
o
o
-20CV-
tamp$
lamjo0
Fig. 124.
force
are
and the standard electromotive forces
5 5
and
1 1
two primary
may
volts.
coils,
be connected
for incandescent
lamps
Transformers are frequently made with
which
in series
mam
for 2,000 volts or in parallel
1,000 volts, and with
for
two secondary
may
to
coils,
be connected
give
no
which
in series
volts
or in
parallel to give 55 volts.
Transformers for supplying current for testing pur-
poses are frequently

with a
made
Fig. 125.
number of secondary coils, which may be connected
high or low electromotive forces as desired.
to give
158
Transformers for supplying current

system.
For
shown
as
coils
may
107.
in Fig.
may
be used as shown
connected
be used
24, or a single transformer with two secondary

in Fig. 125.
The autotransformer.
may be
the Edison three-wire
to
purpose two similar transformers
this
in series
The
two
coils
of
a transformer
between supply mains and the receiv-
ing circuit connected to the terminals of either coil as

Fig. 126; or either coil of the transformer
may
shown
in
be connected to
the supply mains and current delivered to the receiving circuit
through the two
coils in series as
shown
ûpply mains
in Fig. 127.
A trans-
Supply
mains
F..._
TiOOm(MWi
I,
Service-
mains
wains
Service
Fig. 126.
former arranged
.^^.
Fig. 127.
in this
way
is
arrangement of a transformer
called an autotransformer.
is
especially advantageous
This
when
the ratio of supply electromotive force to receiver electromotive

force
is
nearly unity.
Electromotive force relations.
motive forces induced

of the core flux.
the
number
From
Let
and
in the respective coils
be the electro-
by the
of turns of wire in the respective coils.
Fig. 126
alternations
These electromotive forces are proportional to
we have
E^^P^S
E,^S,
THE TRANSFORMER.
159
so that
i
The
sign
is
-|-
or
according
5-
as the coils are so connected that
the induced electromotive forces are in the
same
opposite directions respectively between a and
ing circuit
From
is
connected to
Fig. 127
P in
Fig.
direction or in
If
d.
the receiv-
26 we have
we have
=P
E, = PS
E^
so that
E
If the
P
S in
supply mains are connected to

.
PS
In equations (a) and (b)
and
Fig.
27 we have
ib'-)
5 may
be simply the numbers
of turns of wire in the respective coils.
Current relations.
the coils
The magnetizing
P and 5 are
luctance zero).
at
resent
by
the current
number of
in
the coil
These currents may be made

coil,
and the current
nects to the middle terminal of the
two
and
to flow in the
same or
PS
by reversing the
in the
main which con-
in opposite directions through the circuit
connections of one
5 are inturns, so that we may repS, and by 5 the current in
Therefore, the currents in coils
versely proportional to the
the coil P.
actions of the currents in
each instant equal and opposite (core re-
coils is P=fc 5,
according
as the currents flow at a given instant in opposite directions, or in
the same direction with reference to the circuit PS.
Let
/j
be the current supplied to the autotransformer and /,
l6o
Then, on the
the current delivered to the receiving circuit.

basis of the
above considerations, we have from Fig. 126

/,
=s
/,
= PS
I^
PS
and
so that
If the receiving circuit is
connected to
/.
/,
PS
I^
= PS
if)
P in
Fig.
26,
we have
(.')
From Fig 127 we have
so that
-^
-'2
If the
supply mains are connected to
in Fig. 127,
we have
'
High duty of autotransformer. Only a portion of the power

by an autotransformer is transformed through the medium of the iron core from one coil to the other. The remainder
is supplied to the receiving circuit direct by virtue of the series
delivered
connection.
Thus, to take an extreme case,
takes II amperes from

at
an autotransformer
lOO-volt mains and delivers 10 amperes
10 volts, of the total 1,100 watts only 100 watts are actually
transformed, as
may
the above discussion.
of
if
its
wires and
its
readily be
That
It is
careful scrutiny of
the transformer, so far as the size
induced electromotive forces are concerned,
a transformer which would
Remark.
is,
shown by a
is
be rated as a lOO-watt transformer.
not allowable in practice to connect transform-
ers as autotransformers since this
manner of connection involves
THE TRANSFORMER.
i6i
the connection of low electromotive force service mains to the
high electromotive force transmission mains, and a ground connection on the transmission mains
108.
oiit
becomes dangerous.
Arrangements of transformers in polyphase systems
changing the number of phases).
In
(tvith-
general, step-up
step-down transformation of polyphase currents
is
and
accomplished
by using an independent transformer for each phase.
In case of
a three-wire three-phase system, the primaries of the three separate transformers
may
be A-connected or Y-connected to the
supply mains, and the three secondaries
may be A-connected
or
may be
ac-
Y-connected to the service mains.

In a three-wire three-phase system, transformation
complished by connecting
tivo transformers
exactly as they would
be connected for a three-wire two-phase system, as shown
main 1
jûppiy
jgupply main
Jûpply
main 1
JServlee
Service wain
wain 3
JSfervice
in Fig.
wain 3
Fig. 128.
128.
This arrangement
is
frequently used in practice.
When
the secondaries are properly connected to the service mains the
electromotive forces ab,

apart in phase.
The
be,
and ca are equal
in
value and 120
reversing of the connections of the secon-
dary of the one or the other transformer gives the following electromotive forces between the service mains, namely, ab and be are
equal in value and 60 apart in phase, and ca
large as ab and be
and midway between them
is
\^^ times as
in phase.
l62
Two-phase three-phase transformers.
109.
Transformers
are
frequently used to transform from two-phase supply mains to
The
three-phase service mains or vice versa.

in this
kind of transformation
is
principle involved
by
best brought out
consider-
ing the following prelimi-
nary problem, namely
To produce an electromotive
force of any specified
and
value
^^-.
and B,
Fig.
phase.
1
Let
29, be the
electromotive
forces
two
of
two-phase dynamo and
a
let
be required to produce
it
an electromotive force E^
any given value
of
and
The component
phase.
E^ parallel to
is
E^
of
sin /8
and the component of E^

parallel to
is
E^ cos ^.
formers with similar primary

other to phase B,
Fig. 130
coils,
secondary a
shows two
may
be wound upon the one
transformer to give the component E^ sin
may be wound upon
distinct trans-
one connected to phase A, the
/3
and a secondary b
the
other transformer to give the

other component E^ cos
yS.
These two secondaries when

connected
desired
Ey
in series give
KJ
the
electromotive force
Similarly any other elec-
tromotive
force,
E or ô.
iig,
Fig
rig.
such
129,
as
may
Fig. 130.
be produced by a pair of properly proportioned secondary
The two-phase three-phase transformer consists of
coils.
distinct
A and B, Fig. 130, wound with similar primary

which the two-phase electromotive forces are connected.
transformers
coils to
two
THE TRANSFORMER.
Each of the three-phase electromotive
63
forces
general) gen-
is (in
erated in a pair of secondary coils, one on each transformer.
Such a
units
constitutes a three-phase unit.
pair of coils
may
be connected according to the

In the
to the service mains.
first
scheme or
The
three
scheme
case the electromotive forces
between the three-phase mains are the electromotive forces pro-
duced
in the respective
electromotive
forces
In the second case the
of coils.
pairs
between the
mains are related to the electromotive forces
generated by the respec-
tive pairs of coils as
Article
73.
explained in
Such a transformer
transforms equally well from three-
phase to two -phase or from two-
phase to three-phase.
The Scott transformer.

derstand
which
is
Scott
the
To
un-
transformer,
the simplest kind of two-
phase three-phase transformer,
it is
Fig. 131.
helpful to consider the
most
general possible type of two-phase three-phase transformer as

follows
Consider any point
three lines, a, b
and
c,
(9,
Fig. 131,
from which are drawn
terminating at the comers of an equilateral

triangle pqr.
If three pairs
of coils are arranged on the
cores
and B, Fig. 130,
mmm
mmsm
one pair to give the electro-
TOIWJW
{mmm\
motive force
to
give
force
3,
a,
the
another pair
electromotive
and the third pair to
give the electromotive force
3
f"'s-
to three
132.
c,
Fig. 131, then these three
pairs of coils
Y-connected
mains would give the symmetrical three-phase electromo-
tive forces
mmm,
Fig. 131.
The three-phase
units of this general
type of two-phase three-phase transformer cannot be A-connected.
164
Scott's transformer consists of
and B,
two-phase mains.
two cores with
One
many turns
The coils a,
Y
f
r^r
a or
as
b
and
connected
to
b.
c are
the
three-phase mains
i,
and
The
3,
as shown.
point 0, Fig. 131,
lies,
for Scott's transformer,
midway
Fig. 133.
/ and
b,
single secondary c having v/3 times as
to the
core has two similar secondaries a and
and the other core has a
points
similar primaries
These two primaries are connected
Fig. 132.
r as shown in Fig. 133.
between
the
In this figure a, b and c
represent the respective electromotive forces induced in the sec-
ondary
coils a, b
Fig. 132.
and
r,
The two-phase
and
and
to c respectively, as
shown.
are parallel to
Scott's
f.
trans-
former cannot be A-connected.
main
^__
Fig. 134.
The monocyclic sys-
110.
tem.
The
monocyclic gen-
erator of the General Elec-
Company
dynamo not
tric
is
a polyphase
strictly
called two-phase
phase.
tions
Fig. 135.
motors and a large portion
of
for lighting.
of the monocyclic generator
is
It is
to
be
or three-
employed
in sta-
where a small portion
the
output
is
used for
The armature winding
essentially a two-phase winding.
The A winding has four times as many conductors as the ^winding,
THE TRANSFORMER.
B winding
and one end of the

of the
winding, as
rings are indicated
by
shown
I,
is
connected to the middle point
in Fig.
and
3.
165
The
34.
Main
three collecting
3 is called the teaser.
Lamps, or transformers feeding lamps, are connected

I
and
2,
to
and two similar transformers connected, as shown
mains
in Fig.
135, are used to supply three-phase currents to induction motors.
PROBLEMS.
81.
The primary
coil
of a transformer has
takes 750 amperes from an alternator at

to
20,000
secondary
How many
volts.
coil ?
size of
wire,
it
10 volts and steps up
turns of wire are there in the
usual allowance in transformers
cular mils of sectional area of wire for each
Find
60 turns of
500
is
ampere of
cir-
current.
primary wire and of secondary wire of the above
Ans. 10,909 turns, 375,000 circular mils, 2,062.5
transformer.
circular mils.
82.
40 mils
transformer has 800 turns of wire on the primary

in
diameter, and
coil,
80 turns on the secondary, secondary
The
wire being ten times as large in sectional area.

area of the magnetic circuit of the iron core
is
sectional
2 square inches.
Allowing 500 circular mils of conductor per ampere, and allowing a
maximum
lines
per square centimeter,
calculate the electromotive force, current
and power ratings of
flux density of
the transformer at
4,000
60 cycles per second.
Ans. 656
volts,
32
amperes, 2.099 kilowatts.

83.
A given
to take current
per second.
transformer
is
rated at
kilowatts and
is
designed
from 1,100-volt mains at a frequency of 60 cycles
Under these conditions W^, W^ and W^
will
be
called normal.
(a)
The transformer
electromotive
normal.
force
is
and
used at 6 kilowatts output at the rated

frequency.
Find
W^
in
terms
of
66
The transformer
{b)
is
used at rated electromotive force but at
Find W^ and W^ each
a frequency of 75 cycles per second.

terms of normal.
(c)
The
transformer
in
used at rated frequency but with primary
is
Find W^ and W^ each
electromotive force of 1,500 volts.
in
terms of normal.
{d)
The transformer
Find
1,500 volts.
given E, W^
is
is
for
used on primary electromotive force of
which
With primary electromotive

would give normal W^ ?
(e)
Ans.
in
W^)
X normal W^;
{a) 1.44
164 X normal
(^)
Show
that with
force of 1,500 volts
what load
Wj^
is
normal.
independent of frequency.
W^^,
0.87 x normal Wj^,no change
{b)
186 x normal W^; (d) 36.5 cycles per
second.
84.
transformer has 1,300 turns of wire in
its
primary
coil
and 130 turns in its secondary coil. The primary coil takes
current from 1,100-volt mains and the secondary coil delivers
200 amperes
is
0.85.
What
is
the equivalent primary resistance and reactance
Ans.
of the secondary receiving circuit?
r=
21.67 ohms,
13.44 ohms.
85.
The
lem 81
flux
and
is
Find the
161 square centimeters.
maximum
Ans.
second.
S6.
sectional area of the core of the transformer in prob-
flux density at a
= 691,000, B =
is
to be
total sectional area is
magnetized by alternating current
taken from 133-cycle iio-volt mains so that the

density in the core
How many
ing the same?

87.
An
example,
is
may be 4,500
lines
turns of wire are required
would be required
at
core
4,250.
bundle of iron wires of which the
2.6 square centimeters
maximum
frequency of 60 cycles per
maximum
flux
per square centimeter.
How many
turns of wire
60 cycles per second, other things remain-
Ans. 330 turns, 728 turns.
no volts,
from a battery
for
applied during ^^^ second intervals in reversed direc-
THE TRANSFORMER.
167
100 turns of wire wound on an iron core.
tions to a coil of
Plot the
curve representing the above electromotive force and, neglecting

the resistance of the coil, plot the curve representing the core
The
flux produced.
iron core
is
supposed to have a constant
Plot the curve representing the
magnetic reluctance of 0.00014.

magnetizing current.
secondary
coil
This secondary
secondary electromotive force,
total
wound on
is
primary current.
the above core.
current to a non-inductive receiving
having 200 ohms resistance.
circuit
(a)
of 50 turns
coil supplies
Plot curves representing
secondary current, and
(d)
Resistance of secondary coil
is
(r)
be
to
neglected.
88.
transformer has
be thrown
in series
its
primary
or in parallel at
in
two sections which can

This primary takes
will.
R\
current through a rheostat of resistance
and the secondary
supplies current to a non-inductive receiving circuit of resistance
N' (total), and N" for

same whether the primary
Find the relation between R' R'\
R''.
which the secondary current

coils are in series
89.
An
is
the
Ans. R^
or in parallel.
is
what
What
is
no
R"-
the
is
full
the
full
is
the
full
load current in the secondary coil

{c)
is
the
is
full
load intake of cur-
load current in the lOO-volt
kilowatts, [b) 100 amperes,
What
volts.
load rating of the transformer so used, what
load output of current, and what
rent?
-pw,
connected up as an auto-
transformer to transform from 100 volts to

full
ordinary transformer, rated at one kilowatt, 100 volts
primary, and 10 volts secondary,
the
j4
coil,
Ans.
and
(a)
iio amperes, (d) 10 amperes,
{e)
100 amperes.
Assuming the
coils to
be as right-handed helices
in
one layer
on an iron core, give a diagram of the connections.

90.
The primary
coils
of two transformers
have each 560
turns of wire and they are connected to two-phase mains, the
electromotive force of each phase being 800 volts.
Calculate
68
the turns of wire in each of two secondary coils (one on each

transformer) so that these coils
phase electromotive
91.
400
forces.
Scott transformer
cycles, two-phase, to
when connected
volts,
in series give
an
30 ahead of one of the two-
Ans. 140 turns, 242.5 turns.

is
to transform
from 1,000
100 volts three-phase.
The
volts,
60
cross section
Find the number of

75 square centimeters.
turns of wire in each primary, and in each secondary coil, allowof each iron core
ing a
maximum
Ans. N'
92.
is
flux density of 3,500 lines per square centimeter.
1,430,
^=
71.5, /^=7i.5, <r= 124.
Three similar 1,000 to lOO-volt transformers have
their
1,000-volt coils A-connected to three-phase 1,000-volt mains.
The secondaries are Y-connected to

gram of the connections and find the
the pairs of service mains.
service mains.
Give a dia-
electromotive force between
Ans. 173
volts.
CHAPTER
XI.
THE TRANSFORMER.
(
Continued.
The actual transformer and the ideal transformer.
111.
The
discussion given in Articles 95 to 99 ignores the resistances R'
and R^' of the transformer
takes but
coils, it
little
account of the
magnetizing current m, which depends upon eddy currents and
magnetic hysteresis
in the iron core,
and
it
assumes that
magnetic flux which pass through one
lines of
the other also.
coil
all
the
pass through
transformer which would meet these condi-
would be an ideal transformer. A well-designed transformer operating on moderate load does approximate quite
tions
closely to the ideal transformer in
and (63) are
much used
poses, however,
it is
its
action,
desirable to consider the action of the trans-
former, taking account of coil resistances, of

hysteresis,
and of the
through one
leakage).
The
coil
The
fact that
some
present chapter
sion.
very
That
much
is,
eddy currents and

magnetic flux pass
devoted to this discussion.
is
effects of coil resistances, of
is
lines of
without passing through the other {magnetic
eddy currents and
and of magnetic leakage are small.

other
and equations (60)

For some pur-
in practical calculations.
smaller and
is
hysteresis,
Their influence on each
ignored
in the
following discus-
the effects of coil resistances, the effects of eddy
currents and hysteresis, and the effects of magnetic leakage are
considered separately.
We
shall first discuss these various effects
with the help of
vector diagrams for the sake of clearness, giving afterwards the
formulation of the symbolic equations and Steinmetz's solution.

169
I/O
The magnetizing current of a transformer
112.
as
shown below, but
not harmonic,
is
usually small, it may, for the

purpose of calculation, be replaced by an equivalent harmonic
current M, of which the component parallel to E' (the power
is
component)
is
J/
since
its
E'M^ and
ignoring
this,
-j-
E'
(the
the mains
by
coil resist-
Wj^ [see equations (64)
Therefore
(65)].
The
is
equal to the total core loss, W^
is
at right angles to
The power taken from
M^.
is
the magnetizing current
and
is
and the component
wattless component)
ances,
it
wattless
maximum
component
value
M^ of the magnetizing current reaches
V2 M^ when the core flux is
at
its
maximum
value $, and inasmuch as this component of the magnetizing

current overcomes the magnetic reluctance of the core
we have
G
or
\o^G
in
which
is
the magnetic reluctance of the transformer core cor-
responding to the
maximum
flux
Ad7nittance of the transformer at zero output.
current
is
The magnetizing
the current that flows through the primary coil
the secondary current
ways exceeds the
is
ideal
zero,
primary current,
of the magnetizing current.

tizing current
may be
when
and the actual primary current
Therefore the
al-
I'\
by the amount
effect
of the magne-
represented in an ideal transformer by con-
necting in parallel with the primary coil a circuit through which

flows a current equal in value and phase to the magnetizing cur-
The admittance
rent of the actual transformer.

circuit,
g^ jb^y
problem.
The
is
used
in the
to this shunt
symbolic solution of the transformer
values oi g^ and
b^
are determined from the
mag-
THE TRANSFORMER.
/I
The component of J/ parallel to E'

component of -^ perpendicular to E' is
netizing current as follows
gji' (= J/), and the

(^ M^. See equations (52) and (53). Therefore, using
the values of M^ and M^ from equations (a) and (b\ we have
is
bÊ'
g.
= ^^^^
(71)
and
^1
or using the value of
=
îrx/iN'E'
$ from equation
^^
(63)
we have
= ^^^wv^^
(72)
Actual value of the part m of the primary current.

When the core is assumed to be without hysteresis. Let the ordinates of the
curve w4>, Fig. 136, represent values of the core flux * produced by various given current strengths ?n in the primary coil, these current strengths being represented by the
113.
[a)
abscissas of the curve w4>.
When
also,
the primary electromotive force
and 90 behind E'
is
harmonic then the core
in phase, according to equations (ii)
flux
and
(iii),
is
harmonic
Article 99.
Let the sine curve $,
Fig. 136.
Fig.
36, represent the value of
as time passes
time as abscissas and
4>
as ordi-
nates.
Then
the curve
of the current
ap.
Lay
m is
m of which
the ordinates represent successive instantaneous values
constructed as follows
off dc equal to
ab which
is
Draw
the ordinate dp
and the abscissa
the magnetizing current required to force through
172
The
the core the flux dp.
locus of the point c
shows that the magnetizing current
When
{b)
the hysteresis
is
is
is
taken into account.
The
the required curve.
not harmonic although
it is
figure
wattless.
Let the ordinates of the curve
w4>,
Fig, 137, represent values of the core flux produced

in the
primary
curve m^.
coil,
The
by various given current strengths

these current strengths being represented by the abscissas of the
curve
of which the ordinates represent the successive instantaneous
Fig. 137.
values of the current

sis
loop
m^
is
constructed as before
being used for increasing values of
the ascending branch of the hystere4>
and the descending branch
for de-
creasing values of $.
114. Transformer regulation.
the effects of magnetic leakage
secondary
coils
Preliminary statement concerning
and of
resistances of
on the action of a transformer.
primary and
In the ideal trans-
former the whole of the primary electromotive force
is
balanced
by the opposite electromotive force induced in the primary coil

by the varying magnetic flux which passes through both coils,
and the whole of the electromotive force induced in the secondary coil by this varying flux is available at the terminals of the
secondary
coil.
In the actual transformer a portion of the primaiy electro-
motive force
coil
is
lost in
and a portion
which
is
induced
is
in the
through the primary

dary
coil
overcoming the resistance of the primary

lost in balancing the electromotive force
primary
coil,
(leakage flux).
coil
by the
flux
which passes
but does not pass through the secon-
These
lost portions of the
primary
electromotive force are proportional to the primary current, so
THE TRANSFORMER.
73
that the useful part* of the primary electromotive force falls short f
of the total primary electromotive force
by an amount which
is
the secondary coil
is
proportional to the current.
The
induced
in
proportional to the useful part oi \hQ primary electromotive force
and a portion of the
total
secondary electromotive force
overcoming the resistance of the secondary

tion of the
secondary electromotive force
is
is
to
make
secondary
which
ratio of the
constant).
Therefore the
is
lost in
proportional to the
secondary current (or to primary current, since the

currents
is
This lost por-
coil.
effect
of magnetic leakage and of coil resistances
the electromotive force between the terminals of the

coil fall
short f of
its
ideal value-viy--^'
by an amount
proportional to the current.
is
This falling off of secondary electromotive force with increasing

current
of practical importance, inasmuch as most receiving
is
apparatus must be supplied with current at approximately constant electromotive force.
electromotive force
said to
falls off
transformer of which the secondary
but
have good regulation.
must have low
resistance coils
little
and
transformers as a rule regulate
little
more
115. Effect of resistance of coils
former.
Fig. 138
with increase of current
shows the general
closely than small ones.
upon the action of a transeffect of the resistances of
The
sents the harmonically varying flux in the core.
0^
line
Oa
electromotive force induced in the secondary
01"
* The
coil
represents the secondary current
part,
The
Ob the
The
coil.
and the
line
Of
namely, which balances the electromotive force induced in the primary
by the magnetic
repre-
represents
the useful part of the primary electromotive force and
line
Large
magnetic leakage.
the coils upon the action of a transformer.
total
is
transformer to regulate well
flux
lost portions
which passes through both
coils.
of primary and secondary electromotive forces are, in general,
not in phase with total primary and total secondary electromotive forces.
These
be subtracted as vectors as explained in the following
articles.
losses are therefore to
174
The total primary electromotive

E' exceeds Oa by the amount R' I' (parallel to /'), and the
represents the primary current.

force
E"
electromotive force
short of
at the terminals of the
Ob by the amount R"I"
Remark.
When the angle
0,
secondary
coil falls
(parallel to I").
Fig. 138,
is
nearly zero (second-
ary receiving circuit non-inductive) then R' I'
and
R" I"
are
Oa and Ob respectively, so that Oa is much less

than E' in value and E" is much
less than Ob in value. On the other
hand, when the angle Q is nearly
nearly parallel to
90
(secondary receiving circuit
containing a large inductance or a
condenser) then R'
..^^
the
transformer
coil resistance when
regulation
by the
coil resistance
is
of
by
largely affected
is
the secondary receiving circuit
all affected
Oa and
Ob respectively, so that Oa\s> nearly

equal to E' in value and E" is
nearly equal to Ob in value.
Therefore
but scarcely at
and R'T'
are nearly perpendicular to
Fig. 138.
non-inductive,
when
the second-
ary receiving circuit contains a large inductance or a condenser.

116. Effect of
former.
in its effects
magnetic leakage upon the action of a trans-
shown
It is
in the
next
magnetic leakage
article that
equivalent to an auxiliary outside inductance
through which the primary current passes on
mary
of the transformer.
force
E' which
is
is
The
When
E"
Oa
to the pri-
part of the primary electromotive
by the angle
as
is
it
inductive /''lags be-
shown
in Fig. 139,
of the primary electromotive force
the total primary electromotive force.
(aPP and
in phase.

{Ob, Fig. 139)
the useful part
way
lost in this inductance is equal to
90 ahead of the primary current
hind
its
is
is less
and
than
In this case the secondary
THE TRANSFORMER.
175
N'
electromotive force, which
is
equal to -v^
x Oa,
falls off in
value
as /' (and also toPI') increases.
is
When
the secondary receiving circuit contains a condenser,
ahead
of ^"
{Ob, Fig. 140) as
shown
in Fig. 140,
/"
and the use-
^<D
Fig. 139.
ful
Fig. 140.
part, Oa, of the
primary electromotive force
the total primary electromotive force in value.
secondary electromotive force, which
is
greater than
In this case the
N"
is
equal to -j^,
Oa, in-
creases in value as /' (and also (oPf) increases.
When
angle 6
is

zero and coPI'
sensibly equal to
E'
is
is
non-inductive the
at right angles to Oa, so that
in value,
Oa
is
and therefore sensibly constant.
In this case the secondary electromotive force remains sensibly
constant as /' (and also as (oPI') increases.

117. Proposition.
former
series
is
The
of magnetic leakage in a trans-
equivalent to a certain outside inductance P, connected in
with the primary
Discussioji.
ondary
effect
coil
Let A,
and
C the
coil.
Fig. 141, be the primary coil,
iron core of a transformer.
monic) alternating currents
in
and
B the
As
sec-
the (har-
pulsate, harmonically
176
varying fluxes are produced through the core and around the
coils.
Let
OC,
Fig.
represent the
142,
harmonically vary-
ing flux through the core,
^^^ harmonically vary-
^P
ing flux which encircles
and
only,
monically
Os the har-
varying
which encircles
The
.
fluxes
coil
coil
flux
B only.
Op and Os
are
proportional to and in phase
with /' and P' respectively,
so that the total flux
Op
Os (represented by the
Fig. 141.
passes between
and
lines
sp or ba, Fig. 142) which

proportional to and in phase with /'.*
B is
The total harmonically varying flux through coil A is OC -{

Op [= Od] and the total harmonically varying flux through coil
B is C -\- Os [^= Ob'\ Now, Oa=Ob-\- ba, so that we may look
,
upon the action of the
trans-
former as due to the flux Ob passing through both
coils
and the
flux
ba passing through the primary

coil only.
This latter flux being
proportional to the primary current
is
equivalent in
an inductance P,
series
connected
with the primary
^' be the value

i'
its effects
coil.
to
in
Fig. 142.
Let
of the leakage flux ab, which, for a given value
of the primary current, encircles the primary
ing to equations (5) and
(6),
P= ^7118.
is
then, accord-
(73)
The constant current transformer.
* Since I^
coil,
we have
proportional to I^^ and opposite to
A transformer of which
it
in phase.
THE TRANSFORMER.
the leakage inductance
is
very large
is
177
sometimes called a con-
stant current transformer for the reason that the current delivered
by such a transformer
varies but
little
with the resistance of the
receiving circuit, so long as this resistance
is
comparatively small,
the primary of the transformer being connected to constant elec-
The
tromotive force mains.
action of the inductance
explained
trolling the current
is
current alternator.
(Article 83.)
Fig. 143
Electric
is
PP
the primary
..:
the iron
is
and
coil,
55
The secondary
coil.
con-
a sketch of the General
the secondary
coil is
P in
the article on the constant
Company's type of constant
current transformer
core,
in
"S
.:
W^^
movable and nearly counter^'^-
balanced, and the increased repulsion
between
PP and 55
secondary
When
coil to
^'^'^
due to a slight increase of current
lifts
the
S^S'
the primary and secondary coils are near together the
leakage inductance
is
very small and a decrease
of the receiving circuit
of current were
it
in
the resistance
would be accompanied by a great increase
not for the movement of the secondary coil and
the consequent increase of leakage inductance.
119.
Calculation of leakage inductance P.
equation (73)
also depends
upon the
ondary
coils
<5^,
and upon
The leakage
142], and therefore the value of
Fig.
size
their proximity to the core.
whether a given portion of

give da or
^'
and shape of the primary and sec-
ing the flux between the coils (leakage flux)
Os, Fig. 142,
flux
In consider-
we need not
this flux is a part of 0/>
consider
or a part of
inasmuch as these two fluxes are added together to
<f>'.
Figs. 144
transformer.
and 145 show side and end views of a
The trend of
the leakage flux
is
shown
shell
in the
type
upper
part of Fig. 145 .(omitted from lower part for the sake of clearness),
and the dimensions X,
V, g^
\ and
/ are
shown.
Fig. 146
178
is
an enlargement of the upper part of Fig. 145.
Consider the
The magnet-
flux across between the dotted lines aa, Fig. 146.
^::-m-t-m--n'^-it-ft
L.,.
11
\
V
,i/i/^^>
ij
v.
'L
-t
lill
!^ - jii
llll'lil
lull
Jjîi'L
~T
"
.m - - IP
illN
flfl'lll
1'
Fig.
^
----- ri -
.1!"
.i''''l
''Mil
life
ii''!t
'
-^N'
144.
emotive force pushing
this flux across
47r^
is
.'^
The length
of the air portion of the magnetic circuit through which the leak-
age flux flows

area
is
and
its
sectional
\dx (counting both limbs of
is
Therefore, the
magnetic
reluctance of this leakage
circuit is
the coils).
\dx
and the flux across between aa

ftt.m.f.
..
,^,
is
\xdx
IX
m.r.
This flux encircles the fractional
X
part -^ of the primary turns and, thereFig. 145.
fore, the fractional
part^
of the flux
is
to be counted as encirc-
ling the entire primary coil so that
^^'
5^
47r7V'^'
IX'
x^dx
All quantities in this article are expressed in c.g.s. units.
THE TRANSFORMER.
Jeaja.se
179
leaf[ay*.
fju.ji
iron
flu/
iron
iron
Fig. 146.
The
part of
<l>
'
which flows across the primary
tegral of this expression

is
from
x =. o
\.o
X.
coil is the in-
This part of
<l>
therefore
^.irN'i'XX
~~
Similarly, the part of 4>'
which flows across the secondary
coil is
îrN'i'XY-^
'
3?
The
flux across the
coils
is all
gap
g between
counted as a part of
4>',
the primary and secondary
and
is
equal to
îrN'i'Xg
Therefore
There
is
secondary
some leakage
coils
flux passing between the primary
where they project beyond the iron
core.
and
This
part of the leakage flux has a longer air-path than the leakage
flux
which flows from iron to
Therefore, for
ened,
by say
\ we may
the length which
Substituting the value of
say three times as long.
iron,
take the total length of the coils lessis
^' from
surrounded by
(74) in (73),
AprN'^^VX
air only.
we have
(75)
*In
this expression
N'i' being equal
to
N'H'^
is
written therefor.
i8o
This equation gives the value of
centimeters,
is
dimen-
all
sions being expressed in centimeters.
The
equivalent inductance
ening \,
X,Y or g or
P may be
by increasing
reduced
in value
by
less-
shows the pro-
Fig. 147
/.
portions of a recent type of
transformer
which
for
leakage inductance
The
small.
is
the
very
P may
value of
be further reduced by winding
primary
the
ondary
coils
and
sec-
alternate
in
sections.
120.
Formulation
complex
equations
transformer.
The
discussion
is
of
the
of
the
following
taken
from
Steinmetz,* with the following changes.
A circuit which
takes a lagging current has

its
impedance written r
and
-\-jx
its
admittance written
g jb.
Magnetic leakage
is
here represented as equiv-
alent to a primary induct-
ance only, while Steinmetz

uses both primary and sec-
ondary inductance.
Let
The
notation
is
slightly altered.
iV = number of primaiy turns.

