Franklin The Elements of Electrical Engineering 1 (1907)

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FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCE.

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THE ELEMENTS OF
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
VOLUME
I.
DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES
ELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION AND LIGHTING
J^^y^
THE ELEMENTS
OF
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
A TEXT BOOK FOR
TECHNICAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
BY
WILLIAM SUDDARDS FRANKLIN

PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS IN LEHIGH UNIVERSITY
AND
WILLIAM ESTY
PSOFESSOR OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING IN LEHIGH UNIVERSITT
VOLUME
DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES

ELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION AND LIGHTING
THIRD EDITION, EIGHTH THOUSAND
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON: MACMILLAN &
1907
All rights reserved
CO., Ltd.
Copyright, 1906
By W.
S.
franklin and WILLIAM ESTY
Advance
First
Edition, January, 1906.
Regular Edition, September
Second Edition, October,
1906.
Third Edition, August, 1907,
Press of
The new Era Printing Companv

Lancaster, Pa.
i,
1906.
PREFACE.
This
on the elements of electrical engineering reprecombined experience of the authors in teaching the
The aim has been to give a clear and
subject for thirteen years.
treatise
sents the
concise treatment of the elements of the subject illustrated
numerous
practical
by
examples and problems.
In almost every branch of engineering a simple working knowl-
edge of the
bution, and
problems involved
electrical
utilization of
pursuing a course
power
in
the generation, distri-
becoming imperative.
is
Students
other than electrical, arc limited
in engineering,
as to the time to be devoted to electrotechnology, while students
taking a course in electrical engineering are not so restricted.
The problem which
the authors undertook to solve in the
preparation of this treatise was to so select and arrange the subject matter that the
book might be advantageously used
as an
introductory course, not only for electrical engineering students,
but also for students specializing
This somewhat
more
the
difficult
problem has been solved by treating
by placing the more elaborate developments
in a series of appendices.
in
other branches of engineering.
essential parts of the subject consecutively in a series
of chapters, and
for
in
This arrangement makes
it
in
possible
a student to easily cover the fundamental portions of the text
one semester, by omitting the more highly specialized matter
that
is
given partly in fine print and partly in Appendices A,
and C.
An
fully
important feature of the book
chosen problems given as a
lems are arranged
in
given
in
illustrate principles,
the text.
an extended
appendix.
list
of care-
These prob-
an order following closely the development
of the subject matter of the text.
merely to
is
final
The answers
checked with extreme
care.
They have been designed not
but to supplement the information

to these problems have been
PREFACE.
VI
The book
inaccuracies
entirely.
as a
whole seems to be comparatively
free
from
and errors which the authors hope to eliminate
Lists of errata
thankfully received
from those who use the book
will
by
The Authors.
South Bethlehem,
July, 1906.
be
PROPERTY OF ELECTRICAL LABORATORY,

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCE.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGES.
and Notation
Classification
CHAPTER
ix-xiii
I.
Introduction.
Elementary Electricity and Magnetism
i- 34
CHAPTER
II.
The Dynamo
35- 73
CHAPTER
The Operation of the Dynamo
as a
III.
Generator
CHAPTER
as a
IV.
Motor
CHAPTER
Power
74- 94
95-126
V.
Losses in Generators and Motors.
CHAPTER
Efficiency
127-144
VI.
Ratings and Guarantees
145-171
CHAPTER
The Practical Operation of Dynamos.
VII.
Station Equipment
CHAPTER
172-237
VIII.
Storage Batteries
238^265
CHAPTER
IX.
Electric Distribution and Wiring
266-307
CHAPTER
X.
Photometry and Electric Lighting
APPENDIX
Electromagnets.
....
Magnetism of Iron
vii
308-350
A.
351-382
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VIU
APPENDIX
B.
Character is'iic Curves
383-417
APPENDIX
C.
Armature Windings
418-447
APPENDIX
Problems
........
D.
448-509
INDEX
511-517
AND NOTATION.
CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINES.*
A direct current a unidirectional current.

A continuous current a steady, or non-pulsating,
is
is
direct
current.
An
alternating current
is
a current of equal half-waves in suc-
cessively opposite directions.
An oscillating
current
is
a current alternating in direction, and
of decreasing amplitude.
Apparatus
Electrical
heads
I.
will
be
treated
under the
following
CoMMUTATiNG MACHINES, which Comprise a constant magand a multi-segmental com-
netic field, a closed coil armature,
mutator connected thereto.
Under
this
rent boosters
may
head
current generators
;
be classed the following
continuous-current motors
motor-generators
dynamotors
Continuous-
continuous-curconverters and
closed-coil arc machines.
A booster
its
voltage,
otherwise.
is
a machine inserted in series in a circuit to change
and may be driven

In the former case
motor-generator
machines
is
either
it is
by an
electric
motor, or
a motor-booster.
a transforming device consisting of two
a motor and a generator, mechanically connected
together.
dynamotor
is
a transforming device combining both motor
and generator action
in
one magnetic
field,
with two armatures,
or with an armature having two separate windings.
For converters, see

*This
III.
classification constitutes a part of the
ization, of the
American
Report of the Committee on Standard-
Institute of Electrical Engineers.
ix
CLASSIFICATION
AND NOTATION.
Synchronous Machines, which comprise a constant magand an armature receiving or delivering alternating
II.
netic field,
currents in synchronism with the motion of the machine
c,
i.
having a frequency equal to the product of the number of pairs
and the speed of the machine
of poles
revolutions
in
second.
III.
clude
Synchronous Commutating Machines

(i) Synchronous converters, commonly
verters "
i.
e.y
These
in-
called ''con-
converters from alternating to direct, or from
e.,
direct to alternating current,

/.
per
and
(2)
Double-current generators
generators producing both direct and alternating currents.

converter
changing
is
electric
converter
a.
a machine employing mechanical
momentum
in
energy from one form into another.
may be
either
direct-current converter, converting from a direct current
to a direct current, or
b.
synchronous converter, formerly called a rotary con-
verter, converting
from an alternating to a direct current or vice
versa.
Phase converters are converters from an alternating-current

system to an alternating-current system of the same frequency,
but
in different
phase.
Frequency converters are converters from an alternating-current system of one frequency to an alternating-current system of
another frequency, with or without change in the number of

phases.
IV. Rectifying Machines, or Pulsating-Current Generators, which produce a unidirectional current of periodically vary-
ing strength.
V. Stationary Induction Apparatus,

ratus changing electric energy to
medium
a.
of magnetic energy.
electric
i.
e.,
stationary appa-
energy through the
These comprise
Transformers, or stationary induction apparatus in which
the primary
and secondary windings are
from each other.
electrically insulated
AND NOTATION.
CLASSIFICATION
Auto-transformers, also called
b.
compensators
XI
e.,
/,
sta-
tionary induction apparatus in which part of the primary winding

is
used as a secondary winding

c.
or conversely.
Potential regulators, or stationary induction apparatus having
a coil in shunt, and a coil in series with the circuit, so arranged

that the ratio of transformation between
These may be divided
them
is
variable at will.
into the following types, or combinations
thereof:
Compensator
1.
potential regulators, in
turns of one of the coils
is
which the number of
changed.
Induction potential-regulators, in which the relative posi-
2.
tions of
primary and secondary
Magneto
3.
coils is
potential-regulators, in
changed.
which only the direction
of the magnetic flux with respect to the coils
is
changed.
d. Reactors, or reactance coils, formerly called choking coils

i.
e.,
stationary induction apparatus used to produce impedance
or phase displacement.
VI.
Rotary Induction Apparatus, which
consist of primary
and secondary windings rotating with respect to each other.
They comprise
a.
Induction motors.
b.
Induction generators.
c.
Frequency converters.
d.
Rotary phase converters.
NOTATION.*
The
in this
following table shows the more important symbols used

text and explains their meaning.
A few of these
symbols
are used at different times to represent different quantities.

* Non-standard symbols which are used but once or twice in
given in this table.
The
significance of such symbols
and wherever they are used.
is
Thus
this treatise are not
fully explained
whenever
'
/ in
AND NOTATION.
CLASSIFICATION
xil
some
may
places represents temperature and at another place
The meanings
stand for an interval of time.
bols are explained every time an equation

text,
is
it
of these sym-
discussed in the
and therefore symbols that are used only once or twice
in
the text are not given in this table.

a, P,
<f>,
6 are used for angle
/3
also used for temperature
is
and
coefficient of resistance,
for coefficient of linear
expansion.
cfi
magnetic flux density.

capacity.
E, e electromotive force or voltage.
E^
E^
= electromotive
= electromotive
force
induced
in
an armature.
force between the terminals
ot
a dynamo.
frequency of an alternating electromotive force or cur-
The
rent in cycles per second.
letter/"
is
also used
for electric field intensity.
force
cf
magnetomotive
sometimes used for
field loss
of a dynamo.
force.
H quantity of heat expressed
in ergs
or joules.
h conical intensity of a beam of light
in
hefners or in
candles.
3{ magnetic field intensity.

/, i
current.
/
I
= armature current,
= series field current,
.
The
letter
/ is
current.
external
circuit.
cf
intensity of magnetization.
inductivity of a dielectric.
inductance.
/ length.
fi
= shunt field
= current in
also used for the sectional intensity of a
of light, or for intensity of illumination.
/
/
magnetic pole strength.
magnetic permeability.
beam
CLASSIFICATION
n speed
AND NOTATION.
Xill
minute or
per
in revolutions per
This
second.
number of
frequently used where any
letter is
things,
in revolutions
are to be represented
n,
in
formula.
power.
/ number of field magnet poles of a dynamo.

The letter / is also used for power factor.
p'
^,
<f>
number
of current paths in an armature.
magnetic
flux.
Q, q quantity of electric charge.
R, r resistance.
R^
^
/o
= armature resistance, R^ = shunt field

ance, R = series field resistance.
resist-
magnetic reluctance.
specific resistance.
s area of a surface, sectional area.
^
/
stray
time
power
loss in
a dynamo.
also temperature.
torque.
linear velocity.
G)
angular velocity.
W work.
X^ X reactance.
The
letter
is
also frequently used as a
coordinate.
The
Z, z impedance.
letter
is
also used for the
number
of conductors on the surface of an armature, and for
number of turns of wire in a coil. The letter z

also used for the number of turns of wire per unit
the
is
length of a
Z'
^= pZjp' lo^
where
coil.
is
the
number of conductors on the
face of an armature.
sur-
SCIENCE.
FACULTY OP APPLIED
ELEMENTS OF
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION.
ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

1.
The magnet.
The
name magnet was

composed of
to the lodestone, a mineral
power of
native state, possesses the
stone imparts
its
iron oxide which, in
to
Such
it.
employed
for
magnetizing iron or
the use of the electric current as described

Poles of a magnet.
of the magnet.
The
steel
The methods
steel
depend upon
later.
Certain parts only of a
the power of attracting iron.
its
lode-
pieces of iron or steel are
be magnetized and they are called magnets.
at present
The
attracting iron.
magnetic property to pieces of iron or
which are brought near

said to
originally applied
These parts are
magnet possess
called the poles
poles of a bar magnet, for example, are
usually situated at the ends of the bar.
Compass,
Naming
of poles.
horizontal
magnet
free to
turn about a vertical axis places itself approximately north and

south.
This fact
is
made use
of in the compass, which consists
of a pivoted horizontal magnet playing over a divided
north-pointing end of a magnet
south-pointing end of a magnet
Mutual
action of
two magnets.
attracts the south pole of
is
is
called
called
its
its
circle.
The
north pole and the

south pole.
The north pole of one magnet
another magnet, and the north poles
of two magnets or the south poles of two magnets repel each
ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
2
other
that
unlike magnetic poles attract each other, and like
is,
magnetic poles repel each other.
and
Distributed
that
is,
concentrated poles.
The poles of a
magnet,
the seats of the attracting or repelling forces, are dis-
tributed over considerable portions of the bar, generally the end
This
portions.
is
especially the case with short, thick bars.
In
the case of long, slim magnets, however, the poles are usually
more nearly concentrated
at the
ends of the bar.
In the former
case the poles are said to be distributed, in the latter case the
poles are said to be (approximately) concentrated.
The elementary theory

applies to long slim
trated poles
that
is,
to
its
simplest aspects
magnets with concen-
and the following discussion applies primarily to
The
various definitions may be applied, however,

magnets with distributed poles although rigorous statements
such magnets.
to
of magnetism in
magnets
are in this case very complex, involving elaborate use of differential

2.
and
integral calculus.
Strength of pole.
The poles of a magnet
attract iron with
greater or less force, according to the size of the
magnet and ac-
cording to the thoroughness with which the magnet has been
The
magnetized.
poles of a magnet are said to be strong
they attract iron or steel with relatively great

Unit pole.
Measure of pole
strength.
force.
A magnet pole
have unit strength, or to be a unit pole, when
to
attraction or repulsion of
when
one dyne upon an equal
it
is
said
exerts an
* pole at a dis-
tance of one centimeter, and the force in dynes with which a unit
pole acts upon a given pole at a distance of one centimeter
is
adopted as the numerical measure of the strength of the given

pole.
magnet pole of m'
units strength at a distance of
meter from a pole of unit strength
is,
one
according to the above
statement, attracted or repelled with a force of m' dynes.

unit pole
'"
is
replaced
For the purpose of
by a pole o{ m"
centi-
If the
units strength the force be-
this definition the poles of
two
entirely similar
have been similarly magnetized, may be considered to be equal.
magnets which

comes in" times
as great, or
rn'm" dynes.
That
a pole of
is,
m! units strength at a distance of one centimeter from another pole

of
m"
units strength
is
attracted or repelled with a force of in'7n"
dynes.
Coulomb's law.
3.
magnet poles
The force of
This
between them.
fact
was established experimentally
by Coulomb who measured the
force of attraction of
poles at various distances apart.
pended horizontally by a
One
attraction or repulsion of
two
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
is
in
800
two magnet
long slim magnet was sus-
forming a torsion pendulum.
wire, thus
pole of another long slim magnet
when brought near
of the poles of the suspended magnet caused a
one
to
twist of the sus-
pending wire and from the observed angle of twist the value of
the attracting or repelling force was calculated.
Complete expression for the force of attraction of two magnet

poles,
According
two poles m' and
to the previous article
m'm" dynes when
each other with a force of
attract or repel
m"
they
are one centimeter apart, therefore, according to Coulomb's law,
m'm" jr^
the poles attract or repel with a force of
That
they are r centimeters apart.
p
in
which m' and
poles, r
in
m"
m'm"
p-
0)
are the respective strengths of the
their distance apart in centimeters,
is
dynes when
is
and
magnet
the force
is
dynes with which they attract or repel each other.

Algebraic sign of magnet pole.
alike in sign
poles.
when both
The
poles m' and
are north poles or
In either case the product
m'm'^
when both
is
positive,
m"
are
are south
and
in this
case the force
therefore
convenient to consider the force /^ as a positive
force
it
when
is
it is
opposite in sign
pole.
in
equation (i)
On
a repulsion.
when one
is
is
by experiment a
the other hand
repulsion;
m' and m^'
are
a north pole and the other a south
In this case the product
m'm"
is
negative and the force
4
in
equation (i)
is
an
attraction.
It
is
customary to consider a
north pole as positive and a south pole as negative.
and
Equality of north
poles of a
When
in sign.
south poles of a
magnet are always equal

a magnet
is
broken
in two,
magnet with a north pole and a south
plete
bar of steel
may
The two
though opposite
magnet.
in strength
each piece
is
be irregularly magnetized so as to have
one or more north poles and one or more south poles
more of
the north poles
all
one or
the poles, sometimes called consequent poles, being near
the middle of the bar.

of
a com-
pole.
sum
In such a case the

is
equal to the
sum
of the strengths
of the strengths of
all
of the south poles.
convenient to speak of an isolated magnet pole, mean-
It is often
ing one pole of a very long slim magnet, the other pole of which
is
away
so far
4.
Magnetic
magnet pole
in
as to be negligible in
one
A magnetic
field.
present
if
is
is
any region
field is
in
which a
acted upon by a force tending to pull
a magnetic
field
carrying an electric current
it
For example, the region surround-
direction or another.
ing a magnet
its effects.
is
the region surrounding a wire
a magnetic
field
the behavior of
a compass needle shows that the entire region surrounding the

earth
^
a magnetic
is
magnetic
action which
action
field.
field
has other important
it
the effect which
is
effect's
exerts upon a magnet pole

is
besides the force
however,
this force
usually employed as a basis for the
discussion of the ideas of direction and intensity of a magnetic

field at
a point.
Given a magnetic
field,
wire carrying electric current for example
the field surrounding a

;
in
order to direct at-
tention to the nature of this field at a given point
we imagine
a magnet pole placed at that point, and we consider the force

A magnet pole
with which the field acts upon this pole.
which
a
is
used
in this
way
as an indicator of magnetic field
test pole.
Intensity of
a magnetic field at a point.
said to be intense
when
it
magnetic
we
call
field is
exerts a relatively great force upon a
given test pole.
a magnet A
is
much more
is
magnet than
pole
given magnetic
from point to point.
in intensity
due to
field
remote from the poles,
much greater
than when it is at
acted upon by a
of the poles of
usually varies greatly
field
Thus the magnetic
intense at points near the poles of the
at points
is
it
force
when
it
a test
for
near one
is
points remote from both
poles of ^.
The force,
3{,
in dynes
which acts upon a unit
when
test pole
pole is placed at a given point in a magnetic field
is
the
adopted as the
numerical measure of the intensity of the magnetic field at the given
This force-per-unit-test-pole,
point.
^,
simply as the intensity of the magnetic
The
of
force
F with
which a magnetic
units strength
which the
field acts
is
is
hereafter spoken of
field at
a point.
field acts
upon a
test
times as great as the force
upon a
pole
M with
unit test pole placed at the
same
Therefore
point.
F=m3{
in
which
strength
F is the force in
m when the pole
the intensity
is
(2)
dynes which acts upon a

is
placed
in
a magnetic
test pole of
field
of which
cl{.
The International Electrical Congress

name gauss for the unit field intensity.
of
Direction of a magnetic field at a point.
which a magnetic
field acts
1900 adopted the
The
upon a north pointing
force with
test
pole
is
opposite in direction to the force with which the same field acts
upon a south pointing
test pole
placed at the same point.
The
which a magnetic field acts upon a north

adopted conventionally as the direction of the
direction of the force with
pointing
test
pole
is
field at the point.
Homogeneous fields and non-homogeneous
A magnetic
generally varies in intensity and in direction from point to
field
point.
field
fields.
Such a
field is said to
be non- homogeneous.
A magnetic
which has everywhere the same intensity and the same
rection
is
called a Iiomogeneous or uniform
field.
di-
Hydraulic analogy of magnetic field.
(a)
steadily
moving
liquid has at each point a definite velocity in a definite direction
steadily moving liquid may best be pictured in

mind by imagining curved lines drawn through the liquid,
and the trend of a

the
these lines being at each point in the direction of the velocity oP

the liquid at that point.
Where
liquid
Such
lines
are
called stream
is
great,
velocity of
and where the stream
the liquid
is
small.
lines are
When
the
parallel straight lines the velocity of the liquid
same
in
is
lines are
everywhere the
is
homogeneous or uniform.
Fig.
spread apart the
stream
value and in direction, and the motion of the liquid
said to be
(B)
lines.
the stream lines are crowded together the velocity of the
magnetic
field
1.
has at each point a definite intensity
in
and the trend of a magnetic field may best be

mind by imagining curved lines drawn through
definite direction,
pictured in the
the
field,
these lines being at each point in the direction of the

^^&
Such lines are called lines of force. Where

the lines of force are crowded together the intensity of the field
is great, and where the lines of force are spread apart the intensity
at that point.
of the field
is
small.
When the
lines the intensity of the
magnetic
value and in direction, and the

uniform.
Magnetic figures.
lines of force are parallel straight
The
field is
everywhere the same
field is said to
trend of the
in
be homogeneous or
lines of
force in the
shown by placing a pane

of glass over the magnet and dusting iron filings upon it.
The
filings, becoming magnetized, tend to arrange themselves in filaneighborhood of a magnet
is
beautifully
Fig. 2.
ments along the

facilitates this
lines of
force.
arrangement of the
Slight
filings.
tapping of the glass

Figs,
i, 2,
4, 5,
6 and
7 are photographic reproductions of magnetic figures obtained

in this
way.
Fig.
shows the trend of the
lines of force in the
neighborhood of two unlike poles and Fig. 2 shows the trend of

the lines of force in the neighborhood of
two
like poles.
JILEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
The force of attraction of the two unHke magnet poles of Fig.

may be attributed to a tendency of the lines of force to shorten,
very much as if the lines of force were stretched elastic filaments.
I
This idea of tension along the Hnes of force of a magnetic
field is
also useful in giving an insight into the cause of the side
which a magnetic
field
upon a wire carrying an
exerts
push
electric
current as explained later.
Not only do the

dency
is,
lines of force in a
to shorten, but they
there
is
magnetic
have a ten-
field
push each other apart
sidewise.
That
a tension along the lines of force and a pressure at
The
right angles to the lines of force.
poles in Fig. 2
may be
repulsion of the two like
attributed to this side pressure of the lines
of force.
5.
pole.
Direction
and intensity
Inasmuch
of
as a test pole of north
directly towards a given south pole
from a given north pole,

magnetic
field
near
field
an isolated magnet
polarity
evident that the lines of force of the
it is
surrounding an isolated magnet pole are radiating
straight lines, that the magnetic field near a north pole
away from
it,
and
directed towards
Imagine a
acts
directed
is
it.
test pole of strength in!
upon the
equation (i)
is
that the magnetic field near a south pole
from a given pole of strength
attracted
is
and repelled straight away
test
pole m'
placed at a point distant r
The
in.
is
force with which the pole
F 7nin' jf^,
according to
but the force acting upon the test pole m'
is
equal
to the product of the strength of the test pole into the field intensity at the test pole
equation
(2).
due
to the given pole
in,
according to
Therefore
or
^=?
6.
Magnetic flux.
Consider
(3)
a plane surface, s square centi-
ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
magnetic
netic
in
and
in area, stretched across
meters
pix
which
field
of intensity
The product
cH\
That
across the surface.
at right angles to a
is
s^
is
9
uniform
called the
mag-
the magnetic flux across a plane surface of area s
is
square centimeters at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of

When the plane surface is not at right angles to
intensity ^{.
the uniform magnetic field then
in
which 6
When
the
is
the angle between
which
A<l>
which the area
ment of
is
and 6
is
is
surface
is
the surface
is
curved then
^cose-As
(4r)
the intensity of the field at the ele-
the angle between 9{ and the normal
to the element of surface.

finite
when
surface.
the flux across an element of the surface of

As, cK
is
surface,
^ and the normal to the
not uniform or
field is
A^ =
in
In this case the total flux across a
found by integrating equation
over the
(4<r)
finite
surface.
The
unit flux
is
the flux across one square centimeter at right
angles to a magnetic field of unit intensity, or

I
the flux across
InXh of a square centimeter at right angles to a magnetic
of n units of intensity.
1
it is
The
900 adopted the name maxwell
unit flux
is
for the unit flux
almost universally called the
usually expressed as so
The manner
in
many
line,
however, the
and a given flux
is
space
is
lines.
which magnetic
field is distributed in
mathematically identical with the manner

distributed
field
International Electrical Congress of
in
which velocity
throughout a moving incompressible Hquid.
is
The
stream lines in a moving incompressible liquid are closed or

reentrant lines.*
Similarly, the lines of force of a magnetic field
* Unless the motion extends
to infinity.
lO
or reentrant lines.*
are closed
may
sphere,
amount of
certain
closed surface, such as a
be imagined to be drawn
liquid
may
in a
moving
and a
liquid,
flow into the enclosed region across
a portion of the bounding surface,
if
then an exactly equal
so,
must flow out of the enclosed region across

some other portion of the bounding surface. Similarly, if mag-
amount of
liquid
netic flux enters
bounding
an enclosed region through one portion of the
an exactly equal
surface,
flux
must pass out of
the enclosed region across some other portion of the bounding

surface, or in other words, the total
surface
magnetic flux across a closed
zero.
is
A clear idea of the manner in which magnetic flux

in
may be
space
obtained as follows
is
distributed
Imagine a net stretched
across any given magnetic field and imagine the meshes of the
net to be large in area where the field
is
is
weak or where the
inclined to the netted surface so that the product
unity for each
Imagine
starting
mesh
lines of force to
These
field
cos 6
is
of the net.
from every point
of the net.
scf{
be drawn through the magnetic
in
field
the periphery of one of the meshes
lines of force
form a tube-like surface having

the given mesh for a base.
The magnetic flux across the
base of this tube,
by
unity
magnetic
b,
Fig. 3,
is
The
supposition.
through any
flux
given surface s stretched across

the tube anywhere is also unity
For the given surface

base
^*^' ^'
b,
the
s,
and the walls zuw of
the intervening portion of the
tube constitute a closed surface across which the total flux
wards
zero
is
where zero
of force
but the flux across the walls
since these walls are
field
extends to
infinity.
is
is
in-
every-
everywhere parallel to the
therefore the flux inwards across
* Unless the
ww
lines
equal to the

flux outwards across
The
s.
tube
through
flux, or since the flux
therefore called, a
is
everywhere unity
it is
II
of
tiide
is
it
ofl:en
called a imit tube.
may be formed by
Similar unit tubes
the entire region of the
magnetic
field
passing out
lines of force
from the peripheries of the other meshes of the
In this
net.
may be
split
up
way
into unit
tubes and the magnetic flux across any surface anywhere in the
field will
be equal to the number of these unit tubes which cross
the surface.
These
force
surface
may
unit tubes
drawn along
anywhere
be represented each by a single
Then
axis.
its
which cross the
always imagined to be drawn
may
7.
tion.
be equal to the number of these
in the field will
lines (unit tubes)
line of
the magnetic flux across any
in a
Lines of force are
surface.
magnetic
field
so that each line
represent a unit tube.
Magnetfc flux from a magnet pole of strength m.
The
number of
magnet pole of strength
lines of
equal to
in is
Proposi-
magnetic flux emanating from a

/îrin.
That
is
^ = /îrm
in
which
is
the magnetic flux emanating from a magnet pole
of strength m.
pole
If the
out or diverges from
it.
Proof of equation
(5).
r drawn with the pole

is
the
47r;^,
and
this field is
face.
m at its
everywhere
47r;//
is
spherical surface of radius
The
center.
field intensity at
a south pole, the flux
area of this spherical
every point on
this spherical
m\r^ according to equation
at right angles to the spherical
(3),
sur-
Therefore the magnetic flux across the spherical surface
equal to
in\(f-^
Remark.
* Except of course
it.
The
netic flux passes
through
is
it.
Imagine a
surface * due to the pole
îrm passes
a north pole, the flux
is
If the pole
passes in or converges towards
surface
(5)
47rr^
which
poles of a
is
equal to
magnet
from iron into
air
is
Atirm.
are the places
where mag-
(north pole) or from air into
the small part of the surface where the bar of the
magnet passes
12
When
iron (south pole).
to air as in case of the
an
the magnetic flux
magnetic
electric current there are of
the magnetic flux
is
field
is
surrounding a wire carrying
Magnetization.
substance
is
confined wholly to iron as in case of an endless
When
field
field
through which an
becomes strongly magnetized,
bar of iron
poles.
it
becomes a magnet.
iron or steel placed in the intense magnetic field
inside of a coil of wire

ing,
no magnetic
a piece of iron or other magnetic
placed in a magnetic
Thus a bar of
When
course no magnet poles.
iron rod in the form of a ring there are likewise
8.
confined wholly
when held
in
electric current is flow-
neutral or unmagnetized
the direction of the earth's magnetic
shows north polarity
at the north-pointing
end and south
Fie. 4.
polarity at the other end.
magnetism of the bar
is
If the
mer renders the bar more

action of the
bar
may
earth's
bar
reversed.
field.
is
turned end for end, the
sharp blow with a ham-
susceptible to the
The
weak magnetizing
polarity of the ends
of the
be easily determined by means of a compass needle.
This action of a magnetic

inagnetization.
field
upon
iron
and
steel
is
called

When
a piece of iron
is
placed in a magnetic
trend of the lines of force in the field
is
field
13
the original
greatly altered.
Thus
4 shows the effect of a small piece of iron upon the magnetic

In the absence of
field between two flat-ended magnet poles.
the small piece of iron the field is as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig.
The
effect of a piece of iron in
as to suggest that
*'
iron
is
a magnetic
field is
always such
a better carrier of lines of force than
.J^
Fig. 5.
air."
The
lines of force
and pass through

9.
The magnetic
which an
brevity.
tend to converge into the piece of iron
it.
field
due
to
The
lines of force of the
electric wire encircle the wire.
to
an
electric wire.
electric current is flowing is called
move round
pole tends to
magnetic
A wire through
an
field
electric
wire for
produced by an
north-pointing test pole tends
the wire in one direction and a south-pointing test
move round
the wire in the opposite direction.
14
Fig. 6
The
shows the
lines of force encircling a straight electric wire.
black circle at the center of the figure
and the wire
is
is
a section of the wire
perpendicular to the plane of the figure.
Vv^^.^<^
^^Sfe^r^:
Fig. 6.
10.
tric
The composite magnetic
wire
is
field
produced
when a
straight elec-
stretched across a magnetic field, which, but for the
Fig. 7.
presence of the electric wire, would be a uniform

netic field
field.
The mag-
between the flat-ended magnet poles, Fig.
5, is
nearly

Let an
uniform.
be stretched between the poles
electric wire
The composite
perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
due to the combined action of the magnet poles and the

wire
is
represented in Fig.
'''
''
-'-'
^'^
'''
y^'' x^'
7,
which
is
'-^^
''-'t- -'--"--:--''-.*
-.:-7;
/
/
/
'
'
'.
'
^-^N
'''
-'
'^^
-.
"*
The
^ ^"x^^^^
;>\\\
<
'
"^-,
field
electric
from a photograph.
x-'''','-
15
/
^
Fig.
"-
8.
black circle at the center of the figure
a section of the wire.
is
The trend of the lines of force near the wire in Fig. 7 is clearly
shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 8, which is from a drawing.
Side push on an electric wire stretched across a uniform magnetic fields that
is,
ence of the wire.
by the magnetic
at right angles
may be
afield which would be uniform but for the pres-
The
electric wire a, Fig.
field as indicated
8, is
by the arrow
both to the magnetic
field
and
pushed sidewise
F.
This force
is
and
it
to the wire,
ascribed to the tendency of the lines of force to shorten
themselves.
11.
Strength of current.
Consider
a straight electric wire
stretched across a uniform magnetic field of unit intensity, the
wire being at right angles to the
field as
described in the forego-
ing
The force in
article.
dyties
with which the field pushes side-
wise on one centimeter of this wire
measure of the strength of the
adopted as the numerical
is
currettt
i7t
unit-length-of-wire-per-unit-field-intensity
The
/.
unit field
let it
be represented
force pushing sidewise on / centimeters of wire in

// dynes,
is
and
if
the field intensity
instead of one unit intensity, the force
coming
f orce-per-
hereafter called, sim-
is
ply, the strength of the current in the wire
by
This
the wire.
is
is c^T
units intensity
multiplied di times, be-
Therefore
IlBi dynes.
F= im
which
in
is
the force in dynes pushing sidewise on
meters of wire which

units intensity,
The
c.g.s.
tion (6),
(6)*
is
and / is the strength of current
unit of current
F\s expressed
in
and
of current.
in
the wire.
When,
the ampere.
in
dynes, / in centimeters, and cîn
units or gausses, then the current strength

c.g.s. units
/ centi-
stretched across a magnetic field of B{
That
is,
is
such strength that one centimeter of a wire
it
in
c.g.s.
expressed
the c.g.s. unit of current
dyne-per-centimeter-per-unit-field-intensity, or
equa-
is
is
in
one
a current of
which
it
flows
pushed sidewise with a force of one dyne when the wire
is
is
stretched at right angles across a magnetic field of unit intensity.
The
so-called practical unit of current, the ampere^
of a
c.g.s.
The
unit of current. f
c.g.s. unit
is
one tenth
of current
is
called
the abampere.
*
When / and
dC are not at right angles, then
7^=
in
which a
is
the angle between /
and
// d{ sin a
d{.
In
this case
is
at right angles to both /
and d{ as before.
\
The
definition of current strength as dynes-per-unit-field-per-centimeter-length-
of-wire, the wire being at right angles to the field,
ment of the fundamental method of measuring

measuring current
with slight
is
a very difficult operation.
modifications and the c.g.s.
O.oiiiS gram of metallic
silver
is
essentially a very concise state-
current.
This fundamental method of
It has,
however, been carried out
unit current has
been found
per second from pure silver nitrate.
On
to
deposit
the basis of