N" = number of secondary turns.
N'
= resistance
^2 = resistance
r^
of primary
coil.
of secondary
* ''Alternating Current Phenomena,"
coil.
third edition,
page 204.
THE TRANSFORMER.
;r= reactance
value,
l8l
of the primary leakage induct-
o)/*,
ance P.
Z=r,-\-jx.
Y=g jb admittance of entire secondary circuit including resistance of secondary
= primary impressed
E'
A = that
coil.
E' which
is
tive force
induced
in
netic flux
which passes through both
part of
used to balance the electromothe primary coil
by the mag-
coils.
B secondary induced electromotive force.

E" = secondary terminal voltage.
/' = total primary current.
J/=
magnetizing current.
J"
= secondary
\\
= g^ jb^ z=
current.
M
= admittance
of transformer at zero out-
put.
Remark.
In
Article
112, Y^
influences of coil resistances,
is
defined as -pj.
eddy currents and
The mutual
hysteresis,
magnetic leakage are partly taken account of by using

of
M
-^7,
-^
and
instead
because the extent of magnetization of the core depends
upon A.
The ratio of A and ^
is
a and they are opposite
in phase, so that
A=-aB
The secondary
current
is
/''
The
to
it
in
(i)
= VB
(ii)
part of the primary current corresponding to /''
phase and i/a as large.
It is
opposite
therefore equal to
which added to the magnetizing current
r =VA
is
M (=
VB
VÂ), gives
VB
(iii)
82
The

electromotive force lost in the secondary coil
that the secondary terminal voltage
is
rj'\ so
is
E"^B-rJ"
The
(iv)
electromotive force used to overcome the impedance
the primary coil
is
ZI' which added

That
E' Â-^r
With the help of equations
be expressed
in
to
pressed electromotive force.
gives the primary im-
is,
Zr
and
(i)
Z of
(ii),
(v)
I",
/',
E"
and^', may
terms of B, giving
I"=^BY
(76)
E" = B{l-r,Y)
E'
{jS)
= -B[a + aZY, +
^^
(79)
somewhat more desirable to express /", /' and^fi"'', in

Eliminating B from equations (78) and (79), we have
terms of E'
It is
E"
E'
l-r,F
-"
a
^^^
aZY,
ZY
a
or
ar Y
^"=- a" +aa'ZY^
ZY'^'
<^^^)
-f
Similarly
we
find
^'
-^
a? -f
a'ZY^
+ ZY
^'
^^^^
and
^" =
aY
~ a^ + a^ZY^ + ZY ^'
(^^)
For purposes of numerical calculation E' may be taken as the reference axis, so
E^ becomes a simple quantity and it remains only to separate the components of
that
the various factors by which
E^
is
multiplied.
Take
for
example the expression
for
THE TRANSFORMER.
Using ^
/*'.
jb
for K, r, \-jx for Z,
jb^
and^,
for y^
83
and collecting terms we
have
factor in equation (82)
where
= a +
-f ^r, + aH^x
a%x + ^JT a2^,r,
a'tgyTy^
-\-
bx
/Jr^
we have
o^" <i^
~ +y.abuA-aev
r
aforeiatd factor =
Multiplying numerator and denominator by u

.
So
that
we have
j'v
>.
the numerical relation
numerical value of I"
where
Vs^ +
a-
abv
a^
-}-
<^^
Z/
-^
may be calculated in a similar manner from the

The numerical values of /^ and
known values of a, r^ jr, ^j, b^, and rj, and given values of ^, gy and b. If ^3 and
/''''
Xg are the resistance and reactance respectively of the external secondary circuit, then
and
Calculation of regulation.
The
falling of the
secondary
ter-
minal voltage of a well-designed transformer depends almost
wholly upon magnetic leakage and
coil
resistances,
and
is
to a
very close degree of approximation independent of the magnetizing current.
Therefore for the purpose of the calculation of
transformer regulation Y^
may be assumed
Under these conditions equation
to
be equal to zero.
becomes
(80)
from which, by separating the components of the factor
ar^Y
a^ + ZY
a
the numerical value of ''
value of Y;
a, r^,
and
may be
Z being
calculated for any assigned
known.
84
PROBLEMS.
93. Following are the data for a shell type transformer (see
Figs. 144, 145
The
fine
wire coil consists of 560 turns of
Mean
copper wire.
The
X=
&
S.).
inches,
Mean
At each end
coil),
S.
29^
inches.
J{ inches (coarse wire

inches.
and X/2
coil),
=10^
of core 41^ inches of length of coils are exposed.
Volume
iron.
&
B.
= 10^ x i^|
=24^ square
Section of magnetic circuit

is
number 17
inches.
28 turns of two number
length of turn
y^ inch,
yi inches (fine wire
29^
length of turn
coarse wire coil consists of
sevens (B.
/=
and 146):
of iron
inches and
inches
of this
-^^
x 10^ inches
Thickness of laminations 14 mils.
yV-
When
the fine wire coil takes current at 1,100 volts at 133
cycles per second find the secondary terminal voltage at zero load.
Find the secondary terminal voltage when the transformer

delivering current to a non-inductive receiving circuit of
ohms
is
1.8
resistance.

delivering current to a circuit of
ohms and
the reactance
is
1.3
is
1.25
is
ohms.
is
delivering current to a resistanceless circuit of which the react-
ance
ohms.
1.8
is
94. Following are the data for a core type transformer (see
Fig. 147)
The
fine
wire coil consists of 2,000 turns of
copper wire.
Length of mean turn
wound next the core.

The coarse wire coil
sevens (B.
is
wound
//2
JC=
&
S.).
consists of
g%
inch (fine wire
This
&
S.
coil is
1 1
inches.
This
coil
coil.
= ^ inch (coarse
and X= 11 J^ inches.
inch,
coil),
inches.
17 B.
100 turns of two number
Length of mean turn
outside of the fine wire

inches,
= 9 J^
number
wire
coil),
THE TRANSFORMER.
The net sectional
the mean length of
volume of the
iron
area of the iron core

the magnetic circuit
is
81.4 cubic inches.
185
is
is
3.7 square inches,
22 inches, and the
Thickness of lamina-
tions 14 mils.
When
the fine wire coil takes current at
1,100 volts at 133
cycles per second find the secondary terminal voltage at zero load.
is
delivering current to a non-inductive receiving circuit of which
the resistance
is
1.8
ohms.

delivering current to a
ohms and
the reactance
circuit of
is
1.3
is
1.25
ohms.

delivering current to a resistanceless circuit of
ance
is
1.8
ohms.
is
is
which the react-
CHAPTER
XII.
THE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.

121. Alternators in series.
Two
alternators
and
are con-
nected in series and driven by separate engines to give precisely
The
the same frequency.

148,
represent
the
machines
and
lines
and B,
electromotive
respectively,
(f>
gular lag of the electromotive force
Fig.
of
forces
is
the an-
B behind
the electromotive force A, and the line
E rep-
resents the resultant electromotive force of
and B.
produces
value
This resultant electromotive force

in the circuit a current, of
which the
is
/=
(83)
VR' -f ay^D
and which lags 6^ behind
E in phase,
where
= -^
~R
tan ^
(84)
Fie. 148.
in
which
is
the resistance of the
circuit,
is
the total induc-
tance of the circuit including the armatures of both machines,
and
o)
(=
277/) is the
The power P' put
frequency
the circuit
is
AT cos
the angle between
by machine
per second.
by machine
into the circuit
P' ^
where {AI)
in radians
is
{AI)
and
(85)
/.
The power put
into
B is
P" =^ BI cos
186
{BI)
(86)

The angle A/ in
positive
as a
therefore
The
is
is
negative
OC,
less
than 90, so that cos (A/)
in
is,
the machine
the figure
therefore /*"
is
is
is
is
acting
greater than 90,
negative, that
is,
the
used
in this
way
is
called a synchronous motor,
being driven by an engine or water-wheel.
122. Variation of
line
is
positive, that
acting as a motor.
alternator
the alternator
is
The angle (B/)
dynamo.
so that cos (B/)
machine
Fig. 148
P'
187
P' and
P"
Fig, 149, representing
with the phase angle
to scale.
<^.
Draw a
Describe about
(7
Fig. 149.
circle of
to
which the radius represents A.
any point
in the circle represents
Then a
line
OP, from
a possible value of the re-
sultant electromotive force E,
^ being the corresponding phase

difference between A and B.
Draw the line ef through (9, making with OCxkiQ angle d.
Then the angle POf\s> equal to the
angle {BI\
Therefore
OQ = OP cos (BI) = E cos (BI) = V R^ +
^Z^
I cos (BI)
i88
or
/ cos {BI)
Substituting this value of
pit
That
/ cos {BI)
in
OQ
o{ the line
equation (Z6)
we have
B'OQ
^
the output of the machine
is,
projection
OQ
OP on
/o^\
B is
the line
ef,
proportional to the
and ^/R^
eo^Z?
being constant.
When Q
is
and
positive
from
B acts
6^,
is
/ from 0, cos (BI) is positive so that /*"

machine B acts as a dynamo. When Q is towards
towards
cos (BI)
is
negative so that P^'
is
negative and machine
as a motor.
iAJ
Fig. 150
is
a construction, for the same value of
0' Q' represents the power P' put into the circuit
From
this
4>,
in
which
by machine A.
diagram we have
P'
= AO'Q'
VR^ +
0)2^2
(88)

The
A cos ^) the
OQ is the sum of these
projection of A, Fig. 149, onef'is
jection of
on efis
B cos
and
(</>
89
propro-
jections so that
OQÂ cos {(f>^d)-\-B cos e

Substituting this vahie of
Similarly from Fig. 150
OQ
in
we have
equation (87)
we have
AB
A^
These equations, (89) and (90), are the fundamental equations

The algebraic sum of the outputs of
of the synchronous motor.
machines
and
is,
of course, equal to
RP,
so that
P'^P"=RP
may
This relation
(91)
be derived from equations (89) and (90), re-
membering that
sin
wZ
cos 6
--rz^==^^==^^
and
/2
The
^2
R^
co^P
~ A^ ^B" + 2AB cos

R'-^
360.
P"
RP,
RP for values
and of
(t>
co'^L
ordinates of the curves P', P'^ and
the values of P', of
tion),
Positive ordinates represent positive
Fig. 151,
of
(/>
show
from zero to
power (dynamo
ac-
negative ordinates represent negative power (motor action).
Each ordinate of the curve RP is the algebraic sum of the ordiP' and P'^ Fig. 152 shows portions of the
curves P' P" and RP to a larger scale.
The ordinates of the
nates of the curves
curve
77
represent the efficiency
ous values of
<^
when machine
( P''\
(
j^,
-5 is
of transmissions for vari-
a motor.
190
V
500
^^
500
JO
55
io
JJio
750
780
5/0
3+9
lifo
VKaf
A=
1,100
^=
volts.
B = 1,000 volts.
(J
jo5
Difference
Jso
J40'
l.oo ohm.
Z ^ o. 58
ohm.
Fig. 151.
A =:
1,100 volts.
B = 1,100 volts.
Fig.
Steinnietz^ s derivation
force of
machine B. and
A'= 1. 00 ohm.
Z ^ o. 58 ohm.
152.
be the electromotive
of equations (89) and (90). Let
electromotive force be taken as the Jt:-axis of refer-
let this

ence.
and
A
its
let
Let ^ be the angle that the electromotive force of machine A is ahead of B,

A be the numerical value of the electromotive force of machine A. Then
cos
the jr-component of the electromotive force of machine
is
Therefore the complex expression
_y-component.
machine
machines
The
is
cos
is
/I
sin
is
of
therefore
real part of
component of /
into
the
is
the
is
_ + A coa<]}-\-jA
In
parallel to B^ and the product of

power output of machine B^ therefore
4- ABi^L
The necessity of synchronism
as a motor.
sin
component of /
_ B^R + ABR cos

123.
and
E = B -{ A cos ^ -^jA sin
current
The
/f,
for the electromotive force
-\-jA sin 0, and the resultant electromotive force of the two
<p
is
19
this
sin
for the operation of
machine
Fig. 148 the relative phase of the electromo-
A and B has been so chosen that machine B is a

We shall now consider whether synchronism of machines
tive forces
motor.
and
^ is
a necessary condition for the steady * intake of power
by the machine B.
B is
Suppose that machine
running steadily
(engine driven) at a frequency slightly above or below the fre-
quency of A.
Then
the phase angle
(/>
will
change continuously
and the point P, Fig. 153, will move slowly around the circle,
making one revolution while machine B gains or loses one cycle
with reference to A, and the power intake
P"
of machine
B will
pass through a set of positive and negative values during each
Now
revolution of the point P.
larger than the negative values,

that the average value of P"
out power on the average
nism with A.
124.
either
is,
are
That
is,
machine
B gives
above or below synchrois
a necessary condition
power by machine B.
Behavior of a synchronous motor.
When
* That
if it is
P"
and also of longer duration, so
positive.
Therefore synchronism
for the intake of
load.
is
the positive values of
machine
is
Stoppage due to over-
running as a motor, unloaded,
its
steady except for the extremely rapid pulsations due to the alternations
of electromotive force and current.
192
intake/*''
is
approximately zero; point P, Fig. 153,
Os
the resultant electromotive force
is
ture with the electromotive force
is
the current
is
at
is
in
s*;
quadra-
and the output of machine
equal to R/^.
As
the motor
P, Fig. 153,
is
loaded,
moves from
its
intake
s towards
M\
''
increases
the point
and the resultant electro-
orîA
Fig.
motive
force, the current,
Further loading of
and
153.
RP,
all
carries the point
grow
(^= 180.
towards M, and
less until
further
the resultant electromotive force, the current, and
When
crease.
current
motor
is
the point P, Fig. 153, reaches the line
opposite to the electromotive force
is still
further loaded the point
and when the point

^Running
of
is
RP^
unstable
reaches
when
M the
the point
in phase.
all
in-
ef^
the
As
the
P moves
on towards M^
intake of
P is at s'.
has reached
THE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

its
maximum
193
value for the given values of A, B, <aL and R.
B decreases its intake. This decrease of intake

B to fall further and further behind A in phase until the
P moves beyond the point s' machine B then acts as a
Further loading of
causes
point
dynamo and
power
gives out
with the belt load, causes machine
and
Every time machine
X.O
fore the point
it
takes in
to regain
it.
motor and of machine
151 and 152 that machine
motor
very
is
motor and
intake P'
much
it is
the motor.
loaded,
less
is
54,
in
at
is
.f
There-
which slows
s,
electro-
we
shall speak of
machine
as the generator, machine
force.
From
Fig.
of
as a
of
as a
maximum intake P'

the maximum intake
when
is
lower when
is
is
machine
is
is
evident from Figs.
It is
acting as a motor
than the output P'' of B, so that the
When
intake P'
its
to
can act as a motor.
also evident that
much
is
than
less
ciency of transmission
B is
also evident that the
is
it
motor of which the
In this article
having the greater electromotive
152
synchronous speed.
greater than the electromotive force of the gen-
is
which drives
as the
Then as P moves from

power from A, but by no
moves on past s' through

still more, and so on.
125. Behavior of a synchronous
motive force
action, together with the
machine up greatly.
s\ machine
to enable
up machine
means enough
erator
as follows
is
one cycle as compared with the
dynamo, which
acts as a
through
action, together
out of synchronism
fall
circle.
belt load, slows the

s
to
stopping the action
is
loses
machine A, the point P, Fig. 153, moves once

While P is moving from s' through
\.o s
steadily driven
around the
machine
While machine
stop.
which
to the line,
the motor than
its
effi-
when
running as a motor, un-
approximately zero
quadrature with the electromotive force
B is equal to RP.
motor A is loaded, its intake
the point P, Fig.

is
Os
the current
and the output
of the generator
As
the
Py Fig.
54,
moves from
towards
M]
P' increases
the point
and the resultant electro-
194
motive force, the current, and
P reaches M the intake
of
RP all increase.
has reached
its
When
the point
maximum
value for
/amns
cehind
eyo
Fig. 154.
the given values of A, B, (oL and R, and further loading causes
machine
to
out of synchronism and stop.
fall
Negative reactance of machine A.

takes current which
is
ahead
in
Any
receiving circuit which
phase of the electromotive force
of the generator which supplies the current acts
a condenser and has negative reactance.

Fig.
is
54
near
126.
show
will
is
ahead of
to
is
be the generator and
its
phase when the point
by driving
speed
with A, and
is
The machine A, which
ously by an engine or water-wheel,
and
in
The starting of the synchronous motor.
to be the motor.
started
less like
s.
machine which
is
that
more or
careful scrutiny of
it
is
started.
be the
is
driven continu-
Machine
B is then
with an engine or other independent mover,
carefully regulated until {a)
(b) its
Let A
the machine which
it is
in synchronism
electromotive force opposite to the electromotive

force of A in phase.
The
circuit is
195
then closed and the engine or
other agent which has been used to bring machine
may
In carrying out this process

indicator for
they are
in
showing when
it is
and
to speed
in circuit, as
shown
Fig.
sates in brightness as
pulsations
necessary to use some sort of
B are in synchronism and when

For example, a lamp may
This lamp pul155.
the proper phase relation.
be connected
in Fig.
155.
machine
being speeded up and the
is
become slower and slower
When
proaches the frequency of A.

brightness the angle
its
up
be disconnected.
minimum
<^,
Fig. 149,
is
zero,
of brightness the angle
B ap-
as the frequency of
the lamp
is
at its
maximum
and when the lamp
When
180.
is
is
at
the pul-
become very slow the machines are practically in synchronism and the switch s is closed when the lamp is at minimum
sations
brightness.
lamp
In practice the
daries of
to
and to
may be
/ is
connected
in series
with the secon-
two transformers the primaries of which are connected
With
respectively.
either at
its
when the machines
maximum
this
or at
its
arrangement the lamp
minimum
of brightness
are in the proper phase for the closing of the
switch, according to the connections of the transformers.

it is
better to arrange the connections so that the
at its
maximum
for the instant
of brightness
of
than the instant of
when
the switch
maximum
brightness
minimum
brightness.
is
lamp
is
In fact
shall
be
to be closed,
more sharply marked
127. Stability of running' of synchronous motor.
Suppose the
196
machine
be driven by means of a governed engine
to
stant speed, irrespective of

to be running steadily.
machine
this
which
enable
it
ahead of
and
arrow
B in
it
is
and
fall
far
behind as to
further
fall
it is
moves along the
falling
and further
In the
positive towards
e,
case
first
unstable.
circle in the direc-
behind A.
is
getting farther
If the motor intake
B is stable,
falls behind B, then the running of
this intake increases
behind
phase decreases the
in
to
and decreases from

is
B will
the second case
stable, in
phase or B
increases as
OQ
only so
behind
Now the
vice versa, as pointed out above.
namely
out of synchronism and stop.
B is
suddenly increased
sufficient to carry its increased load.
this falling
the point P, Fig. 149,
tion of the
B is
phase increases the power
in
will fall
takes from A, then
fall
the running of
of
power
to take in
behind A,
As
takes from A, then
power which
load on
behind
If this falling
on the other hand,
If,
If the
con-
at
and suppose the motor
run momentarily slower than
will
in phase.
output
its
projection of OP,
represents the intake of
and
from s to M, Fig. 153, as ^ falls behind A,

to s' as B falls behind A
therefore s \.o
the region of stable motor running of B, and
to
the
s' is
region of unstable motor running of B.
If
is
running with given load as a motor the point
take up a position between s and

sufficient
to carry
further towards
is
M\
its
if
load.
B is
If
M such
B
further loaded
is
unloaded
that the intake of
P moves
towards
s.
will
B
If
loaded until Preaches J/ then further loading decreases the
take of
and
B and
the machine
stops, as has
Remark.
region
is
moves
in-
therefore falls out of synchronism
been explained.
With given motor
sM of stable running
intake the point
P may be
in the
or in the region Ms' of unstable run-
For the first case the current is smaller than for the second inasmuch as the resultant electromotive force is smaller in
ning.
the
first case.
128.
Running
of
two alternators in
parallel as generators.

Two
tors
alternators, both engine-driven, run satisfactorily as genera-
when they
Fig.
are adjusted to synchronism (and to proper phase
and connected
relation)
in
I97
in parallel
This arrangement
56.
to receiving mains, as
is
shown
frequently used in practice.
rnain
Fig. 156.
Machines
and
are started and connected together through
lamp /. The machines are adjusted to synchrowhen the lamp is at minimum brightness the switch s is
The switch s' is then closed, and the machines deliver
the indicating
nism, and
closed.
current to the mains.
other in phase
If either
machine should
share of the load
its
ning of the two machines
is
stable.
fall
behind the
reduced so that the run-
is
The lamp
/ is in practice
connected in series with the secondaries of two transformers, the

primaries of which are connected to
and to
respectively,
and the connections are so made that the proper conditions for
closing the switch s are indicated
Machine
is
A may
example and when the load inthe full capacity of machine A, machine B may be
adjusted to synchronism with A and connected to the
small, during the day, for
creases to
started up,
by maximum brightness.
be run alone when the output of the station
mains by closing the switch
s,
the switch
s'
being
left
closed
during the whole operation.

Sharing 0/ load between two engine- driven alternator generators in parallel.
When
one engine only
this case the
is
governed, the other engine being set at a fixed
output of the alternator driven by the fixed cut-off engine
the variations of station output are

put
falls
is
()
cut-off.
In
constant and
met by the governed engine. If the station outalternator, which is driven by the fixed cut-
below the constant output of the
19^
off engine, the other alternator takes in
take in enough power to drive

fixed cut-otf engine
may
power
engine and
its
as a synchronous motor,
if
the station output
it
This arrangement
cause the entire system to race.
may even
too low the
falls
is
seldom
used in practice.
{b)
When
both engines are governed the distribution of load between them
approximately as follows
Let a be the zero-load-speed of engine A, and
zero-load-speed of engine B.
Let
F^
Let
approximately
pu-_^n{b
proportion to
engines,
full
by
is
its full
obtained by dividing the
The
quantity
and
(i)
The engines share the

when their full load drop
determine
(ii)
load equally only
F\ P^^
when
is
full
found by
load drop in speed.
output determines the combined output
and equations
Well
(ii)
that the speed of a governed engine
quantity
B by
to
Then,
to its alternator.
(i)
load drop in speed.
its full
load output of engine
total station
Remark.
The
output.
its
load output of engine
The
s)
These equations are based on the assumption
dividing the
when
F^ = m{a-s)
and
falls off in
speed of both engines
h& the power delivered by engine
and P^^ the power delivered by engine
alternator,
its
common
be the
they are driving the two alternators.
is
be the
let b
and
P^-\-P^^
of the two
j.
and
their zero load speeds are equal
in speed is the same.
designed engines
off but very little in
fall
speed with increase
of load.
129.
Hunting action of the synchronous motor.
load on a synchronous motor
momentarily and
falls
is
it
synchronism,
to carry
it
behind the generator
its
load
therefore falls
it
is
still
still
in
It
power enough
running slightly below,
further behind
then gains on the generator
takes in less power than
slows up and so on.
is
required for
and takes an
It is
is
The hunting
in
when
until
it
it
again
similar to the hunting of a gov-
synchronous motors (or rotary
converters) are run in parallel from the
more troublesome
phase
in
load
above
frequently a source of great annoy-
ance, especially where several
Remark.
its
it
This oscillation of speed above and below
synchronism, called Jumtmg,

erned steam engine.
When
phase.
in
excess of power from the generator which quickly speeds
synchronism.
the
increased the motor slows up
the motor has fallen behind sufficiently to take

to enable
When
same mains.
of the synchronous
motor
is
case of the rotary converter than
case of the synchronous motor with a belt load.
usually
it
is
in
In Chapter
I99
XIII. the method employed for damping thd hunting oscillations

of a synchronous motor
is
described.
Theory of the hunting of the synchronous motor. When a synchronous motor is

running steadily it takes in power steadily from the mains and gives out power steadily
on
its
The
belt (or
from
pulsations of
direct current
its
power intake due
commutator
in case of the rotary converter).
to the alternations of electromotive force
rent are extremely rapid in comparison with hunting oscillations

sidered, indeed these pulsations
The mean
which
constant angular velocity.
the armature
its
is
it
mean position.
mean position
in its
belt load (including friction losses
acts
exist in case of polyphase machines.
motor
would have at that instant if it were turning at a
"When the motor hunts its armature oscillates forwards
the position
is
and backwards through
When
cur-
position, at a given instant, of the armature of a synchronous
hunting
is
do not
and
and need not be con-
and the
the power intake of the motor and
like) are equal,
its
and no unbalanced torque
on the armature.
When
the armature gets ahead of
load of the machine, which
is
its
assumed
mean
to
position
its
intake
is
lessened, the belt
be constant, exceeds the intake and an un-
balanced retarding torque acts on the armature.
When
the armature falls behind
its
mean
position
its
intake exceeds
its
belt load
and an unbalanced accelerating torque acts on the armature.

Let V^ be the angle between the mean position of the armature and its actual position at a given instant, and let T be the unbalanced torque acting on the armature at
Our problem
this instant.
when
is
1/;
small
is
to find the relation
between ^ and T.
This relation,
is
T=.-b^
where ^
is
a constant.
(i)
Therefore, from the laws of harmonic motion,
we have
4^=.
which
in
is
the
moment
(H)
of inertia of the rotating part of the machine
and
/ is
the
period of the hunting oscillations.
Derivation of equation
namely,
for the case in
(i).
We
shall derive equation (i) for a special case,
which the moments of
inertia of the armatures (or rotating
and synchronous motor are equal and for the particular phase
In this case, namely, when ^
l8o, see Figs. 149 and 152.
180, a small
angle ^
change of P^ is accompanied by an equal and opposite change of P'\ so that equal
unbalanced torques act at each instant on the armatures of machines A and B, and
their moments of inertia being equal the ranges of the oscillations of the armatures of
parts) of generator
both machines are equal.

of
its
mean
position at the
is
is,
the armature of machine
same
instant
and
vice versa.
machine
is
is
as
much ahead
its mean
behind
Therefore the change of the phase angle
being the angular displacement of one armature referred to the

being the number of pairs of field magnet poles in each machine.
equal to
other and /
That
position at each instant as the armature of
2/1/;,
21/;
200
Differentiating equation (89) with respect to ^, writing 2/>^ for

differentiation
is
performed, putting ^
^7^//
and
after the
^M_.sin^
dF^^ equals 2Trn T where n
Now
anced torque.
d(j),
= 180, we have
is
the speed of the machine
and
T is the unbal-
Therefore
irnV R^ 4- w2Z2
The
value of
3,
equation (i),
therefore
is
7rl/ ^2
Substituting this value of b in equation (ii)
sm
4-^2X2
and solving
for
f^,
we have
pAB sin d
or, since
sin V
"-^
we have
2;r2A-(^2
"~_
130.
The
generator
= 27r
+ ,,2Z2)
^^
pABL
efficiency of transmission of
alternating
P"IP\
and
power by means
and a synchronous
motor.
of the motor intake to the generator output
This
efficiency of transmission.
is
lost
by
are
maximum
efficiency of transmission
adjustment.
value, while
The
and
the two
and by eddy currents and
The
hysteresis
quantities A, B, (oL,
an
ratio,
called the
in field excitation of
friction
not considered.
is
of
not the net efficiency of the
system inasmuch as power consumed
machines and power
The
conditions necessary for
depend upon which of the
and P'^ are open to choice or capable of
quantities (oL
B may
and
are ordinarily fixed in
be changed more or
less
the field excitation of the respective machines, and
by varying
P" may
be
by changing the load on the motor.

When the electromotive force A of the generating alternator is
I
adjustable, maximum efficiency is obtained when the current (and
also RP^ is a minimum values of B, (dL, R and P" being given.
This minimum current is obtained when A is adjusted until B
and / are opposite to each other in phase.
varied
.

Proof.
The motor
equation (86).
P" = BI cos {BI\ according to

Therefore, since P" and B are given, the minimum
intake
value of / corresponds to
maximum
is
maximum
value of cos {BI^.
(negative) value of cos {BI)
sponding value of the angle (BI)
To
20
calculate the value of
is
is
1,
But the
and the corre-
180.
which
will
bring
B and
to each other in phase for the given values of B,
(liL,
/ opposite
R and
P'\
Fig. 157.
consider Fig. 157, in which
figure
the
and B.
From
this
known.
The
represents the current, and
resultant electromotive force of machines
we have
A^^{B ^ RIf +
from which
A may
0)2^2/2
be calculated when /
is
value
/ may be determined from the equation P^' = BI cos (BI).

When the electromotive force B of the synchronous motor is
adjustable, maximum efficiency is obtained when the current (and
also RI"^ is a minimum values of A, (oL, R and P'^ being given.
This minimum current is obtained when B is adjusted until A
and / are in phase with each other. The proof of this proposiof
2.
tion
is
To
given below.
calculate the value of
which
will bring
phase with each other for the given values of A, (oL,

consider Fig. 158, in which
and / into
R and
P'\
represents the value of the elec-
Fig. 158.
202
tromotive force of machine A, and

electromotive force of machines
have
B may
of
/ may be
be calculated when /
From
this figure
we
is
The value
known.
calculated from the relation
AT cos
{AT)
=^ P''
phase with each other ; A,
-]rRP
B is adjusted until A and I are

R and P" being given. Plot
Proof that I is a minimum when

in
represents the resultant
and B.
- RIf + '^'/' = ^'
(A
from which
(oL,
the curve of which the ordinates represent values of g)Z/ and the
abscissas represent values of
{BI\
cos
This curve
is
a hyper-
y-x/
X-axis
Fig. 159.
bola inasmuch as
cos (^/)
= a constant.
values of B cos {BI^
ioLP"
an intake,
is
angle
Q,
The
Draw
or
and the
cos {BI^
x (oLI =
plotted in Fig. 159 with the
inasmuch as P'\ being
of reference 01, represents
line
OE, making with 01 the
but of unknown length, represents the resultant
a horizontal line cutting
in q.
is
;r-axis
electromotive force of machines
bola
/= P"
laid off to the left
negative.
the current in the circuit
known
This curve
Then
and B.
OE in /
and cutting the hyper-
for that particular value of the current
which
203
corresponds to the chosen ordinate aq [=i (oLI) the line
vertical
component
E is equal
Then
and Os represent the two possible values of
From
scribed
line
about/
is
diagram
this
Op
est possible value of
it is
the lines
for the
Or
chosen
evident that for the short-
(smallest possible current) the circle de-
just touches the ordinate aq, in
and
horizontal
rep-
Describe about the point
to (oLl.
a circle of which the radius represents A.
value of (oLI.
Op
inasmuch as the
resents the actual resultant electromotive force
parallel to 01, as
which case the
shown
in
Fig. 160.
y-axi^
(J
<^
/e
/
''
"
^*'"''*-*^
X-axis
V
Fig.
160.
For any shorter value of Op (smaller value of E or /) the circle

does not reach to the ordinate aq, which means that for so small
a value of the current the given value of A
the line losses
3.
RI^ and
When P"
is
adjustable^
the differential coefficient of
From
is
too small to supply
the given motor intake P".
equations (89) and (90)
maximum
efficiency occurs
P"\P' with
we have
respect to
P^ _ AB
cos
(<^
6>)
B" co s
AB
cos
(</>
-f
(9)
4-
A^ cos
P'
~"
whence, applying the condition
d4>
is
when
zero.
204
we have
A" sin
((^
- B^ sin
(9)
which determines the value of

mission
is
<^
(</>
for
(9)
= 2AB sin
Geometrical construction of equation (93).
B'^
Draw
to scale, the angle
lines, Fig. 161,
between them being
About
2Q.
(93)
which the efficiency of trans-
maximum.
representing J^ and
the
point/
as
a center describe a circle of
which the radius represents
jir
2AB
'i^
From
sin 0.
the point
q draw a tangent to this circle.