Direction of currerit.
an electric wire as stated
magnet pole tends
The
in Art. 9.
to
current
is
move round
by common
consent considered to flow along the wire in the direction in which

a right-handed screw coaxial with the wire would travel
the direction in which a north pole tends to
in
if
turned
move round
the
wire.
The
relative directions of a current in a
B{ in which the wire
field
on the wire
may
placed,
is
be determined as follows
side
The
current circles round the wire in a direction which
mined from the above convention as
when
the direction of the current
is
magnetic
wire, the
and of the
push
due
field
is
F acting
to the
easily deter-
to the direction of current,
given.
This
due to the
field
current works against or weakens the field 3{ on one side of the

wire,
and strengthens the
shown
The
in Fig. 8.
which the composite

12.
field
wire
is
M on the other side of the wire, as

pushed away from the
side
upon
field is intense.
Intensity of the magnetic field at the center of a circular coil of
Fig. 9 shows a circular coil of wire of radius r through

which a current of strength /
wire.
is
flowing.
termine
required to de-
It is
the
at
intensity,
center of the coil, of the
coil.
Imagine a
test
in
pole of
placed at the center
coil.
This test pole pro-
strength
of the
mag-
due to the current
netic field
the
the
duces a magnetic
everywhere
field
which
is
^'
at right angles to the
wire of the
coil,
by equation
(3).
and of which the intensity
The
at the wire is m\i^,
action of this field on the wire
is
to
push
the wire sidewise (towards the reader in Fig. 9), and, by equation
(6), the force with which the wire is pushed is / X length of wire
this
determination the International Electrical Congress of 1893 defined the ampere
as that current
which
of pure silver nitrate.
will deposit o.cxdiiiS
gram of
silver per
second
froiti
a solution
ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL. ENGINEERING.
in
coil
X mj^ but the length

is the number of turns of
\
where
F= I X
This
coil
and opposite
test
pole
2'kZI
27r;'Z,
r'
is
Therefore,
coil.
the force with which the test pole acts on the coil of
is
The
wire.
m=
-^
27rrZ
of wire in the coil
wire in the
of wire acts upon the test pole with an equal
force,
but the force with which the
equal to
is
pole, of the field
dim,
where 3{
due to the
acts
on the
Therefore
coil.
dim =
coil
the intensity, at the test
is
^
F=
2'kZI
or:
2'kZI
^^
^=
-^
in
which di
is
of the coil in centimeters,
The
d centimeters
in
which
is
centimeters,
and /
Z turns of wire, r
the
is
magnetic
field at
number of
coil is
turns of wire in the coil, r
the current strength in c.g.s.
Proof of equation
The
nent of this
{8).
field intensity at
field in
Imagine a
test
the radius of the coil in
above stated,
d^ as
this
component pushes the
pole of strength
is
ml{r^
/X 27rrZ X
This same force reacts on the pole and
^
en=
is
the
placed at the given

-\-
is
coil sidewise
is
where cH is reckoned.
the wire due to this pole
the plane of the coil
is
and
units,
X
and
the radius
a point in the axis of a circular coil at a
from the plane of the
distance from the plane of the coil to the point
point.
is
the current in the wire in
is
or abamperes.
intensity of the
distance
the intensity in gausses of the magnetic field at the
center of a circular coil containing
c.g.s. units
(7)
with a force equal to
equal to mc)V so that
i-KZrU
T-.
d^).
The compo-

Magnetic
13.
wire
The
wound on
When
a spool.
coil is called
diameter the
When
article.
diameter the coil
its
is
made by winding one

The magnetic field
winding of
usual form of coil consists of wire

the spool
a circular
is
the spool
is
very short and large in
The
coil.
netic field at the center of a circular coil
going
a long solenoid.
field inside of
called a coil.
is
19
very long
in
The
called a solenoid.
or
more
in
a long solenoid
intensity of
mag-
discussed in the fore-
is
comparison with
solenoid
is
usually
layers of wire on a long tube.

is
uniform, that
is,
the
has the same intensity at every point inside of the solenoid
field
and the same
direction,
namely, parallel to the axis of the
solenoid.
The
intensity in gausses of the
solenoid
magnetic
field inside
of a long
is
dV=47rÎ
in
which ^
the
is
of solenoid, and
may be
(9)
number of turns of wire per centimeter length

/ is the current in abamperes. Equation (9)
written
^=47r /
in
which
and
/ is
Z is
the total
number of
The
equation gives the intensity of the magnetic
every point in a long solenoid, except at points near the ends of the sole-
and
noid,
turns of wire on the solenoid
the length of the solenoid in centimeters.
Discussion of equation (9).

field at
(10)
it
is
true whatever
the shape of the section of the

solenoid.
The
of equation (9)
ever
to
4>mr^
following proof
applies
points in
,?.
how-
the axis
of
a cylindrical solenoid.
.f^
Let Fig. 10 represent a por-
il
tion of a long cylindrical solen-
oid of radius
r,
having
turns
of wire per centimeter of length
and carrying current
/.
Fig. 10.
Let/
be the point, in the axis of the solenoid, at which the

mined.
Each element of the solenoid contributes
its
field intensity is to
be deter-
share to the intensity of field
20
Let A 3^ he the
at/.
a distance
of wire.
Then from
we have
equation (8)
to that
resistance.
element of the
Ax and
of length
is
which
coil
has
Ax
is
at
turns
27T/rh-Ax
jf=-[-oo
Integrating this expression from
Electrical
due
which element
^^.f^_
14.
field intensity at
to the right of/,
x ^=
to
law.
Joule's
oo
gives
cH"^
When
/^ttz/.
an
electric
generator produces an electric current in a circuit a part of the
work expended
in driving
various parts of the
the generator reappears as heat in the
The
circuit.
electric current
seems to be
opposed by a kind of resistance somewhat analogous to the

resistance
which a pipe
of a circuit
more or
is
less heat is
wire
is
generated in
The
Joule's law.
offers to the flow of water.
have more or
said to
rate at
it
portion
less resistance according as
by a given
which heat
is
current.
generated in a given
proportional to the square of the current flowing in the
wire, or the
amount of heat generated

and
tional to the square of the current
in
a given wire
is
propor-
to the elapsed time, that
H=RPt
in
t
which
is
(ii)
amount of heat generated by the current / in

The constant
a constant for the given wire.
the
seconds, and i?
is
R, units-of-heat-per-(unit current)^-per-second,
adopted as the
is
numerical measure of the resistance of the wire, and

the resistance of the wire.
The
c.g.s.
unit of resistance.
expressed in ergs,* /
When
in c.g.s. units,
and
expressed in terms of a unit called the

the abohm.
The Ohm.
'^
When
amperes, and
in
Heat
is
quantity of heat which

in
one
in
t in
equation
calorie.
is
is
(i i),
seconds, then
best expressed in terms of
quantity of heat which
is
its
it is
in equation (ii),
/ in
energy value.
the equivalent of one erg of
expressed
Thus one erg
work
is
is
of resistance, or
i7is expressed
is
seconds, then
c.g.s. unit
called
the equivalent of one joule of work.
in joules,*
in
ohms.
of heat
is
the
one joule of heat
is
the
There are 4.2 joules

That
heat
is,
generated
is
ohm when
a wire has a resistance of one
One ohm
is
in
it
21
one joule of
per second by one ampere of current.
equal to lo^ abohms.
The
Specific resistance.
resistance of a wire
is
proportional to
the length of the wire and inversely proportional to the sectional
That
area of the wire.
is
R^pl
in
which
R is
the resistance of a wire of given material, /
length of the wire, s

constant which
is
is
the
is
called the resistivity or specific resistance of the

is
made.
resistance of a wire of unit length
The
specific resistance is the
and of which the sectional area
Electrical engineers ordinarily express length of wire
unity.
in feet
is
the sectional area of the wire, and p
material of which the wire
is
(12)
and
In this case p
sectional area in circular mils.
and one
resistance of a wire one mil in diameter
"mil-foot" of wire as
it
is
sometimes
foot long
The
called.
is
about I0.8 ohms.
Influence of temperature on resistance.
The
the
the
resistance of
a mil-foot of ordinary commercial copper wire at ordinary
temperature
is
room
resistance of a
upon length, size and material, but also

Most metallic wires increase in resistance
wire depends not only
upon temperature.
with rise of temperature.
The
increase of resistance of a given wire
perature
is
proportional to the
initial
due
resistance
proportional to the rise of temperature
that
to a rise of tem-
and approximately
is, if
R^
the resist-
is
ance of a wire at some standard temperature, say o C, then the

increase of resistance
to
fiRj:,
where
/3 is
when
the wire
is
heated to
a proportionality factor.
resistance R, of the wire at
/^ C. is
R^
/ C.
= R^ -^-^R^t,
R^^Rli^^t)
The
quantity
is
is
equal
Therefore the total

or
(13)
called the temperature coefficient of resist-
ance of the given material.
For many pure metals
has nearly
22
the
same
metal
is
value, namely, 0.0037, that
the resistance of a pure
is,
very nearly proportional to the absolute temperature as
measured by an
The value
thermometer.
air
commercial copper
Solutions of acids and
with rise of temperature
perature coefficient of resistance
Power required
15.
in terms of resistance
to
is
which work
is
and current.
all
done
That
and rubber, decrease
in other
words
their
When
is
the
work which
in the circuit is
equal to the
through
to maintain a current"/
equal to
RP
if
no portion of the
effects.
is
P=^RP
in
which
P is
/ amperes through
Of course
of resistance.
abamperes, and
when
{P
in ergs
R ohms
all
quan-
per second,
in
abohms.)
in
16. Electromotive
a wire having
equation (14) holds true
are expressed in c.g.s. units.
that the
(14)
the power in watts (joules per second) required to
maintain a current of
tities
is
appears in the circuit as heat,
used for producing mechanical or chemical
is
tem-
the maintenance of the current.
in
power /^required
a wire having a resistance
power
all
negative.
then the rate at which heat appears

rate at
for high grade
maintain a current in a circuit expressed
spent in maintaining a current
Therefore, the
yS
graphitic carbon, and nearly
salts,
so-called insulating substances such as glass

in resistance
of
about 0.004 per centigrade degree.
is
force.
may seem from
equation (14)
a generator should be proportional
power delivered by
It
to the square of the current, but the current delivered
by a given
by reduc-
generator under fixed conditions can be increased only
ing the resistance of the circuit to which the generator delivers
In fact the power delivered
current.
fixed conditions of running
rent so that the ratio
whether
it is
generator.
Pjl
is
is
constant or not,
That
by a given generator under
very nearly proportional to the curnearly constant.
is
This
ratio
P//,
called the electromotive force of a
is
PÊI
(15)

in
which
the power deHvered
is
E is
the current, and
of a generator
is
is
electromotive force between the terminals
analogous to the pressure-difference between
An
and outlet of a fan blower.
inlet
electric generator,
the electromotive force between the gener-
The
ator terminals.
by an
23
increase of current deliv-
ered by a generator * usually causes a decrease of electromotive

force
between the terminals of the generator very much as an
creased delivery of
by a
air
fan,
by opening the
in-
outlet for ex-
ample, causes a decrease of pressure difference between inlet and

outlet of the fan.
Unsatisfactory character of
motive force.
The
fundamental
definition
of electro-
definition of a physical quantity consists in
every case of a concise statement of the fundamental method of
measuring that quantity, and when
this
fundamental method of
measuring a quantity involves operations which are not

under the ordinary conditions of practical work, the
always seems more or
less unsatisfactory.
feasible
definition
Thus the above
defini-
tion of electromotive force, as units-of-work-per-second-per -ampere,
assumes that the

a circuit
is
to be
indeed be done, but

that
doing work
rate of
measured
an operation of great
is
it
pushing a current through
in
directly in mechanical units.

difficulty
and one
seldom performed.
is
Definition of electromotive force based on

all
This can
the
work which
heat the circuit
Ohm's
called
motive
force,
in
is
Ohm!s law.
delivered to an electrical circuit
When
is
used to
accordance with Joule's law, a simple relation,
between current,
resistance, and electroand the simplest method of measuring electromotive
law, exists
force (and therefore the simplest definition of electromotive force)

is
based on Ohm's law.

17.
Ohm's law.
An important
force, current strength,
cuit in
which
all
of the
in heating the circuit in
relation
and resistance
work
between electromotive
exists in the case of a cir-
delivered
by the generator is used

Thus the
accordance with Joule's law.
* Such as a separately excited dynamo, or a shunt dynamo.
24
which work
rate at
is
delivered
by the generator
rate of generation of heat in the circuit
EI
of
used
is
in the
When the whole

EI = RP- or
RP.
is
and the
EI,
is
we have
generation of heat
E^RI
(i6^)
7=1
(i6^)
or
This relation was established by
Ohm's
law.
The
volt.
and /
When
R in
E
amperes then
in
That
the volt.
is,
Ohm
equations (16)
is
it
expressed
is
called
in
ohms
expressed in terms of a unit called
is
one volt
1827 and
in
is
an electromotive force
sufficient to
maintain one ampere of current through a wire having a resistance
When,
of one ohm.
pressed
is
in volts,
in
and current
delivered to a circuit
When,
c.g.s.
is
in
amperes, then the power
expressed
equations (16), current
in
and resistance
in
equation (15), electromotive force
in
ex-
P which
in watts.
is
expressed
in
abohms, then electromotive force
The c.g.s. unit

When, in equation
units.
is
abamperes
expressed
is
of electromotive force
is
called
is
ex-
pressed in abvolts and current in abamperes then the power
P is
the abvolt.
(15), electromotive force
expressed in ergs per second.

It
is
to
be particularly noted that equations
(14), (15),
and (16^) apply to the whole or to any portion of an
(16/3:),
electrical
Thus if R is the resistance of a transmission line delivera current / to a receiving circuit such as an electric motor,
circuit.
ing
then
RP
is
in
line.
drop of electromotive force or pressure, or simply

larly the electromotive force
RI
Series
and
the
is
called line
line drop.
Simi-
used to overcome the resistance
of the armature of an electric generator,

parallel connections.
electric circuit are so
is
This electromotive force lost
the transmission line on account of line resistance
18.
RI
the power lost in the line in watts, and
electromotive force lost in the
is
called
armature drop.
When two
portions of an
connected that the entire current
in the cir-

cuit passes
25
through both portions, the portions are said to be
connected in
When
series.
two portions of an
electrical
circuit
are so connected that the current in the circuit divides and a part
of
it
flows through each portion, the portions are said to be con-
nected in parallel.
The ordinary
connected
arc lamps which are used to light city streets are
in series
and the
entire current delivered
On
ing generator flows through each lamp.

the electromotive force of the generator
if
is,
by the
light-
the other hand,
say,
4,000
if
and
volts,
there are 80 similar lamps in series, the electromotive force
between the terminals of each lamp

tromotive force of a generator
is
be 50
will
subdivided
The
volts.
elec-
among a number of
receiving devices connected in series.
The ordinary glow lamps which
are used for house lighting
are connected in parallel between copper mains which lead out
from the terminals of the generator, and, except for a slight loss
of electromotive force in the mains, the
full
On
of the generator acts upon each lamp.
the other hand,
generator delivers, say 1,000 amperes, and

similar
lamp
is
electromotive force
if
lamps connected between the mains, the current
will
be
subdivided
if
the
there are 2,000

in
each
The current delivered by a generator
ampere.
among a number of
receiving devices connected in
parallel.
is
Electric generators may be connected in series.

When this
done the electromotive force available for the maintenance of
current
is
equal to the
sum
of the electromotive forces of the in-
dividual generators.
Electric generators
which have equal electromotive forces may
be connected in parallel.
delivered
by the
by the
When
this is
set is equal to the
sum
done the
total
current
of the currents delivered
individual generators.
Combinations of
series
and
parallel connections are
most
fre-
quently used in grouping voltaic cells and storage batteries.
Series-connected-groups of cells
shown
in Fig. 11, or
may
be arranged
in parallel, as
parallel-connected-groups of cells
may be
26
arranged
in series as
shown
of such an arrangement
The combined
in series
and
cells in series,
is
in Fig.
2.
The
electromotive force
equal to nE^ where n
is
the
number
the electromotive force of a single
resistance of a
number of
of
cell.
resistances connected
equal to their sum.
is
*^
'
1
is
-\\-
H-| H-|
-jl-
-\\- _H-
4*
r\\y\ -JHH^J hJ
HHHH
Fig. 11.
1^
Fig. 12.
The combined
in parallel is
-ji-
resistance of a
number
of resistances connected
equal to the reciprocal of the
sum
of the reciprocals
of the individual resistances.

19.
To determine the current
when the
The
given.
cuit
total current
in each of
two branches
and the resistance
of each
problem depends upon two
solution of this
of
cir-
branch are
princi-
ples as follows
The current in the undivided part of a circuit is equal to

sum of the currents in the respective branches into which the
(a)
the
circuit divides.
(U)
Let
(Kirchhoff's law.)
and
branches of a
be the two points at which two or more
circuit unite.
any one of the branches

is
into
The product of the resistance R of

the current / flowing in that branch
equal to the electromotive force between the branch points
and B.
Therefore the product
branch terminating
in the points
In the case of two branches
RI has the
A and B.
we have from
/=/. +
and from
(B)
/,
we have
Kh = îh
same value
{a)
for
every

in
which /
27
the total current and the subscripts refer to the
is
Solving these two equations for
respective branches.
/^
and
I^,
we have
combined resistance of a number of coterminous

branches of a circuit.
Let / be the total current flowing in the
To determine
circuit,
E the
R^, R^, R^,
the
electromotive force between the branch points, and

the resistances of the respective branches.
E/R^, E/R^,
EfR^,
etc.,
are
the
branches, and from Kirchhoff's law
currents
the
in
Then
respective
we have
-+/=+ R^
R^
R^
Now, the combined
resistance
that resistance through
the branch points

or
/= E/R.
R of
all
the branches
is
defined as
E between
so that Rl=E
which the electromotive force
may maintain
the total current /;
/in the above equation
Substituting this value of
we have
E
R
R^
7?2
R^
whence
R==
20. General solution of
(18)
a network.
Consider
a network of
wires consisting of the branches
2, j, 4,
through a wire
which the electromotive force
is
E, as
shown
in
to a battery of
Fig.
13.
5, and 6 connected
Let the long arrows, arbitrarily
chosen, represent the directions in which the currents in the vari-
ous wires are to be considered as positive

rent in one of the branches, as found
by
in sign
should a cur-
calculation,
be negative
28
be opposite to the direction indi-
in sign, its actual direction will
cated
by the arrow.
Let
be required to find the currents
it
and
^3, i^, /g,
7, ^,
5 and
J, ^,
sistances
motive
1'
r^
2'
forces
and
forces
are
rows.
This problem
indicated
electro-
direc-
electromotive
by the short
is
re-
of the
rg
The
e.
given
these
and
and the
branches,
of
tions
having given the
6,
r,, r
'
respective
2^, i^,
the respective branches
in
i^
ar-
be solved
to
with the help of two distinct principles

as follows
{a)
The
algebraic
branch point
(b)
The
of
all
equal to zero.
is
algebraic
around a closed
equal to the
sum
sum
circuit,
sum
of
or a
the currents flowing towards a
(Kirchhoff.)
all
the electromotive forces acting
mesh
of the products
of a network of conductors,
ri
around the mesh.
is
(Kirch-
hoff.)
Applying the
d,
Fig.
signs,
first
principle to the branch points,
with
13, in succession,
we have
a, b, r,
and
due consideration of algebraic
the following four equations
=
-h +h+ =
23
(i)
^5
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
one formed by the

The sum of the products ri taken
around this mesh is equal to the sum of
Consider any mesh, for example the
branches
in
all
i,
and
4, Fig. 13.
a clock-wise direction
the electromotive forces acting in a clock-wise direction around
the mesh, a counter-clock -wise electromotive force being reckoned

as negative.
Applying the second principle
mesh formed by branches
and
4,
we have
in this
way
to the

a similar manner to the
in
29
mesh
2-3-6 gives:
4-6-5 gives
in a similar
principle in a similar
rA-^rj^-^r,i,=
For convenience
refer to
(v), (vi), (vii)
to
let
mesh
to the
mesh
(viii)
which
superfluous
one
(viii)
re-
and
one
equation, and
^ '<
(iv),
^^ ^^^^^
\\
is
.c5^
jT!i2^2*^s
\J^
V
superfluous
any one
and
and the equations
point
(iii)
(i), (ii),
branch points, point equations
and
In problems of this kind there
equation
manner
E-e
us call the equations
meshes, mesh equations.
always
mesh
1-3-5 gives
fer
to the
Applying the second
which
manner
'.
>
_i
ot
the point equations together with
any one of the mesh equations are
many
as
h^ hy h> hy h^
Example.
Branch
battery as
ohms.
and
points a and
3).
be dropped, thus leaving
to
independent equations as there are unknown quantities
^,
/g.
2 has
shown
It is
no-volt battery
Fig. 14,
10
connected to two branch
is
between which are two branches
ohms
in Fig.
resistance
Branch
14.
we have
Considering the mesh 1-2
Considering the mesh 1-3
i^
and
6/3=
the equation
10
we have
50/1 -h
/j,
i^.
the equation
we have
502\ 4- io?2
and contains a 25-volt

has a resistance of 6
required to find the currents
Considering the point a
and
(2
25
(ii)
the equation
no
'
(iii)
30
Substituting the value of

(iii)
in
(i)
we have
2j
whence from equations
21.
duced
=+
In
current.
pushed
(ii)
and
(iii)
^2
= 0.86
^3
=+
we have
amperes
Induced electromotive force and
in-
1831 Faraday discovered that a momentary
produced
The motion
in
of wire
coil
when
coil is
momentary electromotive force

produces a momentary
forms a portion of a closed
in
in
is
a magnet
coil,
magnetized or
first
case, or the
and
this electromo-
electric current in the coil
circuit.
way
this
is
when
or
the second case, produces
in the coil,
tive force
produced
wound
of the magnet in the
changing magnetism of the iron rod
electric current
from
i^
withdrawn from the opening of the
into or
demagnetized.
coil
and the value of
2.73 amperes
an iron rod around which the
(ii)
amperes
1.8/
Faraday's discovery.
electric current is
from
i^
if
the
Electromotive force and
are called induced electro-
motive force and induced current.

22. Lenz's
tion
An induced current always opposes
Law.
which produces
opposition
is
the
it,
and the work done
work which
expended
is
in
in
the ac-
overcoming
producing the
this
in-
duced current.
Examples.
duced current
{a)
is
net out of the coil

ing the
magnet
When
a magnet
is
pushed
into a coil the in-
such a direction as to tend to push the mag-
in
;
more work must, therefore, be done in pushwould be done if the circuit of
into the coil than
the coil were open so that no induced current could be produced

this extra
work
is
the
work which
is
expended
in
producing the
induced current.
(U)
When
an iron rod
wound
with wire
is
magnetized, the cur-
rent induced in the winding of wire opposes the magnetization,
and more work must be done
to magnetize the rod than
would

be done
work
is
This additional
the induced current did not exist.
if
work which
the
is
expended
in
31
producing the induced
current.
more general aspect
of Lenz's law
is
given in Art. 26 where
the relation between the electric generator and the electric motor
discussed.
is
Electromotive force induced in a straight wire moving side-
23.
wise across a uniform magnetic
field.
With
the help of Lenz's
law the fundamental law of induced electromotive force

derived.
is
it
For
sufficient
this
purpose
to
consider
may be
the simplest case, namely,
motion of a
the
straight
t>
wire sidewise across a uni-
form magnetic
A
Fig.
field.
wire
straight
AB,
15, sHdes sidewise at

^'s- ^^
a velocity of v centimeters
per second along two straight wires or

/
The
centimeters from each other.
so that
ABCD
is
a closed
of the
field
field
distant
are connected at
CD
The whole arrangement
circuit.
placed in a uniform magnetic
rails
DB
CA and
rails
being perpendicular to the plane
is
qK,
the direction
ABCD
and towards
of intensity
the reader.
The motion
of the wire
AB
induces in
it
an electromotive
force; this electromotive force produces a current in the circuit
ABCD,
wise
in
and because of
by the magnetic
dynes
is
this current the wire
field
AB
is
pushed
given by the equation
F= im
in
(6)
which / is the strength of the induced current
Now Fv
side-
with the force F^ of which the value
is
the rate in ergs per second at which
moving the wire
AB
in
abamperes.
work
is
done
in
against the opposing force F, and, from
Lenz's law, this must be equal to the rate
EI
at
which work
is
32
done by the induced electromotive force

duced current
That
/.
is
Fv
in
which
in maintaining the in-
= EI
(ii)
the value of the induced electromotive force in
is
ab volts.
Substituting the value of
and solving
we have
for E,
from equation (6)
equation
in
E=^mv
That
is,
(ii)
(19^)
the electromotive force E, in c.g.s. units, induced in a
moving sidewise
straight wire / centimeters long
at a velocity of
V centimeters per second across a uniform magnetic field of intensity
oKy
in abvolts
equal to the product
is
and
it is
to
eJ^^
24.
is
expressed
to reduce to volts, that
is
(19^)
Expression of induced electromotive force in terms of num-
AB,
Fig. 15,
moves over a
During
magnetic flux
<l>
is
the
<!>(
= lvt3<)
number of
cut per second
which passes through the
units induced in
a wire
by the wire per second.
That
is
is,
is
the
area,
and
this
/
by AB
number of lines of force
during the
lines of force cut
by AB.
seconds the sliding-
distance vt and sweeps over Ivt
^ jt {== lc}{v = E)
seconds, so that
Multiplying this area by d{ gives the
square centimeters of area.
flux
i o*^
volts
ber of lines of force cut per second.
wire
This result
Idiv.
be divided by
the electromotive force in c.g.s.
equal to the number of lines of force cut
This proposition
is
here derived for a
moving sidewise across a uniform magnetic field,

but it is true for any wire straight or curved moving in any manner in any magnetic field uniform or non-uniform.
straight wire
25.
Expression of induced electromotive force in terms of the
by or passing through
moves to the right the en-
rate of change of the magnetic flux enclosed
circuit.
closed area
As
the wire
ABCD
AB,
Fig. 15,
increases, the
magnetic flux through
ABCD

and the increase of
increases,
time
is
number
equal to the
during that time
AB
by
is
is
equal
equal to the
to the rate
This result
is
number
any magnetic
field
of lines
at which the magnetic
being ex-
here derived for the very spe-
case represented in Fig. 15, but
circuit in
AB
by
Therefore the induced electro-
circuit is chajtging, electromotive force
pressed in abvolts.
cial
ABCD
per second.
motive force in a circuit
flux through the
magnetic flux during a given
of Hnes of flux swept over
or in other words, the rate of increase of the
magnetic flux through

of force cut
this
33
it
is
true for
any shape of
uniform or non-uniform, and
whether the change of flux through the
circuit
it is
true
be due to motion
or to changing magnetism or to both.
Let the magnetic flux through a

then
rate
its
of change
is
circuit
represented by
be represented by
d^ jdty
E=^
in
which
is
<l>,
and we have
(20a)
the induced electromotive force in a circuit expressed
in abvolts.
If the circuit
induced
in
tive force
has
Z turns
each turn
expressed
is
of wire then the electromotive force
and the
d^jdt,
in abvolts is
total
induced electromo-
E^Z~^
(20^)
Equations (20a) and (20^) are more properly written with the negative sign,
thus:
-c
and
dt
inasmuch as an increasing
flux
the direction in which a left
E=i Z
produces an induced electromotive force which
handed screw would have
to travel in the direction of the
dt
magnetic
field
is
in
to be turned to cause the screw
upon which the
flux
depends.
In any given case an induced electromotive force may be

thought of as being produced by either {a) the cutting of lines of
force at a definite rate
by a wire, or (b) the change at a definite rate

by a loop or coil of wire. These
of the magnetic flux enclosed

3
) )
34
two actions are fundamentally identical, and the one or the other
may be assumed as the basis of the discussion of any given case
Thus
according to convenience.
alternator in article
in discussing the action of the
2y the notion of the
rate of
employed, whereas the notion of the cutting of
change of flux
lines of force is
ployed in the discussion of the direct current dynamo
is
em-
in article 28.
Table of Units.*
Electric.
Name
Symbol
of Quantity.
Current
Resistance.
Name of
Practical Unit.
At
ampere.
R, r
ohm.
ohms of a
centimeter
cube.
Resistivity
Conductance
Conductivity
Electromotive force
Name
of
c.g.s. Unit.
Practical Unit
c.g.s. Unit.
abampere.
(abohm.
abohms of a
I09
centimeter
cube.
10-9
10-9
(mho.
ilR
,
,e
volt,
Inductance
Capacity
henry,
farad.
Inductivity
Dielectric strength.,
k
volts per
centimeter.
0-1
108
(abvolt.)
centimeter.
I09
10-9
108
abvolts per
centimeter.
Magnetic.
Pole strength
Field intensity
gauss.
Flux
Flux density
Intensity of Magnetization
Magnetomotive force
maxwell.
gauss.
..
ampere-turn.
Reluctance
Reluctivity
4Tr/lo
(gilbert.)
(oersted.)
'It
Permeance
Permeability
* Appendix A, on the magnetism of
iron, is essentially a continuation of this
introductory chapter on elementary theory, and the units of magnetomotive force,

reluctance, permeability, etc., are tabulated here for convenience.
Names
theses have not yet been adopted by the International Electrical Congress.
in paren-
CHAPTER
II.
THE DYNAMO.
The dynamo electric machine, or, simply,

The dynamo.
is a machine for the production and maintenance of
26.
the dynamo,
electric current
an
when
the machine
is
supplied with mechanical
power, or conversely for the development of mechanical power
when
the machine
used
for
is
supplied with an electric current.
dynamo
when used
the former purpose the
generator or simply a generator ;

the
dynamo
is
called an elechic
is
for the latter
purpose
called an electric motor or simply a motor.
The action of
lows
When
the dynatjio as a generator
essentially as fol-
is
wire / centimeters in length, see Fig. 15,
an external source of mechanical power to
move
is
forced
by
sidewise at a
velocity of v centimeters per second across a magnetic field of

intensity
This motion induces an electromotive force
d{.
wire in accordance with equation
E IcKv
(1
E in the
namely,
9^),
abvolts
This electromotive force produces a current of / abamperes

the wire,
if
the wire
is
of this current the wire
in
a portion of a closed circuit, and because

is
pushed sidewise by the magnetic
field
with the force
F=-
I13{
dynes
which opposes the motion of the
wire.
Work
external mechanical agent at the rate of
moving the wire against the opposing
Fv
is
done by the
ergs per second in
force F,
and the work so
spent goes to maintain the current in the wire.
the dynamo
/ abamperes
The action of
as a motor
current- of
is
electric current
through a wire
35
is
essentially as follows
by an external source of
centimeters in length which is
forced
36
stretched across a field of intensity
This current causes the
cf{.
push the wire sidewise with the force
field to
F=I/^ dynes
This force moves the wire sidewise at a velocity of
wire induces in
it
z>
centimeters
The motion
per second and develops mechanical power.
of the
the electromotive force
B = /cH^v abvolts
which opposes the flow of current
Work is
EI
the wire.
in
the external source of electric current at the rate of
second
in forcing the current against
and the work so spent goes