The angle between the
line
OS
and
required
Two
tangents can be drawn
these
value
tangents
the value of
180) for which
determines
is
the
from the point
machine
tangent
this
the efficiency of transmission
is
<^
q.
of
One
c^.
of
determines
(less
maximum
than
with
acting as a synchronous motor and the other tangent
of
the value
<^
which
(greater than 180) for
the efficiency of transmission

is
maximum
with machine
synchronous
acting as a
The machine
motor.
distinguished as having
greater
electromotive
The angle
</>
is
is
the
force.
the lag of
behind A.
131.
Value of
maximum
B with
to
give
intake of machine
given current
and R, being
given.
A,
Let
wL
/,
^'^-
^2.
Fig. 162, be the given current
and
E {
ly/R?" -f (d^L?^ the resultant electromotive force.
that the intake of

(/?/)
B may
be a maximum,
Now B
must be a maximum.
on the current
line
the point P, Fig. 162
From
of B.
Remark.
From
Describe a circle of radius
Ox
is
B is adjusted
shown
in Article
adjusted to give
132.
given.
Maxinmm
P" has
it is
is
about
the required value
required value of
is in
with given
also in phase with
phase with
/.
It
/ when
was
B is
given P' (or with given P").
by no means
is
is
evident that
maximum P"
minimum /with
self-evident.
B\ A, B, (oL and R being

maximum negative value when cos (<^ ^) =
intake of machine
its
and equation
to give
30 that
This correspondence
OC
- 2AE cos
4- -f '
cos
the greatest possible value ot
OPC we have as the
sÂ^
the projection of
is
then
Fig. 162
/when
In order
cos (BI^ or
01.
the triangle
B=
BI
cos (i^/)
cos (BI) for the given current and
205
(89)
becomes
,
_ ^-cos^-^^
>/F^
Fig. 163.
+ 0)2/2
VSH;
206
Fig. 163
shows the
state of affairs
when
intake of
at
is
its
greatest.
133. Greatest values of the electromotive force
machine
can act as a motor
A, (oL and
for
which
being given.
So
long as
AB
is
greater than
B^
cos e
then
P"
can have negative values according to equation (89).
Therefore the Hmiting case
is
where
AB
I?
cos 6
or
cos
This limiting case
is
shown
(95)
in Fig. 164.
e,"
134.
To
find value of
the greatest possihle
B for
which the machine
B may take
power from A] A, <oL and R being given.
in
20/
Equation (94) expresses the greatest intake of B for given values

(jdL and R.
It is required to find the value of B which
of A, B,
will
make
this
maximum.
greatest intake a
AB
must render B^ cos
This value of
[the numerator of right-hand
mem-
Differentiating this expresber of equation (94)] a maximum.

the differential coefficient
placing
and
respect
to
with
sion
we have
equal to zero
2B
A=o
cos 6
or
B=--n
2 cos 6
Remark.
(96)
^^ '
comparison of equations (95) and (96) shows

B for greatest possible intake of machine B is
that the value of
half the greatest value of
motor
The
at
This
all.
is
which machine
for
its
dynamo which
135. Excitation characteristics.
nous motor (given value of P")
changed by varying
motor can have

drives
it,
is
the
and the value
dynamo which
is
its
field excitation,
for loads of zero,
watts respectively.
teristics
and
for
Fig. 165
ohm and wZ =
is
be
each value of
Thus the
/.
/,
abscissas of
and ordinates repre-
100 kilowatts and 200 kilo-
These curves are called the
of the m'otor.
R=
is
it.
B may
electromotive force
its
a definite value of the current
sent values of
drives
With given load on a synchro-
the curves. Fig. 165, represent values of
volts,
can act as a
electromotive force to permit the greatest possible intake
one-half the electromotive force of the
there
also the case with a direct-current motor.
greatest electromotive force such a
electromotive force of the

of
excitatio7i
based on the values
0.58 ohm.
charac-
A=
For the greatest
1,1
oa
possi-
ble intake, 302.7 kilowatts, the characteristic reduces to the point
was pointed out in Article 127

two values of / for each value of
B, and that the larger value of / corresponds to unstable and the
enclosed in the small
circle.
It
that with given load there are
smaller value to stable running.
The
dotted
portions of the
curves, Fig. 165, correspond to the larger values of
/.
These
208
dotted portions cannot, of course, be determined
on account of the
The equation
instability of running.
to the excitation characteristics
Fig. i66, represent the current
nents of
E are RI and wZ/.
as shown,
and
may be
derived as follows
The electromotive force
and the component of
angles of the figures
by experiment,
parallel to
is
is
the vector
From
Let
/,
the compo-
sum of A and B^
the right-angled
tri-
we have
pf/\^
j52
=-+(t)
()
209
^= (i?/+ ^y^ {x-ûL/y

By
eliminating
x from
these equations
A, A' and uL being given.

graphically by means of the diagram, Fig.
and /;
7'^'',
is
we have the required relation between B

The curves, Fig. 165, were calculated
149.
The negative reactance of the over-excited synchronous

When the electromotive force of a synchronous motor
136.
motor.
(^)
greater than the electromotive force of the generator which
drives
it,
the motor
called an over-excited synchronous motor.
is
Such a synchronous motor takes current which

generator electromotive force
in
synchronous motor constitutes a receiving

This
actance like a condenser.
motor load
in
is
which the
To
especially the case

affairs is
connected
167,
shown
when
in Fig.
the
167,
is
at zero load.
calculate the effectiveness of an over-excited, light-running
synchronous motor as a compensator
sent
circuit of negative re-
machine, which has the greater electromotive
motor and
force, is the
is
This state of
light.
ahead of the
is
phase, so that an over-excited
in parallel
by the
the
with an inductive receiving
when
circuit,
repre-
OCP
and /
by the
A, Fig.
electromotive
force of the
motor, by
line
for lagging currents
synchronous
the electro-
motive force between the
mains at the receiving

station, the
being
angle
determined by the
tance and
resis-
reactance of
the armature of the syn-
chronous
motor.
The
component of / which
90 ahead of
B in
is
Fig. 167.
phase
is
is
equal to the resultant electromotive force
sin
<^,
where
<^ is
the angle at
impedance of the motor.
of the triangle
OP
divided
2IO
The polyphase synchronous motor.
137.
is,
well,
The
entire
preceding
arti-
power
motor from a
discussion appHes equally
to a single -phase alternator taking
single-phase generator.
The
synchronous motor, that
cles refer explicitly to the single-phase
as a
however, to the polyphase synchronous motor, that
is,
to a
polyphase alternator taking power as a motor from a polyphase

In this case each armature winding of the motor
generator.
takes current from one phase (or one armature winding) of the
power intake
generator, and the total
number
of phases and
P"
the preceding discussion
motor, the letters A, B,
is
is
is
nP'\ where n
the
is
When
the intake of each phase.
applied to the polyphase synchronous
(oL,
P' ,P" and /
refer to
one phase only
of the system.
138.
The rotary converter.
The
next chapter
the rotary converter, which, as ordinarily used,
is
devoted to
is
at
once a syn-
chronous alternating-current motor and a direct-current dynamo.

This machine usually runs as a polyphase synchronous motor,
taking power from a polyphase alternating-current generator and
When
giving out power in the form of direct current.

this
way
the rotary converter exhibits
synchronous motor as outlined

next chapter
is
all
in the
run in
the properties of the
foregoing
articles.
The
devoted mainly to the discussion of the relations
between the direct-current output and the alternating-current

take, to the relations
in-
between the direct electromotive force and
the alternating electromotive force of the rotary converter and

to armature heating.
PROBLEMS.
95.
Plot curves showing the values of
synchronous alternators
in series, the
P\ P"
and
one alternator
RP for two
A
electromotive force of 1,200 volts, the other machine
having an
an elec-
tromotive force of 800 volts, the resistance of the circuit being

I
ohm and
the reactance 2 ohms.
Result similar to Fig. 151.

Two
96.
connected
211
governed engines drive two alternators which are
Engine
and feed one pair of mains.
in multiple
drops from 150 revolutions per minute at zero load to 145 revolutions per minute at
Engine
100 horse power.
drops from
150 revolutions per minute at zero load to 147 revolutions per
minute at
the engines.
what
gine
their
is
B when
An
97.
engine
idle?
is
station output is
by
by each engine, and
What power is delivered by enAns. {a) 70.2 H. P., {b) 54.8 H.
125 horse power to be delivered

delivered
P.
alternator B, of which the electromotive force
kilowatts from alternator A.
takes 75
volts,
total of
What power is
common speed ?
H.
18.7
P., (r)
The
load of 75 horse power.
full
such as to require a
must the electromotive

ciency of transmission
force of
may
circuit
i,cx)0
To what
value
be adjusted, so that the
be maximum, and what
sponding value of the current, resistance of
and reactance of
is
being 0.58
ohm?
circuit
is
effi-
the corre-
being
Ans. 1,076
ohm
volts,
75
amperes.
The
98.
electromotive force of alternator
To what
1,076 volts.
sion,
and what
B being
of
The
99.
ohm
Ans. 1,009.8
what
181.8,
A
is
to B,
is
volts, 74.9
what
amperes.
1,100 volts, and
^4 is
1,000 volts, resistance of circuit
is
What
is
most
the intake of
the output of A, and what
P" =
is
efficiency of transmis-
electromotive force of alternator
behind A, for which power
mitted from
tions,
maximum
and reactance of circuit 0.58 ohm.
lag of
problem 97
the corresponding value of the current, intake
75 kilowatts?
that of alternator
in
value must the electromotive force of al-
ternator^ be adjusted to give

is
92 kilowatts, P'
-f
is
is
is
the angular
efficiently trans-
under these condi-
the efficiency
Ans.
101.8 kilowatts, efficiency
91.3 per cent.

100.
is
What
is
the angular lag
<!>
of
B behind A,
in
problem 95,
most efficiently transmitted from B to A what

the intake of A under these conditions, what is the output of
for
which power
is
212
B, and what
watts,
The
lOi.
Ans. 159.4, P'
the efficiency?
is
P" = +
800
volts, resistance of circuit is
is
ohm.
What
chronous motor
What
102.
is
is
maximum
the
Ans.
89.
intake of machine
the greatest value of
value must
take of machine
B may
Ans. 636
intake?
A=
Given
104.
30 kilowatts
have
An
volts
is
a syn-
(A, toZ,
in
B to
and
R being
as
act as a synchro-
order that the
maximum
be the greatest possible, and what
is
in-
this
volts, 220.3 kilowatts.
800
R=
volts,
ohm,
wL
P" =
ohm,
plot curve showing different values of /correspond-
Result similar to Fig. 165.
ing to different values of ^.

105.
^ as
kilowatts.
problem 97) which will permit machine

nous motor ? Ans. 1,272 volts.
What
36.4 kilo-
A is 900 volts, that of B is

ohm, and reactance of circuit
in
103.
156.7 kilowatts, efficiency 23.2 per cent.
alternator of
to be run as a
which the electromotive force
motor from
10- volt mains.
is
150
The resistthe minimum
is i ohm.
What is
amount of inductance required in the circuit, the frequency being
60 cycles per second ? Ans. 0.00246 henry.
ance of the alternator armature
106.
condenser
is
connected
resistance of the circuit
machine
is
R/^
is
driven as
ohm.
ohm, the electromotive
and
The
force of
P\
P^' and
an electromotive force of
i,
100
volts,
ohm, and a reactance of 0.58 ohm. The machine

a synchronous motor with zero load from 1,000-volt
What
ponent of
0.58
</>.
An alternator A has
mains.
is
Plot curves showing the values of
for various values of
107.
is
with alternators
1,100 volts, and the electromotive force of machine
1,000 volts.
a resistance of
is
in series
so that the total reactance of the circuit
is
What is the com?

90 ahead of the supply electro-
the value of the current
this current
which
is
What capacity of condensers would take

?
amount of leading current from the 1,000-volt mains at
a frequency of 60 cycles per second ?
Ans. 268.7 amperes,
motive force in phase

the same
253.1 amperes, 4,574 microfarads.
CHAPTER
XIII.
THE ROTARY CONVERTER.

The rotary converter.
139.
may
be
made
is
in
which,
Such
is
provided with two collecting rings
armature conductors.
two-phase converter
in
commutator.
case of a two-pole machine, are connected to diametric-
ally opposite
TJic
its
dynamo
with collecting
it
called a rotary converter.
The single-phase converter

which,
direct-current
by providing
below, in addition to
rings, as described
a machine
An ordinary
into an alternator
is
provided with four collecting rings
case of a two-pole machine, are connected to armature
conductors 90 apart.
The three-phase converter
is
provided with three collecting rings
which, in case of a two-pole machine, are connected to armature
conductors 120 apart.
Remark
i.
It is often
convenient to refer to a rotary converter
as a two-ring, three-ring, four-ring, or -ring converter, as the
case
may
be.
Remark
2.
In
case of a multipolar machine the n collecting
rings are connected to the armature as follows
connected to
all
tion of the armature,

field
magnet.
of this
Let
first set,
north pole.
Ring No.
is
armature conductors which, for any given posi-
that
Then
ductors which are
lie
midway under
the north poles of the
be the distance between adjacent conductors

is,
the distance from north pole to the next
ring No. 2
th
is
connected to the armature con-
of / ahead of the
first set
connected to the armature conductors which are

213
ring No. 3
is
ths of / ahead
n
214
of the
are
first set
n ths
ring No.
is
of / ahead of the
connected to the conductors which
first
set,
applies to multicircuit winding.
ing each collecting ring

only.
Fig. 168
is
and so on.
This statement
In case of the two-circuit wind-
connected to one armature conductor
shows a four-pole dynamo with two collecting
rings each connected to
when provided with
The machine
two armature conductors.
these collecting rings
is
a four-pole single-
phase rotary converter.

Use of the rotary converter.
The
as an ordinary direct-current
or synchronous motor
it
rotary converter
dynamo
may be
or motor
may
be used
as an alternator
driven as a direct-current
motor, the load being provided by taking alternating current from

its
collecting rings
or
it
may be
driven as a synchronous alter-
nating-current motor, the load being provided
current off the commutator.
This
by taking
last is the principal
direct
use of the
most cases
where power, transmit-
machine.
ted
In
to
alternating current,
be used
by
distance
in
is
to
the form of
direct current, the rotary
converter
is
used
for
bringing about the con>

version from alternating
current to direct current.
Thus,
in
railway plants,
electric
it is
many extended
found expedient to
transmit
Fig. 168.
high
the power as
pressure
poly-
phase current from a central station to rotary converters stationed

along the
line of the railway; these rotary converters
take the alter-
nating current through step-down transformers and, in their turn,
supply direct current at medium pressure to the trolley wires.

140.
The starting
of the rotary converter
and
21
its
operation
used to convert alternating current into direct current.
used
it
way
in this
differs
but
the rotary converter
little in its
is
when
When
a synchronous motor and
operation from the synchronous motor
with a belt load.

Starting.
The
motor using storage

rent
or
it
may
may
machine
be started as a direct-current
batteries or other local source of direct cur-
be started
in precisely
the same manner as a
synchronous motor with a belt load as described
The
field
magnet of a rotary converter
is
in Article 126.
always excited by direct
current taken from the machine itself

Operation.
Let B^
Fig.
69, be the effective alternating elec-
tromotive force of a rotary converter and

force of the alternating generator.
153, Chapter XII.
converter
When
its
load
zero
direct current
moves towards M.
verter,
When
is
is
The
no
the electromotive
Fig. 169
is
identical to Fig.
direct current
is
taken from the
and the point P,
Fig.
169,
is
at
taken from the converter the point

alternating current taken
s.
by the con-
being proportional to the resultant electromotive force
2l6
OP,
at first decreases
load increases,
and then increases
and so on, exactly as
nous motor with a belt load.

It
may
was pointed out
* as the direct current
the case of a synchro-
(See Article 122.)
XIL
Chapter
in
in
that a synchronous
motor
operate at comparatively high efficiency for a wide range of
values of
(value of
has large reactance
given)
pointed out in Article 133.

actance
if
the alternating-current circuit
B may
in fact,
If
even be larger than A, as
a considerable portion of the re-
external to the armature of the converter then the
is
electromotive force between the collecting rings of the converter
changes with
and so also does the electromotive force of the
Therefore the direct electromotive force of a rotary
machine.
converter
may be varied
at will f
by changing the
of the machine, although the electromotive force
nating generator
Hunting.
may
1
29.
does not often hunt,
of the alter-
be constant.
The hunting
scribed in Article
field excitation
action of the sychronous
motor
The synchronous motor with
for,
is
de-
a belt load
the inelasticity of the belt, the slack in
the belt, and the friction of the driven machinery tend to steady
the
machine.
The
rotary
converter,
peculiarly subject to hunting, and
which drives the
if
on the other hand,
alternator, are in unison with the hunting oscil-
lations of the converter and alternator, hunting
is
the pulsations of the engine,
method
damping the hunting
is
sure to be pro-
oscillations of
141. Preliminary statement concerning armature current of
duced.
rotary converter
rotary converter.
rotary converter.
is
for
described in Article 142.
Consider
A part of
a given armature conductor of a

the current in this conductor
is
due
to the alternating currents which flow into the armature at the

collecting rings
and a part
is
due to the direct current flowing
out of the armature at the direct current brushes.

current in the conductor
^
When B
is less
is
the algebraic
sum
The
actual
of these two parts,
than A.
t The possible range of variation depends upon the reactance in the circuit external to the rotary converter.

and since these parts are generally opposite
actual current in the conductor
magnetic
142.
effect
and
heating
its
is
217
in sign, therefore the
rather small and so also
Magnetic reaction of the armature of the rotary converter.
Distortion of field.
The
distortion of
the magnetic
dynamo by
the armature currents accompanies, and
cause
the
of,
which
with
acts
is its
effect.
of a
field
is in
fact the
torque
the
field
upon the armature.
When
the torque
is in
the direction of the rotation of the
armature
(motor action) the

is
concentrated
field
under
the leading horns of the
pole pieces as
speed the
shown
field is
in Fig.
Fi&- i7o.
70.
When the torque is
opposite to
concentrated under the trailing horns of the pole

pieces as
When
is
shown
in Fig. 171.
a rotary converter
running steadily the speed
of
its
armature
is
constant,
and the only torque acting on

armature
the
is
the
slight
torque needed to overcome

friction, therefore
Pi&- 171-
When
scarcely at
a rotary converter hunts,
its
below synchronism so that a torque

in
trated, first
under the
is
all distorted.
speed oscillates above and
acts
in another,
trailing
the field
upon the armature,
and the
field is
first
concen-
horns and then under the leading
horns of the pole pieces.
The damping of the huntijig oscillations of a rotary converter is

accomplished by a heavy copper frame ccc. Fig. 172, which is
embedded in the face of each field pole as shown. The shifting
2l8
of the flux from one side to the other of the pole face, as described above, induces large
Fig. 172.
thereby
These currents oppose the
damp
action.
and B,
shifting of the flux
the oscillations.
Demagnetizing
currents in the circuits
and
'
The demagnetizing
may be
ture currents of a rotary converter
action of the arma-
made up
considered as
of the demagnetizing action of the direct current alone and of the
The first
alternating currents alone.

is
the same as in the direct- current
dynamo and
the second
is
consid-
effect
due to
ered in Article 79.
very important
the demagnetizing action of the ar-
mature currents
verter
is
in
a rotary con-
the following.
A converter
takes direct current from constant
electromotive force mains and delivers
alternating
When
current.
short circuit occurs on the alternating
current mains
the
converter
may
speeds up indefinitely and

Fig. 172.
destroyed.
alternating current
weakens the
ical eflbrt is required,
field
and, since but
little
mechan-
the speed increases just as the speed of an un-
loaded direct-current motor would increase by weakening
143.
be
The enormous lagging
Power rating
of rotary converters.
its field.
The magnetic
action
(demagnetizing action and distorting action) of the armature currents of a rotary converter
lowable output
ture.
is
is
never troublesome, so that the
al-
limited by the permissible heating of the arma-
The armature
heating
is
rather small, as pointed out in
power rating as
a rotary converter than as a direct-current dynamo, except in the
The accompanying table
case of the single-phase converter.
gives the power ratings (based upon equal average armature
Article 141, so that a given machine has a higher

when used
heating) of a given machine
dynamo,
219
(a) as
a direct-current
as a single-phase converter, {c) as a three-phase con-
(J?)
verter, {d) as a
two-phase (four-ring) converter, and
{e)
as a six-
phase converter.
Power Ratings of Rotary Converters.*
a.
b.
Continuous-
Single-
d.
c.
current
phase
Threephase
dynamo.
converter.
converter.
.85
1.32
1.
00
e.
Four-
Six-
ring
converter.
converter.
phase
1.62
1.92
144. Electromotive force relations of the rotary converter.
Let
Eq be the electromotive force between the direct-current brushes
and E^ the
effective alternating electromotive force
jacent collecting rings of an
n-rmg converter.
a characteristic value for each value of
Fundamental
assumptio7i.
Consider
Fig. 173, at angular distance
^ from
The
between ad-
E
ratio -^^
has
n.
an armature conductor
the axis of the
field,
c^
as
Fig. 173.
shown, t
We assume
conductor c
is
that the electromotive force induced in the
proportional to cos
/3
or equal to
C cos
yS
where
* These ratings are calculated as explained in Article 147, and in their calculation
and the wattless component of the alternating currents have
the losses in the machine
been ignored.
These ratings are therefore somewhat too
large.
t The discussion in Articles 144 to 147 is given for the case of a two-pole machine.
The results, however, apply to multipolar machines as well.
220
C is
in
3.
The
constant.
results of this assumption are practically
accord with experiment.
The number
of armature conductors between c and
portional to, or say equal to,
The
electromotive force in each conductor
electromotive force in
all
c' is
is
C-cos
/3,
the conductors between c and
de=
and the
c^ is
C-cos ^-d^.
{a)
Electromotive force E^ between direct current brushes.
conductors between b and
pro-
d/3.
All
the
are in series between the direct-cur-
b'
rent brushes so that
or
Effective electromotive force
of an n-ring converter.
rings r
and
r',
E^ between adjacent
The electromotive
Fig. 174,
is
at its
collecting rings
force between adjacent
maximum
value
when
the arc
Fig. 174.
rr^ is bisected
by the
axis of the field as shown.
27r
tween r and
r'
is
electromotive force
The angle
be-
IT
or half this ane^le

^
^ 2E^ between
\^2E^=\
""
rings r
is
and
The maximutn
r' is
therefore
Ccos^'d^ = 2Csm-
or since
2C= E^,
we have
A.
~7=^
V 2 ^0
sin ITIn
(97)

Examples.
The
effective alternating electromotive force of
single-phase converter
(ri
is
2)
V
The
rings of a three-phase converter
(71
3)
is
rings of a two-phase converter
{ri
between adjacent
(99)
.^^
= 4)
is
between adjacent
(100)
,=f
The
between opposite rings of a
two-phase converter
is
E^.
Fundamental
145. Current relations of the rotary converter.

assiiviptions.
sume
The
221
In the discussions of current relations
we
shall as-
that the alternating current flowing through each section
(between adjacent collecting rings) of the armature
is
exactly
opposite in phase to the alternating electromotive force in that

section,
and that the intake and output
of power are equal.
Let
and
I^
let
be the output of direct current
/ be
the effective alternating
current flowing in the armature between
two adjacent collecting
The
rings.
in-
take of power per phase is EJ^ or the

power output is EJ^. Therefore
total intake
^'^- ^^^
is
nEJ^ and
the
EJ,= nEJ
or substituting the value of E^ from equation (97)
^^^
/==
""
ft
sm
irjn
we have
(lOl)
^
'
ELEMENTS OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS
222
Current in each main.
The
current
in
each main or the
current entering the armature at each collecting ring,

difference
between // and
/
Examples.
The
2/
(102)
effective alternating current in
each half of
2) is
= ;^
/.
ring
the vector
sin irln
the armature of a 2 -pole single-phase converter {n
and the
is
//', Fig. 175, so that
(.03)
effective alternating current entering at
each collecting
is
^.= 2/2= 1-414^

The
effective alternating current flowing in the
(104)
armature be-
tween adjacent collecting rings of a 2 -pole three-phase converter

(;^
3) is
and the
effective current entering at
/,=
The
each collecting ring
is
x/3/3
(106)
effective alternating current flowing in the
armature be-
tween adjacent collecting rings of a 2 -pole two-phase converter

in
= 4)
is
h=y^h
and the
effective current entering at
/.=
each collecting ring
>/2/,
146. Instantaneous current in a given
rotary converter.
Letr and
r'. ,
(107)
is
(108)
armature conductor of a
Fig. 176, be the points of attach-
ment of adjacent collecting rings of an /^-ring converter and let

the line (9J/ bisect the arc rr'
Consider an armature conductor
c between r and r' and let the angle cOM be represented by a.
The largest possible value of a is irln or one-half of the angle
between r and r'
.

Let
Then
be the angle between
ft)/
OM and
223
the axis of the
field.
the alternating current between the collecting rings r and
Fig. 176.
r',
that
the alternating current in the conductor
is,
maximum
value
V 2/
when
(of
= o.
for the instantaneous value of this current
When
the conductor c
is
d,
c reaches brush
to/
again
is
"^2/^ cos
the conductor c passes a brush the direct current

applied to a 2-pole machine) in conductor c
fore the total current in
at its
(ot.
at brush d\ cot = 90 a, when the

cot= 270 a, and when conductor
= 450 a and so on. Each time
conductors reaches brush

d'
c, is
Therefore the expression
conductor
\/2/ cos
is
(discussion
reversed.
There-
c is
ft)/
=h
(109)
= 90 a and =
= 270 a and
270 a, the sign
to be taken between
= 450 a, the + sign again between 450 a and 630 a,
The
4- sign is to
be taken between
is
ft)/
ft)/
ft)/
(ot
etc.
Remark.
The
angle a determines simply the phase of the
alternating current in the conductor at the instant that the direct
current
is
reversed.
224
The meaning
by
the curves
of equation (109)
shown
in Figs.
in each figure are the
177
made more clear perhaps

and (b). The upper curves
is
(a)
component current curves
that
is,
the
ordinates of the square -wave curve represent that part of the current in the given conductor which depends
Component curves
Eesultant curve
(^-=0
71=2
ot=0
?i=2
Fig. 177(a).
Component curves
Eesultant curve
n-
n =2
oc
30*
<x=&o^
Fig.
177
(b).
upon the
direct cur-
22$
rent output of the machine, and the ordinates of the sine curve
represent that part of the current in the given conductor which
depends upon the alternating current intake of the machine.
The
assumed
alternating currents are
to be exactly opposite in
phase to the alternating electromotive forces of the machine.
The heating
147.
converter.
Equation
armature
the
(109) expresses
current
actual
the
of
of
in
given
conductors
the
armature
ing from one direct-current brush to the other
= (90
-f a) to
(ot
= 90 a.
The
rotary
value
conductor of a
during the time that this conductor
rotary converter
(ot
of
instantaneous
that
is
pass-
is,
from
current passes through
a similar set of values during the next half revolution of the
armature.
The average
given conductor
which heat
rate at
generated
is
in
the
proportional to the average value of P, equa-
is
tion (109), during the time
= ^ (90
cot
-|-
a) to
cot
= 90*^ a.
Therefore
j2
the average rate of gener-
ating heat in the conductor .
is
proportional to
The
by
rate at
tor
/
(
4 \
16 COS a
I
^ sm
TT,
n^
which heat would be generated
8
\
7
sm^
r
TtIu)
( 1 1
in
o)^
a given conduc-
the direct current alone would be proportional to I^j^y
and equation
shows that the conductor
(1 10)
(16
cos a
irn sin irfn
times as
much
c has
n^ sin^ 'î^^J
heat generated in
it
as an ?/-ring converter as
by the direct current alone.

The conductors midway between the points of attachment of
would be generated
in
the collector rings (a
it
= o)
are heated least, and the conductors
= =b 7r/)
2)
converter
near the points of attachment of the collector rings (a

are heated most.
the conductors
collector rings (a
in
= o)
in
a two-ring
{it
the points of attachment of the
have only 0.453 ^^
much
heat generated
as would be generated in them by the direct current

and the conductors near the points of attachment of the
them
alone,
For example,
midway between
226
= 90) have three times
collector rings (a
ated in
them
as
would be generated
in
much
as
heat gener-
them by the
direct cur-
rent alone.
The average heating

verter.
The
average
of the entire armature of a rotary con-
heating
over
the
armature
entire
is
found by integrating the equation (no) with respect to a from
a=
TT
...
IT
toa=-l-- and
Average heating of armature of

-ring converter
is
proportional to
The average
^
heating
^
is
Therefore an
This
g-ives
III
16
-n^'^ n^^xn^-rrln)
16
therefore
//-ring
by
~4
ir
+ n^
8
.
\*
j-
times
sm^ irjn)
by the
as great as the heating of the armature

alone.
27r
dividing the result
direct current
converter can put out

I
16
TT"
8
ft sm' irjn
much
times as
rent as the
when used
can
dynamo,
for the
armature
direct cur-
same machine
as a simple
same
table given in Article

is
total
The
heating.
143
calculated in this way.

148.
Use of rotary con-
verter for supplying current

to
the
Edison
three -wire
system. Z', T" and T"\

,
Fig. 178.
represent
Fig.
178,
three
secondaries
of
the
the
step-down transformer which are Y-connected to three collecting

rings, r' , r",
* Generally
and
less
/'', of a three-ring converter.
than unity.
The electromo-
N and
force bctivecn the neutral point
tive
brush
is
brush
to
and equal
constant
may
be connected to
to
N.
Let
is
E^^
the
sum
and
its
of the electromotive forces b to
instantaneous value
b?
The
=^
2
--COS
maximum
T" and T'"

,
O)/
E^ between rings
is
(99) bis
one of the Y-connected
is,
when
is
at its
/ =
ô "^ ^^2> ^^ *^^^ ^^^
E^-r- \^ 2> ^^
7"' is
E^-r-
maximum
value
electromotive force in
tromotive force in T'

at b, that
is
and
o)
effective electromotive force in
T'
and
and
Then the
r' is at b.
^3=^
units
r'
b' ,
is
and the
and the
be the steady electromotive force b to
electromotive force br' fluctuates between zero (when

E^,
from
b'
force between brush b
time be reckoned from the instant that
let
force
the outside wires being con-
iV,
The electromotive
neutral point
direct-current
to lialf the electromotive
nected to the direct-current brushes b and

Discussion.
eitlier
Therefore the middle wire of Edison's three-
brush.
wire system
22/
o or when
(ot o.
2.
Now
when
the elec-
the ring
r' is
Therefore the
in-
stantaneous electromotive force in r'Nis
r'
N = E2
cos
(Ot
Therefore
br' -f
r'N= -'
2
PROBLEMS.
io8.
The
plain multicircuit ring-wound armature of a six- pole
direct-current
dynamo has 360 conductors on
conductors are numbered from
to 360.
its face.
These
228
One
(a)
collecting ring of a rotary converter
conductor No.
To what
i.
Ans.
connected?
\.o
connected to
121 and 241.
To what conductors must
(b)
is
other conductors must this ring be
a second ring
be connected
(^B)
and 301.
(<r) To what conductors must two additional rings B and C be
connected to give a three-ring converter? Ans. B to 41, 161
Ans.
to give a two-ring converter?
C to
to 61, 181
and 321.
(d) To what conductors must three additional rings B, C and
be connected to give a four-ringed? Ans. ^ to 31, 151 and
and 281,
81, 201
and 301,
to 91, 211 and 331.
{e) To what conductors must four additional rings B, C, D and
E be connected to give a five-ring converter? Ans. B to 25,
to 73, 193 and 313, ^
145 and 265, C to 49, 169 and 289,
271,
to 61, 181
to 97,
217 and 337.
109.
drum winding has 102

i
to 102.
The con-
four-pole, two-circuit, single
conductors numbered consecutively from

ductors are connected as follows
and back
and
67
I,
to
1-26-5 1 -76-1 01
To what conductors must
i.
of a three-ring converter be connected
No. 35, and
to
Make
10.
to
is
a four-pole, two-circuit, single
29-42 and back
to
96
when n
2853-78
Ans.
I,
to
show
No.
three
The
19 and 37.
drum winding with 54
i 14-27-40-53
316-
i.
50-kilowatt direct-current
;2-ring converter.
a diagram of the following winding and
conductors connected up as follows
111.
No. 69.
collecting rings connected to conductors
winding
the three rings A,
What
4,
is its
and when
dynamo
capacity rating
n=
6}
is
to be used as an
when
/^
2,
when
Ans. 42.5, 66, 81, and
kilowatts.
1
12.
three-ring converter
volts to a street-car line.
is
to supply direct current at
At what
currents be delivered to the machine
mation
is
500
voltage must the alternating

?
The step-down
transfor-
accomplished by three similar transformers with their
229
primaries A-connected to the high voltage mains and their sec-
ondaries Y-connected to the three rings of the converter.

is
Ans. 306
being 10,000 volts?