There are two
namely
distinct
The
motion of the
dynamo
{a) alternating current machines,
machines.
and
electric
(b)
is,
to rapid periodic reversals of direction.
direct current
a current which
The
wire.
machines,
alternating current generator delivers
called an alternating current, that
erator,
the electromotive force E,
to maintain the
types of
done by
ergs per
what
is
is
subject
direct current gen-
on the other hand, delivers a current which
is
not reversed
more or less steady in value. All direct

current machines, except the so-called homopolar dynamos, are
in direction
and which
is
essentially alternating current
commutator instead of
machines with the addition of a
collecting rings.
27. The alternating current dynamo is the simplest form of

dynamo electric machine. It consists essentially of an arrangement in which a loop of wire is moved in front of the projecting
north and south poles of a magnet in such a way that the magnetic flux
in
due to the magnet poles passes through the loop
one direction and then
in the other direction repeatedly.
first
This
repeated reversal of the magnetic flux through the loop of wire
induces an electromotive force in the wire in one direction while

the flux
is
increasing (from negative to positive), and in the other
direction while the flux
is
decreasing (from positive to negative).
This alternating electromotive force produces an alternating cur-
THE DYNAMO.
rent in the loop of wire
and
in
any outside
is
which
alternating
is
con-
current
usually called, simply, an alternator.
common
type of alternator consists of a stationary multipolar
electromagnet, called
N, S,
circuit
An
nected to the terminals of the loop.
dynamo
37
etc.,
\\\^
field magnet, of
N,
which the poles
S,
shown
in
Fig. i6 towards
a of a rotating structure
called the
project radially inwards as
Fig. 16.
the passing teeth
On
ture.
a,
arma-
the armature shaft at one end of the armature are fixed
two metal rings
rr
called collecting rings.
insulated from each other
and from the
shaft.
These
rings are
The ends
of the
armature wire are connected to these rings as shown, and the

wire
is
wound around
which are shown
the armature teeth in the form of
in section
In this type of alternator
by the dotted squares
it is
c,
coils,
in Fig. i6.
convenient to attribute the induced
electromotive forces to the changing of the magnetic flux through
the armature teeth and coils as they pass the field poles.
As
the
armature rotates the magnetic flux passes through a given armature coil in one direction
when
the tooth on which the coil
is
ELEMENTS OE ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
38
wound is
tion when
squarely under a north pole, and in the reverse directhe tooth
electromotive force
coils,
is
is
always opposite
and the armature
manner
The induced
squarely under a south pole.
coils are all
around adjacent
in direction
connected
in series in
such a
* that their electromotive forces are added, thus giving
an alternating electromotive force of large value between the

lecting rings.
The
external circuit which
current from the machine
is
is
col-
to receive alternating
connected to metal brushes bb which
rub on the collecting rings.
The armature body,
or core. A,
ings to prevent the formation of
is
built
up of sheet-iron stamp-
eddy currents as explained
in
Art. 32.
The
field
magnet of the
alternator
is
a continuous or steady current, or, as
magnetized or excited by
technically called, a
is
it
This current
direct current.
flows
(not
are
through
shown
in Fig.
wound on
jections
The
N,
direct
coils
of wire
which
16)
the polar pro-
S,
N,
S,
etc.
current for excit-
ing the field magnet of an alter-
nator
is
usually obtained from
a small auxiliary direct-current
dynamo
called
Alternators used
the
exciter.
in
practice
give from 50 to 250 or
more
reversals of current per second.

28.
The
direct current
dyna-
mo. The following description

applies to the direct-current
ring type.
full
The
dynamo having an armature of the

drum armature and a
relation of the ring to the
discussion of armature windirkgs are taken
*The
coils are
in
Appendix
C.
connected so that in 'bllowing along the armature wire from one
collecting ring to the other,

directions.
up
one would pass around adjacent armature teeth
in opposite
THE DYNAMO.
An
iron ring ab, Fig.
stampings,
is
the winding
that
so
This iron ring with

is
by
indicated
its
built
up of sheet-iron
is
endless.
winding of wire
armature;
the
called
is
insulated wire as indicated
ends of the wire being spliced together and sol-
in the figure, the
dered
which
17,
wound uniformly with
39
it
rotates,
as
the curved arrow, between
the poles tV 5 of a strong field magnet.
The
wires on the outside of the iron
electromotive forces induced
ring have
in
them
as
they
faces of the
lines
of
field
move
These
force.
forces cannot, however,

is
wound on
site
across the pole
magnet and cut the

electromotive
produce current
in the endless
wire that
the armature, inasmuch as exactly equal and oppo-
electromotive forces are induced on the opposite sides, c and
d, of the
ring, as
figure the circle
shown diagrammatically
in
Fig. 18, in
which
adbc represents the endless wire winding on the
ring.
steady, or very nearly steady, current can be taken from the
winding on the ring through an outside receiving

19,
by keeping the terminals of
this
circuit
this
shown
purpose the insulation
moved from
Fig.
/,
in metallic contact
with the windings on the ring at a and b as
For
circuit
in Fig.
may
19.
be re-
the outer portions of the wire
windings on the ring, and the two stationary

I
metal or carbon brushes
vS^,
Fig. 19, ar-
ranged to rub at a and b as the ring
rotates.
In practice, wire leads are soldered to the

various turns of wire on the ring and conFig. 19.
nected to insulated copper bars near the axis

of rotation, as
shown
in
Fig. 20.
Sliding contact
is
then
made
with these copper bars instead of with the turns of wire at a and
b directly.
commutator.
This set of copper bars constitutes what
is
called the
40
Armature current and armature
From
resistance.
Fig.
it is
evident that, of the total current which flows out of the armature
to the
receiving circuit
half flows through the
/,
windings on one side of

the ring, and half through
the
windings
on
the
other side of the ring.
That
the
is,
the windings on
ring
present
two
paths for the flow of current from brush b to brush

<?,
and the current
path
is
which
Fig. 20.
The
in
each
half of the current

is
delivered to the
receiving circuit.
resistance of the armature winding
between the brushes
is
one half the resistance of each separate path, since the two paths
are
similar
and
armature
the
brushes
the
is
parallel.
in
Furthermore,
the
resistance
of
between
one quarter of
resistance
of
the
winding
considered
one long
coil.
as
and open
coil
armatures.
The
armature winding shown
Closed coil
in
Fig.
17
is
called
closed coil winding, in-
asmuch
itself
cuit.
as the winding
forms a closed
Fig. 2
cir-
shows the
simplest example of what

is
called an
open
wire of which the
coil
winding.
Fig. 21,
It consists of
ends are connected to the
a single coil of
two segments
THE DYNAMO.
of a two-part commutator.
The
current
the armature winding of Fig. 21
in
41
is
which
produced
is
an alternating current,
and the two-part commutator serves to reverse the connections

of the armature to the external receiving circuit twice during each
revolution of the armature, so that the current, which
is
an
alter-
nating current in the armature winding, becomes a uni-directional
current in the external circuit.
The Brush
arc lighting
dynamo
and the Thomson-Houston arc dynamo are examples of machines having open coil armatures.
The
ture
current in any given turn of wire on a closed coil armaalso an alternating current,
is
inasmuch as
through the turn when the turn
direction
armature (see Fig.
and
7),
is
it
flows in one
on the side
in the opposite direction
of the
through the
when the turn is on the side c of the armature.

The above discussion applies to the simplest form of direct-curnamely, a two-pole dynamo with a simple ring
rent dynamo
turn
Commercial forms of direct-current dynamos, however,
winding.
may be
bipolar or multipolar, they
armatures, and they
may
have ring or drum
may have
any one of a variety of armature windings, including open

coil
windings, according to the
size of the
machine and the
conditions of service.
29.
The multipolar
current
dynamo.
direct-
Fig.
shows a ring armature
22
rotat-
ing inside of a crown of six
inwardly projecting
net poles,
field
NSNSNS.
mag-
Fig. 22.
The
electromotive forces induced in the windings as they sweep across

the pole faces cannot produce current in the endless wire that
wound on
is
the ring, inasmuch as the electromotive forces induced
42
under the north poles are just balanced by the electromotive forces
induced under the south poles, as
To
in Fig. 23.
shown diagrammatically
is
utilize the induced electromotive forces e e e e
b b
b,
Fig.
22,
aaa
six brushes
Fig. 23, for the production of direct current,
and
e e.
Three of these brushes
should be used.
maintain contact with the windings

at
aa
a,
and through
all
three of
these brushes current flows out of
the armature to one terminal of a
The
receiving circuit.
other three
brushes bbb maintain contact with

the windings at bbb, Fig. 23
all
three of these brushes are connected

to the other terminal of the receiv-
ing
and current flows into
circuit,
the armature
Fig. 23.
The
through
all
three brushes a a a
three.
together
constitute, therefore, the positive terminal of the armature,
the brushes
bbb
ture.
Armature current and armature
22 flows out of the three brushes a a
a,
The total current

dynamo shown in Fig.
resistance.
flowing out of the armature of the six-pole
total
and
constitute the negative terminal of the arma-
so that one third of the
current flows out of each of the positive brushes.
An
inspection of Fig. 23 shows, furthermore, that current flows in
the armature winding to each positive brush from both sides

that
is
through two paths.
Therefore, in the six-pole
with a simple ring armature, there are six paths
dynamo
(in parallel) in
the
armature winding from negative to positive brushes, and therefore
one sixth of the current output of the rhachine flows through each
path.
The
resistance of this six-pole armature
negative brushes
is
between positive and
equal to one sixth of the resistance of any one
path, since the six paths are similar
and
in parallel.
Therefore
the resistance of the armature between positive and negative
THE DYNAMO.
brushes
is
43
one thirty-sixth of the resistance of the whole winding
considered as one long
coil.
Another type of multipolar armature winding, namely the wave

winding,
is
described in
Appendix
C.
The wave winding has but
two paths between positive and negative brushes irrespective of

the
number of poles and brushes.
When
positive
an armature provides p' similar paths
and negative brushes, then evidently
in parallel
fp'-ih.
between
of the arma-
ture windings are in series in each path.

30.
The fundamental equation
The equation which expresses
of the direct-current
dynamo.
the relation between the induced
amount of magnetic flux

the number of
conductors on the outside of the armature, the number of paths
in the armature winding between brushes, and the speed of the
armature, is called the fundamental equation of the dynamo on
electromotive force of a dynamo, the
from each
field pole,
account of
its
importance
tion of generators
Let
^=
the
number of
in the
field poles,
theory of the design and opera-
and motors.
magnetic flux which enters the armature from each

north pole of the
magnet and
field
armature at each south pole of the
leaves the
field
magnet.
number of field poles.

Z = number of conductors on the outside of the armature.
/' = number of electrical paths in parallel between the
p
brushes.
B^
total
electromotive
This
is
force induced in
by a voltmeter, when the
the brushes, as measured

current in the armature
the armature.
the same as the electromotive force between
speed of armature
is
negligibly small.
in revolutions
per second.
Then
Ea
= -
ptJ
E^
= ,
ab volts
(21a)J
\
or
p^Zn
'
-.volts
,,
(21b)
44
P^'oof.
During
i//;/-th of a
ductor sweeps past a

lines of force.
field pole,
second a given armature con-
from a to
b,
Fig. 22,
and cuts
average rate which
is
per second, and this
equal to
-r-
i///?,
or
^pn
lines of force
the average electromotive force in the
is
given conductor while
it
moving from a
is
to
Fig. 22
b,
the average electromotive force per conductor in
this is

This conductor therefore cuts lines of force at an
Now,
conductors between a and b at any instant.
also
the
all
there are Zjp'
conductors * in series in each path between the brushes, and

since
fore
<!>/;/ is
Zjp'
That
is,
the average electromotive force per conductor, there-
X ^pn is the electromotive

E^= p^Znlp' in which E^
,
force
is,
between the brushes.
of course, expressed in
abvolts.
Equations (21) apply to bipolar or multipolar machines, and to
machines having ring or drum armatures with any kind of winding except open-coil windings, and these equations give the elec-
tromotive force induced in the windings between the brushes,
provided the brushes are at the neutral points as shown
and as explained
such as the
phone
steel,
call
bells,
22
in article 51.
*'
Some very small genermagnetos, " which are used for ringing tele-
31. Field excitation of generators.
ators,
in Fig.
are provided with field magnets of hardened
Large generators and
which are permanently magnetized.
motors, on the other hand, are always provided with electrically

excited field magnets (electromagnets).
Separate excitation and self-excitation.
The
field
magnet of
an alternator must be excited by direct current, usually from an

outside source, as stated in Art. 27. f
The
field
magnets of
cer-
* The conductors which constitute a given path are always distributed evenly over
the space ab, Fig. 22, so that the average electromotive force per conductor for all
the conductors of a path
is
the
same
as the general average for the
whole armature.
In the simple ring- wound armature, p^=p^ and the conductors which
lie
between the points a and

f
b,
In the so-called composite
mented by a
mutator.
at
any instant
Fig. 22, constitute one path.

field
direct current supplied
alternators this separate excitation
by the alternator
itself
is
supple-
through a rectifying com-
THE DYNAMO.
45
by cur-
tain types of direct-current generators are usually excited
rent from an outside source
thus the low voltage generators
used for electroplating are excited in

field excitation is called
erators,
this
however, usually supply their
method of field
excitation
The shunt generator.
is
may
consist of
tively fine wire having considerable
terminals
of the
field
Direct-current gen-
own
field
current.
This
called self-excitation.
The winding on
direct-current generator
This method of
way.
separate excitation.
the field
many
magnet of a
turns of compara-
resistance.
In this case the
winding are coimected directly to the
brushes of the machine, and from 2 to lo per cent, of the permissible current output of the generator
excite the
field,
external circuit.
In this case the
brushes, so that the field winding
the outside receiving circuit.

this
taken to magnetize or
the remainder being available for use in the
receiving circuit are in parallel
arranged in
is
way
is
field
winding and the outside
with each other between

is
in the relation of a
generator with
its field
the
shunt to
windings
called a shunt generator.
Fig. 24.
In the shunt generator an adjustable resistance (rheostat)
is
usu-
ally connected in the field circuit for controlling the value of the
field
current and thereby controlling the voltage of the machine.
46
Fig.
24 shows the arrangement of a shunt generator with
its field
and
C is
AA
rheostat,
the armature,
is
The brush
the commutator.
3ddd
are the brushes,
leads are connected to ter-
minal blocks to which the receiving circuit and the shunt
.sf
^
.0
^ ^"^
//
J^
^^\
field
winding are also connected.
Fig,
25 shows
dia-
conventional
the
gram of connections
of a shunt
armature
generator.
'
T/ie series generator.
main
The wind-
ing on the field magnet of a direct-
Is
the ostat )
current generator
may
consist of
comparatively few turns of heavy

Fig. 25.
wire having a low resistance.

this case the field
winding
is
connected
In
in series with the external
receiving circuit, the whole current delivered
by
the machine
flows through the field winding, and from 2 to 10 per cent, of
the electromotive force of the machine
through the
field
is
used to force the current
winding, the remainder being available for forcing
d
3
Fig. 26.
A generator with
current through the external receiving circuit.

its field
windings arranged
in this
way is
called a series generator.
In this type of generator the control of the current in the field wind-
ing for a given curre7it output of the machine
is
accomplished by
THE DYNAMO.
47
the use of an adjustable low resistance shunt B^ connected between

the terminals of the field winding as
shown
in Figs.
27 and 68.
shows the arrangement of a series generator without

regulating field shunt, and Fig. 27 shows the conventional diaFig. 26
e7d winding
SlSlSlSlSlSi
Kaaaaaaa/ B
Fig. 27.
gram
of connections of a series generator, including the regulat-
ing field shunt above mentioned.
The compound generator.

a direct-current generator
consisting of
many
The winding on
the field magnet of
frequently in two parts, one part
is
turns of fine wire, the other part consisting of
heavy
relatively few turns of
wire.
In this case the fine wire
&eid rheostat
to receiving circuit
Fig. 28.
winding
is
connected directly to the brushes, or to the terminals
of the machine, and the coarse wire winding
with the outside receiving circuit.
is
connected
This method of
in series
field excitation
"
48
is
a combination of the two previous methods, and a generator with
its field
Fig.
windings so arranged
is
called a
compound
generator.
28 shows the arrangement of a compound generator
with a rheostat in circuit with the shunt field winding, Fig. 29
shows the conventional diagram of connections of a " long shunt

compound generator, and Fig. 30 shows the conventional diagram
main
r
8
shunt neld
winding
main
"""
^^^Held winding
}
r~^V
j armatttre
/
C_-Z_
main
Fig. 30.
Fig. 29.
of connections of the "short-shunt"
compound
generator.
In
it is a matter of but little consequence whether a compound generator is connected ** long shunt " or '' short shunt."
The calculations of currents, electromotive forces, losses, and efficiencies are however slightly different in the two cases, as ex-
practice
plained in Art. 65.
Shunt and compound generators are always used

direct current for lighting
is
to
for generating
and power purposes when the current
be delivered to lamps and motors at approximately constant
voltage,
which
is
the most usual condition of supply.
generator, on the other hand,

current, series, arc lighting
power transmission
seldom used except

for
series
for constant
long distance direct-current
by a few European plants.

Inasmuch as a motor always
as exemplified
Field excitation of motors.

receives current
is
and
The
from an outside source there
is
no such thing as
self-excitation of a motor, the field excitation being necessarily
what
field
is
called separate excitation.
winding which
is
A shunt motor
has a
fine
wire
connected in parallel with the armature to
THE DYNAMO.
the supply mains.
ing which
connected
motor has a coarse wire
in series with the
field
is
wind-
armature to the supply
A compound motor has a field winding in two
mains.
part
is
series
49
parts
one
of fine wire connected in parallel with the armature,
and
of coarse wire connected in series with
the
the other part
is
The
armature.
connections of motors to the mains
differ
from
the connections of generators on account of the starting resistance
Motor connections are
which must be used with a motor.

cussed
in detail in
Chapter IV.
Shunt motors are almost always used
when
the current
series
motor
is
is
dis-
is
for constant
speed driving
taken from constant voltage mains.
The
used for variable speed driving when the current
by
supplied at approximately constant voltage as exemplified
the use of motors for hoisting and for propeUing street cars.
Compound motors have
which adapt them to
characteristics
special kinds of service as explained later.

32.
Eddy
Lamination.
currents.
When
a piece of iron
is
magnetized or demagnetized, the changes of the magnetic flux
through the central portions of the iron induce electromotive

forces in the surrounding portions of the iron,
and these
electro-
motive forces produce what are called Foucault currents or eddy

currents in the iron.
Eddy
of metal, iron or copper,
which moves
in
currents are also produced in a mass
which
is
near a moving magnet, or
the neighborhood of a stationary magnet.
Those parts of a dynamo which are subject to rapid and frequent changes of magnetization are built up of thin sheets of iron
so as to leave the iron continuous in the direction of magnetization,
but discontinuous in the direction in which the eddy currents tend

to flow.
cores of
Such a mass of
iron
dynamo armatures
is
said to
be laminated.
any given part of the iron core of an armature

magnetic reversals as
Eddy
it
moves past the
field
magnet when the flux through
it
is
magnet
iron
subject to
poles.
dynamo field
Eddy currents
varies in value.
layers of the pole pieces when
currents are produced in the solid iron of a
are also produced in the surface

4
The
are always laminated, inasmuch as
so
the armature core has projecting teeth, inasmuch as the Hnes of
and the armature core are concentrated
force between the pole face

in the
form of
shown
tufts or brushes, as
as the armature rotates these tufts
bbb
and
sweep across the pole face and
at
in Fig. 31,
thus tend to produce eddy

Pole
currents.
pieces
sometimes
therefore
are
lami-
nated.
The
prevention
currents
the
is
eddy
of
more com-
plete the thinner the
nations and
lami-
better
between
insulation
When
the
a mass of iron
ject to very rapid
the
them.
is
and
subfre-
quent magnetic reversals the

laminations
thin
are
made very
and insulated by a coat-
ing of hard varnish before

Fig. 31.
being assembled on the arma-
For example,
ture shaft.
in
an experimental alternator recently
constructed by the Westinghouse Electric
pany
* the
armature core
is
& Manufacturing Com-
subject to 20,000 magnetic reversals
per second and the laminations are only 0.00 1 inch
in thickness.
dynamos of moderate size the armature core is

subject to from 1 5 to 60 or more magnetic reversals per second,
and the laminations are usually made from 0.020 to 0.03 5 inch in
thickness.
Large copper wires on smooth core armatures have
eddy currents induced in them on account of the difference of
In direct-current
intensity of the
magnetic
the moving conductor.

side
is
field in
the air gap at the two edges of
These eddy currents flow up along one
and down along the other side of the conductor.
that the actual total current

* Trans. A.
I.
is
crowded over
E. E.y B. G. Lamme, 1904.
to
The
result
one side of the
THE DYNAMO.
conductor, as
is
were, and the effective resistance of the conductor
it
increased, so that the
RP
loss in the conductor
This production of eddy currents
in the
is
increased.
armature conductors
may
by
greatly reduced
be
51
using stranded conducor
tors,
by placing the
conductors in slots
in the
armature core.
33.
cal
Examples
dynamos.
of typi-
Fig.
shows in outline a
bipolar
Fig. 33
dynamo,
shows a
ss
and
typical
The
multipolar dynamo.
regions
32
typical
are
called
Fig. 32.
the
air gaps,
pole faces,
ff
pp
pole tips or horns
the
hh kk
the pole pieces, and
hh
are called the
are called the leading pole tips and
kk
are called the trailing pole tips
with reference to the motion of

the armature as indicated
the curved arrow.
of wire
field
magnet
which the field

are
coils
ZZ are called the field
and the portions
coils,
the
The
by
called
The
cores.
iron
coils are
the
field
C C o{
around
wound,
magnet
portion
called the yoke
of the
is
field
magnet.
Figs. 32,34, 35, 36
Fig. 33.
show
field
magnet
structures,
forms of multipolar
field
and 37
typical forms of bipolar
and Figs. 33, 38 and 39 sho"w typical

structures.
The form shown in
magnet
52
Fig. 35.
Fig. 34.
X
Bd
Fig. 36.
Fig. 38.
M=
Fig. 37.
THE DYNAMO.
Fig. 39
is
used chiefly
S3
large alternators in which the field
in
rotates inside of a large stationary ring-shaped armature.
magnet
40
Fig.
general
is
view of an early type of

bipolar
dynamo manu-
by the CrockerWheeler Company. The

base plate of the machine
factured
serves as the field yoke,
and the bearing pedestals

and base plate are cast
one
piece.
Each
in
field
magnet core and pole

piece
is
from a
forged
wrought
single piece of
Fig. 40.
and
iron,*
the
two
pole pieces are connected at the top

plate
by a non -magnetic brass
which serves as a protective cover
The armature
concentrated
a number of coils which
the outside surface of the armature as
armature core
is,
halves (right and
together
lie
in
deep
shown
in
Fig. 41.
left
winding of the armature
as seen in
The two
on
The
by small
bolts
coils,
the two
after the coils are
wound
halves of the armature core are held
BB
which pass through the interleaved
stampings of the two halves of the core.

supported by
slots
Fig. 41) of the armature core
up separately and put together
upon them.
armature.
of course, built up of sheet iron stampings, and
in order to facilitate the
are built
the
of the ring type, the windings of which are
is
in
for
small bolts like
BB
The armature
core
is
which pass through the
armature teeth and connect to two end plates of brass which are
attached to the shaft.
The
brass plate at the
commutator end
provided with apertures through which the commutator

* A more usual construction
iron or cast steel,
to the
is
leads
field
magnet cores are wrought
and the pole pieces are separate pieces of
cast iron or cast steel bolted
ends of the cores.
is
that in
which the
54
from the armature
pass
coils
to the
commutator
The
bars.
brushes are carried by two insulated metal studs fixed to an arm
which
is
supported upon the projecting end of one of the bearings.
This arm
may be
turned about the axis of the armature at
and clamped so as to hold the brushes
in
any desired
will,
position.
Fig. 41.
The brushes
dynamos are always carried upon

arm or frame which may be turned about the axis
of direct-current
a supporting
of the armature at
This adjustable brush support
will.
called
is
a rocker-arui or rocker-frame.
Fig.
tured
is,
42
dynamo manufacThe field yoke, that
a general view of a multipolar
is
by the Fort Wayne
Electric
Works.
the external ring of the field magnet,
is
cast in
two parts which
are bolted together, and the upper part of the field

off
when
it
view of the
field
is
field
to
One
windings removed.
constitutes a
in Fig. 44.
may
be
lifted
Fig,
of the laminated structures which
magnet core and pole piece, is shown

These pole pieces are set into the mould and cast-,
combined
welded to the
tained
remove the armature.
43 is a
structure and base, with the armature and all
desired
field
field ring.
An
enlarged area of pole face
by the use of an open frame of
cast iron,
shown
is
ob-
in Fig.
THE DYNAMO.
55
56
ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,
THE DYNAMO.
57
58
44, which
is
called the pole shoe.
and fixed by
This pole shoe
bolts, after the field coils
is
put
in place
have been slipped into
position on the projecting field cores.
45 is a general view of a ten-pole direct-current generator

of the Bullock Electric Manufacturing Company, connected diFig.
rectly to the
main
shaft of the driving engine.
The
figure
shows
the rocker-frame, which supports the ten sets of brushes, and

the mechanism for adjusting the brushes by turning the rocker-
frame by means of the small hand wheel on the
right.
Fig.
46
Fig. 46.
shows the armature core and commutator of the generator which

shown in Fig. 45. The manner in which the sheet-iron arma-
is
ture core stampings are supported on
shown
in
Fig. 47.
The
partly
what
is
called a spider,
wound armature
is
shown
is
in Fig.
The
48, and two of the armature coils are shown in Fig. 49.
end
of
one
at
flange
the
and
core
armature
space between the
THE DYNAMO.
Fig. 47.
Fig. 48.
59
6o
the armature core, and the space between the armature core and
the
commutator
at the other end, see Fig. 46, are for receiving
the overlapping ends of the armature
coils.
Both of these spaces
Fig. 49.
left more or less open, so that the cool air may be drawn in
one end of the rotating armature and driven out through the
are
at
overlapping ends of the
coils, as
shown by
Fig. 50.
the arrows in Fig. 50.
THE DYNAMO.
6l
Furthermore, the laminations of the armature core are separated

at intervals, thus
terior of the
forming
air
armature core.
ducts from the interior to the exFig.
46 shows seven places where

shows one place
the laminations are thus separated, and Fig. 50
where the laminations are separated.

ventilation
of the armature
is
The
object of this thorough
to avoid the high temperatures
Fig. 51.
would otherwise be produced by the very considerable

heat which is generated in the armature core by eddy currents
v/hich
and magnetic
and
hysteresis,
armature current.
Fig.
is
in
the armature windings
by the
a view of a portion of the arma-
ture core showing two slots filled with conductors which are held
in place
by wooden wedges, and
ventilating ducts
also
showing several of the
between the sheet-iron laminations.
The arma-
shown in Fig. 5 1 consist of massive rectangular

bars of copper.
Wire-wound armatures are, in general, used for
ture conductors
62
machines giving small current outputs, and bar-wound armatures

for
machines giving large current outputs.
Fig. 52.
Fig.
coil)
52 shows one pair of
of the generator which
is
field coils
shown
(shunt coil and series
in Fig. 45.
The manner
^~~.
mica
Fig. 53.
in
Fig. 54.
which the various shunt
which the various
coils are
series coils are
connected together, and in
connected together,
is
shown
in
THE DYNAMO.
Fig.
dynamos of earlier design, the shunt and

wound one over the other on a single
In
28.
63
windings were
series
spool.
Present practice favors the separation of these windings for the
sake of more perfect ventilation, and on account of greater accessibility for repairs.
The commutator,
always made in
Details of Commutator.
34.
which
explained in Art. 28,
is
rigid self-contained structure.
slightly
thinner
is
Forged copper
the function of
the form of a
bars,
bb,
Fig. 53,
one
at
edge than at the other, are

built
up
in
the form of a
hollow cylinder with ac-
gauged
curately
plates
mica
between the
bars.
This built up structure
clamped
in a
RR, placed
is
massive ring
in a lathe,
and
are
the conical
seats
turned out.
A steel hub
ss
provided with conical
which
ss,
fit
is
lips
into the grooves
Fig. 53,
and the ends
of the hub are drawn to-
gether by bolts, as
shown
A thin
conical
in Fig. 54.
washer of moulded mica

Fig. 55.
separates
the
steel
hub
from the copper bars, as shown

one on each commutator
bar, or
in Fig. 54.
The
radial lugs
//,
segment, serve for the attachment
of the wire leads which are tapped into the armature windings.
^"^S- 5 5 is
a general view of a completed commutator manufactured
by the General
35.
Electric
Company.
Brushes and Brush Holders.
Metal brushes were formerly
almost exclusively used for dynamos.
Such brushes were made
64
of compact bundles of thin metal leaves or wires, so as to insure
many
points of contact withthe commutator.
Metal brushes are
two reasons (a) It is very difficult to

smooth when metal brushes
commutator
the
keep the surface of
are used, inasmuch as the soft copper bars and the soft metal
however objectionable
for
brushes do not wear well mechanically.

for soft metals to
dency
especially
if
There
is
always a ten-
become rough when rubbed
together,
any extraneous cause, such as the sHght sparking at

dynamo, starts the roughening process.
the brushes of a
Fig.
(^)
The tendency
of a
56.
dynamo to spark at the brushes

made of comparatively high
lessened by using brushes
material, such as carbon, instead of
Dynamo
metal.
hard blocks
of
brushes are
graphitic
greatly
resistance
low resistance material
now almost
carbon.
is
Such
universally
like
made
of
brushes wear well
mechanically without other lubrication than that supplied by the

graphite of the brush.
The
function of the brush holder
is
to press the solid blocks
of carbon which are used as brushes firmly against the

tator,
and
commu-
same time to give sufficient freedom to the carenable them to seat themselves snugly against the
at the
bon blocks to
commutator so
as to ensure a large area of contact.
Fig. 56
THE DYNAMO.
65
shows a carbon btush holder manufactured by the General ElecThe current is led from the carbon block to the
tric Company.
metal part of the holder by the flexible cable of fine copper wire
which
is
called a
duty as an
pig
tail,
electrical
conductor would heat

small lever at the back
thus relieving the spring from doing
conductor.
The
use of the spring as a

temper.
The
serves to adjust the pressure with
which
it
and cause
it
to lose
its
the spring presses the carbon block against the commutator.

36. Bipolar
days of
In
the early
engineering comparatively small sized
dynamos
and multipolar dynamos compared.
electrical
only were used, and the bipolar
field
structure
was almost univer-
sal.
The
trical
engineering developments has led to the adoption of the
multipolar
increase in size of the machines involved in recent elec-
field structure.
The advantages of the multipolar over
the bipolar field structure for large-sized machines are as follows

ici)
Economy of
iron.
The magnetic
flux
production of electromotive force only where

air
gap between the pole
faces
it
and the armature
available for the
is
passes across the

core.
Therefore
Fig. 57,
that distribution
of flux around the armature
which gives the shortest possible paths

5
in
is
most desirable
the armature iron from
66
the places where the flux enters to the places where the flux
leaves the armature,
iron from the places
and the shortest possible paths in the field

where the flux leaves the armature to the
places where the flux enters the armature.
armature and
Shortness of paths
in
means a great saving in the amount of

the machine for a given amount of useful flux.
field iron
iron required in
The
between
difference
field
and the multipolar
the
bipolar
field in
regard
to length of path of magnetic flux,
is
shown in Figs. 57 and 58. These figures show a given sized armature with
seven-tenths of
its
surface covered
by
pole faces and therefore with seventenths of
its
windings effective at each
instant in the production of electromotive force.
The
length of each
mag-
very
much
Fig. 58.
Fig. 58
netic circuit in
is
less
than the length of the magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 57.
The
figures
of iron
is
show
in a striking
way
that a
much
greater
amount
required for the bipolar than for the multipolar struc-
ture.
Economy of field copper.

Shortness of path in iron with
means a saving in the amount of field copper
for a given amount of power expended in field excitation {RP
loss), or a saving in the amount of power expended in field exciThe dependence of
tation for a given amount of field copper.
field excitation (ampere turns) upon the length and sectional area
of the magnetic circuit is discussed in Appendix A.
(<^)
given flux density
{c)
Reduction of sparkmg.
The sparking
of a
dynamo
at the
brushes depends largely upon the magnetizing action of the armature current.
This magnetizing action of the armature current
called armature reaction,
and
it is
is
proportional to the product of
the current in the armature conductors and the
ature conductors under a pole face.
An
number of armnumber
increase in the
of poles, therefore, reduces the armature reaction, and thereby
reduces the tendency to spark at the brushes.
THE DYNAMO.
The
67
following disadvantages of the multipolar construction
outweigh the above advantages when the number of poles
is
increased beyond the proper limit.