113.
N"
^,-=0.0530.
volts.
two-ring converter with negligible armature resistance
and reactance takes current over a 0.2-ohm

tion
coil
having 0.3
ohm
reactance.
The
line
20
The
volts.
through a reac-
effective
electromotive force at the generator terminals

1
What
the ratio of transformation of each transformer, the line voltage
is
alternating
kept constant at
excitation of the converter can be varied at will.
Find greatest value of alternating electromotive force of converter

for
which
it
can run as a synchronous motor, and find the corre-
sponding value of the direct electromotive force of the converter.
Find the greatest direct-current load which the converter can

carry without dropping out of synchronism (a)
voltage of the converter
when
maximum and
at its
is
direct voltage of the converter is 5 volts,
(b)
10 volts, 15
the direct
when the
volts,
20
and 25 volts respectively less than the maximum. In this

problem ignore friction and other losses in the machine. Ans.
volts,
216.25 volts, 306 volts, {a) zero,
(U)
4.24 amperes, 7.59 amperes,
11.53 amperes, 15.32 amperes, 19.15 amperes.

114. Plot the curve of
which the ordinates represent the
in-
stantaneous values of the current in an armature conductor of a

four-pole, three-ring converter with multicircuit winding,
250 amperes
tion of a ring,
(a)
when the conductor
and
(B)
when
is
/ being
adjacent to the connec-
the conductor
midway between
is
the connections of two rings.

115.
5
lOO-kilowatt direct-current generator
collector rings.
Find
its
power
is
provided with
rating as a rotary converter,
based upon average armature heating.
Ans.
kilowatts.
CHAPTER
XIV.
THE INDUCTION MOTOR.

149.
The induction motor.
that the successful
has already been pointed out
It
employment of
alternating current for motive
purposes depends upon the use of the induction motor driven by
polyphase currents.
The
induction motor consists of a primary
member and a secondary member, each with a winding of wire.

The primary member is usually stationary, and is often called the
stator.
The secondary member is usually the rotating member,
Fig. 179.
and
is
Fig. 180.
often called the rotor.
squirrel-cage type.
sheet-iron disks
It consists
Fig. 179
of a
drum
near the periphery of
of holes parallel to the axis of the
shows a rotor of the
this
drum
built
up of
circular
drum
are a
number
in these holes
heavy
copper rods b are placed, and the projecting ends of these rods
are soldered to massive copper rings,
drum.
Another type of rotor
is
r,
one at each end of the
described
230
later.

The
stator
rounding
is
231
a laminated iron ring, FF, Fig. 180, closely sur-
This ring
the rotor.
shown, windings are arranged

receive currents from
is
slotted
on
inner face, as
its
and these windings
in these slots,
poly-
These
phase supply mains.
polyphase currents produce

in
the stator a rotating state
of magnetism, the action of
which on the Votor is the same

as the action of an ordinary
field
Thus
magnet
Fig.
squirrel-cage
rotation.
in
shows
181
rotor
rounded by an ordinary
magnet rotating
tion
of the
in
surfield
the direcFig. 181,
curved arrows.
magnet induces currents in the shortcircuited copper rods of the rotor

the field magnet exerts a
dragging force on these currents and causes the rotor to rotate.
This motion of the
field
No
electrical
connec-
tions
of any
made
to the rotor.
next
kind
are
The
describes
article
the stator windings and
manner
explains the
which
these
windings
the
rotating
produce
state
in
of
magnetism
in
the stator.
150.
Stator
and their
windings
action.
The
stator windings are

^'^' ^^'
80, in a
manner exactly
ranged in the
similar to the
slots
s,
ar-
Fig.
arrangement of the wind-
232
ings of the two-phase or three-phase alternator armature, accord-
ing as the motor

Fig. 182
tion
is to be suppHed with two- or three-phase currents.

shows an end view of a four-pole two-phase induc-
motor.
shown
In this figure the outline, only, of the rotor
is
the stator conductors are represented in section by the
small circles
the slots are omitted for the sake of clearness
and the end connections of half the stator conductors are shown
Fig.
in Fig. 183.
marked
system
it
and
The
One
circuits.
and
183.
stator conductors are arranged in
of these circuits includes

it
all
two
receives current from one phase of a
the other circuit includes
all
distinct
of the conductors
two -phase
of the conductors
marked
receives current from the other phase of the two-phase
system. The terminals

The conductors which
of the
circuit are
shown
at tf ^ Fig. 183.
constitute one circuit are so connected
that the current flows in opposite directions in adjacent groups

of conductors as indicated
by the arrows
233
in
Fig.
radial lines in Fig. 183 represent the stator conductors
curved
The
is
action of a
shown
10.
band of conductors between two masses of

184 and 185. The small circles in these
in Figs.
iron
iron
L OeQQQ\
iron'
iron
up
and the
represent the end connections, as in the winding
lines
diagrams, Figs. 103 to
iron
The
183.
down
flowinq cunenip
Fig. 184.
flowinff current^
Fig. 185.
figures represent the conductors in section
conductors carrying
down-flowing currents are marked with crosses, those carrying

up-flowing currents are marked with dots, and those carrying no
current are
left
of conductors
blank.
is
in the directions
The
lines
to rotate
to
action of the currents in these bands

lines
of the arrows.
A' and B'
and
The
produce magnetic flux along the dotted
in
Figs. 186, 187
their projections
and 188 are supposed
on the fixed
Fig.
186.
line cf represent
the
234
instantaneous values of the alternating currents in the
and
conductors respectively.
Fig. 187.
Fig.
tors yi
The
is
86 shows the
a
state of affairs
maximum and
when
the current in conduc-
the current in conductors
B is
dotted lines indicate the trend of the magnetic flux.
zero.
This
235
flux enters the rotor from the stator at the points
marked
leaves the rotor at the points
the current in the
the
N and
J of a cycle later, when

conductors has increased and the current in
shows the
Fig. 187
marked
S.
state of affairs,
The
conductors has decreased to the same value.
N and S have moved over ^ of the
points
circumference of the stator
ring.
shows the
Fig. 188
cycle,
when
maximum
to zero.
state of affairs, after another eighth of
the current in the
conductors has reached
value and the current in the
The
points
N and S
its
conductors has dropped
have moved again over
r}^
of the
circumference of the stator ring.
This motion of the points

points
make one complete
N and
is
continuous, and these
revolution (in a four-pole motor) dur-
ing two complete revolutions of the vectors A' and B' or while
the alternating currents supplied to the stator windings are pass-
ing through two cycles.
in
which
is
the
//
is
In general
the revolutions per second of the stator-magnetism,
number of
pairs of poles
N and 5, and/
is
the frequency
of the alternating currents supplied.

Three-phase stator winding.
When
an induction motor
is
driven by three-phase currents, the stator conductors are arranged

in
three distinct circuits A,
and
Y-connected to the supply mains.

connections, for four poles, of the
The
and
C circuits
which are either A- or
C,
Fig.
89 shows the complete
circuit
with
its
terminals
tt'
are similarly connected.
In general, the ^/-phase stator winding for 2/ poles has 2pn

equidistant bands of conductors.
etc.,
bands are connected
positely in adjacent bands,
in
one
and
phase of the ;/-phase system.

etc.,
The
ist, (//
-j-
circuit, so that
i)th,
{in -f i)th,
currents flow op-
this circuit takes current
The
bands are similarly connected
2d, {n
in
-\-
from one
2)th, {2n
-f-
2)th,
another circuit and take
236
current from the second phase of the //-phase system.

{ii
3)th,
{2n
3)th,
etc.,
bands are
The
3d,
connected in
similarly
Fig. 189.
another circuit and take current from the third phase of the
;2-phase system
151.
and so
The production
on.
of a rotating
rents without an iron core.
coil
magnetic
A A,
field
by means
Fig. 190, with
placed inside of a larger coil
at right angles to
<?,
is
likewise at p and
its
plane at right angles to
b.
Fig. 190.
BB,
its
of two-phase cur-
center
at/ and
its
plane
the center of this coil being

Let
^
be the alternating current flowing
=A
BB.
be the current flowing in coil
(j/
AA^ and
in coil
i^' r=.
B cos
<j/
The magnetic
a and proportional to
parallel to the line
sin
237
We
i'.
field, a,
at
/ due
AA
to coil
is
may, therefore, write
where Z' is a constant.
The magnetic
to
i^^,
so that
if
field d at/>
due
number of
the
BB
to coil
write
The resultant
at
field at
an angular velocity w
/
;
(equal to
is
parallel to the line d
BB
turns of wire in coil
is its j;-
b=.
F cos
V a*
-\-
and proportional
properly chosen
is
we may
ut
magnitude and
b*) is constant in
component and
is its
it
rotates
^-component.
152. Preliminary discussion of the action of the induction motor.
The complete
tion
motor
is
theoretical discussion of the action of the induc-
given later and
is
many
in
Many
theory of the transformer.
respects similar to the
important details of the action
of the induction motor, however, are most easily explained
by
looking upon the induction motor as a rotor influe7iced by a rotating field magnet.
Torque a7id speed.

field
and
Let n be the revolutions per second of the

per second of the rotor.
n' the revolutions
the rotor and field turn at the
motion
is
zero
same speed, so
no electromotive force
is
When
71
71'
that their relative
then induced
in
the
rotor conductors and no current, and therefore the rotating field
exerts no torque
upon the
rotor.
As
the speed of the rotor de-
creases the relative speed of rotor and field increases, and therefore the electromotive force induced in the rotor conductors, the
currents in the conductors, and the torque with which the field
drags the rotor,
all increase.
to pass into the rotor
If the
and out again
whole of the
in spite
field flux
were
of the demagnetizing
action of the currents in the rotor conductors, then the torque
would increase
in strict
proportion to
and larger portion of the
field flux
;/
;/',
but
in fact
a larger
passes through the space be-
tween stator and rotor conductors as the speed of the rotor decreases and this magnetic leakage causes the torque to increase
238
more and more slowly
maximum
ing a
Q>i
as
;/
n'
increases, in
some
cases * reach-
value and then decreasing with further increase
n'
Fig. 191
shows the
typical relation
of an induction motor.
between torque and speed
Ordinates of the curve represent torque
Fig. 191.
represent rotor speeds.

and abscissas measured from
The
rotor is said to run above synchronism when it is driven so
that n'
> n.
Discussion of torque-speed curve.

rotor
is
The
torque acting on the
proportional to the product of the rotor current
into
the flux ^', which passes into the rotor from the rotating field
Therefore
magnet.
we may
write
r= k^'i
The
field flux
of the induction motor
constant, and the difference 4>

=
fore we may write (^
^' =
<J>')
<!>'
The
rotor current
we may
is
if
fixed in value or
proportional to
i.
There-
k'i
proportional to {n
(ii)
71'^
and to ^'.
write
i
* In every case,
is
is
or
y^'?,
<I)
Therefore
(i)
= k"{n - n')
one makes n
so that n^ becomes negative.
n^
large
<E>/
enough by driving the
(iii)
rotor
backwards

Eliminating 4>' and
tions
(ii)
and
with the help of equa-
(i)
and reducing, we have
(iii)
^^^^^
-\^b(n-nj
which a and b are constants depending upon ^,
in
This equation
is
k, k'
and k".
plotted in Fig. 191, in which the abscissas rep-
resent speed of rotor

n'
from equation
239
n'
The curve
crosses the ;r-axis, for
;/.
Use of starting resistance in the rotor windings.

rotor for which the
maximum
resistance of the rotor windings,
The speed of
torque occurs depends upon the
and
advantageous to provide
it is
windings as to produce the
at starting
such resistance
maximum
torque at once, this resistance being cut out as the
motor approaches
Efficiency
full
and speed.
tating field drags
in these
speed.
Let T be the torque with which the
up by the rotor to be given
off
its
belt pulley.
reacting torque which opposes the rotation of the
ignoring
friction,
rotation of the
ro-
on the rotor; then 2TTn'Tvs> the power taken
2'irnT
field.
is
Also
field,
so that,
is
the
the power required to maintain the
Therefore, ignoring friction losses, 27rnT
the power intake and iirn'
is
the
is
power output of the motor,
so that
2'7rn'
7]=
is
T
^=
n
n'
an induction motor
efficiency of
that
it
This equation shows that the
the efficiency of the machine.
still,
(112)
^
27rnT
is
when
zero
increases as the rotor speeds
the rotor stands
up and approaches 100^
(ignoring field losses and friction) as the rotor speed approaches
the
field
speed.
The ratio ranges from
commercial induction motors under

Efficiency
between
induced
and
field
rotor resistance.
.85 to .95 or
more
full load.
For a given
difference n
n'
speed and rotor speed, given electromotive force
in the rotor conductors,
in
and the
is
less the rotor resistance
240
the greater the current produced
its full
load torque for a small value of n
(efficiency)
large value of
efficiency depends, therefore,

153.
motor
if its
rotor resistance
upon low rotor
The induction generator.
When the
driven above synchronism (n'
is
example, the torque

rotor so that
21711'
is
or for a
High
small.
resistance.
>
by an engine
7t),
for
reversed and oj)poses the motion of the
T\s> input
its
is
n'
rotor of an induction
and 2irnT
is
output.
machine takes power from the engine to drive

out power from
and
this electromotive force
Therefore a given induction motor will
the greater the torque.
develop
by
That
This output of power
stator windings.
the
is,
rotor and gives
its
the form of polyphase currents the frequency of which
is
in
is
fixed
by
the frequency of the alternator (or synchronous motor) which
is
connected to the stator windings.

154.
The driving
ing current.
circuits
This
B
and
of induction motors
is
a.
resistance
supp/(/
alternat-
(case of two-phase motor) in parallel to
single-phase supply mains at the
with
by single-phase
accomplished by connecting the two stator
same time connecting
(see Fig. 192).
main
1
The
the
in series
currents in the cir-
cîts ^ ^"^ ^ the^ 'îffe^ in Pâse

on account of the dissimilarity of
the circuits, and the motor starts.
^ When
the motor
well under
is
one of the windings
way
A or B may be
open-circuited, the other, only, being

6uiop\t/rr,ain
*^
^'^' ^^^-
'
j^^^
conncctcd to the mains.
A two-
phase, or even a three-phase motor
operates fairly well under these conditions, except that excessive
current
The
is
required at starting to give a good starting torque.
resistance
R may be
replaced with advantage by a condenser,
especially in case of a small motor.

155.
The action
of the polyphase alternator
as
motor when being started as a synchronous motor.
an induction
The winding

of the polyphase armature
is
is
to the stator or
identical
When,
winding of an induction motor.
241
at starting, the
primary
armature
connected to the polyphase supply mains a rotating state of
magnetism
up
set
is
the
are short-circuited,
field coils
field
upon the armature
its
magnet, especially
if
and the reacting torque of the

op-
rotating magnetism.
The induction wattmeter
tion motor, of
field
sets the latter rotating in a direction
posite to the direction of
156.
This rotating mag-
the armature core.
in
netism exerts a dragging torque on the
is
essentially a two-phase induc-
which the driving torque
is
proportional to the
watts delivered to the receiving
The
circuit.
ar-
mature disk
is
large and
one edge of
it
moves be-
tween the poles of a per-
manent steel magnet (not

shown in the figure) which
causes
speed to be
the
proportional to the driving
Thompson
torque as in a
wattmeter.
The
livered
total
to
circuit passes
coil of
lug
current
the
through the
coarse wire on the
A of the laminated iron
core, Fig. 193.
The
BB are wound with

The
in
de-
receiving
fine
wire which
alternating current
lug A, which
is
Fig. 193.
lugs
is
in coil
connected across the mains.
produces a magnetic flux
proportional to and in phase with
induces electromotive force in the disk
DD, which
This flux
/.
is
90 ahead
of the flux in phase, and this electromotive force produces current in the disk, which
current in the disk
is
is
in
phase with
it.
Therefore the eddy
proportional to and 90 ahead of
/.
This
242
eddy current flows along the
The
BB a
electromotive force
current which
This current in
is
is
E between
tween
this flux
The eddy
the mains produces in coil
proportional to and nearly 90 behind E.
90 behind and proportional

between
B and B a
The phase
to E.
and the eddy current
phase difference
in the figure,
BB.
turn produces through
its
shown
circular lines
passing under the ends of the lugs
flux
which
difference be-
in the disk is
equal to the
E and /.
current in passing under the lugs
BB is
pushed
side-
ways by the flux from BB with a force the average value of

which is proportional to the product of maximum eddy current
X maximum flux x
cosine of
phase
difference betweeit
which, according to the statements above,

cos
6,
or to the
speed of the disk
power delivered
is
is
proportional to
therefore proportional to
work
EI
The
to the receiving circuit.
power delivered and
the total revolutions of the disk in a given time

to the total
the two^
is
proportional
delivered.
General Theory of the Induction Motor.

157.
The general alternating-current transformer.
theory of the induction motor

at
best developed
is
The general
by considering
once the most general type of machine, a multipolar multi-
phase motor, of which the rotor
way
is
wound
in precisely the
same
as the stator, the rotor windings being connected to collect-
ing rings, so that the currents induced in the motor windings
may
be available for outside purposes.
call
the general alternating-current transformer.
pole, ^-phase
machine would have
its
Such a machine we
will
Thus, a 2p-
stator conductors arranged
q distinct circuits, each taking current from one phase of a qphase system furthermore, each circuit would include "zp equiin
distant
circuit
groups of conductors so connected that a current
in that
would flow in opposite directions in adjacent groups. The

would be similarly arranged in ^* distinct cir-
rotor conductors
* Stator and rotor are not necessarily wound for the same number of phases, but
is simplified by such an arrangement.
the discussion
243
each connected to a pair of collecting rings and supplying
cuits,
current to an outside receiving circuit.

course, no such induction motors * are ever actually built,
Of
but
it
important to have clearly
is
mind the
in
machine to which the following discussion

Fig. 194
shows a
cumference of
details of the
applies.
more than one-sixth part of the
little
three-phase
six-pole,
groups of stator conductors, A^
and
C,
The
machine.
cir-
thfee
belong one to each of
by the stator windings, and the three

groups of rotor conductors. A' B'
the three circuits formed
and
belong one to each of the
three circuits formed
by the rotor
windings.
When
the rotor of such a machine
stationary the machine acts simply
is
as a transformer taking ^-phase cur-
rents
from the supply mains into
stator windings
its
and giving out q-
phase currents of the same frequency
from
its
rotor windings.
Remark.
The
lowing discussion
immediately
is
fol-
based upon the
ideal induction motor, of
which the
primary and secondary windings have
no
resistance
the
magnetic
through the stator windings

the
into
rotor,
and
the
all
flux
Fig. 194.
passes
magnetizing
Throughout the discussion the
stator
current
^Steinmetz has proposed the use of such induction motors
Two
for
similar motors are used
slow running, motor No.
trolley wires,
motor No.
No.
2.
speed
2,
on each
car,
neghgible.
is
and rotor are supposed to

for street railway
one geared to each axle.
takes currents into
and supplies polyphase currents from
At
work.
starting
and
windings from polyphase
its
stator
its
rotor windings to
the stator of
the starting resistance being connected in the rotor circuits of motor
With such an arrangement the limit of speed is one-half of synchronous

^y^n), and the efficiency at given speed is doubled. For fast running
{11^
both motors take current directly from the trolley wires.
244
be wound with the same number

number of phases.
158. Rotor electromotive forces referred to stator.
motive forces induced
same
of conductors and for the
The
electro-
the rotor conductors, and also the
in
may be
electromotive forces induced in the stator conductors,
Let
ascribed to the rotating stator magnetism.
be the speed
7i
of the stator magnetism, and n' the speed of the rotor.
Then
the speed of the stator magnetism referred to stator conductors

is n,
and the speed of the stator magnetism referred
ductors
which
is
is
n'
induced
to rotor con-
Consider (a) the varying electromotive force
in a
given stator conductor, and
(U)
the instan-
taneous values of electromotive force induced in the various rotor
These two
conductors as they pass the given stator conductor.
electromotive forces are at each instant in the ratio of n to n
because they are produced by the same

past the stator conductor at speed
their ratio
Of course
is
n to n
{a)
and
n'
{b)
sweeping
and sweeping past the suc-
;/
cessive rotor conductors at speed n
lines of force
n'
n'
Therefore the two
above are of the same frequency,
and they are
in
phase with each other.
the electromotive force induced in one of the circuits
of the stator winding
electromotive force
is
equal and opposite to the impressed
' which
acts on that circuit.
Rotor electromotive forces referred
n^
and the electromotive force induced
is
equal to the electromotive force
the rotor
is
is
in
When
and stator-magnetism
to rotor.
at a standstill the relative speed of rotor
a given rotor conductor
induced
con-
in a stator
ductor and of the same frequency f. When the rotor runs at

speed 7i' the relative speed of rotor and stator magnetism drops
to n
7i'
conductor
and the electromotive force induced

is
decreased in the ratio
and in frequency,
its
;/
value becoming
to n
sE and
in
n'
its
a given rotor
both
in
value
frequency sf
where
n
n'
^=-V^
("3)

This quantity,
motor, and
is
much used
s, is
called the
in
245
the theory of the induction
s/i/>,
159. Rotor currents referred to stator.
When the secondary
or rotor circuits are open, the primary or stator current
each primary
circuit
is
;//
in
Let /"
called the magnetizing current.
be the current in each rotor circuit when the rotor circuits are
and
closed,
which flows
transformer,
let
in
/' be the additional current, over and above m,
each stator
t/ie
Then, as
circuit.
magnetizing action of
stant by the magnetizing action of I'
the currents
Consider
m
(ci)
I"
is
in the case of the
balanced at each in-
In the following discussion
are not considered.

the current in a given stator conductor and {b)
the instantaneous values of current in the various rotor conduc-
These two currents
tors as they pass the given stator conductor.
and opposite, otherwise the magnetiz-
are at each instant equal
ing action of the one could not be at each instant balanced
and
above are of the same frequency, they are equal
{b)
other,
and they are opposite
Rotor
still,
When the
rotor
the current in a given rotor conductor has the
and the same frequency
When
n' the current in the
is
its
but
it
drops
frequency
in
is
at stand-
same value /
as the current in a stator conductor.
ductor remains equal in value to the current

tor,
{a)
to each
to each other in phase.
curi'ents referred to rotor.
the rotor speed
by the
Therefore the two currents
magnetizing action of the other.
in
in
the ratio of {n
given rotor cona stator conduc-
n')
-i- ^/,
that
is,
frequency becomes sf
Remark.
and rotor
When one
it is
is
studying the mutual action of stator
convenient to refer rotor electromotive forces and
rotor currents to the stator.

160.
The vector diagram of the induction motor.
195, represent the electromotive force acting
the stator winding.
The secondary
* The precise meaning of E^
on
stator
and
rotor,
one
for
is
Let
upon one
electromotive force
most clearly stated when there are
^,, Fig.
circuit of
7p(/
E^
per
conductors
each band of actual conductors, so that 2/ conductors con-
246
circuit
is
equal to sE^ and opposite to E^ in phase.
This elec-
tromotive force E^ has a frequency sf referred to the outside receiving circuit
which
to
Let r be the resistance of

be
its
Then
equal to
I^ is
= sxjr.
The
current
/^
I^.
The
power
and the
ary
volts
it
cuit, is
EJ^
/j
electrical
EJ^
is
output of power per
the output from each rotor cir-
cos 6 or sEJ^ cos
I^.
the
is,
The
This
belt.
6,
since E^
between
difference
is
sE^
electrical
mechanical out-
^)î/i
6,
or
machine takes current
at
is
(1
cos
s times the electrical output.
Example.
220
is,
and
power delivered by
s)
in the stator circuit is
delivered to each stator circuit,
{r+j-sx) and tan 6
input and electrical output
Fig. 195.
(1
let
reactance.
input of power per phase, that
phase, that
put, or
E.^
its
current.
and
this circuit,
inductance, or sx(^= iirsfL)
equal and opposite to
cos 6
supplies
it
four-pole, three-phase
and 60 cycles per second.
When
the rotor
is
station-
gives out three-phase currents at full frequency, the
amount
of output depending, of course, upon the resistance and reactance

of the receiving
circuits.
The speed
30 revolutions per second.

\_=:{n
n')jn\
is
equal to
When
^,
of the stator magnetism
rotor speed
is
is
20 revolutions s
so that the rotor delivers three-
phase currents at 73 J^ volts and at 20 cycles per second, and of

is electrical output and
the total power delivered to the machine y^
mechanical output.
is
161.
The actual induction motor.
The behavior
of the actual
induction motor deviates from the above described ideal action,
because of the resistance of the stator windings, because of eddy

current and hysteresis losses in the iron and because of magnetic
stitute
is
one
circuit.
Then E^
is
the electromotive force in a given stator circuit and
E^
the electromotive force in the successive rotor circuits as they pass by the given
stator circuit.
quency
is
E^
is
opposite to E^, equal to sE^, and referred to the stator
the same as the frequency of E^.
its fre-

The effect
leakage.
fore their
of each of these things
mutual influences
may
is
rather small,* there-
be neglected.
The effect of each

The effects will first
consequently be considered by
will
be discussed in a general
way
247
itself
with the help of the vector dia-
gram,
after
which the general complex equations of the induction
motor
will
be established and Steinmetz's solution outlined.
the machine, that
The
is,
ductance connected
may
to the relation
magnetic leakage
effect of
windings
The
be directed mainly to the mechanical behavior of
discussion will
in series
between torque and speed.
is
equivalent to an outside in-
with the stator
circuit.
The
rotor
be considered as non-inductive.
magnetic reluctance, eddy currents and hysteresis
162. Effect of
upon the action of an induction motor.
The
ideal
induction
motor takes no current from the mains into its stator windings
The
the motor is running at synchronous speed (/' =/).
when
actual induction
motor running
in
synchronism takes
sufficient
current to overcome the magnetic reluctance of the iron (stator
and
rotor)
and an amount of power equal
eddy current
loss in the stator iron only,
netic state of the rotor
When
magnetism.
given speed
in
it
constant, since
it
and
rotates with the stator
the actual induction motor
is
running at any
takes from the mains the above current and power
excess of what an ideal motor would take at same speed.
Further, there
iron
is
is
to the hysteresis
inasmuch as the mag-
when
it
is
eddy current and
hysteresis loss in the rotor
runs below synchronism and the effect of this loss
to slightly increase the torque.

163. EflEect of stator resistance
motor.
When
the rotor
is
upon the action of an induction
running nearly
in
synchronism with
the stator magnetism the currents in the stator windings are very
small and no perceptible portion of the supply electromotive

force
is
is
needed to overcome the stator
resistance.
As
the rotor
slowed up the stator currents increase and a larger and larger
portion of the supply electromotive force
is
^ Not, however, so small as in the simple transformer.
needed to overcome
248
The
the stator resistance.
its
result
is
that the core flux falls off*
and also the torque acting upon the rotor
slightly,
ideal value,
inasmuch as
this
falls
short of
torque depends upon both flux
and rotor currents.

upon the action of an induction
164. Effect of magnetic leakage
motor.
As
in case of
netic leakage
is
the
the simple transformer the effect of
same
mag-
as the effect of an outside inductance
connected
in series
with the primary (stator)
windings, a separate inductance for each stator
Let
circuit.
tance and
let ;r
The diagram
be the value of each induc-
= ooP) be its reactance value.

of Fig.
196 represents the
action of an induction motor, in so far as

is
by magnetic leakage
affected
(= sA)
it
and E^
are the electromotive forces induced
in stator
and rotor windings respectively by
the magnetic flux which passes through both.
The
current I^
is
determined by the resistance
and reactance t of the secondary circuit.

The primary current /^ is equal and opposite
to
/g.
The
line xl^, at right
angles to
/^,
rep-
Fig. 196.
resents that part of the total primary elec-
tromotive force which

tance
primary
is
used to overcome the leakage induc-
or to balance the electromotive force induced in each

circuit
by the leakage
flux.
165. Calculation of leakage reactance.
per circuit
ductance per
is
The leakage
reactance
equal to a)P{= 2'nfP) where Pis the leakage in-
circuit.
This leakage inductance
in case of the simple transformer,
by equation
* Inasmuch as the portion of the supply electromotive

the induced electromotive force in the stator windings
calculated, as
(75),
force
is
is
namely
which
is
balanced by
decreased, and, therefore
the harmonically varying flux which induces this electromotive force must decrease
exactly as in the simple transformer.
f Under practical conditions the rotor

Fig.
ing
96,
is
circuit.
circuits are non-inductive
and the angle
B,
zero, as in case of the simple transformer feeding a non-inductive receiv-
249
^= -^ (- + y+^j
(75) bis
This equation gives
of the rotor or stator
shaft,
the slots in
is
in centimeters, all
In this equation \
centimeters.
and
sum
the
of the widths of all
which the windings of one stator
the depth of the stator slots
slots,
is
in
the length, parallel to the
is
/ is
dimensions being
is
circuit are
wound
the depth of the rotor
the clearance space between stator and rotor.
This equation assumes that stator and rotor slots are of the
same width, that they are wound
full
of wire, and that the per-
meability of the iron lugs between the slots

reluctance of iron
motor.
the
complex equations of the induction
following discussion
same changes
is
taken from Steinmetz * with
as are mentioned in Article
rotor are supposed to be
Let
very great, so that
negligible.
is
166. Formulation of the
The
is
wound
for the
Stator and
120.
same number of phases.
= number of stator conductors per phase.

JV = number of rotor conductors per phase.
N'
^
r^
^2
=W'
= resistance of stator per circuit.
= resistance of rotor per circuit, including outside
re-
sistance (non-inductive).
= reactance
=r^
value coP of primary leakage inductance
per phase.
-\-jx,
primary impressed electromotive force per phase.