(a)
Magnetic leakage.
which
netic flux,
is
magmagnet cores by the
considerable portion of the
forced through the field
winding, crosses from pole tip to pole tip without passing
field
This
through the armature.
flux, called the
leakage flux, does
not contribute to the generation of electromotive force
When
armature conductors.
a great number of
field
in the
magnet
poles surround an armature of given diameter, the tips of adjacent poles which are of opposite polarity are very close together
and the magnetic leakage

sive
magnetic leakage
is
excessive.
is
The
of this exces-
effect
to reduce the useful magnetic flux,
hence to reduce the electromotive force generated

ture, unless the field excitation is
expense of an increase of
expended
field
in field excitation.
actually covered
number of
poles
by the pole
is
in the
and
arma-
very greatly increased at the
copper, or an increase of power
The percentage of armature surface

faces is usually made smaller as the
increased, in order to avoid excessively short
distances between adjacent pole tips.

(p)
as
Multiplicity of parts.
many brush
A multipolar machine usually has
sets as poles,
and as many
field
coils
as poles.
Therefore the cost of manufacture increases with the number of

poles because of the increase in the
37.
Smooth
core
and
slotted
armatures were formerly
made
number of parts
required.
armatures compared.
Dynamo
with smooth cores built up of
circular disks of sheet iron, the armature windings being placed
upon the armature surface and bound with bands of phosphorWith this type of armature there is necesbronze or steel wire.
sarily a thick layer of
non -magnetic
material, air
between the pole face and the armature core.
and copper,
The armature
wires are exposed to mechanical injury, and the sidewise drag on

the wires due to the side
push of the magnetic
field
between the
pole face and armature core not infrequently causes the armature
68
conductors to become loose, especially when an excessive current

flows through the armature on account of an accidental short cir-
Dynamo
cuit.
as
shown
armatures are
in Figs. 41, 46, 48,
now
and
which
acts chiefly
upon the conductors,
acts
on the armature teeth of a slotted armature.

air
to the iron of the

in the slotted
shown
mechanically, and the side
smooth core armature
in a
thermore, the
it is
In this type of armature
51.
the conductors are well protected

force,
constructed with deep slots,
armature core,
than
in
may
be made very
the smooth core armature.
on account of sparking, the
that,
Fur-
gap, or distance from the iron of the pole face
much
smaller
In Chapter
VI
gap should some-
air
times be greater than mechanical clearance alone would require,

so that the possibility of reducing the air gap
not always of
is
prime importance.
The manner
which
lie in
of cutting the lines of force
the deep
slots of
an armature
sider the tuft of lines of force
This
tooth.
This motion of the
rotates.
sense, only apparent, since
tuft
it is
and the taking away of

tuft
by
is
dynamo, see Article

armatures
ahead of the tooth
behind the tooth

flit
in
from the backward
in
question.
The
across the slots and cut
is
30, applies to
smooth core and
slotted core
alike.
the ratio of the flux density in the slot to the
The above apparent motion
and the rapid
flitting
mean
of a tuft of lines of force
ent motion of a tuft of the bristles of an ordinary brush

it,
is
lines
flitting
much greater * than the mean velocity

armature conductors.
The fundarnental equation of the
the armature conductors
*In
a certain
by the very rapid
lines of force
velocity at which the lines of force
space.
in
is,
armature
the very rapid flitting of the lines of force
across the slot which
of the
face as the
of lines of force
of the lines of force across the slot which
edge of the
Con-
due to the addition of new
of force to the forward edge of the tuft
question,
as follows
is
which emanate from an armature
moves across the pole
tuft
by the conductors
when
of the lines of force across a slot
is
flux density in the

is
gap
similar to the appar-
the finger
is
rubbed over
similar to the rapid flitting
of the bristles across the nearly vacant space behind the finger.
THE DYNAMO.
38.
Special designs of dynamos.
The
69
essential features of
dynamo are the same whatever the use for which the dynamo is
intended whether it is to be used as a generator or as a motor
;
whether
it
to be driven as a generator
is
by a
belt or
directly connected to an engine or to a water-wheel

it is
by being
or whether
operated as a motor and drives a machine by a belt or by being
constructed as an integral part of the machine which
There
however, important
are,
generator which
special points in
drives.
the design of a
to be directly connected to an engine or to a
is
water-wheel, and in the design of a motor which
connected to the machine which
Westing louse Va
Fi^. 59.
it
iable
in design relate chiefly to the
and pedestals, and
it
drives.
is
to be directly
These
special points
Speed Motor JJnvin^ a
4rf-liich Laiii
arrangements of the
to the shape of the frame
shaft, bearings
which serves as a
base for the machine.
Thus
Fig. 41
shows
mounted on the crank shaft of the driving
59 shows a lathe with a specially designed
shows a
typical belted generator, Fig. 45
a typical generator
engine,
and
Fig.
motor geared
directly to
it.
70
Electric motors for use in very dusty places are usually built
Such an enclosed motor is

This type of motor is usually called a mill
with an enclosing dust-proof case.
shown
Fig. 60.
in
Fig. 60.
Street car motors are also enclosed.
type motor.
A
it
is
is
entirely
open to the
than
if it is
39.
it
when
will carry
it
is
enclosed, or, for a
a heavier load
if it is
open
enclosed.
The dynamotor.
lighting mains
at,
say,
of storage battery.
nected
than
air
given running temperature
is
A typical street
shown in Fig. 9 1
given motor carrying a given load runs much cooler when
car motor
in series
It is often
no
necessary to take current from
volts for use in charging a few cells
To do
this
a large resistance
with the storage battery.
The
may
be con-
objection to this
power is lost in the resistance. A method,

more economical, is to operate a standard no-
that a great deal of
which
is
usually
volt
motor with current taken from the no-volt mains and use
this
motor
to drive a generator
which
is
designed to give the low
voltage required for charging the storage battery.

tion of
motor and generator
is
This combina-
called a motor-generator
set.
THE DYNAMO.
The motor and generator
built as
one machine, that
is,
of a motor-generator set
a machine having one
and one armature structure but with two

of
many
field
may be
magnet
distinct windings,
one
turns of fine wire connected to a commutator at one end,
and another of fewer turns of coarse wire connected to a second

commutator at the other end. This machine can then be run as
a motor by a small current delivered to
from the supply mains, and
at the
wire windings
fine
its
same time
will operate as
it
a generator and deliver a large current at a reduced voltage from

its
coarse wire windings.
Such a machine
is
called a dynarnotor.
Fig. 6 1 shows a dynamotor made by the Crocker-Wheeler Com-
Fig. 61.
pany and designed
to take current
deliver current from

40.
its
tromotive force,
is
called the unipolar

Fig.
lO-volt mains and to
coarse wire armature winding at 2 5 volts.
The homopolar dynamo.
dynamo, hitherto but
from
little
A simple type of
used on account of
the so-called homopolar
its
direct-current
very low elec-
dynamo (sometimes
dynamo, and sometimes the acycHc dynamo).
62 shows a longitudinal section and an end view of a
simple type of homopolar dynamo.
The armature
AA
is
which rotates
a solid cylindrical piece of soft iron or steel

inside of a
hollow cylindrical
field
yoke
YY.
ELEMENIS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
72
The
field
lines
flux, the trend of
<l><l>, is
produced by a
which
field
is
shown by
winding
inside of the hollow cylindrical yoke,
ZZ
the closed dotted
which
is
fixed to the
and surrounds the rotating
Fig. 62.
cylindrical
armature A.
There are two sets of positive brushes

rub upon the extreme ends of AA, and
which are arranged
to
two
brushes which are arranged to rub on
at
sets of negative
any convenient place
inside of
The
YY,
AA
leads which connect
to the brushes inside of
YY
pass through a series of holes
through
by
YY, which are shown
the short dotted lines.*
The low
electromotive force
of the unipolar
dynamo
is
due
to the fact that the armature consists
necessarily of a single ele-
ment
force
in
is
which
electromotive
induced.
To
obtain a
Fig. 63.
high electromotive force therefore,
a number of distinct machines must be connected
These
*
machines
modified form of unipolar
may
dynamo
is
in series, t
common mag-
described by H. E. Heath in the Elec-
World and Engineer, February lo, 1900, Vol. 35, p. 210.

*< Acyclic Homopolar Dynamos," by T. E. Noeggerath, Trans. A.
f See paper,
E. E., January 27, 1905.
trical
I.
distinct
have, however, a
THE DYNAMO.
netic circuit
shown
as
This figure shows one end
Fig. 63.
in
73
of a machine with three distinct armatures, each having

positive
One armature
and negative brushes.
cyHnder A, the second armature

2
insulated from A,
series so
positive
To
3.
brushes of No.
2,
of
No.
are
Fig.
2,
an insulated
may be
connected to
added, the
the
negative
the positive brushes of No. 2 to the negative
brushes of No. 3 and so on, exactly as

of voltaic
is
connect these three armatures
that their electromotive forces
brushes
own
soHd
a cyhndrical metal shell
and the third armature
cylindrical metal shell 3,

in
is
its
the
is
in
the series connections
cells.
62 shows that each
set of
brushes consists of a number
of individual blocks of metal or carbon arranged symmetrically
around the periphery of the rotating armature.
CHAPTER
III.
THE OPERATION OF THE DYNAMO AS A GENERATOR.

Constant voltage and constant current supply.
41.
number
with each other across the supply mains,

tain
When
of lamps, or motors, or both, are connected in parallel

it is
necessary to main-
an unvarying electromotive force between the mains in order
that the various lamps
and motors
may
This method of supply
each other.
operate independently of
called constant voltage dis-
is
In this system a given lamp or motor
tribution.
is
put out of
by disconnecting it from the mains or by simply opening

When a lamp or motor is put out of service in this
its circuit.
way, each remaining lamp or motor takes the same current as
service
before,
and the generator delivers a
total current
which
less
is
than before by the amount of current which was taken by. the
disconnected lamp or motor.
When
current,
number of lamps connected
circuit in order that the various
of each other.
distribution.
supplied with
necessary to maintain a constant current in this
is
it
in series are
lamps
may
This method of supply
is
In this system a given lamp
not by breaking
its circuit,
operate independently
called constant current
is
put out of service,
but by short-circuiting
closing a switch which establishes a
by -pass
it,
that
is
by
The
for the current.
closing of this switch generally reduces the total resistance of the

circuit of
lamps as a whole, and the maintenance of a constant
current in the circuit requires a decrease of the electromotive force
of the
generator
are put out of service, and an
when lamps
increase of the electromotive force of the generator

tional
lamps are put into
The
when
addi-
service.
constant voltage system of supply
employed nowadays, both
is
almost universally
for direct-current distribution
74
and
for
OPERATION OF THE DYNAMO AS A GENERATOR.

alternating current distribution
mission, for electric railways,
for
and
75
long distance power transsupply of
in general for the
current to motors and to lamps.
The only
case in which
constant current system
number of widely
is
it is
advantageous to use the
distinctly
for street lighting in cities
where a fixed
distributed lamps, arc or incandescent, are to
be operated.
The shunt generator driven at constant speed, and especially

compound generator, maintains automatically an approxi-
the
mately constant voltage even though the current output
varies.
120
"""--.
Volts
"*'.
lOO
\
80
1
60
.-" r
40
Amp eres
150
50
200
250
300
350
Fig. 64.
This
65.
is
shown by the
The
64 and
64 represent the voltages
so-called cJiaracteristic curves in Figs.
ordinates of the curve in Fig.
of a shunt generator, and the abscissas represent the correspond-
ing current outputs.
The
voltage of a shunt generator decreases
slightly as the current output increases, as
is
evident from Fig.
The ordinates of the curve in Fig. 65 represent the voltages

of a compound generator (flat-compound), and the abscissas represent the corresponding current outputs.
The voltage of a flat-
64.
76
compound generator
output as
is
is
very nearly independent of the current
evident from Fig. 65.
In practice the voltage of a shunt or
compound generator
is
under the control of an attendant who, by manipulating a shunt

field rheostat, may keep the voltage as nearly constant as desired.
""'-^v
Volts
100
\
\
80
60
40
Amp eres
50
150
200
250
300
350
400
4SO
Fig. 65.
The
ordinates of the curve in Fig.
66 represent the voltages of
a series generator, and the abscissas represent the corresponding

current outputs.
The
voltage of a series generator increases
rapidly with increase of current output as
The
is
evident from Fig. 66.
dotted portions of the curves in Figs. 64, 65 and 66
show
the trend of the characteristic curves for current outputs greater
than the normal
full
load values for which the machines are
designed.
The
adaptability of the various types of generator to the re-
quirements of the constant current system, or rather the inherent

lack of complete adaptability
may be made
evident
by
the data on which the characteristic curves of Figs.

are based, so as to
show the current outputs of the
erators as ordinates,
replotting
64 and 66
different
and the resistances of the receiving
gen-
circuit as

Fig.
abscissas.
6/ shows these
TJ
current-resistance curves of a shunt
The
generator and of a series generator.
Volts
dotted portions of the
^^^ a
\
\
\
\
80
60
40
/
/
Amioeres
100
50
200
150
300
250
350
Fig. 66.
a
Ampei
"v
1
300
X
200
\\
^Â^
ioo
1
1
^^^'
^
'
1
Re sistance of
2
recei ving eir ouit in
hms
cM
\
0.
Fig. 67.
curves in Fig. 6y correspond to the dotted portions in Figs. 64
and 66.
An
ideal constant current generator
would have
for
its
78
current-resistance curve a horizontal straight
part of the shunt generator curve
being a horizontal straight
line,
in
very
is
dotted
from
far
while a large portion of the un-
dotted part of the shunt generator curve
On
The
line.
67
Fig.
is
not greatly inclined.
the other hand the dotted part of the series generator curve
not greatly inclined, while the undotted portion
is
greatly
is
Therefore, the nearest approximation to an automatic
inclined.
constant current generator would be a shunt generator designed

so as to operate normally on the undotted portion of
teristic
charac-
its
curve as shown in Figs. 64 and 6^, or a series generator
designed so as to operate normally on the dotted part of

acteristic curve as
As
a matter of
shown
fact,
in Figs.
char-
its
66 and 6y.
however, the
series
generator
always
is
used for constant direct-current supply for the following reason
The
voltages used for series constant current arc lighting are
high, ranging from
1,000 to 6,000 volts per lamp-circuit.
high voltage shunt generator
is
expensive to construct because of
the great quantity of very fine and very highly insulated wire
required
for
its
field
winding, whereas the high voltage series
generator has a comparatively coarse wire
field
winding which
need not be so thoroughly insulated as the shunt winding.

Generators which are used for constant current distribution are
always provided with automatic devices for keeping the current
output constant, in spite of
changes of resistance of the

receiving circuit.*
42.
Connections of a series
and
generator
circuit.
of
Fig. 68
connections
its
receiving
is
a diagram
of
series
of
its
acces-
Fig. 68.
generator,
sory apparatus, and a circuit of arc lamps.