A that part of which used to balance the electroE'
'
is
motive force induced
in
each stator
circuit
by the
magnetic flux which passes through the rotor.
B = secondary induced electromotive

/' = total primary current per circuit.
M magnetizing current per circuit.
P' = secondary current per circuit.
** Alternating Current
Phenomena,"
force per phase.
third edition, p. 221.
2 so
M = admittance of motor
Y^= g^ jb^ = -^
zero load, that

s
= n n'
and
Remark.
in
In
where n
;/
'
synchronous speed.
at
is,
speed of rotor.
is
calculating g^ and
and
gap, and rotor iron.
more accurate
the speed of stator magnetism
is
b^
use equations (71) and (72),
which W^ and W^ are eddy current
stator iron only,
per phase at
is
loss
For calculations near
W and
to use for
and hysteresis
magnetic reluctance of stator
W,h the
standstill
it
loss in
iron, air
would be
losses in both stator
and
rotor.
The ratio of ^ to ^ is a when the rotor stands still, and a/i"

when the rotor speed \^ n'
Further, A and B are opposite in
.
phase, so that
aB
AA
(i)
The secondary
current
is
P'
The
>
which, added to
That
The
I"
is
equal to
fja or
M{= YÂ)
I/Ogives
the total primary cur-
(iii)
is.
/'
=Y,A-
electromotive force used to overcome the impedance of
the stator windings per circuit
E'.
^2
part of /' which corresponds to
^2
rent.
That
is
ZI' which, added

^
to A, gives
is,
E'
=A + ZI'
With the help of equation
(i),
I' and
(iv)
E' may be expressed
in
terms of B^ giving
/"-l
0.4)
It is desirable to
express /' and
/'' in
ar^
251
terms of E^ as follows
easily handled by taking

Then ' becomes a simple quantity,
are easily found by separating
and
These complex equations are most
E'
as the reference axis.
and the components of
/'
the real and imaginary parts of (117) and (118) respectively.
When
^2 into
the components of /'' are thus found, the product of
the
sum
of the squares of the components of /" gives the
electrical
output of the rotor per phase, and the product of this
electrical
output per phase by
s
,
as stated in Article
59, gives
the mechanical output per phase.

It is
convenient to express torque in terms of the power which
the torque would develop at synchronous speed
>
:j
n/n^
by
therefore mechanical output multiplied
..
is
equal
>
gives
torque expressed in synchronous watts.
Proceeding as above
we
find
Component of I"
Component
of
parallel to
I" perpendicular
Numerical value of /
E'
to
E'
OLStlE
asvE'
-\-
some-
is
exceeds the
It
But
actual mechanical output in the ratio of nton'.

to
This
n.
times called "synchronous watts" for brevity.
252
in
which
u
= a\ + sr^ + a\ {g^r^ + b^x)

v=^sx-{- a\(g^x b^r:)
Therefore the electrical output per phase

multiplied
by the number
is
d is
which
me-
is
(IIQ)
and
written for o?r

written for
aV/(l
of phases q gives the total
^=-7
c
gives the mechanical output per phase,
chanical output P, for which the expression
which
1-s
by
this multiplied
in
is
2g,r^
2b,x
+ g^r^ + ^,V + g^x' + b^r^
is
written for 2a^r^{r^
is
written for r^
+ g^r^
-f-
g^^)
and
Multiplying
chronous watts.
The
of
by
:p
;ir^
gives the torque
in
terms of syn-
Therefore
ordinates of the curves in Fig. 197* represent the values
P and
of
T (in
kilogram-meters) and the abscissas represent
and speed
in
per cent, of synchronism
(?)
The
curves are calculated for a three-phase, eight-pole,
20-horse-power (rated) induction motor Y-connected to

60-cycle mains, so that
E'
63.6 volts.
The
been reduced to an equivalent winding for which a

.^1
* Taken from Steinmetz,
by
P. L.
= 0.
lo-volt
rotor winding has
=1
ampere
volts
Alternating Current Phenomena."
Anderson and L. A. Freudenberger.
Calculations verified
^.
*I
253
d/i/0
1
1
fl02
rokt
-J&J--i^
i^
.5^
+20-
'
powe t
-10
Ôti.
'ZO
V'do
krf
^n
\te_
owe
"
20
.40
\y/
1
'Zi)0
-u^0
i)
/.<
3 00 ?^
2C)<?
)0
Speed
Fig. 197.
ampere
r^
= 0.03 ohm
x= 0.175
^2 = 0.045
The
power
factor,
values of power output.
torque and primary current for various
The
curves are
which the abscissa represents the
These curves are calculated

tion
ohm
ordinates of the ounces in Fig. 198 * represent speed,
efficiency,
line of
ohm
E^
is
tangent to the vertical
maximum power output.
for a three-phase, eight-pole induc-
motor of about 6-horse-power
volt mains so that
all
equal to
rating,
A-connected to
11 o-
10 volts.
ampere
* Taken from Steinmetz, Alternating Current Phenomena."

by P. L. Anderson and L. A. Freudenberger.
Calculations verified
254
eooo
6000
^000
Zooo
b^
r^
= o.i
= o.i
ampere
volts
ohm
X0.6 ohm
^2
mere
= o. ohm
I
indication of the steps
198 were calculated must
suffice.
by which the curves of

Choose a series of values
Fig.
of
s.
For each of these calculate mechanical power, speed and torque,
Separate the components of /'
from equations (119) and (120).
E' equation
referred to
for
and calculate the values of these
(118),
components
each of the chosen values of
components the numerical value of
power intake and the

The power
culated.
and
/'
two components of
Maximum
167.
g^
= b^ = o.
is
From
s.
these
the power factor, the
may
be readily
cal-
the cosine of the angle between
this
angle
is
E'
equal to the ratio of the
/'.
torque.
is
/',
efficiency of the motor,
factor
and the tangent of
netizing current
255
In the following discussion the
mag-
ignored for the sake of simplicity, so that
Also the stator and rotor conductors are supposed
to be equal in
number, so that
sion for torque, equation
20),
a=l.
In this case the expres-
becomes
Of sE^
The
.
dition
value of slip s which gives
dT
--7-
== o,
maximum
7" is
which gives as the value of ^
s=^
for
found by the con-
maximum
torque
[^
(122)
Substituting this value of s in the expression for T,
we have
"^^~'^2(r,N/;7Hrr^
The
larger value of 2"
rotor speed
168.
is
is
the negative value and
above synchronism, as shown
Starting torque.
At
starting ^
it
occurs
when
in Fig. 191.
which, substituted in
equation (121), gives the value of the starting torque T^

J.
Now
the value of
maximum
qrJE'"^
torque
(123), independent of the value of
^2,
is,
according to equation
but variations of the value
256
of
^2
make
this
maximum
torque occur for different values of
when
at starting
maximum
Therefore
according to equation (122).

the value of
r^ is
such as to give
s,
torque occurs
i"
1 in
equa-
tion (122).
maximum
Therefore to give
^2
torque at starting
^î
we must have
+ ^^
or rotor resistance per circuit must be equal to primary impe-
dance per
The
circuit.
=+
T
169.
The graphical
duction motor.
value of
maximum
2{r,+
torque at starting
is
s/r,'-i-x')
solution of the transformer
and of the
in-
Consider a transformer of which the secondary-
delivers current to a non-inductive receiving circuit of variable
resistance
R'\
The primary
current
livered to a circuit of inductance
Rf
Jf.(N'
IN"fR",
that which
is
P and
would be de-
of which the resistance
according to Article 98, where
is
is
the
Fig. 199.
primary inductance equivalent of magnetic leakage.

electromotive force components
to
RI' and
each other, and therefore the termini of
the circle
C^C.
But
wP
is
constant,
The two
(oPI' are at right angles
RP
and of (oPI' trace
so that the vector /'

is
257
proportional to the vector g)/Y', and the angles ^,
Therefore the terminus of /' traces the circle
The
ary resistance varies.
current here considered
which
Fig. 200, in
considered,
and E'
current,
The
M\^
part
considered the locus of /'
is
is
the primary
is
In case the
as
is
shown
in
the part of the primary current above
the magnetizing current, /'

is
are equal.
the second-
M.
current over and above the magnetizing current
magnetizing current
/S
CC as
is
the total primary
the primary impressed electromotive force.
of the primary current
is,
for a
transformer,
equal and opposite to the secondary current /", as indicated.
The detailed electromagnetic

ning at a
slip s
represented^
with a fixed value
when
resistance to rjs.
motive force
in
actioft
the
motor
For,
is
r^
of the induction motor run-
of secondary resistance
stopped, by increasing
when the motor
is
its
is fully
secondary
stopped, the electro-
the secondary becomes ijs times as great, so that
secondary current, primary current, and,
in fact,
every detail of
electromagnetic behavior remains unchanged, except that there
is
a negligible increase of eddy current and hysteresis loss in the
Fig. 200.
rotor.
tion
In consequence of this
fact,
the behavior of the induc-
motor may be studied by means of the diagram.
Let us consider the application of

tion motor, of
We will
this
which the primary and secondary turns are equal.
use the same notation as in Article 166.
resenting
E'
Fig. 200.
diagram to an induc-
Lay off the
line
Draw a
representing M [= E
'
line rep-
(g^ ^Jî)]
258
The terminus
of
nus of J/ draw the
one
is
point'
PD
line
on our
the primary equivalent resistance of the motor
corresponding value of primary current
r=
^
^1
Knowing
off,
and
r^, r^
;t:,
^2
this current,
To
its
center
must
lie
E'
is r^
+ r^, and
the
is
+ J^
M, may be laid
The circle is thus deterline PD.
together with
giving another point on the circle.
mined, since
From the termiAt standstill
circle.
at right angles to
on the
P, P' T, s,
power output and power factor, proceed as follows.
Choose a point on the circle and scale off the values of P and
/''.
Also scale off the vertical component of /'. This component of /' multiplied by E' gives total power delivered to the
motor.
From this subtract core losses (represented by the curpower
rent
calculate a set of corresponding values of
intake,
M)
and resistance
This power delivered to the rotor
to the rotor.
It is therefore
resistance rjs.
calculated.
P'
fractional part
In
s
this,
or
is all
lost in the
equal to P' rjs, from which .ymay be
Of the total power delivered to
the fractional part s or
Remark.
This gives power delivered
loss /'V^.
r^ is lost in
P' r^{i
the rotor,
viz.,
P'
s)/s is
mechanical output.
as in all previous discussions of the trans-
former and the induction motor, the mutually disturbing

ences of
coil resistances,
age are ignored, that
is,
influ-
magnetizing current and magnetic leakthe effect of each of these things
sidered to be that which

ideal except for this
rjs,
rotor resistance and the
would
one thing.
exist
if
The mutually
ence of magnetizing current and magnetic
allowed for by making the
line
P'
is
con-
the transformer were

disturbing influ-
leakage
is
partly
Fig. 200, represent the sec-
ondary current to a slightly greater scale (more amperes per

inch) than that to which the line /' represents the primary current.
primary current one ampere per

P' should represent secondary current v amperes per
where v is the number of amperes in a rotor circuit required
In short,
inch, then
inch,
if
/' represents
259
one ampere
to balance in the stator the magnetizing action of
a stator
in
circuit.
PROBLEMS.
The winding
116.
of an ordinary ring- wound direct -current
These sections are disconnected from

the commutator and numbered in order from i to 24.
Specify
armature has 24 sections.
manner
the
which these 24
in
phase mains to produce
coils are to
be connected to two-
a rotating state of magnetism
in the ring
with four poles, with six poles, and with twelve poles.
Specify
the connections of the 24 coils to three-phase mains to produce
a rotating state of magnetism with two poles, with
in the ring
four poles, and with eight poles.
ism
in
each case
in revolutions
State the speed of the magnet-
per second, the frequency of the
polyphase currents being 60 cycles per second.
Sample answer for 4-pole j -phase

nected as follows
tion 2)
Positive
connections.
main to
-|-
Phase A
(section
i)
con-
is
to -f (sec-
(section 7) to (section 8) to 4- (section 13)

(section 14) to (section 19) + to (section 20) +
to -f
to
-f-
-f-
to negative main.
B is
Phase
connected as follows
3)
to
to
(section 22)
-h (section 4)
(section 15)
Phase
5)
to +
is
to
to
-}-
(section 9) -f to
(section 16)
connected as follows
to
to negative main.
Speed
to
Positive
(section
to -f (section 17)
-f-
to
-j-
(section
(section 10) -f
(section 21)
to
to negative main.
(section 6)
(section 24)
main
Positive
to -f (section 18)
1)
-j-
to
main to
to
-|-
(section
(section 12)
(section
23)
-f-
+
to
Two-phase, four poles 30 revolutions per second,

six poles
20 revolutions per second,
twelve poles 10 revolutions per second.
Three-phase, two poles 60 revolutions per second,

four poles 30 revolutions per second,
eight poles
117.
The armature of an ordinary
revolutions per second.

direct current
dynamo
is
26o
when the resistance of the

The number of armature con-
short circuited between the brushes
armature
ductors
circuit
260, and the flux through the armature
is
hnes, which
set rotating
tions
0.036 ohm.
is
is
assumed
The
to be invariable.
1,500,000
is
magnet
field
is
about the shaft as an axis at a speed of 25 revolu-
per second, carrying the direct-current brushes with
Calculate the torque dragging upon the armature
when
its
it.
speed
24 revolutions per second and when its speed is 23 revolutions

per second.
What portion of the power expended in driving
is
the field
is
available at the armature belt,
in heating the
Suggestion.
and what portion
armature, friction losses being ignored
This problem may be solved by use
is
lost
of the ordi-
nary equations of the direct-current dynamo.

Ans.
is
(ci)
Torque
= 4.37
kg. -meters, 96 per cent, of the power
available at the armature belt
and 4 per
cent,
is
lost in heating-
the armature.
ip)
Torque =8.74 kg. -meters, 92 per

and 8 per
cent, of the
available at the armature belt
cent,
is
power
is
lost in heating
the armature.
An
118.
ideal three-phase induction
of current into each phase of

at
200
its
amperes
A-connected primary member
and 60 cycles per second.
volts
motor takes
The
rotor,
which has a
three-phase winding, A-connected to collecting rings, supplies 25
amperes of current to each of three similar

a power factor equal to 0.75.
What
chronous speed.
turns
What
is
is
The
the rotor terminal voltage
What
power ?
What
the mechanical output of
turns
is
5:1.
ib)
is
output
119.
ing,
is
750
An
watts,
{e)
What
power?
is
2,250 watts.
Ans.
is
J-
(<^)
syn-
is
the total
-J
(ci)
Ratio of
X 200
volts.
Total electrical
Total mechanical output
ideal induction
each having
running at
the total electrical output of power
Rotor terminal voltage
Total intake of power
(c)
circuits,
is
the ratio of the stator to the rotor
intake of
is
rotor
is
1,500 watts.
motor has a three-phase
stator wind-
56 conductors to each phase, and a two-phase rotor winding.
26
The machine, running
132 conductors to each phase.
at half
synchronous speed, takes 25 amperes into each of its stator

Required the electromotive force induced
circuits at 220 volts.
in
each rotor circuit and the current flowing
in
each rotor
circuit.
Ans. 244.6 volts, 16.85 amperes.

Suggestion.
In the
case of equi-phase stator and rotor wjnd-
ings' the electromotive forces
induced
each
in
rotor respectively are proportional to the

rotor conductors.
When
numbers of phases
this
stator
circuit of stator
number
and rotor are.wound
for different
simple relation between primary and
secondary electromotive forces does not hold.

inteîsity
and
of stator and
Thus a given
of rotating stator magnetism will induce in each circuit
of a three-phase distributed stator winding only
electromotive force as
ing having the same
would be induced
number
in
of conductors
yÂ
^^
and
in
each circuit
of a two-phase distributed rotor winding only -^^^^ as
electromotive force as would be induced

ing having the same
in
much
a concentrated wind-
much
a concentrated wind-
number of conductors.
(See Article 84.)
Therefore the electromotive force acting on each circuit of a

three-phase distributed stator winding
is
to the electromotive
force induced in a two-phase distributed rotor winding as

to 901, the
stator
and
number of conductors per
circuit
955
is
being the same
in
rotor.
Furthermore, the effective magnetizing action of polyphase

currents in a polyphase stator or rotor winding depends
number of phases
as well as
strength of current.
On
upon the
upon the number of conductors and
account of
this difference of effective
magnetizing action, the stator and rotor currents must be different

in
order that their magnetizing actions
lationship
may
between stator and rotor currents
easily arrived at
by considering
balance.
is,
This re-
however, most
that the intake and output are
equal, so that the current in each circuit of a two-phase distributed rotor
each
circuit of
winding is | x f |f ^^ great as the current in

a three-phase stator winding, the number of con-
ductors per circuit being the same in stator and rotor.
CHAPTER XV.
TRANSMISSION LINES.
170. Introductory.
may
If great pressure
ing of water.
may
Power
is
be transmitted by the pump-
used a given amount of power
be transmitted by a small flow of water through a small

In every case, however, there
pipe.
count of
friction in the pipe.
this loss
and the
The
less the first cost
for
which neither the
by
friction is excessive.
Similarly, a given
first
a loss of power on ac-
is
smaller the pipe the greater

the best size of pipe
cost nor the continuous loss of
is
that
power
amount of power may be transmitted by a
small electric current through a small wire by using a large electrical
pressure or electromotive force.
there
is
The
every case, however,
smaller the wire the greater this loss and the less the
cost of the line

first
In
a loss of power on account of the resistance of the wire.
the best size of wire
cost nor the continuous loss of
is
first
that for which neither the
power by
resistance
is
exces-
sive.
It is
only by using very large electromotive forces that long
distance transmission lines
may be made
at a reasonable cost, the
loss
due to resistance being
The
highest electromotive force that can be satisfactorily used
upon a pole
much
line
at the
exposed to the
same time reasonably
air is
about 60,000
as the leakage from wire to wire (outgoing
small.
volts, inas-
and returning
becomes excessive
unless the wires are very large and
wires) in the form of brush or spark discharge

at higher electromotive forces,
very
far apart.
For transmission within a radius of two or three
miles 1,000 and 2,000 volts are usually employed.

262
TRANSMISSION LINES.
Power
171.
loss
and electromotive force
263
loss in line.
dynamo
is
say, 10
If,
dynamo
per cent, of the power output of a direct-current

in the Hne,
lost
is
10 per cent, of the electromotive force of the
then
and 90 per
also lost in the line
With
at the receiving circuit.
may
receiving circuit
only
cent,
is
effective
alternating current, however, the
receive, say,
90 per
cent, of the
power out-
put of the dynamo, while the effective electromotive force at the
may be more
receiving circuit
or less than 90 per cent, of the
electromotive force of the dynamo.
The
difference (numerical)
between dynamo electromotive force and the electromotive force

at the receiver circuit
is
called the line drop
and
this line
drop
is
more practical importance than the power lost in the line, inasmuch as nearly all receiving apparatus needs to be supplied
of
with current at approximately constant electromotive force.

is
to
usually provided for by over-compounding the
dynamo
keep the receiver electromotive force constant.
line is
designed to give 10 per cent, drop, the
Thus,
This
so as
if
the
dynamo would be
10 per cent, over-compounded.
172. Line resistance.
currents
may in
^The resistance of a wire for alternating
all practical
resistance of the
same wire
cases be taken to be the
The
for direct current.
same as the
fact
is,
how-
ever, that the alternating current near the axis of a wire lags in
phase behind the current near the surface of the wire, and the
resistance of the wire
is
therefore larger for an alternating cur-
rent than for a direct current.*
173. Line reactance.
The
reactance of a transmission
(outgoing and returning wires side by side)
is
the wires and the further they are apart, and

the length of the line and to the frequency.
table gives the resistance
mission
*See
line
greater the smaller

is
proportional to
The accompanying
and reactance per half mile of trans-
line.
Merritt, Physical Review^ Vol. 5, p. 47.
264
Resistance and Reactance of One Mile of Wire

OF Transmission Line) (Emmet).
(^ Mile
Reactance in Ohms.
S.
At 60
Resis-
Size of
ohms.
gauge.
Wires
Wires
Wires
Wires
Wires
12 inches
apart.
18 inches
apart.
24 inches
12 inches
apart.
apart.
18 inches
apart.
24 inches
apart.
.508
.523
534
550
.565
.580
557
573
.588
.603
.614
.629
.644
.656
.670
.685
.700
.712
.727
.742
.591
.607
.618
1.06
1.09
1. 12
633
.648
.663
.674
.690
.704
.720
.730
.742
.761
.776
I 15
1.18
1. 21
1.24
1.26
1.30
1.32
1-35
1.38
1^37
1.40
1.43
1.46
1.48
1.41
151
1.44
1-54
.259
.324
.412
519
.655
.826
1. 041
591
1.
313
.606
.620
1.656
2.088
2.633
3.320
4.186
5.280
6
7
8
9
10
633
.647
.662
.677
.688
174. Line capacity.

stitute a
125 cycles per sec.
Wires
OCOO
000
00
At
cycles per sec.
The two
condenser which
is
17
1.20
I 23
1.26
1.28
1.23
131
38
1.34
41
1.
26
29
32
35
44
47
49
52
55
5
62
wires of a transmission line con-
charged and discharged as the elec-
The current which

by the generator when the receiving cir-
tromotive force between the wires alternates.

is
delivered to the line
cuit
is
disconnected
is
is
called the charging current of the line.
It
nearly 90 ahead of the generator electromotive force in phase.
The
capacity in farads per mile of a two-wire line
approxi-
is
mately
C=
4.52 X 10-^
(125)
log.
(-0
in
which r
is
the radius of each wire and
is
the distance of the
wires apart from center to center.
The combined
capacity,
is
effect of line resistance, line reactance
quite complicated
and
its
full
discussion
is
and
line
beyond
the scope of this text.
An
instructive step-by-step graphical solution of the general
problem involving also leakage from

Steinmetz.
line to
line is
given by
(See ''Alternating Current Phenomena," third edi-
TRANSMISSION LINES.
tion,
pages 47 to
problem
is
nomena," third
When
The complete
51.)
given by Steinmetz.
edition,
algebraic solution of the
(See "Alternating Current Phe-
pages 163 to 192.)
necessary for practical purposes to consider line
is
it
265
capacity as well as line resistance and line reactance, the capacity

effect of the line
sers located at
is
may be
by condenThe problem
sufficiently well represented
one or more points along the
line.
thus simplified, and can be solved with the help of the formulae
for series
and
this text.
parallel connections as outlined in Chapter VII. of

(See Steinmetz, " Alternating Current Phenomena,"
third edition, pages 158 to 163.
Also see F. A. C. Perrine and
F. G.
Baum, Transactions American
neers,
Vol. XVII., June and July, 1900.)
The remainder
of this chapter
is
Institute
of Electrical Engi-
devoted to the comparatively
simple problem of the influence of line resistance and line react-
ance upon the electromotive force drop

transmission
accurate for
lines.
The method here
all practical
calculations
in
alternating-current
outlined
on short
line
sufficiently
lines.
175. Interference of separate transmission lines.
than one transmission
is
(more than two wires)
When more
is
strung on the
same poles the alternating current in each line induces electromotive forces in the other lines and affects the line drop.
This interference of one line upon another

ing the lines at
is
obviated by cross-
every second or third pole, as shown in Figs.
201, 202 and 203.
Fig. 201
phase alternating-current
y.
shows the arrangement of a single-
line to
avoid inductive effects upon any
Fig. 201,
x-
Fig. 202.
266
other lines that
may be
neighborhood Fig. 202 shows the
in the
arrangement of four wires
for transmitting
two-phase currents,
Fig. 203.
and
shows the arrangement of three wires
Fig. 203
for transmit-
ting three-phase currents.
Remark.
Transmission Hnes
also affect neighboring lines
by
charging and discharging them electrostatically with the pulsations of electromotive force
and by leakage currents due
to in-
complete insulation.
176. Calculations of a transmission line to give a specified line
drop {single -phase).
deliver a prescribed
tive force
E\.o
2.
(see Article 52),

line
transmission line
amount
of
power
receiver circuit of
given.
is
The
usually designed to
is
P at prescribed
which the power
electromo-
factor, cos
line drop, frequency,
length of
and distance apart of wires are also given.
The generator
electromotive force E^
(numerical sum) of
E and
equal to the
is
sum
line drop.
The full load current / is found from EI cos 6 =^ P.

The component of E parallel to I \s E cos 0, and the component of E perpendicular to / is ^ sin 6.
By treating
the problem at
approximate resistance
From
drop.
approximate
table
this
r'
first
as a direct-current
of the line
is
problem the
found, namely,
approximate resistance and length of
size of
wire and line reactance
and since the
line reactance varies
/=
line
line,
the
r'
are found from the
but
little
with size of
x need not be further appropriated.

The component of E^ parallel to I is E cos 6 -\- rl where
wire the value of
the true resistance of the

dicular to
line,
xl.
Therefore
^ sin
E^^ = {E cos e + rIY + {E sin
is
is
and the component of E^ perpen-
-\-
-f
xiy
TRANSMISSION LINES.
267
or
_
r=
From
this
x/^^
H
-.(
sin
X
x/y -^ cos
-^
-^
(126)
equation the true line resistance r
and thence the correct
may be
found
size of wire.
Example :
= 20,000 volts
P=
1,000 kilowatts
cos ^ =r .85
= power factor of receiving
circuit
23,000 volts, or line drop= 3,000 volts

^
frequency
60 cycles per second
=
=
distance
30
miles
distance apart of wires
From
these data
we
find
8 inches
/= 58.8 amperes
= 5 ohms
r'
Therefore, from the table

2 B.
&
S. wire
is
we
find that, approximately, a
required so that
;f
No.
37.7 ohms.
Further
E cos ^ = 7,000 volts

^ sin 6 xl = 12,700 volts
1
-\-
and from equation (126) we

r
from which the correct

a No.
B.
&
find
37.3
ohms
size of wire
is
found to be approximately
S.
177. Calculation of double line for two-phase transmission {four

tvires).
In
this case
prescribed power.
each
Thus,
line is calculated to
if it
is
deliver half the
desired to deliver j,ooo kilo-
watts at 20,000 volts two-phase, at a frequency of 60, line drop

of 3,000 volts,
line to deliver
etc.,
then each line
is
calculated as a single-phase
500 kilowatts at 3,000 volts line drop, the lines
being, of course, arranged as
shown
in Fig. 202.
268
178. Calculation of a three-wire transmission line
phase currents.
The
for three-
calculation will be carried out for the case
of Y-connected generator
Getierator
Receiver
.^
and Y-connected receiver
-^
'
as
shown
in
Fig. 204, for
the reason that the rela-
^^^2^-
tion
between E^, E, and
line
current
Let cos Q be the power factor of each receiving
power
total
is
then
the
simplest.
to be delivered,
circuit,
P the
the electromotive force between
the terminals of each receiving circuit and E^ the electromotive

force of each armature winding
Then
from which the
The
main.
E^
-iÊI
is
* all prescribed.
cos 6
may
load line current /
be calculated.
due to electromotive force drop
in
one
Therefore, looking upon the problem as one in direct
currents,
we have E^
sistance of
may
full
difference
on the generator
E=
r' I
From
one main.
be found from the
where r'
the approximate re-
is
approximate
this the
size of wire
table.
Consider one of the mains
say, main No. 2

the other two
mains together constitute the return circuit for this main, and the
average distance from main 2 to mains i and 3 is \\l when the
;
mains are crossed as shown
in Fig. 203.
Find the reactance xof a pair of mains each of the size approximated above and distant I ^/ from each other.
The component
ponent of
The
in
of
parallel
E perpendicular
to
resistance drop in one
one main
is
/ is
to
is
^ sin
main
is
cos e and the com-
0.
rl and the reactance drop
\xl^ the former being parallel to
perpendicular to
/ and
the latter
/.
Then the components
of E^ are
E cos 6 +
rl and EsmO
{-
\xl
so that
E^ = {E cos
*The
+ riy +
{E
sin
(9
+ \xiy
electromotive force between mains at receiving station
tromotive force between mains at generating station
is
V^ E^.
is
'\/Ê and the
elec-
TRANSMISSION LINES.
269
or
^.
which gives
r,
-/,'
is
easily found.
calculation of a transmission line
forces between
^^^^^
the true resistance of one main, from which the
correct size of wire
The
- { sin e + jx/y-E cos 6
mains
specified
is
forces in Y-connected circuits
is
when
the electromotive
instead of the electromotive
sufficiently explained in the fol-
lowing example.
ExcDnple.
Electromotive
station to be
tween
20,000
between mains at receiving
Therefore, electromotive force be-
of Y-connected
terminals
20,000 -r-^ i-
force
volts.
receiving
circuits
would be
Therefore
E=^
11,550 volts
Electromotive force between mains at generating station to be
23,000
volts.
Therefore, E^
E^=
Further specifications
P=
22,000 -^ v^3, or
13,280 volts
1,000 kilowatts,
= .85,
= 60 cycles
distance = 30 miles,
cos
frequency
per second,
distance apart of adjacent wires
From
these data
we
=15^
inches
(/).
find
/= 34.0 amperes
r' = 50.9 ohms
Therefore, approximately, a No.
ance, X,
(=
of a 30-mile double
>^/) apart
is,
from the
line
wire
is
of No.
needed.
5
The
react-
wire at 2 1 inches
table,
41.2
ohms
= 46.5
ohms
X =
Equation (127) then gives
r
So
that a wire between
prescribed line drop.
No. 4 and No.
would give the
ALTERNATING CURRENT
MACHINERY.
CHAPTER
XVI.
ALTERNATORS.
When
179.
alternators are to be used solely for the operation
of incandescent lights, arc lamps, or in general any device in
which the heating
effect of the current is
phase machines are
They
suitable.
three-phase machines, and perform the

fact,
in
some
made use
of, single-
are simpler than two- or
work
In
equally well.
particulars they are to be preferred, as they
do
not give rise to the unbalanced voltages often met with in poly-
phase working.
In most
modern
well as lights are operated and

it is
plants,
the
if
however, motors as
motor load
is
at all large,
best to install polyphase alternators.
three-phase or two-phase alternator can be used to operate
single-phase circuits by distributing the circuits so that the load
on the different phases
will
little
more than a
phase machine of similar output, so that
it
practice to install polyphase machines even
if
for the time being
on single-phase
necessary to operate motors

then be available.
On
single-phase machines
be approximately balanced.
phase or two-phase alternator costs but
circuits,
later,
is
threesingle-
common
quite
they are operated
because should
it
be
the polyphase currents wall
account of these features, the number of
now
is
very small as compared
So
far as general construc-
installed
with polyphase.
180. Construction of alternators.
tion
and appearance are concerned, single-phase and polyphase
alternators are practically identical.

lies in
About the only
difference
the arrangement and connections of the armature winding
and the number of collector rings with which the machines are
provided.
Three general
classes of alternators are in
273
common
ALTRENATING CURRENT MACHINERY.
274
follows:
as
use,
Chapter
these
have already been
described
in
II.
Machines with a stationary
(a)
briefly
In these machines the current
is
field
and revolving armature.
from the armature by means
led
of collector rings, and the conductors in which the electromotive

force
induced are mounted rigidly on the armature core and
is
revolve with
it.
Machines with a stationary armature and revolving
(b)
field.
In these alternators the armature windings are arranged in slots
around the inner periphery of a stationary armature structure.
The revolving
field
is
usually provided wdth radially projecting
poles and revolves within the stationary armature.
current
windings by means of
led into the field
is
The
two
exciting
collector
rings on the shaft and the lines leading from the machine connect
directly to the armature winding.
late years
come
This type of machine has of
into very extensive use, especially for alternators
of large size and high voltage or large current output.
The
revolving construction allows the armature to be insulated for
very high voltages,
it
being possible to build such machines to
generate pressures of twelve thousand volts or even higher.

(c)
Machines
in
which a revolving mass of iron with polar pro-
jections causes the magnetic flux passing through a set of sta-
tionary coils to vary, thus setting up an alternating electromotive
known as inductor alternators,

The armature coils are stationary,
being arranged in very much the same way as those for a revolving field machine.
The magnetic flux is set up by a stationforce in them.
there
ary
is
field coil,
coils varies
revolving
In these machines,
no moving wire.
and while the
from zero
field
to a
flux passing through the
maximum,
181.
does not reverse as in the
or revolving armature machines.
tion applies to the Stanley alternator
example of
it
this type as
used
in
armature
This descrip-
is
the most prominent
Fig.
205 shows a West-
which
America.
Revolving armature alternators.
inghouse 300-kilowatt, 133-cycle, belt-driven, single-phase
alter-
ALTERNATORS.
nator of the revolving armature type.
would
l)e
suitable for lighting or heating
cies as high as
133 cycles
])er
second are
Fig. 205
will
alternator.
The lower half of

bearings.
The poles,
with the
275
machine of
work
this type
Frequen-
only.
now seldom
used, but
serve as an illustration of a belt-driven type of

the field yoke
is
in
one casting
of which there are thirty-two,
276
ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINENY.
Fig. 206a.
Fig. 206b.
ALTERNATORS.
277
project radially inwards, and are laminated, each pole piece being
made up
of a
between end
number of
shows the armature core and a number of
Fig. 206 (a)
yoke.
sheet-iron stampings firmly held together
These pole pieces are cast-welded into the
plates.
the coils for a single-phase machine of the belt-driven type,

Fig. 206 (b)
and
shows a revolving armature of large diameter for
a slow-speed direct-connected machine.

the winding, Fig. 206
(a),
is
It
should be noted that
of the partially distributed type,
there being three coils per pole arranged one inside of the other
as indicated
by the group of
the armature, Fig. 206
(b),
being ten slots per pole.
On
The winding on
coils at the left.
also partially distributed, there
is
the end of the shaft, Fig. 205, out-
side of the right-hand bearing,
shown
is
the rectifier for supplying
The
current to the series field coils.
connects to the
rectifier
secondary of a small series transformer carried on the armature

spider, the
primary of the transformer being
armature winding.
(See Article 94.)
made
volving armatures are
in series
range of
in a large
sizes,
most purposes
182.
it
Revolving
rangement of the
The amiature
is
is
becoming obsolete
not as desirable as the revolving
field alternators.
field
Fig.
and armature of machines of
clamped between plates
The revolving
field
arms H.
a copper strip, which
is
field type.
this class.
built
up of stampings
frame
M.
laminated pole pieces E,
These pole pieces are bolted to the
yoke or rim G, which
the field spider
since for
arranged around the
and supported by the
consists of radial
carrying exciting coils F.

steel
is
and may
207 (a) shows one ar-
coils a are held in the slots b
inner periphery of the core C, which
re-
However,
be either of the belt-driven or direct-connected type.

the revolving armature alternator
with the
Alternators with
is
connected to the shaft by means of
The
exciting coils
are
coiled on edge as shown.
wound with
This makes
a very solid and substantial coil and one from which the heat
readily radiated.
Fig. 207
(a)
is
show^s the general construction
of the revolving field alternators built by the General Electric
2/8
The Westinghouse revolving
Co.
(b)
in
field is
constructed as shown
the rim and pole pieces are here built up of stampings
a which are staggered or overlapped so as to form a continuous

structure.
bridges c
The
exciting coils b are held from flying out by metal
fitted into the
notches in the pole pieces.
These bridges
Fi^. 207.
help to suppress hunting by virtue of the eddy current generated

in
them when there
is
momentary angular
variation in speed.
Fig. 208 shows a Cicneral Electric alternator of the revolving

field
207
type and having the general construction indicated in Fig.

(a).
The two
collector rings
supplying the exciting current.
mounted on
the shaft are for
In this type of machine the sta-
ALTERNATORS.
tionary armature structure
slid to
armature and
usually arranged so that
is
one side on the bed
279
i)late,
it
can be
thus allowing access to both
field coils.
Since the armature windings are stationary on revolving
field
machines, there are no collector rings to insulate for high pressures.
Also, there
is
plenty of available
room
for thorough insu-
Fig. 208.
lation, so that the
tively high
armature can readily be insulated for compara-
pressures.
Machines of
this
type, of 3,500 k. w.
capacity, three-phase, are used for operating the surface street-
car system in
New York
City.
These alternators are direct-con-
nected to vertical engines running at 75 revolutions per minute.
The
alternators generate 6,600 volts,
and supply current to a
28o
ALTERNATORS.
number of substations, where the pressure
It is then supplied
means of transformers.
28
down by
stepped
is
to rotary converters
for conversion into direct current at 500 volts for operating the
cars.
sectional views of a Bullock three-phase 600-
shows
Fig. 209
kilowatt alternator.
has 18 poles and runs at a speed of 400
It
The machine
revolutions per minute.
therefore delivers current
The revolving
having a frequency of 60 cycles per second.

is
75^
inches outer diameter, so that the peripheral
The
nearly 8,cx)0 feet per minute.
pole pieces are
laminations and are dovetailed into the rim of the
which
in this
case
of cast steel and
is
is
in the
which
peripheral speed.
The
The
field coil
is
The whole
is
183. Inductor
The
this
machine
is
double, and has practically
The two armature
partially dis-
shown mounted on
collector rings
alternators.
is
led into the revolving field
Stanley alternator
shown
in Fig. 210.
by
the shaft.
wound on
the most prominent examples of the inductor type.
is
field
provided with two
conductor consists of copper strips
arrangement of
spider,
field
subjected on account of the high
is
exciting current
means of the two
The
it
stationary armature
per pole per phase, so that the winding
slots
is
therefore such as to withstand the heavy cen-
is
trifugal strains to
tributed.
speed
made up of
form of a continu-
ous disc instead of a rim provided with spokes.

construction
field
is
edge.
one of
The general
The machine
two independent armatures, A,
cores are connected by the bars
h,
A'.
which
carry the magnetic flux, and the armature coils cc are arranged
around the inner periphery of the laminated core structure

practically the
same way as
revolving inductor
del
for a revolving field machine.
carries a
in
The
crown of projecting laminated
poles pieces pp at each end, but, unlike the revolving field
ma-
chine, these polar projections are not alternately of opposite polarity.
All those at one end of the inductor, such as
of one polarity, and
all
NNN,
are
those at the other end are of opposite
282
polarity.
The magnetic
shown by
flux takes the path
the curved
dotted line hfgh, and, as the inductor revolves, the flux threading
the armature coils alternately increases to a
The
creases to zero, but does not reverse.
maximum and
flux
is
set
de-
up by a
large stationary coil C, which completely encircles the inductor.
The armature
erate
coils, as
indicated in Fig. 210, are arranged to gen-
two electromotive forces differing
in
phase by 90, one
set
of coils being displaced, so that the electromotive force in them

is
zero at the instant the electromotive force in the other coils
Fig. 210.
is
maximum.
Inductor alternators are also made by the
ren and Westinghouse companies.

the
Stanley alternator in having only one stationary armature
instead
is
War-
Their machines differ from
of being
the same.
double,
otherwise the principle of operation
Inductor alternators are not as largely used as
those with a revolving
field.
They
than machines of the revolving

equally good voltage regulation.
are
field
more expensive
type
if
to build
designed to give
ALTERNATORS.
184.
283
running of alternators.
Connections for parallel
some means must
alternaturs are arranged for i)arallel running,
when
be provided for telling
one alternator
If
parallel with
it.
is
the machines are in synchronism.
running and
the second
synchronism and thrown
When
it
desired to throw another in
is
machine mrst
first
be brought up to
with the other at the instant when
in
the electromotive forces of the
two machines are
number of
have been brought out for indi-
different instruments
cating the condition of synchronism, but in
in phase.
many
cases incan-
descent lamps (see Art. 126), or a synchronizing voltmeter are

used.
It
is
essential
the
that
two
same frequency when they are thrown
the
difference in phase does not
make
so
be running
alternators
in parallel.
much
at
slight
difference, as the
ma-
chines will pull each other into step, the only disadvantage being
a considerable
Fig. 211
ation of
exchange of current between the machines.
shows the
essential connections required for the oper-
two compound wound alternators
in parallel
aa repre-
sent the collector rings and rectifier; bb are the series field coils.
The
separately
excited
coils
field
and exciter connections are
omitted in order to avoid confusing the diagram.
pound wound
alternators are run in parallel,
it
is
When comnecessary to
connect the series coils in parallel, so that the current can equalize
between them.
(id
running between the machines.
This
is
accomplished by the equalizing wires

Adjustable compounding re-
sistances rr' are connected in parallel with the series coils, so that
the effect of the coils, and, hence, the degree of
compounding
can be varied by shunting a portion of the current that would

otherwise flow through them.
The
collector rings are connected
through the main switch, to the bus-bars.
In Fig. 211 three-
phase alternators are shown and an ammeter
is
one of the
line wires.
ammeter
necessary, but
is
is
If the
if
system
unbalancing
placed in each of the three wires.
transformers to step
lamps
//'
down
and voltmeters I'V.
indicated in but
wxll balanced only one
is
is
probable an ammeter
TT' are small
the pressure
potential
for the synchronizing
These transformers are connected
284
back of the main switch,

alternator, because
relation
to
it is
i.
between the main switch and the
e.,
necessary to
know
the voltage and phase
of any machine before the main switch
nizing plugs are inserted at
PP'
thrown
in
the synchro-
TV
the secondaries of
nected in series with the lamps
is
When
connect the machine to the bus-bars.
are con-
If the connections are such
//'.
that the electromotive forces of
and
oppose each other when
the machines are in step, lamps
//'
will be
dark when synchronism
is
attained, but
the electromotive forces in the synchronizing
if
by the arrowheads
circuit are directed as indicated
in
Fig. 211
Equalizer Sw/fch
Fig. 211.
the lamps will burn at full candle
power
at
synchronism because
the electromotive forces then aid each other.
connections are
made
in other cases light
erable, because
ness than
The
lamps are used.
is
easier to
maximum
darkness.
it
In some cases the
so that dark lamps indicate synchronism
tell
cates that the machines are
the point of
When
become very slow, say one beat
in
latter is
probably pref-
maximum
bright-
the pulsations of the lamps
two or three seconds,
it
indi-
running at very nearly the same
ALTERNATORS.
285
frequency, and the main switch should be closed in the middle
of one of the beats
may
the lamps are light or dark, as the case
be.
Fig. 212
inghouse
parallel.
the sake
series
is
when
shows one scheme of connections used by the West-
Company for running two three-phase machines in

The exciter and field connections are here omitted for
The machines are separately excited, no
of simplicity.
winding being used on the
Plain separate excitation
field.
used on most of the larger alternators
now
installed.
By
care-
wltmefer
rroch/neri'î
noch/rre //?2
Fig. 212.
ful
designing, the voltage
close, so that
whatever regulation
varying the separate

equalizing
regulation can be
connections
machines lead
first
is
field excitation.
are
to the
In Fig. 212, therefore, no
The
necessary.
lines
from
the
main switch and then through the am-
vided in each line although this
number
sufficiently
necessary can be obtained by
meters and connect to the main bus-bars.
ordinary circumstances.
made
One
is
One ammeter
is
pro-
not absolutely necessary under
voltmeter
is
made
to serve for
any
of machines by providing a set of plug receptacles A, A,
286
for each machine.
and T' are potential transformers, one for
each alternator, and connected back of the main switch.
By
a potential transformer connected to the bus-bars.
T"
is
inserting
a plug in the right-hand receptacle, as indicated by the dotted
A, the voltage of machine No.
lines at
By
indicated.
is
insert-
ing the plug in the left-hand receptable, the voltmeter indicates
The attendant
the bus-bar voltage.
to be
is
with the voltage on the bus-bars to which
lamps are shown
Pilot
When
lamps.
at
aa'
com-
can, therefore, readily
pare the voltage of the machine which
and
//'
it
are
thrown
is
in parallel,
to be connected.
synchronizing
the
the synchronizing plugs are inserted at pp' cur-
rent tends to flow around the circuit indicated by the arrow-
heads.
of
If the
machines were
in phase, the electromotive forces
and T' would oppose each other with the connections
shown, and the lamps
//'
would be dark
at
By
synchronism.
reversing the connections of one of the transformers, the trans-
former electromotive forces would be added together
nism and the two lamps would burn up

Fig. 213
185.
Fj or
to full brightness.
shows connections for synchronizing 3-phase ma-
due to Mr.
chines,
J.
E. Woodbridge.
In this case the voltmeters
are used to indicate the point of synchronism, but lamps
V._>
are also provided.
In the ordinary method just described, the
voltage acting on the synchronism-indicating device
two equal E.M.F.'s
tant of
at synchro-
either in phase
is
the resul-
(bright lamps)
or
180 apart in phase (dark lamps) and the voltage acting on the
device varies from zero to twice the normal voltage.
nections
is
shown
in
the resultant of
In the con-
Fig. 213 the voltage acting on the voltmeter
two equal E.M.F.'s
differing in phase by 60.
This has the advantage that the rate of change of the resultant
E.M.F. acting on the voltmeter, with variation

tion of the
two components
components are 180 apart

change
in
is
in
much
in the
higher than
phase
when
rela-
the
two
In other words, a small
phase.
phase relation of the two alternators makes a consider-
able change in the voltmeter reading.
In Fig. 213,
the primary coils of potential transformers and
e, f,
a, h, c,
d are
g, h the sec-
ALTERNATORS.
ondarics
are
at
/;
;//
287
a and c are connected to corresponding phases, as also
and
d.
and
;/;
The
junctions of the secondary coils are grounded
connections and also protects the
this simi)lifies the
secondary circuit from dangerously high potential
in
case of a
breakdown or accidental connection between the primary and
When
secondary.
machine No.
is
secondaries c and
plugs are inserted at k and
running and that No. 2
The
to be synchronized,
which are connected across different phases,
/;,
are in series with the voltmeter Vo by
connections.
is
assuming that
I,
way
of the two ground
secondaries are connected
opposition,
in
so
Vo/tmeter
I*
To
A/tematorA/oJ.
J
Reading
P/ugfo/' Mac/ime
bei/7^ '5c/nc/?ro/7/zecf.
I
^^ A/fernafor No. 2.
Voltage.
Fig. 213.
that the E.M.F.'s acting on voltmeter
The connections
at synchronism.
comment
secondaries c and
lamps are dark
at
\\
differ in
phase by 60
of the lamps do not require
are across similar phases and the
As
synchronism.
the machines
come
into syn-
chronism the swing of the voltmeter V^ becomes slower and the

switch
is
closed
when
the needle
186. Lincoln Synchronizer.
nators a need has been
is
at its
With
felt for
maximum
throw.
the increasing size of alter-
an instrument that would be more
accurate than either lamps or voltmeters for showing the exact
288
phase relation between two machines that are about to be conIn case a large machine
nected in parallel.
bus-bars, even
when
from the bus-bar E.M.F., there

that
to
may
into or
devised
is
will be a large flow of current
is
instrument that will
running too
It is
necessary
the
incoming
show whether
fast or too slow,
going out of phase, and when
number
connected to the
cause undesirable voltage fluctuations.
have an
machine
is
differing but slightly in phase or frequency
it
is
whether
it
coming
is
exactly in phase.
of synchronism indicators or synchronoscopes have been

;
one that
that due to
instrument
is
is
used
in
many
central stations in
Mr. Paul M. Lincoln and shown
America
in Fig. 214.
The
provided with four terminals, two of which are
Fig. 214,
connected to the bus-bars and the other two to whatever machine

is
If the pressure is
to be synchronized.
potential transformers are inserted
the bus-bars or alternator.
over 400 or 500 volts,
between the synchronizer and
If the
incoming alternator
is
run-
ning too slow, the hand of the synchronizer revolves to the right
at a speed
corresponding to the difference in frequency between
that of the incoming machine and the bus-bars.
nator
is
running too
attendant can thus
fast,
tell
the
hand revolves
at a glance
If the alter-
to the right.
The
whether or not the incoming
machine should be speeded up or slowed down.
As
the alter-
ALTERNATORS.
289
nator comes more and more nearly into synchronism, the revoluof the hand become
tions
pointer
slower and
moving; very slowly and
is
main switch
thrown
is
ment indicates
at
and when the
near the vertical position the
Owing
to the fact that the instru-
times the exact condition of the incoming
all
machine as regards
in.
slower,
is
speed and phase relation, the operation
its
of synchronizing can be carried out
more quickly and with more
nuicli
certainty than
where lamps or
volt-
meters are used.
The operation
synchronizer
by referring
in
small
two-pole
B,
215.
constructed
as the field of a
On
motor.
wound
are
field
understood
field
same way
the
Lincoln
the
be
Fig.
to
laminated
is
of
will
the coil
6'5'
this
which
are connected to the bus-bar either
through
or
directly
potential
transformer depending on the volt-
The
age.
core
is
mounted on a
shaft which carries the pointer n.
On A
are
wound two
coils
and
substantially at right angles to each
other and connected in series at
The
ri"gs
f,
shaft.
series
coil
tion
g,
and h mounted on the
Coil
with
is
connected
an inductance
in series
of the coils
in
Fig. 215.
and
with a non-inductive resistance R.

is
The junc-
connected to one terminal of the machine
transformer as shown.
the
e.
three terminals lead to collector
The
current in coil
machine E.M.F., while that
in
chine E.M.F. since the inductance

difference of practically go.
C
is
is
in
phase with
lags 90 behind the ma-
adjusted to give a phase
The magnetic
flux set
up
in the
290
BB
field
owing
will lag nearly
90 behind the bus-bar E.M.F. because,
to the inductance of coils
nearly 90 behind the E.M.F.
incoming machine
is
coil
will
and the pointer
The
same frequency.
cur-
then be in phase with the magnetic flux and
assume the position shown
will be stationary
and
no torque action exerted on the
coil.
in the figure
The
vertical.
be 90 out of phase with the
will
current will lag
Suppose that the E.M.F. of the
at exactly the
therefore,
will,
field
exactly in phase with the bus-bar E.M.F.,
and that the two are

rent in coil
SS, the
current in
and there
field
will
be
Suppose that the ma-
chine E.M.F. differs in phase by 90 from the bus-bar E.M.F.
Then
the current in 7^ will be in phase with the field flux and
that in
will differ in
will then turn

tion.
phase by 90 from the flux; the armature
through 90
until coil
assumes the
In other words, a change in phase relation
by a corresponding angular movement of the
we have assumed
It is
evident that
relations
that the
if
there
accompanied
a difference in frequency, the phase
is
between the currents
in the
armature
coils
and the
field
and consequently the hand revolves
CD
are continually attempting to take up a position cor-
The
responding to the phase relation of the two E.M.F.'s.
which the machine
is
connected in parallel
is
when
movement
to close the
of the hand
is
slow.
point
the pointer
occupies a position somewhere within an arc such as op and

the
far
speed corresponding to the difference in frequency because
the coils
at
So
pointer.
two frequencies are exactly the same.
flux are continually changing

at a
vertical posi-
is
when
Appliances have been devised
main switch automatically wlien the pointer
is
moving
slowly within the arc op, thus eliminating the operator entirely.
So
far,
however, these automatic methods of sychronizing do
not appear to be used to any extent.
CHAPTER
XVII.
TRANSFORMERS.
187. Construction.
to a certain extent
The construction of a transformer depends
upon the use
to
which
it is
to be put.
Trans-
formers for outdoor use must be protected by water-proof cases,
and
little
provision can be
made
for ventilation.
On
the other
292
hand, where transformers are used indoors,

substations, the question of ventilation
as,
for example, in
and cooling becomes im-
portant and the construction of the transformer has to be modified accordingly.
Transformers used for outdoor work are of comparatively

small size
they are placed in water-proof iron cases which are
Fig. 217.
usually designed so that they can be
some
The
filled
with
oil,
cases, especially with small transformers, oil
oil
serves
two purposes
it
is
though
in
not used.
improves the insulation and con-
ducts the heat from the coils and core to the outer case, where
it
is
radiated to the surrounding
air.
Fig. 216
shows the
coils
TRANSFORMERS.
293
and core of a small Westinghouse transformer.

that this transformer
rounds the
tions.
Fig. 217
in
four
coils,
is
of the
which project
coils
former, which
is
shows the
**
shell " type
at
coils
5*5" in
It will
be noted
the iron core sur-
each end beyond the lamina-
and core of a Wagner trans-
also of the shell type.
the secondary
two
The primary
coils,
PP
is
wound
and the whole trans-
Fig. 218.
former
is
in sections
designed for immersion
in oil.
By winding
the coils
and sandwiching them as shown, magnetic leakage
reduced to a minimum.
Openings are
core, so that the oil can circulate as
left
between the
shown by
coils of a large
and
the small arrows,
thus preventing undue heating of the interior parts.
shows the core and
coils
is
Fig. 218
Westinghouse transformer
294
of a type used for
power transmission work.
watts capacity and
its
flat
primary
primary and secondary
flared out at the
wound
is
coils
are
It is
shown
clearly
The
they are
The arrange-
end so as to give ventilation.
Fig. 220.
Fig. 219.
ment of the core and
of 375 kilo-
for 33,000 volts.
coils is practically the
same as
that of the
small transformer in Fig. 216, the coils being surrounded by the

iron.
Fig. 219 shows the arrangement of coils and core for a General
Electric
Type
transformer of small
shows a section through the transformer

in Fig.
coils
219, the transformer
is
of the
size,
and Fig. 220
type,
seen
since the
surround the laminated iron core.
188. Cooling of transformers.
Transformers
are capable of radiating the heat generated in

special
means being provided
of moderate size
them without any
for carrying off the heat.
perficial area of these smaller transformers
is
the heat arising from the various losses.
However,
put of transformers
a
As
in its case.
"core"
much lower
is
The
su-
sufficient to radiate
as the out-
increased, the radiating area increases in
proportion than the output; hence, large trans-
formers are not capable of getting rid of the heat generated in
them without attaining
dangerously
high temperature,
and
TRANSFORMERS.
special
295
to be provided for ventilating them.
means have
The
fact that special cooling facilities must be provided
for large
mean
that these
substation transformers does not, in any sense,
transformers arc not
efficient.
formers are one of the most
As
a matter of fact, large trans-
efficient,
if
not the most
piece of apparatus used for transforming energy.

station transformer
at full load.
The
may have an
efficiency of over
efficient,
large sub-
98 per
cent,
heating does not, therefore, represent an ex-
cessive waste of energy
it
simply means that the transformer has
(X
mIhII
1
Fig. 221.
such small linear dimensions compared with
enough radiating surface
is
its
output that not
available to get rid of the heat with-
out some special provision for the purpose.
economical to provide special cooling
facilities
transformer large enough to radiate the heat
much more
than to make the
It
itself.
is
Self-cooling
transformers of large output are therefore higher in cost per

kilowatt than those designed for
artificial
cooling.
296
Some
oil
of the methods used for cooling are as follows
Use
of
to conduct the heat to the outer case, oil circulation, water
and
circulation,
heat
In oil-cooled transformers where the
air blast.
simply conducted to the case by means of the
is
then radiated to the surrounding
air,
and
oil
the cases are usually pro-
vided with deep corrugations so as to present a large radiating

surface.
Transformers have,
ing an oil-circulating
the coils
and
core.
few instances, been cooled by provid-
in a
pump
to
More
often, however, the cooling
keep up a circulation of
plished by filling the case with
and cooling the
oil
oil
around
is
accom-
by
oil
circu-
lating water through a coiled pipe placed near the top of the
Fig. 221 shows a large Stanley transformer with the outer
case.
case removed.
This transformer
cooled type, the
oil
heated
and then descends

is
mounted
in the
from the bottom
rises
oil
being cooled by means of water circulating
in the coil of pipe
of the oil-immersed water-
is
to the
upper part of the case.
to the top, where
it
is
The
cooled,
bottom; a continuous circulation of
oil
thus maintained.
In the air-blast type of transformer, openings are provided be-
tween the
into
and
coils
which
core.
air is forced
The transformer
is
set
over a chamber,
by a fan driven by an
electric
motor;
the air enters through an opening in the bottom of the transfor-
mer
casing, passes
tween the
coils,
up through the openings
and passes out
at the top
and
in the core
and be-
The
sectional
sides.
view. Fig. 222, illustrates an air-blast transformer.
of ventilation
and
clean
is
required to run the fan
is
effective,
This method
and the amount of power
but a very small fraction (about
^L
per cent.) of the output of the transformers to be cooled.

Fig. 222,
represents the core and
mary and secondary
one of the
are subdivided into several
coils.
The
flat coils
of
In
pri-
that are
thoroughly insulated from each other by separating diaphragms.
The
core
is
built
regular intervals.
tween the
coils
up
in
The
such a
way
as to leave air-ducts cc at
air enters at the bottom, passes
and through the core and out
up be-
at the top
and
TRANSFORMERS.
sides.
The
damper g
297
flow of the air between the coils
at the top,
controlled by the
is
and another damper, not shown, regulates
The lower casing
the flow through the core.
is
provided with
Fig. 222.
doors ee to allow access to the secondary terminals in case they
cannot be reached from the air-chamber below
mary terminals
is
shown
one of the
at h.
189. Transformer connections on two-phase circuits.

ica
it
is
customary
phase of a
pri-
use
to
separate
polyphase system,
mers are now being used
to
transformers
some
shown
Amer-
for
each
although three-phase transforextent.
phase transformers are more widely used.

-separate transformers are
In
In
Europe, poly-
In Figs. 223-226,
for each phase.
Figs. 223 and
298
224 show connections commonly used for two-phase systems,
and Figs. 225 and 226 those for three-phase systems.
In
figures the primary voltage, for the sake of illustration,

i
/OOO Vo/fs
is
all
the
taken
/OOOVo/fs
J
7
?Tv J
tV?
TFc
Fig. 223.
as 1,000 volts,
ratio of 10 to
and
i,
/.
all
e.,
the transformers are supposed to have a
the primary coils have ten times as
turns as the secondaries.
Fig. 223 (a)
many
(b) shows transformers
Fig. 224.
connected on a two-phase four- wire system.
former
is
In
(a)
a trans-
connected to each phase and the secondaries supply
separate lighting circuits, or in a case a motor
is
operated both
TRANSFORMERS.
phases are run
to
Both phases are independent
motor.
the
299
throughout, and this constitutes the commonest scheme of connection used on the two-phase system.
former alone
In case a single trans-
needed for lighting or other purposes,
is
it
is
con-
nected across one of the phases and the balance of the system
is
maintained by connecting a transformer required at some other
By
point on the other phase.
exercising care in the connecting
of scattered transformers the load on the
nearly balanced.
(b)
Fig. 223
two phases can be kept
shows two transformers with
same phase, and
their primaries connected across the
their sec-
ondaries in series for operating lamps on the three-wire system.
This
is
in reality
of the system
is
is
a single-phase arrangement, as only one phase
The
used.
voltage across the two outside wires
200 volts or twice that between the middle or neutral wire and
This arrangement
either of the outside wires.
where a considerable number of
lights
where three-wire secondary mains are used.

used where motors are operated.
rangement similar
to
sometimes used
is
are to be supplied, or
It
Fig. 224
(a)
would not be
shows an
ar-
223 (b) except that the primaries are con-
nected to the two phases.

outside secondary wires
is
In this case the voltage across the
only 141 volts (100
XV2),
instead
of 200, because the two pressures of 100 volts on each side are
in
quadrature with each other.
Fig. 224 (b)
shows the same
arrangement as (a) except that instead of four separate wires

three wires are used for the primary, as explained in Article 69.
This scheme of connection
is
not to be recommended where lights
are operated, because the voltages on the
become unbalanced
seriously.
to
sufficient
two
extent
to
If a three-wire secondary lighting
the connections
shown
in
sides are liable to

affect
system
the lamps
is
to be fed,
223 (b) are much to be preferred.
190. Transformer connections on
three-phase circuits.
Owing
to the fact that either the primaries or secondaries of transform-
ers operated
(star or
on a three-phase system
may
be connected
or
mesh), there are quite a number of different methods of
300
connection
available.
225 and 226 show
Figs.
are used
(a)
225
four
of
The connections shown
methods most commonly used.
more than any of
the
in Fig.
Here, both
the others.
primaries and secondaries are delta (A) connected.
The
pres-
the
same
sure applied to the primary of each transformer
is
as the line voltage, and the secondary pressure
in this case,
one-tenth of the primary, since

coils
we have assumed
is,
that the primary
have ten times as many turns as the secondary.
advantages of this scheme of connection are that
The
it
chief
admits the
use of transformers having the ordinary ratios of transformation

i
/OOOVo/fs
*
!
\/oooyo//5
/OOOI/o/fs
II
577\/.
"-sr/v.
^57rv.-
EEF^3ME-33^
B'/ma^y
Secof7c/ar(/5
'
()
Fig. 225.
without giving
rise to
odd secondary voltages
transformer burns out or in case

vice will not be interrupted.
what,
it
its
By
also in case one
primary fuse blows, the
cutting
down
ser-
the load some-
can be carried by the two remaining transformers.
In Fig. 225
(b) the transformers are
primaries and secondaries Y-connected.
primary of each transformer
will
shown with both their

The voltage across the
be equal to the line voltage di-
vided by V3, which in this case gives about 577
volts.
The
pressure across the secondary mains will be equal to the pressure

of the secondary of one transformer multiplied by
V3.
Thus,
TRANSFORMERS.
301
the secondary voltage of each transformer in
(b) will be 57.7,
because the winding has a ratio of 10:1 and the voltage between
the secondary lines will be 57.7
X V3 = lOO.
This scheme of
wound
connection requires the primaries and secondaries to be

for
is
odd voltages, and

crippled.
It
if
one transformer breaks down, the service
has the advantage, however, that the voltage
across the primary coils
is
much
less
than the voltage of the
mains, and, consequently, where very high pressure mains are

used, the insulation of the primary coils
This
is
also true of the
is
rendered
arrangement shown
in
less difficult.
Fig. 226
(a),
Pfin70r(/
Seconcfa.
Fig. 226.
where the primaries are Y-connected and the secondaries A-connected.
The connections shown
in
Fig. 226
(a)
give an old
secondary voltage unless transformers with a special ratio of

transformation are used.
Fig. 226 (b)
three-phase
operation
motors.
system,
of small
It
omitted, and
rupted.
shows the connections for two transformers on a
is
if
an
arrangement sometimes used
motors
it
is
not
recommended *
for
for
the
large
equivalent to the delta connection with one side
one transformer gives out the service
is
inter-
Methods of connection other than those shown are
3o:
possible;
for example, the primaries
and the secondaries Y.

are used for lighting, a
mon
in case the
shown
are,
191. Polyphase
ments of
is
common
might be connected
delta
some cases where transformers
return wire
is
run from the com-
connection of the secondaries, so that a return path will be
provided
tions
Also, in
coils
The connec-
system becomes unbalanced.
however, the ones most commonly used.

transformers.
and core
Fig.
227 shows two arrange-
suitable for polyphase transformers; (a)
for a three-phase transformer and
for a two-phase.
(b)
In
(a) the three sets of primary and secondary coils (one primary
J3
r--/
'
:=
^
-
1^
'
'
.'ftra
"
âVF*
"
'
"
..
--
::
asS=^n^
ikLUJr*
<-
*1
(^)
Fig. 227.
and one secondary for each phase) are wound on the three laminated
cores
ABC
which are of equal cross-section and con-
nected across the ends by
common
primary and three secondary
same way as already

The magnetic fluxes in the
the
coils
The
yokes as shown.
may
be connected
when
and
or
three
in
described for separate transformers.

three cores
ABC
follow the same laws
as the currents in the wires of a three-phase system.
ample,
the flux in core
is
at its
maximum,
For ex-
the fluxes in
are half as great and in the opposite direction, each
core acts alternately as the return path for the fluxes in the
other two cores
more
and the three-phase transformer
is
therefore
economical in material and occupies considerably less space
TRANSFORMERS.
303
than three single-phase transformers having a combined output
The breadth a
equal to that of the three-phase transformer.
of
the cores and yoke should be alike, as the flux in each of these
parts
is
of similar amount.
In the two-phase transformer

of the core
is
the
core
central
shown
aV2=^
the flux carried by the central core
and B.
Since the fluxes in
phase by 90,
it
The
1.414a.
wound on
secondaries of the two-phases are
in
the construction
(a) except that the breadth of
similar to that in
must be
(b)
in
is
and
primaries
cores
and
and
the resultant of the fluxes
and
are equal and differ in
follows that the flux in the central core
V2
is
times as great as in the outside cores, and in order to keep the
magnetic density the same, the cross-section must be
V2
times
as great.
192. Constant
current
transformer.
When
series
lamps
arc
are to be run on constant potential alternating current systems,

it
is
necessary to use some device whereby the current in the
lamp
circuit
lamps
is
may
be kept constant irrespective of the number of
in operation.
One way
in
which
this
can be accomplished
by the use of a constant-current transformer,
i.
c, a trans-
former which, when
its
stant potential,
deliver a constant secondary current.
General
vîll
Electric
primary
constant-current
largely used for arc lighting.

this
is
supplied with current at con-
transformer
The
is
principle of operation
of
118,
shows the working parts of one of the larger
there are
two movable
coils
shown
and two fixed
sizes.
is
fully loaded, the flat
motive force.
If the load
is
core
The fixed
The movable
means of the
and move up and down between the fixed

movable
and the transformer generates
The
coils.
are counterbalanced against each other by
transformer
and Fig. 228

is
143, but in this case
in Fig.
are placed at the top and bottom as shown.
fixed coils,
The
that
transformer was explained in Article
of the same shape as that
one
is
its
coils.
coils
rest
coils
levers
When
maximum
coils
the
on the
electro-
diminished by cutting out lamps,
304
the current in the movable coils tends to increase, thus causing
When
a repulsion between the coils.

the magnetic leakage between
them
the coils
become separated,
results in a lowering of the
electromotive force, as explained in Article ii8.
The
repulsion
Fig. 228.
between the
coils is
balanced by a small auxiliary lever shown at
the base of the transformer, and by regulating the weight on this

lever, the current
may
be adjusted.
The whole mechanism
is
which helps
to
placed in a corrugated iron case filled with
conduct the heat
ofif,
and
also steadies the
oil,
movements
of the coils.
CHAPTER
XVIII.
INDUCTION MOTORS.
193.
Construction.
In most of the induction motors now
the part into which the currents are led
tionary
member
are set up
is
or stator.
the rotating
That
member
in
from the
built,
line is the sta-
which the induced currents
or rotor.
The
latter is usually
Fig. 229.
called the armature, or secondary,
primary.
The
and the former the
construction of an induction motor
whole, comparatively simple, especially
of armature
is
used.
Fig. 229
if
shows the
305
is,
field,
or
on the
the squirrel-cage type

field,
or primary, of a
306
Westinghouse 150-kilowatt motor.

copper bars in
connected up
this case, is
in the
same way
Each
slot is
in slots,
is
of
and
is
as the windings described for poly-
Fig. 230 shows the armature or
phase alternator armatures.

secondary.
The winding, which
uniformly distributed
provided with a single rectangular bar
and the ends of the bars are
connected together by means of
all
short-circuiting rings at each end of the armature.
The
shows a General Electric motor.
Fig. 231
general arrangement of
the parts of an induction motor with squirrel-cage armature will
Fig. 230.
be understood by referring to Fig. 232.

that supports the field stampings B.
erally
The
is
the cast-iron frame
field coils
are gen-
arranged in two layers and are held in place by strips of
wood d which engage with

stampings
slots are closed
and the bars h are pushed
The armature
notches in the teeth.
are supported by the
The armature
g,
in
arms
armature spider.
/ of the
with the exception of a small
from the end.
In
slit
many European
motors, slots which are entirely closed are used, but this makes
the field coils
in
some
more
respects,
difficult to place in position,
although
improve the performance of the motor.
it
may,
is
INDUCTION MOTORS.
the short-circuiting end ring connecting the end of
thus forming the squirril-cage winding.
Fig. 231.
Fig. 232.
30/
all
the bars,
308
motor with a squirrel-cage armature, while
as regards
work
construction,
its
it
very simple
is
not as desirable for some kinds of
is
For a large
as one with a resistance in the armature.
torque at low speed or at starting the low
motor takes more current from the
than one having a
line
ing resistance in the armature circuit.
resistance squirrel-cage
An
start-
induction motor with
high armature resistance will give a good torque at starting but

the
high resistance will result
speed regulation
On
running.
if
it
left in
is
the other hand, a
squirrel-cage armature
reduced efficiency and poor
in
permanently while the motor
motor with a low resistance
give good speed regulation and a
will
good torque when running, but
will not give as
For cases where a large starting
starting.
is
good a torque
effort
is
at
required
:SS^S31â^
Fig. 233.
without taking an excessive

inserted
in
ciirrent, the
the armature at
starting
course, squirrel-cage armatures can be

ance, but this resistance
efficiency
is
in circuit
is
motor with a resistance

to
made
be preferred.
Of
of fairly high resist-
permanently and reduces the
somewhat, besides making the speed regulation poor.
Large starting currents are especially objectionable on
where motors
circuits
as well as lights are operated.
Fig. 233 shows an armature of a General Electric motor which

carries a resistance within the armature spider.
is
The armature
provided with a regular Y-connected bar winding
the simple squirrel-cage.
resistance
is
in place of
mounted within the
INDUCTION MOTORS.
309
armature and connected to a sliding switch so

in
the
knob
may
resistance
parts
one
winding.
(at the right-hand
be cut out.
section
When
in
The
resistance
is
by pushing
in Fig.
233), the
divided into three
with each phase of the annature
series
the switch
that,
end of the shaft
is
pushed
in the resistance is cut out,
and the three phases of the winding are short-circuited.

an armature of this type, a large starting torque
without an excessive rush of current.
No
may
By using
be obtained
collector rings are
necessary in connection with the armature, but the construction
'%
Fig. 234,
is
considerably more complicated and expensive than that of a
squirrel-cage armature, and the squirrel-cage type
used on account of
its
simplicity
is
very largely
and small amount of attention
required.
191 Starting compensator.

series
cutting
of current with a squir-
motor can be avoided by inserting a starting resistance
rel-cage
in
The rush
with the
down
field
windings or by using other means for
the applied electromotive force.
The torque
of an
induction motor decreases as the square of the applied voltage,
3IO
method of
SO that this
ing
However,
effort.
started
up under
starting results in a greatly reduced startin
a great
many
cases motors are not
not a serious objection;
full load, so that this is
whereas, a large rush of current would be objectionable because

of the disturbance of other parts of the system.
While a
resistance could be used as described above,
economical to use an autotransformer

but one
coil,
(i.
it is
more
a transformer having
e.,
which serves both as primary and secondary) or
compensator as
is
it
usually called in this connection.
shows a General Electric starting compensator,

starting switch
is
of the oil-break type.
in
Fig. 234
which the
The Westinghouse Corn-
Fig. 235.
pany also use an arrangement involving the same general
feat-
Fig. 235 shows one arrangement of compensator connec-
ures.
The compensator consists of coils

wound on a laminated iron core, each coil being provided
number of taps i, 2, 3, 4. The pressure applied to the
tions for a three-phase motor.

a, h, c,
with a
motor
at starting will
cluded in the
will
give
circuit.
depend upon the amount of the
For example,
in Fig.
higher applied electrmotive
that the starting current
which the motor
is
called
may
coil
in-
235 the use of tap 4
force
than tap
3,
so
be adapted to the kind of work
on to perform.
INDUCTION MOTORS.
For
light
work
'
a small voltage can be applied, in which case
the current taken from the line will be small, while for heavy
work, where a stronger starting effort

electromotive
When
used.
with corresponding larger torque, can be
force,
the five-blade double-throw switch
shown
position
necessary, a higher
is
in the figure,
motor
cut down.
is
When
the upper or running position after the
coil is in
and the voltage ap-
series with each line leading to the motor,
plied to the
the lower
is in
a part of the compensator
thrown
to
motor has come up
to
the switch
is
speed, the motor terminals are connected directly to the line and
the compensator windings are cut out, so that the motor runs
under
full voltage.
The compensator,
therefore, prevents a rush
of current and gives the motor a smooth start, although
down
the starting torque from
what would be obtained
it
cuts
the full
if
In some cases starting compensators are
voltage were applied.
provided with a controlling switch by which the coils can be

cut out gradually,
switch which cuts
smooth
start.
but
all
most cases a simple double-throw
for
the coils out at once
is
sufficient to give a
Starting compensators of almost exactly the same
construction as the above
may
also be used for starting synchro-
nous motors and rotary converters when these machines are

started
by means of current supplied from the alternating current
mains.
Small induction motors are usually started by simply
closing the switch that connects
them
to the line.
tage in using the compensator method of starting
motor can be controlled from a distant

195. Speed regulation of
of
work
it
is
One advanis
that the
point.
induction motors.
For some
classes
desirable to have induction motors arranged so
that their speed can be controlled.
The speed can be
regulated by
the insertion of an adjustable resistance in either the primary
or secondary, but the latter

in
is
by far the better; a reduction
primary voltage greatly reduces the torque of the motor,
whereas resistance
speeds.
in the
secondary gives a large torque at low
These methods may be used when the range of con-
312
not very wide.
trol is
Generally speaking the induction motor
does not admit of the same range of control as a direct current
Another method that has been used
motor.
is
have the winding on the
to
a suitable controlling switch, the
can be changed.
to a limited extent
arranged so that by means of
field
number
of poles on the motor
Evidently, the fewer the
number
of poles the
motor must run when supplied with current of a given
faster a
This
frequency.
when
be used
an economical method of control, and can
is
a wide change in speed
work
where two motors are
applicable
is
This consists in connecting the motors as follows,
employed.
when a low speed

nected to
desired, but introduces
Another method that has been used
considerable complication.
for electric traction
is
is
and the
line,
The
desired.
field
of the second motor
current from the armature of the

the second motor
is
field of the first
first
motor.
When the
When
short-circuited.
connected, they will run at half speed.
is
motor
is
con-
supplied with
The armature
of
motors are thus

a high speed
is
desired, the motors are connected in parallel directly across the
Intermediate speeds can be obtained by combining the
line.
use of resistances with the above method; on the whole, the
method
is
somewhat analogous
to the series-parallel control
used
with direct-current street-car motors.
Of
the
two methods of speed
first
always used
is
that by
in the armature.
regulation, the one nearly
which an adjustable resistance
is
inserted
requires the use of collector rings on the
It
motor, since a resistance designed for continuous use for speedregulating purposes
ture
too bulky to be placed within the arma-
is
and would moreover lead
Fig. 236 (a)

control.
The armature
three-phase
collector
much
to too
heating in the machine.
shows a motor with a rheostat arranged for speed
rings
of the motor
is
provided with a regular
winding, and the terminals are brought to the
The
a.
rheostat
contains
three
resistances
divided up into sections that can be gradually cut out by moving
arm
the three-legged
diagrammatically
i,
h.
2,
shows the connections

3 are the three phases of the winding
Fig. 236
(b)
INDUCTION MOTORS.
on the armature, and r,, r^,
When the motor is running
connected together, with
all
r,
the three sections of the resistance.
at its slowest speed, the
the
windings are
the resistance in series, by
arm h which is represented

arm h is moved over the
As
are cut out and when the motor
the
313
(b) by
in
means of the
resistance contacts,
is
running
means of
at full
r^,
circles.
u, and
rj
speed the arm
Fig. 236.
short-circuits the windings, as indicated
(b).
The wires from
the motor field
through the main switch
by the
may
full line circle in
lead directly to the line
or, as is frequently
done, they
may
be
brought through the rheostat and the arm b made to answer both
as a starting
field
when
When
is
it is
and regulating switch by

placed on the
fairly large
letting current into the
first position.
motors are used, as on hoists or pumps,
it
customary to have the regulating resistance entirely separate
from the controlling switch.
In this case, a controller
similar to that used on street cars
to the resistance
is
employed, and
and to the motor by means of
is
somewhat
connected
cables, thus allow-
ing the controller and resistance to be placed in whatever location
may
be most convenient.
314
196. Voltage.
Induction
motors are usually wound for no,
220, 440, or 550 volts, though in
some cases they are wound
for
high pressures so as to take current directly from the high-pressure mains without the intervention of transformers.
field is stationary,
sures.
ever,
capable of being insulated for high pres-
is
it
The majority
operated
transformers.
It
of the motors in
common
use are, how-
above voltages and are supplied from
the
at
Since the
important that the voltage supplied to an
is
induction motor be kept up to
its
The output
normal amount.
of the motor decreases as the square of the voltage, and

pressure becomes low, the motor will haye very
momentary
if
the
margin
for
overloads.
197. Current.
full
little
The
current taken by an induction motor at
load will depend upon the power factor and efficiency of the
motor, as well as the output and the voltage of supply.
For a
three-phase motor the current in each line will be
C=-^
X f X ex
where
(128)
^
1.732
W = the watts output

/== power
e
factor;
= commercial
The power
efficiency.
factor of induction motors of ordinary size and
frequency varies from .75 to .90 at

larger motors
full
load.
Some
may run a little higher than this; .85

medium size. The commercial
average for motors of
varies through about the
same range.
wire motor, the current
each line will be
in
C=
a fair
efficiency
For a two-phase, four-
hx f X
-r.
is
of the
ex
(129)
^'
^
The followE, f are the same as before.

ing table given by the General Electric Company shows the cur-
where the quantities
rent taken in each line by three-phase
no-volt motors.
higher voltages the current will be smaller in proportion.
For
INDUCTION MOTORS.
Hore Power of Motor.
Full
Load Current.
Horte Power of Motor.
3
5
28
198.
It
tion
Frequencies. The
motors are
built in
cycles per second.
Lol Current.
112
168
268
390
550
780
75
100
150
10
16
Full
20
30
SO
6.3
12
18
315
common
frequencies for which induc-
America are
25, 40, 60,
125 and 133
The high-frequency motors (125 and 133)
are not generally built in very large sizes and are used almost
wholly on existing single-phase systems.
The high frequency

These
tends to aggravate the effects of lagging currents.
may
effects
be overcome to a considerable extent by using condensers
at the
motor
to
improve
its
power
factor, the wattless current
being supplied by the condenser; the Stanley
used condensers to some extent for
Company have
this purpose.
Most
poly-
of
trans-
phase motors are operated on 25 or 60 cycles.

199. Transformers
for induction motors.
The
size
formers to be used for supplying a given induction motor

course, depend
as well as
which
is
install
on
upon the power factor and
its
output.
rule that
is
will,
efficiency of the
commonly
of
motor
followed, and
a safe one at least for motors of the larger sizes,
is
to
power
For example, a 75-horse-power three-
kilowatt of transformer capacity for every horse
output of the motor.
phase motor would require 75 kilowatts in transformers, or three

transformers of 25 kilowatts each.
The General Electric Com-
pany recommends the use of transformers as indicated
in
following table:
Kilowatts of each Transformer.
Size of Motor.
3 Transformers.
.6
1.5
3 Transformers.
.6
I
1.5
7K
4
6
7.5
10
15
20
30
50
25
15
75
40
25
10
15
7-5
10
the
3l6
200. Direction of rotation of induction motors.

of rotation of an induction
in
which the magnetic
motor
by the relation of the currents
The
is
field rotates,
this in turn is
determined
windings to each other.
in the
motor may be changed
by interchanging any two of the wires leading
To
direction
determined by the direction
and
direction of rotation of a three-phase
ing.
The
to the field
wind-
two wires of one of
reverse a two-phase motor, the
the
phases would be interchanged.

induction
201. Sing-le-phase
motors are constructed

except that the stator
When
such a motor
field,
is
standing
up
therefore no turning
still
in the air
efifort
up of
tor will not start
its
from an outside source

machine
will
it
own
then behave very
much
the rotor
though the
field
rotor
same manner
the
produced
like
in
as
is
mo-
started
a polyphase motor.
phase with regard to

in
it
at
must be arranged so
can be set up at starting.
the
air-gap
a polyphase motor,
un-
field
synchronism.
to exert a torque at standstill
is
under load,
in
not a perfect revolving
is
running very nearly
is
single-phase motor
to speed
the rotor
so that the magnetic field
currents,
much
if
Such
running near synchronism the secondary cur-
is
revolves in
the
a simple oscillating
is
soon run up to speed and the
induced therein are displaced
less
gap
accord, but
will
rents
stator
and the current turned on,
exerted on the rotor.
When
the
induction
as polyphase motors
does not rotate as in the polyphase motor, and there
e., it
i.
Single-phase
provided with a single-phase winding.
is
is
the magnetic field set
motor.
same manner
in the
If
and run up
that a revolving field
In some cases this
is
done as ex-
plained in Art. 154, the rotor being provided with an auxiliary
winding which
speed.
is
open-circuited after the motor has attained
rent in the windings
branch.
Electric
its
In this case the necessary phase displacement of the cur-
Fig. 237
Company.
is
obtained by using an inductance in one
shows an arrangement used by the General
The motor
cde, as in a three-phase motor,
is
provided with three windings,
and one of these windings
is
sup-
INDUCTION MOTORS.
i\7
plied through a condenser-compensator ha.
This consists of a
condenser h connected across a compensator or auto-transformer

a.
The
tial
applied to the condenser and permit the use of a small con-
object of the auto-transformer
is
to increase the poten-
denser worked at high potential rather than a large condenser
worked
The impedance due
low potential.
at
to the condenser-
compensator
is
winding
This gives an imperfect revolving
start
c.
such that at starting a leading current flows in
The condenser has
the n:otor with considerable torque.
Fig. 237
Fig, 238.
the advantage that
insures a
power
it
neutralizes the inductance of the
factor of nearly unity at
reason the condenser-compensator

the
field sufficient to
motor has been
is
left
all
in
loads.
circuit
motor and
For
this
even after
started.
202. Repulsion motor.
If
an
ordinary
direct-current
arma-
ture,
provided with a commutator, be placed between pole pieces
AB,
Fig. 238, which are excited by
nating current, and
if
means of single-phase
alter-
brushes de which are connected together,
3l8
be placed at an angle a with the center line of the poles, a considerable torque will be exerted on the armature and
If the brushes
to speed.
were placed
will
it
run up
in the vertical position the
E.M.F. between the two brushes would be a maximum and the
maximum.
current flowing in the armature would also be a
the brushes were placed in the horizontal position
the
E.M.F. between the brushes would be zero or
E.M.F. would be
brushes
when they
cos a where
is
the
(a
If
= 90
in general the
E.M.F. between the
are in the vertical position.
The
current would
If,
on the other
then be
/=
where
jfi'cos
the impedance of the armature.
is
hand, a given current /
made
is
to flow in the armature, the
torque with the brushes in the vertical position
be
zero,
(a
^90)
while
with
brushes
the
in
the
would be a maximum;
the torque
(a=ô) would
horizontal
in
position
general,
the
torque would be
where K'
is
However
it
current
a constant and
the flux threading the armature.
has just been shown that for a given angle a the
is
'-
E cos a
hence
cosy
T K'^ E
tt
where
K"
is
sin a
= K" sin a cos a = K" sin
a constant r=r i^'$/Z,
torque theoretically
Since
T^=K"
2a
sin 2a, the
becomes a maximum where a = 45.
How-
ever the above equations take no account of armature reaction or
other influences that affect the torque and in motors as actually

built the
maximum
than 45.
torque
is
obtained for a value of a
motor constructed
in this
manner
much
less
will, therefore,
operate on a single-phase current and will start with a good torque.
INDUCTION MOTORS.
but
it
The
its
motor
is,
however,
little.
utilized in the
single-phase motors for securing a good starting effort.*
Wagner
single-phase
motor.
Fig.
239 shows the con-
struction of a successful type of single-phase motor
Wagner
attending
has been used comparatively
it
principle of the repulsion
Wagner
203.
commutator with
necessitates the use of a
troubles and for this reason
319
Mfg. Co.
Electric
The
stator
AA
is
made by
the
provided with a
single-phase winding placed in slots in a laminated structure in

the usual manner.
The armature or
rotor
BB
is
provided with
Fig. 239.
a regular direct-current
drum winding connected
oi
a.
radial
commutator.
which
is
shown
at
cc
During the
When
to the
segments
brushes,
one of
are arranged to press on the commutator.
on the commutator
starting period the brushes press
and the machine

torque.
e,
Short-circuited
starts
up
as a repulsion
motor with a good
speed has been attained, the weights
For a complete discussion of the repulsion motor
metz's Alternating Current Phenomena.
see Chap.
ff
fly
XX
out
Stein-
320
on account of centrifugal force, and push the short-circuiting

ring dd to the
left,
thus connecting
all
the inner edges of the
commutator bars together and short-circuiting
At
coils.
all
the armature
same time the brushes are pushed away from the

Duing regular operation, therefore, the machine
the
commutator.
an induction motor with a short-circuited armature and oper-
is
same way
ates in the
as one having an armature of the short-
circuited type.
Fig. 240*
shows the
relation
between the angle
a,
Fig. 238,
and the torque for a two-pole motor with commutator starting

device.
be noticed that the
It will
16
-^
I10
11
VS
maximum
N 'v
^^
torque
is
obtained
>^
"*^
i-
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 SO 32 34
Va/ues ofjipegreej
Fig. 240.
for a value of
a^ io
instead of 45, as in Art. 202, where the
formulas neglect armature reaction and assume that the
magnet
is
arranged as
in
rounding the armature and having a winding distributed

as
is
field
Fig. 238 instead of completely sur-
alwavs the case in the motors as actuallv
in slots,
built.
204. Use of alternating current for short-distance transmission.
The simplicity of the induction motor has been largely accountable for the extensive vise of alternating current in connection
v/ith short-distance transmission plants.
rent
is
While alternating cur-
preeminently adapted for the transmission of power over
long distances because of the ease with which

*
Edw. Bretch, American
Electrician, Vol. IV, No.
8.
it
admits the use
INDUCTION MOTORS.
of high pressure, yet
short-distance
formers,
is
been installed
use at comparatively low pressure for
its
transmission,
by no means
in
32
without the intervention of trans-
limited.
Some
very large plants have
connection with various manufacturing concerns
where polyphase alternating-current transmission has superseded

the use of long lines of shafting, thus resulting in a large
economy
of power and allowing extensions to be readily made.
Where
the machinery
is
and stopped frequently, and where a large
started
range of torque and speed
is
desired, the direct-current
motor
probably gives the best results, but for other classes of work the
many advantages and has been installed in

many kinds of work
connected with factories.
The principal advantage is the absence
induction motor has
preference to the direct-current motor for
of the commutator and sliding contacts, thus allowing the motor

to be operated in places
trouble.
where a direct-current motor would give
For example, induction motors have found extensive
use in cotton mills and in

direct-current machine
many
places
where the sparking of a
would be a source of danger.
CHAPTER
XIX.
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS.
205.
Synchronous motors are used for work where power
is
required in comparatively large amounts, and where the motor

is
not
always runs
it
or
started
at the
stopped
frequently.
same frequency as the alternator
with current, and
The speed
the
may
of the motor
not be the same as that of the generator.
when
that supplies
speed cannot change unless the speed of
its
the generator changes.
only
two have the same number of
poles.
it
is
not suitable for
work where
or
may
be the same
It will
The synchro-
nous motor cannot be used where a variable speed
and
motor
synchronous
is
required,
the motor has to start up
under a load.
206. Construction of synchronous motors.
Synchronous
motors
are the same, as regards their construction, as alternators.
Fig.
241 shows a two-phase synchronous motor of the revolving
field
type.
The
explained
small motor
The
later.
is
used for starting purposes, as will be
field
of the motor
is
excited by a small
direct-current exciter either direct-driven or belted to the motor.
Synchronous motors operate best on
fairly
low frequencies, most
of them being designed for frequencies ranging from 25 to 60

cycles per second.
seldom
Single-phase synchronous motors are
now
though they were used to some extent before
installed,
polyphase systems were introduced.

207. Starting
nous motor
is
synchronous
motors.
connected to the
but in so doing
it
will take a
flows through the armature,
If
line, it will
polyphase
very large current.

it
When
reacts on the residual
322
synchro-
run up to synchronism,
current
magnetism
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS.
set
up
in
the pole pieces by the current in the preceding phase
and produces
this
323
sufficient
Of
torque to start the motor.
course,
imperfect motor action does not prochice sufficient torque to
enable
tlie
motor
to start
under load, and the method
tionable on account of the large lagging current
takes from the
line,
and which
other parts of the system.
is
is
objec-
which the motor
likely to create disturbances
This method of starting
is
on
not, there-
324
fore, admissible unless the
motor
is
a small one.
synchro-
If the
nous motor has solid pole pieces, the eddy currents induced
them give
chine acting as an induction motor
with
up of
exerted rapidly,
its
first in
own
accord at
all,
single-phase motor
because the torque
is
one direction and then in the other, with
armature remains
the result that the
laminated poles, the
torque from this source would be small.

will not start
in
torque owing to the ma-
rise to considerable starting
at
Single-
standstill.
phase machines must be brought up to speed from some outside

source.
On
account of the large rush of current and large voltage drop
caused by connecting the motor directly to the
polyphase
line,
synchronous motors are sometimes started by using a starting

This cuts down the voltage applied to the motor
compensator.
at starting,
and
is
cut out after speed
is
Where
attained.
motors are employed, the method of starting that causes

turbance
is
to use a small auxiliary induction-motor, either geared
mounted on an extension of
to or
motor shown
the
After the large
started in this way.
motor has been brought up
to speed, the small
in Fig.
241
nected by means of a clutch.

either direction,
to synchronism.
If,
however,
mined by the rotating
field set
motor
synchronous motor
depending upon the direction
nating current in the armature,
it is
its
The
main motor-shaft.
is
up
large
least dis-
in
which
started by
discon-
is
will
run
it is
driven
means of
direction of rotation
is
in
alter-
deter-
up by the armature windings.
Synchronous motors have the disadvantage of being incapable

of starting under load, and of requiring considerable auxiliary
apparatus in the shape of an exciter and starting motor or starting compensator.
They
tages.
is
On
some advanwork where a constant speed
the other hand, they have
are a good motor for
desirable, because so long as the speed of the generator does
not change, the speed of the motor will remain constant.
drop
in the line, therefore,
does not cause the speed
Another valuable feature of the synchronous motor
power
factor can be controlled
by varying the
The
to fall ofif.
is
that
its
field excitation so
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS.
that,
with care
can be kept
cited, the
in
field
power
strength, the
Moreover,
factor
is
over-ex-
acts like a condenser of large capacity
and can
at or
motor
adjusting the
325
near unity.
if
the field
may
be set up by
induction motors or others pieces of apparatus on the
same system.
be used to neutralize the lagging currents that
The
efficiencies
of synchronous motors are the
same as those
alternators of corresponding size.
208. Prevention of hunting.
Synchronous
motors, like rotary
converters, arc liable to hunting (Art. 129) and, to prevent this,
Fig. 242.
they are often provided with dampers (Art. 142) to prevent the
oscillations.
cuits of
These dampers are either
low resistance bedded
in the
form of closed
in the pole face or of
castings fixed between the pole tips.
Fig. 242 shows a portion
of the revolving field of a Bullock synchronous motor.
dampers
cir-
low resistance
The
consist of castings held in grooves in the edges of
and forming closed circuits of low resistance. Any

momentary fluctuation in speed, causing a cutting of the damper
the poles
by the magnetic
flux, sets
up powerful eddy currents
per and thereby checks the tendency to hunt.
in the
dam-
CHAPTER XX.
ROTARY CONVERTERS AND MOTOR GENERATORS.

209. General construction of rotary converters.
are in
Two
general use for changing alternating current
methods
to direct cur-
rent, or vice versa.
These are by means of rotary converters and
motor-generators.
The
principle
of the
rotary converter has
In general appearance and con-
been given in Chapter XIII.
dynamos very
struction rotary converters resemble direct-current
Fig. 243 shows the general arrangement of the various
closely.
AA
parts of a rotary converter.
ing the laminated core
on
its
is
the armature spider support-
which carries the conductors
These conductors are usually
periphery.
c in slots
in the
form of
copper bars and project out at the end, so that the end connections
between the various bars and to the commutator can be readily

made.
The projecting
flanges fg.
direct current
is
is
the
bars are supported by means of the end
commutator from which or
supplied
which the armature winding

rings by
is
is
attached.
it
current to alternating.
in case the rotary
is
is
collector
supplied to the
used to change direct
These rings are connected to equidistant
points of the winding as described in Chapter
of tapping-in points depending
number
which the
shows the
means of which the alternating current
machine or led from
to
one of the commutator bars to
XIIL, the number
upon the number of poles and the
of phases for which the converter
is
intended.
P is
the pole pieces provided with a laminated pole-shoe ^ and

netizing coil
M.
No
pulley
is
one of
mag-
necessary, as these machines simply
change the current and are not used as a source of power or

driven mechanically.
32.6
327
Rotary converters are usually either shunt- or compound-
wound, the
latter
being used mostly for street railway work.
The shunt-wound converter is more stable in its action than the

compound-wound machine and in many cases is to be preferred
Rotary
especially where the load does not vary suddenly.
converters
may
also be separately excited, but this
tomary because the machine can supply
its
own
is
field
not cus-
with cur-
rig. 243.
rent
from
its
commutator end.
In the great majority of cases
rotary converters are used to change alternating current to direct

current, though occasionally they are used to change direct cur-
When
rent to alternating.
inverted votaries; a
no new feature
manner
in
in the
which
it
so used they are sometimes called
somewhat unnecessary term, because there
is
is
machine, the only difference being in the

used.
328
210.
Starting"
rotary converters.
of
when suppHed with
The
rotary
converter,
current at the alternating-current end, oper-
ates essentially as a synchronous
motor
what was
hence,
said
about the starting of synchronous motors applies in large measure to the starting of rotary converters.
Since, however, a rotary
converter combines the features of a direct-current machine
it
can also be started by supplying current to the direct-current
side.
number of
methods are
different
in
common ones.
(a) By connecting
source of current.
use for starting
some of the more
rotary converters, of which the following are
the alternating-current side directly to the
The
objections to this
method are the same
as those given in connection with the starting of synchronous
There
motors.
large volume,
is
gives rise to
objectionable in
method
a rush of current which, on account of
its
effects
large
drop
in
the line and
is
This
would only be permissible with small
starting
of
on other parts of the system.
its
machines.
(b)
By
supplying current to the alternating-current side
through the
tically the
medium
of a starting compensator.
same method
This
is
prac-
as described in connection with induction
and sychronous motors.
The autotransformer
supplies a large
current at a low potential to the machine and takes a comparatively small current at
high potential from the
line,
down
the line current and causing comparatively
ance.
This method in a somewhat modified form
General Electric
Company
thus cutting
little
is
disturb-
used by the
for starting low frequency converters.
Instead of using an autotransformer, the regular transformer

secondaries that supply the converter are tapped at their middle
point,
and by means of a double throw switch the voltage applied
to the converter at starting
operation.
on.
The
is
but half that applied in regular
This method will be illustrated more in detail later

chief advantage of this
method of
starting
is
that the
converter does not need to be synchronized and hence can be put

into operation quickly.
ROTARY CONVERTERS AND MOTOR GENERATORS. 329

(c)
By means
of a small auxiliary induction motor
on or geared to the shaft of the converter.
used by the Westinghouse Company;
largely
method of
mounted
This arrangement
it
is
is
simple
and one that takes but a small current from
starting,
shows a Westinghouse rotary converter with

an induction motor A, arranged for starting, the armature of the
the line.
starting
Fig. 244
motor being mounted on an extension of the
shaft.
Fi2. 244.
(d)
By
supplying direct current to the commutator end of the
machine and starting the converter as a direct-current motor.

This method
is
the one generally used
available for starting purposes.

is
where
direct current
is
In some cases the direct current
obtained from another converter already in operation or from
a storage battery which
motor-generator
set,
a direct-current machine,
ing purposes.
may
be at hand.
Sometimes a small
consisting of an induction motor coupled to

is
installed to supply current for start-
Starting from the direct-current side
on account of the
fact that
when
a rotary
is
is
started
preferable
from the
330
alternating-current
current terminals
current terminal
the
side,
may
may
be positive or negative
be positive
one time, and the next time
at
may
be negative.
nous motor
is
Also,
it
when
when
is
that
direct-
one direct-
is,
the machine
started
is
same terminal
started the
either a converter or synchro-
started by allowing alternating currents to flow
the armature
in
of either of the
polarity
the alternating
coils,
magnetism
up through
set
the field coils induces very high electromotive forces in them,

so that
it
has been found necessary to use special switches to
disconnect the field coils from each other at starting.
This pre-
vents the induced electromotive forces from adding together and
causing a breakdown of the field-spool insulation.
machine has attained synchronism,

coils supplied
When
this
switch
is
After the
closed and the
with exciting current from the direct-current
side.
running a rotary converter as a direct-current motor
starting, care
must be taken
otherwise the armature
may
to see that the field circuit
is
at
intact,
attain a dangerously high speed, be-
cause under this condition the machine no longer runs as a
synchronous motor but as a direct-current shunt motor.

(e)
By
starting
the
generator and
method cannot often be applied

ble,
it
in practice,
makes a good method of
units are concerned.
but where
is
it is
This
possi-
where large
starting, especially
The machines
phase, and the starting current
motor together.
are in this case always in
comparatively small.
211. Transformation from direct current to alternating current.
The behavior of a rotary converter when used

direct current to alternating
When
is
used in the ordinary way.
it
runs as a direct-current motor
changes
in the applied voltage,
strength.
up,
If the field
and a break
due to racing.
to
change from
considerably different than
is
its
speed will vary with
also with changes in the field
becomes weakened, the converter
in the field-exciting circuit
Changing the
it
supplied with direct current,
hence,
and
when
may
will
result in
field-excitation will not
speed
damage,
change the
voltage of the alternating current, because the ratio of transfor-
mation
is
fixed
and changing the
field
strength merely makes the

The
speed of the converter change.
331
voltage of the alternating
may be changed by changing the voltage of the applied

current, or it may be increased or decreased by using
current
direct
alternating-current potential regulators, as described later.
Under
certain
may
current side
be subject to wide variations in speed, unless
means are taken
special
fed from the direct-
conditions, a converter
alternating-current
side
to
delivers
For example,
if
the
a large lagging current,
the
prevent
it.
armature exerts a powerful demagnetizing action on the
which may
result in the speed
follows
The converter
direct-current
tion
motor
in
is
One
running dangerously high.
method used by the Westinghouse Company

as
field,
separately
machine directly coupled
to prevent this
the
like
small
induc-
This small shunt-wound machine
Fig. 244.
is
by a small
excited
is
operated with an under-saturated magnetic circuit, so that any

increase of speed will cause a rapid building up of the field
a rapid increase in voltage.

increase,
If the
and
speed of the rotary tends to

increases and
the voltage of the exciter at once
strengthens the field-magnet, thus checking the tendency to race.
To
Company
accomplish the same protection the General Electric
place a centrifugal device on the shaft of the converter which,
when
the speed rises above a certain amount, closes an electric
which
circuit
results in the shunting off of the
power from the
converter.
Transformer
212.
connections for rotary converters.
Rotary
converters are usually required to deliver current at comparatively
as
is,
shown
as a rule, transmitted at high voltage

in Article 144, the ratio of
reasons
it is
alternating
and moreover,
transformation between the
alternating current and direct current sides
down
The
low voltage, generally 700 volts or lower.
current
fixed.
is
For these
nearly always necessary to use transformers to step-
the line pressure.
Fig. 245
shows two three-phase con-
verters connected to their transformers.
transformers are
J -connected.
generally preferred to the
It will
be noted that the
This method of connection
scheme, because
in case
is
one of the
332
transformers should burn out or

not be entirely crippled.
fuse blow, the service would
its
In this figure
a small potential
is
transformer used to step-down the pressure for the voltmeter V,
and also
to supply current for the synchronizing
may
synchronism indicator as the case

at
p or
the lamps will indicate
p',
/^/g/?
be.
when
By
lamps
/,
/,
or
inserting a plug
Tens /on Bus-ba/'s
rr^n
no/nD.CSw/ich
Fig. 245.
of either converter
force.
is
is
in
synchronism with the
and V" are voltmeters
up to voltage.
is
is
the converter
side,
though
in
some cases the
done on the low-tension side between the transformer
secondaries and the converter.

side
line electromotive
when
In this figure, the transformer switches are
connected in the high-tension

switching
to indicate
to be preferred
when
Switching on the low-tension
the line pressures are very high.
with six phases than
armature heating
At
complicated.
enough (40
if
is
It
was shown
greater
if
in
supppHed
supphed with three only, because the
The use
reduced.
is
of six phases necessitates
and makes the connection somewhat more
six collector rings
to
Connections for six-phase converters.
213.
Article 143 that the output of a converter
333
same time the gain
the
in
output
is
large
to 50 per cent, over that of a three-phase converter)
warrant the use of six-phase converters, especially where large

High Tension Bus-bars
1
^
H/ffh Tens/on
Siv/fc/res
Fig. 246.
Six-phase converters are extensively used
units are concerned.

in
connection with the Metropolitan Street Railway System,
New
York.
Fig. 249 (a)
shows transformer connections for supplying a
six-phase converter.
The current
supplied from a three-phase
is
high-tension line and transformed into six phases by using a
double J system of connections on the secondaries of the transformers.
ondary
Each of
coils.
Coils
arrangement, and
the transformers
I,
coils 2,
and
5 are
is
provided with two sec-
J or mesh
connected in the same
connected
4 and 6 are also
in the
way, except that they are reversed with regard to the
first set.
334
This gives the arrangement indicated diagrammatically
The
249 (b).
points
in Fig.
are connected to the collector
a, h, c, d, e, f
rings of the converter and from there connect to equidistant points

of the armature winding.
Frequency of rotary converters.
214.
Rotary
converters have
been most successful on frequencies ranging from 25 to 40 cycles.
They have been
comparatively large sizes for frequencies
built in
some of these large 60-cycle machines
as high as 60 cycles, but
have given trouble and have been eventually displaced by motorgenerator
sets.
Recent improvements
many of the
The fact that
in
design have, however,
eliminated
defects formerly found in 60-cycle con-
verters.
a converter combines both the features
of a direct current generator and an alternating current synchro-
nous motor makes
it
difficult
construct large machines to
to
With a high frequency,
operate on high frequencies.
the dis-
tance from center to center of the poles becomes so small that

it
is
difficult
to get
enough commutator segments of
sufficient
thickness between brushes of opposite polarity without

the diameter of the
commutator and armature very
is
in
For these
transmission plants where the bulk of the power
supplied to rotary converters,
frequency alternators.
used
in
and
large,
thus running the peripheral speed dangerously high.

reasons,
making
America
215. Voltage
it
is
customary to
frequency of 25 cycles
low-
install
is
commonly
for this kind of work.
regulation of rotary converters.
As
shown
in
Article 144, the ratio of transformation of a rotary converter

practically a fixed quantity.
Assuming
from the alternating-current
side,
produce changes
in
the
that the
changes
direct-current
verter
an inductive
line,
when
within
voltage
a leading current
certain
on the alternat-
Strengthening the
makes the current lead the electromotive
already been shown that
is
in field strength will
limits, if there is considerable reactance present
ing-current side of the rotary.
machine
is
fed
field
force,
is
of the con-
and
it
has
delivered over
the voltage at the distant end of the line
is
in-
ROTARY CONVERTEKh AM> MOTOR GENERATORS.

creased,
335
and the increased voltage thus suppHed to the converter
causes an increase in the pressure of the direct-current side.

Also,
if
the field be weakened, the current will lag, and, con-
sequently, the alternating-current voltage will fall off, thus de-
creasing the direct-current voltage.
Where
a comparatively wide range of voltage adjustment
One
needed, a number of methods are available.
used considerably
is
is
that has been
have the primary or secondary of the
to
step-down transformer divided into a number of sections which

can be cut
in
or out by means of a dial-switch.
This allows the
voltage applied to the alternating-current side of the rotary to
be varied through a wide range, and causes a corresponding variation in the direct-current voltage.
Another method of securing a considerable range of regulation

is
to connect a potential regulator in the lines running
tial
made
regulators are
in a variety of forms,
between the
These poten-
rotary converters and the transformer secondaries.
but they are usually
provided with two windings, the primary of which
is
connected
across the secondary of the static transformer, and the secondary
of which
is
between the transformer and the converter.
in series
Whatever voltage
is
generated in this series
coil
is,
therefore,
added to or subtracted from that of the main generator, depending upon the relation of the electromotive force generated in the
series coil to that
generated in the secondary of the main trans-
former.
is
Fig. 247
phase regulator.
This regulator
converters, and
regulators
The
the
are
is
fitted for
is
hand
moved by means
construction
is
similar
secondary of which
ment.
designed for use with rotary

control.
of a
that
to
limited
is
The primary winding
of a movable core bb
way
a sectional view of a General Electric three-
ff is
to
Some
small
of
an
small
mounted on the
rotated through a limited angle by

;
current
is
induction
motor,
range of move-
placed in slots on the periphery

shaft a in exactly the
as the rotor winding of an induction motor.
with the sector h
of the larger
auxiliary motor.
same
This core can be
means of a worm g engaging
led into this
primary through
flexible
336
leads.
core cc

The series winding ec is placed on a
mounted in the casing dd. The phase
stationary toothed
relation of the sec-
ondary to that of the primary (or the electromotive force of the

main transformer) can be varied by moving the core, and, hence,
the pressure added to or subtracted from that of the
main
trans-
former can easily be regulated by turning the hand wheel shown
Fig. 247.
in the figure.
number of other devices have been brought out
for regulating the voltage of rotary converters, but the above will
give an idea of some of the more

216. Motor generators.
found advantageous
For
to use
common
methods.
some kinds of work
it
has been
motor-generator sets rather than rotary
converters for changing alternating current to direct.
motor
generator set consists of an alternating-current motor coupled to
one or more direct-current generators.
One
of these sets
is
ROTARY CONVERIERS AND MOTOR (,L.\LRATORS. 33/

shown
in Fig. 248.
The
nous or inchiction type.

start,
n-.otor
The
may
latter
be either of the synchrois
the less troublesome to
but the former has the advantnê that
it
maintains a con-
stant speed irrespective of line drop, and, hence, has

in
some
more
lighting stations.
reliable
Motor-generator
found favor
sets are generallv
than rotary converters on circuits operating at 60
ALTERNATIiNG CURRENT MACHINERY.
33J
cycles or higher.
direct-current
voltage,
entirely separate
and
its
They
also admit of ready regulation of the
because
the
direct-current
from the alternating current
machine
is
side of the circuit
voltage can be easily regulated by changing the shunt
field excitation.
Motor-generator
in connection with arc lighting
sets are
used quite extensively
where alternating-current motors
are used to drive arc-light dynamos.
They
are also used in
some
places for supplying three-wire direct-current systems from alter-

They are somewhat more expensive than rotary
At the same time it must be
efficient.
nating current.
converters,
and are not as
remembered
when they
that,
are used, the alternating-current
motor can often be wound so as to take the high-pressure current direct
from the
thus doing
line,
away with
the static trans-
formers, and the elimination of the static transformers helps
somewhat
to
up the difference
even
in
Moreover, motor-generators are not so

effects
met with
in
is
efficiency.
the peculiar
to
connection with rotary converters such as
They are often used
hunting and sparking.

it
and
cost
liable
where
cases
in
from an alternating current of one
desired to transform
frequency to another alternating current of higher or lower

frequency, usually the former.
from three-phase
it
to
Often the current
two-phase at the same time.
is
transformed
For example,
might be necessary to supply a two-phase high-frequency
light-
ing system from a low-frequency three-phase transmission system.

Fig. 249
shows a motor generator

of
consists
three-phase
set
used for this work.
revolving-field
It
motor
synchronous
coupled to a two-phase revolving-field alternator.

217.
Connections
for
rotary converter sub-station.
Fig.
250
shows a general scheme of connections for a rotary converter

sub-station \yhere the alternating current
tension
three-phase transmission
changed
to direct current
is
at a pressure of five or six
line,
is
received from a high-
and after having been
delivered to an electric railway system
hundred
volts.
Of
course, the actual
connections used for such sub-stations vary considerably, depending,
amongst other
things,
upon the kind of apparatus employed,
the purpose for which the direct current
is
used, and the
method
The connections shown in Fig. 250

employed by The General Electric Com-
of starting the converters.

are substantially those
pany for
street railway converters operating at twenty-five cycles
and arranged so that they can be started either by direct or
alter-
nating current.
The incoming
high-tension line
tension switch in which the circuit
is
first
passes through a high-
broken under
oil.
thus effect-
340

This switch allows
ually preventing arcing at the contacts.
The
current to be cut off from the sub-station.

is
all
high-tension line
connected to the high-tension bus-bars from which current
These lower the voltage
supplied to the step-down transformers.

to about
An
volts.
volts, since the direct
350
oil-break switch
is
is
E.M.F.
in this case is
about 550
placed between the bus-bars and the
transformers and the primaries of the latter are provided with a
number of
its,
taps, so that they
can be adjusted, within certain lim-
Both primaries and secondaries
to suit different line voltages.
are
J -connected and
the latter are connected to the lower ter-
minals of a double-throw starting switch.
The upper
terminals
of this switch are connected to the middle points of the secondary
windings, so that
when
the switch
ing period, a reduced pressure

ture.
is
thrown up during the
start-
applied to the converter arma-
is
After the converter has run up to synchronism, the starting
switch
thrown
is
pressure
is
to the lower or
applied.
running position
This arrangement
equivalent to a starting compensator.
is,
As
it
is
field
full
is
used
on which the load
necessary to provide an automatic means
for voltage regulation.
changing the
which
the converter
to furnish current to a street railway system
fluctuates rapidly,
in
therefore, practically
The
voltage
is,
therefore, regulated
by
strength of the converter in combination with
the use of reactance between the collector rings
former secondaries.
The
and the trans-
variation in field strength with change
provided for by means of the series winding on the
in load is
and the reactance by means of reactance coils connected between the starting switch and the transformer secondaconverter
ries.
It
field
would, of course, be out of the question, with a rapidly
fluctuating load, to use potential regulators for regulating the
voltage unless these regulators were in some

controlled.
When
the converter
is
manner automatically
started by connecting the col-
lector rings to the source of alternating current,
step by
sary to
it is
brought into
means of the current itself and it is not, therefore, necesgo through the process of synchronizing by means of
lamps or other devices.
This
is
often a considerable advantage,
342
especially
when
the load
up
the alternating flux set
period, a break-up switch
In order to prevent
a fluctuating one.
is
high induced E.M.F.'s in the shunt
is
of the converter due to
field
during the starting
in the pole pieces
provided on the converter which
up the shunt winding into a number of sections

always be open when the converter
is
started
splits
this switch
must
from the alternating
is
closed after the machine has attained synchro-
The connections
of the auxiliary appliances, such as instru-
curr.ent side
and
nous speed.
ments,
etc.,
on the alternating side require
When
they are apparent from the figure.
from
the direct-current side,
it
little
explanation, as
the converter
is
started
has to be synchronized before the
main switch on the alternating-current
side
is
closed
there-
it is
fore necessary to provide devices for indicating synchronism and

in this case
synchronizing lamps or the voltmeter are used as ex-
The ammeter which
plained in Art. 185.
current supplied to the converter
is
indicates the alternating
not connected directly in the
is
operated from the secondaries of series
transformers as shown.
These transformers furnish a current
main conductors, but
proportional to the main current and completely separate the in-
The
struments, operated by them, from the high-tension lines.
current from these transformers passes through the coils of the
overload relays, and
the
if
main current for any reason becomes
excessive, either one or both of these relays opens the secondary

circuit, so that the
current from the transformers flows through
the tripping coil of the
main switch, thus causing the switch
to
open and disconnect the converter from the system.
The connections on
the direct-current side are very similar to
those for an ordinary direct-current,
compound-wound, dynamo
The
operating on a street-railway system.
nected to the
rail
and the
the trolley wire or third
operated in parallel
it is
negative side
is
con-
positive side to the feeders supplying
rail.
When
number
of machines are
necessary that their series
field coils also
be connected in parallel in order to secure a proper equalization

of load between the machines.
The negative brushes
(i.
e.,
the
343
brushes to which in this case the series coils are attached) are,
therefore, connected by
izing^
bus-bar which
is
way
of the cfiuihzer switch, to the equal-
usually located near the converters rather
Very often compound-wound machines
than on the switchboard.
are equalized on the -f side instead of the

coils
and
shown
way
Either
brushes.
in Fig.
because the
tically the
250
rail
is
equally
is
potential
eflfectivc,
1.
e.,
to
the series
the
positive
but the arrangement
and can be located together
Only the
at pracin
close
cables need be run
and the connections are thus simplified and
to the switchboard
The
side,
well adapted for street railway sub-stations,
proximity to the converters.
shortened.
attiched
bus bar and the equalizer bar are
or
same
are
connections
ec|ualizer
direct-current side of each converter
is
equipped
with a starting rheostat switch connected across the main positive
When
switch as shown.
direct current, obtained
main
the converter
from the
open and
is
started by
means of
direct current bus bars, the
all
the starting current has to flow
through the starting resistance.
This limits the rush of current
switch
-f-
is
and as the converter comes up

pushed
in,
has been started

strength,
to speed, the rheostat switch
thus cutting out the resistance.

it
can be synchronized by adjusting the
and hence the speed,
until
the
field
voltmeter or other
synchronism indicator shows that the converter
The End.
is
After the converter
is in
step.
INDEX.
NUMBERS RELATE TO PAGES,
Admittance,
Ammeter, hot
definition of, 8i.
wire,
Alternating current, definition of, 19.

current and electromotive force,
Ammeters, n.
Analogies, mechanical and electrical.
representation of, by polar co-
15.
Armature drop,
ordinates, 27.
current and electromotive force,
insulation,
lar coordinates,
reaction in
25.
problems,
-?
>,.
alternators,
and disad-
windings, three-phase,
Autotransformer, the, 158.
of,
high duty of, 160.
19.
Alternator armatures, types
of,
126.
Average values and-
Bullock, 280, 281.
the constant current,

design,
effective values,
29.
values of harmonic electromotive
characteristic curve of, 120.
force and current, 57.
121.
135.
fundamental equation
of,
Capacity, calculation
30.
the hydraulic analogue of, 21.
electrostatic,
of,
15.
13.
the inductor, 20.
of transmission lines,
output, limits of, 124.
units of,
simple,
speeds,
motors, 309.
Compensated alternator, the, 140.

Complex quantity, application of,
the two-phase, 98.

Alternators,
alternating
2Tz-
inductor, 274, 281.
running
of,
196,
283.
the
field
Composite
field
to
80.
monic
274, 277.
electro-dynamometer,
windings, 138.
windings,
currents, 52.
345
com-
and resolution of harforces

and
electromotive
Concentrated windings, 21.
Z7-
see
windings.
field
Composition
rotating armature, 274, 275.

field,
Compound
pound
polyphase, 98,
rotating
currents,
quantity and simple quantity, 76.
field excitation of, 137.
parallel
264.
13.
Compensators, starting, for induction
19.
126.
the three-phase, 102.
Ammeter,
133.
windings, two-phase, 129.
of, 22.
electromotive force, definition
the
114.
windings, single-phase, 128.
advantages
vantages
windings, 127.
characteristic
features of, 24.

currents,
118.
116
inductance,
representation of, by rectangu-
current
n.
plunger type, 41.
All-day efficiency, 151.
INDEX.
346
Condensers,
Electric charge, units of,
13.
Condenser,
analogue
hydrostatic
of,
Conductance, definition
of, 81.
IS.
Connections for converter substation,
Electrodynamometer,
the, 37.
Electrometer, absolute, 40.
339-
Contact-maker,
the,
Electromotive
32.
armature current
216.
of,
armature heating
of,
armature reaction
of,
change,
of,
219.
current.
222.
force
curves,
Efifective
Electric charge,
Energy
starting of, 215, 328.
son three-wire system, 226.
when
of
converting
from
direct to alternating cur-
rent,
330.
construction
frequencies
of,
inductance
Equivalent
12.
of
magnetic
leakage of transformer, 175,
Copper losses of transformer,
150.
Core flux of transformer, 148.

losses of transformer, 150.
Coulomb, definition
nous motor, 207.

Exciter, the
of,
21.
field,
Flux, magnetic,
for, 331.
voltage regulation of, 334.
12.
of,
13.
i.
Flux-turns, definition of,
Form-factor,
definition
6.
of,
29.
factor of harmonic electromotive

force, 59.
Frequencies, customary, .125.
Frequency, definition
24, 51.
of,
relation of to speed, 24.
Current curves, 25.

10.
9,
densities in armatures, 135.

of,
of,
systems,
Field, distortion in alternators, 114.
starting of, 328.
growth
polyphase
10.
Farad, definition
326.
of, 334.
transformer connections
of,
measurement
in
Excitation characteristics of synchro-
Converters, 326.
behavior
flow
kinetic, of the electric current, 3.
214.
use of, to supply current to Edi-
decay
25.
values and average values,
rating of, 218.
of,
a current
29.
six-phase, connections for, 32s-
use
make
6.
Electrostatic capacity, see capacity.
armature
instantaneous
transmission lines,
in
loss
force required to
217.
of,
current
263.
217.
relations
electromotive
force
225.
of, 221.
current relations
hunting
and
force
curves, determination of, 32.
Converter, 210, 213.
9,
Growth
of current,
Harmonic
cuit,
of current,
9,
11.
II.
Cycle, definition of, 24. 51.
Decay
3.
and mechanical analogies,
Electrical
14.
12.
current, kinetic energy of,
9,
10.
Distributed windings, 21.
current
in
Problem
inductive
cir-
IV., 63.
current in inductive circuit containing
condenser.
Problem
VI., 66.
Effective values of harmonic electromotive force and current, 58.

Electric charge, definition of, 12.
current, rate of change of, 55.
electromotive force and current,
average values
of,
57.
INDEX.
Harmonic
electromotive
and
force
current, definition of, 49.
Inductance motor, starting torque
motor, torque-speed relations, 238.

motor, vector diagram
effective values of, 58.
electromotive
form factor
motor,
motors,
305.
force
or
motors,
current
59.
current,
force
representation
electromotive
for,
wattmeter, the, 241,
and
resolu-
Inductivities,
tion of, 52.
table
of,
14.
Inductivity,
Henry, definition of
Heyland
voltages
motors, transformers for, 315.
and
forces
composition
currents,
of,
314.
vector, 49.
Harmonic
standard
motors,
by rotating
of,
consumption
motors, frequencies for, 315.
current,
or
of, 245.
single-phase, 319.
314-
algebraic expression for, 50.
electromotive
Wagner
force,
electromotive
of,
255-
force and current,
electromotive
of,
347
diagram
the,
of
4.
the
definition
of,
14.
Inductor, alternator, the, 20, 274.
induction
motor, 257.
Hunting of synchronous motor,

Hunting, prevention
Lagging currents, compensation

198.
for,
91.
of,
325.
Lincoln synchronizer, 287.
Impedance, definition
of,
Inductance, calculation
80.
Magnetic
flux
definition of,
of,
dependence
of,
upon size, 5.
upon turns,
mechanical analogue
of,
in air gap,
in
armature
and
134.
Mechanical analogue of inductance,

5.
and
5.
electrical analogies, 15.
5.
Microfarad, definition
of,
13.
4.
Monocylic system,
Induction generator, 240.
the,
164,
Motor-generators, 336.
motor, 230.
motor, complex equations
motor,
i.
densities
3.
dependence
units of,
flux,
of, 8.
direction
Motor, induction, see induction motor.

of, 249.
repulsion,
of
rotation
317.
of,
the synchronous, see synchronous

316.
motor, effect of eddy currents and

hysteresis,
motor.
247.
motor, effect of magnetic leakage.
Non-inductive
circuits, 4.
248.
motor, effect of stator resistance,

motor, general theory
of, 242.
motor, graphical solution

motor,
Opposition, definition
of,
Output of alternator, limits
247.
maximum
of,
124.
of transformer, limits of,
152.
of, 256.
torque
of,
255.
motor, simple discussion
of,
237.
motor, single-phase driving, 240.
Phase constant
of armature winding,
122.
difference, definition of, 51.
Polyphase systems, 98.
motor, single-phase, 316.

motor, speed regulation
52.
of,
311.
motor, starting compensator, 309.
systems, transformers for, 161.
transformers, 302.
INDEX.
348
Power, average,
Resonance, multiplication of current
z"].
expression
for,
expression
for
by,
8i.
in
case
of
har-
of
electromotive
force by, 71.
monic electromotive force and
Rice's compensated alternator, 140.
current, 59.
Rotary converter, see converter.
factor, definition of, 60.
polyphase systems,
in
71.
multiplication
instantaneous,
Rotary Converter, sub-station connec-
109.
tions for, 339.
2^.
Rotor,
loss in transmission lines, 263.
measurements
in
squirrel-cage,
230.
polyphase sysScott's transformer, 163.
tems, III,
measurement,
ammeter
three
Self-induced
electromotive
Self-induction,
method, 44.
measurement,
method, 43.
II.,
force,
see
of,
7.
in-
ductance.
voltmeter
three
Simple quantity and complex quantity,
Prevention of hunting, 325.
Problem L,
coefficient
Td.
Single-phase
induction
Spark gauge,
the, 41.
motor,
316.
10.
II.
III.,
harmonic current
Speeds of alternators, 126.

in non-in-
Squirrel-cage
ductive circuit,
IV.,
rotor,
230.
(i2>.
harmonic current
motor,
of induction
Stator
230.
induc-
in
windings, 231.
tive
v.,
circuit,
^2,.
establishment
VI.,
harmonic current
tive
method of representing
harmonic electromotive force and
Steinmetz's
harmonic
of
current in inductive current, 65.
current,
induc-
in
denser, 66.
144.
Sub-stations, connections for, 339.
VII., coils in series, 84.
Susceptance, definition
VIII., coils in parallel, 88.
of,
Synchronism, definition
synchronous motor, see
of
hunting of synchronous motor.
Synchronizer,
Lincoln,
Synchronous motor,
definition of,
51.
186,
simple and complex, ^d.
Quantity,
conditions
motor,
efficiency,
negative
of
of,
311.
324.
of
maximum
200.
synchronous
motor,
47,
of,
2.(i2f
Reaction of changing current,

Rectifier,
motor,
the alternating current, 30.
Resonance,
electric,
electric,
intake
possible
206.
of,
maximum
198.
intake of, 205.
motor, necessity of synchronism,

191.
definition of, 69.
mechanical, analogues
72.
322.
207.
greatest
motor, hunting
7.
241.
Repulsion motor, 317.
71,
acteristics of,
motor,
Recording wattmeter,
of,
Synchronous motor, excitation char-
80.
209.
of transmission lines,
51.
of,
motor, construction
Reactance, definition
81.
of,
287.
motor, advantages
Quadrature,
transforma-
step-down
containing a con-
circuit
tion,
Pumping
60.
and
Step-up
of,
motor, negative reactance
of, 209.
motor, the polyphase, 210.

motor, stability
of,
195.
INDEX.
motor, starting
of,
motor, stoppage due to overload,
Transformers, 291.
cooling of, 294.
191.
for
Thomson
without iron, 92.
the,
322.
194,
349
inclined coil meters, 42.
with divided
recording wattmeter, 47.
Three-ammeter method
induction
for power, 44.
Transmission
lines,
Three-phase systems, 106.
lines,
power,
for
43.
Transformation, ratio
of,
interference
effect
and
force
transformer
of
separate,
144.
tromotive
144.
of
Three-phase, three-wire system, elecrelations in,
action,
266.
Three-phase alternator, 102.

Three-phase electromotive forces and
Transformer, the, 143.

action,
157.
calculation,
currents, 103.
145.
and step-down,
step-up
coils,
line
265.
transformer connections, 299.
method
315.
262.
Three-phase alternator, the, 102.
Three-voltmeter
motors,
for polyphase systems, 261, 302.
106,
current
107.
connections,
161,
resistance,
coil
299.
^73-
action,
age,
magnetic leak-
of
effect
Two-phase alternator, 98.

Two-phase electromotive forces and
174.
currents,
admittance
zero
at
of,
three-phase transformer,
170.
all-day
loi.
output,
162.
three-wire system, effect of line

efficiency
complex
connections,
151.
of,
equations
of,
drop
180.
156.
loi.
system
electromotive
force and current relations
connections for converters, 331.

connections,
in,
three-wire
three-phase, 299.
in,
lOI.
transformer
connections,
161,
connections, two-phase, 297,

297.
the constant current, 176, 303.
core flux
design,
Vectors,
efficiency
of,
equivalent
151.
of,
division
150.
and react-
147.
graphical solution of, 256.
leakage inductance
losses,
of,
leakage
of,
magnetizing current
output,
limits
rating,
152.
of,
177.
of,
169.
two-phase,
39.
electrostatic, 40.
hot wire, 37.

plunger, type, 41.
Wagner
single-phase induction motor,
319.
Wattmeter,
regulation, calculation of,

Scott,
78.
Voltage regulators, 334.

Voltmeters, 37.
170, 171.
152.
regulation, 172.
the
79.
electrodynamometer,
175,
149.
magnetic
of,
multiplication of,
resistance
of,
77.
addition and subtraction of, 78.

table
efficiencies,
ance
148.
of,
153.
183.
163.
three-phase,
37,
inductance
44,
error
the induction,
162.
of,
241.
the recording, 47.
94.
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REWRITTEN AND ENLARGED

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.

Set up and electrotyped August, 189Q. Reprinted August, 1900

Reprinted January, 1903 ; February, 1904 ;

The new Era printing Company

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

years' use of Franklin

and Williamson's Elements of Al-

valuable suggestions from friends,

ternating Currents, and

make it possible to issue

a greatly improved edition, which

be found easy reading, but

not expected that this text will

any one of moderate

can gain by serious study of this text a clear understand-

ing of the principles of alternating currents and of the theory of

Aside from the minor changes which occur on almost every

page of the book,

from the old

a very complete series of practical problems with answers.

on the Alternator, on the Transformer,

Induction Motor, are especially noteworthy.

chapters have been added to give the student a

some of the ordinary types of

current apparatus and the conditions under which

These chapters are intended

connection with the

corresponding chapters that treat on the theory of the apparatus

The authors' thanks are due to Professor Morgan Brooks for

that have been added.

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

have endeavored to include in the text only those things which

those things which are of importance in the engineering practice

be taken for granted that the authors are deeply

whose papers are unique

close touch with engineering realities.

Inductance and Capacity.

Alternating Current and Alternating Electromotive Force.

Harmonic Electromotive Force and Harmonic Current.

Problems of the Inductive Circuit and Resonance.

The Use of Complex Quantity.

The Problem of Coils

The Theory of the Alternator.

The Theory of the Transformer.

The Theory of the Transformer. Continued.

The Theory of the Synchronous Motor.

The Theory of the Rotary Converter.

The Theory of the Induction Motor.

ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINERY.

mstantaneous value of current.

value of an harmonic alternating current.

instantaneous value of electromotive force.

value of an harmonic alternating electromo-

sometimes used for

square root of minus one, v^

base of Naperian logarithms.

ELEMENTS OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS.

be the area of a surface at right