*See chapter on Arc- Lighting Dynamos
Machinery."
in S. P.
some
An
Thompson's
ammeter
"Dynamo
is
Electric

usually placed in
can
see
when
the
the
has the
68 an adjustable resistance
with the
field
winding
the
so that
circuit
current
is
In
value.
shown connected
by varying
attendant
station
proper
79
Fig.
in parallel
this resistance, that portion
of the fixed current output of the generator which flows through

the field winding
may be changed
may
and thus the
at will,
electro-
be controlled so as to cause
motive force of the generator
it
to deliver a constant current in spite of variations in the resistance
of the receiving circuit.

in
This hand controlling device
commercial arc lighting plants, and
to give a clear idea of a possible
it
method
is
not used
only mentioned here
is
for controlling a series
generator.
43. Connections of
ing circuit.
Fig.
69
a shunt or compound generator and

is
a diagram of connections of a
generator (short-shunt) with
its
field
its receiv-
compound
rheostat R, main fuses at d
AAAAAAA/
o
-O
rF
o
o
Fig. 69.
main switch, ammeter A, voltmeter V, and circuit breaker

These accessory appliances are always mounted in convenient positions on a panel of insulating material, slate or marble,
and
c,
BB.
called a switch-board.
The
erator to the switch-board,
switch-board to the lamps.
wires a,
b,
and
and the wires
The
c lead
d and
from the genlead from the
wires leading to the individual
groups of lamps LL, and to the motor M,
in
Fig.
69
are, of
course, smaller than the mains leading out from the switch-board.
It is
wise to insert fuses //, as shown in Fig. 69, at every point
8o
where a smaller wire attaches

might occur
circuit
enough current
enough
make
to
open the
to
and
in the wires b
The connections
69 except
field
to melt the
is
no
is
same
as in Fig.
series field winding.
a generator at starting.
of
main fuses
fire risk.
started, the slight residual
When
magnetism
self-
in
the
induces a small electromotive force in the armature
field structure
This electromotive force produces a small current
windings.
the
BB, or
of a shunt generator are the
The building up
44
breaker
thus giving rise to a serious
that there
excited generator
the small copper wires red hot, but not
circuit
c,
to a larger one, otherwise a short
one of the small groups of lamps, taking
in
winding which strengthens the
in
magnetism.
residual
This strengthened residual magnetism induces an increased electromotive force
winding which
produces an increased current
this
in turn
so on until the machine

building up
it
is in
ing up process to bring a machine up to
To
necessary to excite
it
is
called
for this build-
voltage.
cannot begin the
get such a machine into operation
it is
magnet temporarily, by direct current

This generally leaves enough residual
its field
from an outside source.
up process.
start the building
frequently happens that the current produced in the arma-
It
by
magnetism flows through the
field
winding
such a direction as to zveake?i the residual magnetism.
In this
ture
in
more
its full
no residual magnetism
If a generator has
magnetism to
This process
action.
full
usually takes half a minute or
building up process.
in the field
further increases the magnetism, and
still
the residual
case the machine cannot build
up does not depend upon the

for
if
the
field
up
at
all.
This
failure to build
direction of the residual
current produced
by given
residual
magnetism
strengthens (or weakens) the residual magnetism, then

sidual
and
magnetism be reversed,
it
will
magnetism as
Whether
through the
the re-
weaken) the reversed
before.
the curi-ent produced

field
if
produce a reversed current,
this reversed current will strengthen (or
residual
magnetism
winding
in
by the
residual
magnetism flows
the direction to strengthen or in the

direction to
upon
residual magnetism, depends only
weaken the
the direction of driving of the generator, and upon which terminal
of the
field
winding
connected to a given brush.
is
under given conditions, a generator does build up,
If
build up
if its
direction of driving
nections are reversed
however,
if,
is
reversed, or
its
connections are both reversed, then
field
it
if its
reversed, or
is
cannot
con-
and
its
build up.
will
under given conditions, a generator cannot build up,
up
it
if its field
if its field
it
may
If,
build
connections
are reversed.
may
generator driven in a given direction
either the
one or the other of
according to the
generator which
up each time
initial
is
in the
brushes
its
is
build up so that
the positive brush,
repeatedly started and stopped usually builds
same
direction
but some outside disturbance,
such as a momentary current from a lightning discharge,

reverse the residual magnetism of a machine
machine
is
will
may
in this case
the
build up in a reverse direction the next time
it
started.
From
there
is
the above description of the building up process
no
is
explained in Appendix
B on
There
is
however a
iâ)
definite limit in every case,
for service in
approximately constant electromotive force

the current delivered by the machine
is
When
large the current
ip)
Ohm's
is
to
which an
be maintained
conditions
inversely proportional to
the resistance of the receiving circuit.
resistance of the receiving circuit
is
Under these
between the terminals of the machine.
according to
that
self-excited
Shunt or compound generator.
Shunt and compound generators are used
is
may perhaps seem
characteristics.
45. Output of a generator,
the receiving circuit
it
and voltage reached by a given
limit to the field strength
generator driven at a given speed.

as
direction of the residual magnetism.
is
the resistance of
small,
and when the
small the current
is
large,
law.
Series generator.
The
relation
between the current out-
put of a series generator and the resistance of thp receiving circuit

is
complicated by the fact that the electromotive force of a series

6
82
generator
is
not constant but increases very rapidly as the current
When
output increases.
the resistance of the receiving circuit
is
small and the current output
is
large, the electromotive force
When
very small.
Power
is
and the current
large
is
compound generator.
output of a shunt or
is
is
small,
very large.
The power
output of a generator, being equal to the product of the terminal

voltage of the generator and the current output,
the current
is
small and large
when
the current
thermore, since the generator armature
is
is
is
small
when
Fur-
large.
driven in opposition to
the side push which the field

wires,
and since
this
side
amount of power required
follows that the

increases with
magnet exerts upon the armature

push is proportional to the current, it
its
external receiving circuit)
is
zero, the only
a shunt generator, for example,

the
field
When
current output.
is
to drive a generator
the current output (to
power required
to drive
the power required to supply
current and to supply the friction and magnetic losses in
the armature.
From the above discussion it may appear that

Power rating.
any desired amount of power however great can be delivered by a
In a certain limited sense this is true, but when
given generator.
the current output of a generator is increased more and more,
the temperature of the machine increases more and more, on
account of the heat generated by the current in the windings, and
The deterioration
the tendency to spark at the brushes increases.
of the insulating materials caused by heat sets a more or less definite limit to the permissible rise of
temperature of a generator,
and the smooth running and durability of the commutator depend
upon sparkless commutation.
Therefore,
limit to the output of a given generator
heating or the sparking becomes excessive.

to the output
there
is
a practical
beyond which
either the
This practical limit
of a generator determines what
is
called
its
rated
output.
46. Conditions
[a)
Primary
which
affect the electromotive force of
conditions.
Speed and field
a generator.
excitation.
The

electromotive force of a given generator depends upon
its
speed
S^
u,
and upon the armature flux according to equation (21). The
armature flux depends in its turn upon the degree of excitation
Therefore, aside from the comparatively
of the field magnet.
small disturbing action of the current in the armature, the volt-
age of a generator depends upon
speed and
excitation.
its field
upon the value

shown by the following
of the voltage of a generator
The dependence
of the armature flux,
experiment
its
strikingly
<P, is
Given a generator driven at a constant speed, with
a voltmeter connected across
When
being disconnected.
terminals, the receiving circuit
its
a heavy slab of iron
pole pieces, the voltage, as indicated
laid across the
is
by the voltmeter, drops
considerably on account of the fact that a portion of the flux from
magnet poles now passes through the iron slab instead

of passing through the armature, and <J> is therefore decreased.
the field
The
iron
slab
acts as a magnetic shunt in parallel
When
armature core of the generator.

voltage rises to
(d)
in
its
the slab
is
with the
removed the
original value.
Secondary condition.
The
the armature of a generator
disturbing action of the current
comparatively small in
is
upon the voltage of the generator, and therefore
it is
its effect
permissible
to consider the voltage of a generator as primarily dependent
upon
its
speed and
field
its
excitation,
and as only secondarily
The
dependent upon the armature current.

current upon voltage
in the
tions,
is
twofold.
In the
effect of
first
armature
place the current
armature of a generator, under ordinary operating condiopposes * the magnetizing action of the
thus tends to lessen the armature flux
<l>,
field
windings, and
and thereby
the actual electromotive force induced in the armature.
to lessen
In the
second place a portion of the electromotive force actually induced

in the
armature
is
used to overcome the resistance of the arma-
ture (and of the series field winding) through

* The demagnetizing action of the armature current
magnetizing action of the armature current
action of the armature current
is
is
is
which the current
here referred
discussed in Chapter VI.
called armature reaction.
The crossThe magnetic
to.
84
flows before
motive force
reaches the terminals of the machine.
it
way
lost in this
is
called internal drop,
Electro-
and because
of this internal drop, the electromotive force between the terminals
of the generator
induced
The
less
effect of internal
generator
Let
is
than the electromotive force actually
in the armature.
may
drop upon the terminal voltage of a
be easily formulated as follows
/^
be the current flowing through the armature
the current flowing through the shunt field winding
the current flowing through the series field winding of
the current flowing through the external circuit
compound machine
a series or
E^ the
induced
total electromotive force
in the
armature
E^ the electromotive force between the terminals of a

generator
R^
the resistance of the armature, including resistance of
brushes and of contacts between the brushes and the
commutator
field
winding
series field
winding
R^ the resistance of the shunt
R^ the resistance of the
and
R^ the resistance of the external circuit.

The loss of electromotive force in the armature due
resistance is Ra Ia' and the loss of electromotive force
,
field
winding on account of
internal drop
IT
is
Ra Ia
-\-
RI
c
its
resistance
and the
is
7?^/.,
relation
to armature
in the series
so that the total
between
EX
and
is
=E -R / - R/
A voltmeter connected
E^.
The value
except when
/^
a a
is
of E^ cannot be directly measured
and / are negligibly small,
zero and the term
In case of the^ series generator
one
(22)
\
J
to the terminals of a generator indicates
In case of the shunt generator there

so that R^
electric circuit.
is
in
no
by a voltmeter
which case E^
E^.
series field winding,
R/^ drops out

I^ = I^ = 7
of equation (22).
since there
is
but

In case of the long shunt
a
as
when we
evident
is
85
compound generator
X
'
consider, referring to Fig.
whole armature current flows through the

and then divides between the shunt
field
29, that the
series field winding,
winding and the external
circuit.
In case of the short-shunt

X
as
evident
is
when we
compound generator
c
'
consider, referring to Fig.
30, that the
armature current divides at the brushes, flowing partly through

the shunt field winding, and partly through the series field wind-
ing and the external circuit.
Comparison
47.
of separately excited generator,
compound generator and

terminal voltage.
Separately excited generator.
rent of a separately excited generator
armature flux
The
generator
driven,
total
constant, so that the
the machine
is
delivering
This
is
of a
separately excited
proportion to the speed at which the machine
and the terminal voltage,
The
(b)
when
induced voltage E^,
falls off in
mately equal to E^, likewise

speed.
field cur-
Therefore
current.
is
is
The
constant except for the comparatively slight
is
decrease due to armature reaction
(a)
shunt generator,
series generator in regard to variations of
E_^
falls off
which
is
always approxi-
nearly in proportion to the
evident from the fundamental equation
E^= ^Z'n.
external voltage E^, of a separately excited generator
on account of internal drop

RJ^, and on account of the lessening of <l> by armature reaction.
Shunt generator.
The field current of a shunt generator falls
falls
off with increase of current,
off
when
shunt
field
machine.
{a)
the terminal voltage, E^, decreases,
inasmuch as the
windings are connected between the terminals of the

Therefore
decrease in speed of a shunt generator causes a
much
greater decrease in E^ and E^ than in the case of the separately
86
/ which accompanies
excited generator, because of the decrease of
the decrease of E^.
An
(b)
much
increase in current output of a shunt generator causes
greater decrease in E^ than in the case of the separately
excited generator, because of the decrease of

nies the decrease of E^.
The compound generator.
pound
field
through the
machine
When
(a)
a generator has a com-
winding, the current output of the machine flows

series
coil,*
field
and the
field
of the
excitation
therefore increased with increased current output.
is
the series field coil has a sufficient

increase
/ which accompa-
may
of field excitation
number
not
demagnetizing action of the current
more than counterbalance
this
in
If
of turns of wire, this
only counterbalance the

the armature, but
may
it
demagnetizing action and cause
<S>
to actually increase with increase of current output, thus increas-
ing the total induced electromotive force E^.

1
This increase of E^ can be
made
compensate
to
sufficient
RJ^ -^^Jc^ thus keeping E^. approximately

increase of current output.
In this case the
for the internal drop,
constant
machine
2.
with
is
said to
ho.
flat-compounded.
This increase of
can be made more than
sufficient to
com-
In this case the voltage between
pensate for the internal drop.
the terminals of the machine increases with increase of current

output, and the machine
(b)
The dependence
upon speed
is,
for a
is
said to be over-compounded.
of the voltage of a
compound generator
given current output, nearly the same as
in
the case of the shunt generator.

Series ge7terator.
or nearly zero,t
{a)
when
The
voltage of a series generator
the current output
rapidly with the current output.

sider that the field
(b)
winding
is
in
This
is
zero,
and
evident
increases
when we con-
total
applies specifically to the short-shunt
induced voltage, E^,

compound dynamo,
f Residual magnetism produces a small electromotive force even

field current is zero.
it
zero
series with the external circuit.
For a given current output, the
*ThIs statement
is
is
when
the series

of a series generator
minal voltage, E^,
is
8/
proportional to the speed, and the ter-
very nearly proportional to the speed.
is
Adaptability of the various methods of field excitation to special

purposes.
Separate
When
testing.
as
commercial
in
is
very often used
in
dynamo
desired to obtain a voltage which fluctuates
as possible with changes of speed, separate excitation
little
used
it is
excitation
is
installations.
Generators which are used for charging storage batteries, and

generators which are used for electroplating, are liable to have
their field
magnetism reversed when the machine
out disconnecting
it
from the external receiving
service the reversal of field
occur when the generator
magnetism
is
is
is
stopped withIn such
circuit.
much
very
less
Hkely to
Therefore sep-
separately excited.
arately excited generators are sometimes used for charging stor-
age
and usually
batteries,
for electroplating.
Direct-current generators in central stations for lighting or
power are nearly always
self-excited,
inasmuch as modern engines
and water wheels give very nearly constant- speed
driving,
and
therefore the use of an auxiliary generator for supplying current

for
exciting the field magnets of the main
usually warranted
is
not
by the greater constancy of voltage obtainable
Alternating current generators are always separately
thereby.
excited,
generators
since
the
alternating
nating current generator

less rectified
is
current
delivered
not suitable for
by a special commutator
by an
alter-
field excitation,
as in the
**
composite
un-
field
"
alternator.
When electric
current
is
to be supplied at a constant, or approxi-
mately constant, voltage, shunt or compound generators are used,

as has been previously pointed out.
Series generators are not
suited to the delivery of a varying current at a constant voltage.
When
a constant current
series generators
is
to be supplied at varying voltage,
are generally used.
Such generators
are pro-
vided with special regulating devices to vary the voltage, so as to
keep the current output constant when the resistance of the

external circuit changes.
88
48. Voltage regulation of generators.
A generator
designed for supplying current at constant voltage
"constant voltage"
generator
is
called a
maintenance of a
which
is
is
called a
Thus a shunt or compound

constant voltage " generator, although the
generator.
**
strictly
constant voltage
accomplished by the manipulation of a
by such a machine is
The range
field rheostat.
of variation of the terminal voltage of such a machine with variation of current output,
unchanged,
when
the field rheostat
an important practical matter.
is
age from full load
to
Tlie
left
is
wholly
change of
volt-
no load, expressed as a percentage offull load
voltage, is called the ''voltage regjdation'' of the generator, speed
of driving and resistance of field circuit being kept constant.
Example.
The
adjusted so that
delivering
its
of a certain shunt generator
terminal voltage
rated full load current of
its
main switch
field rheostat
The
126.5
o.
zero,
rise to 126.5
or 15 per cent.
be noted that the word regulation
of voltage inherent in the machine

is
is
is
the
10
10
It is to
observed to
is
regulation of this machine
it
When
opened so as to reduce the current output to
is
the terminal voltage of the generator

volts.
iio volts when
is
250 amperes.
is
itself,
is
applied to changes
while the
word
control
applied to changes of voltage due to deliberate adjustments by
an attendant.
49. Control of voltage of
ulation of field rheostat.
which
is
Fig. 69.
in circuit
may
be added
is
The
"field rheostat"
with the shunt
field
is
the rheostat
winding, as indicated in
any reason the voltage between the terminals of
If for
the generator
shunt or compound generator by manip-
greater or
to
less
than the desired value, resistance
or taken from the shunt
field circuit
by manipu-
lating the field rheostat, thus decreasing or increasing the current

in
the shunt field winding, and thereby decreasing or increasing
the field excitation, so as to bring the terminal voltage to the

desired value.

Manipulation of the
of a shunt generator,
field
when
rheostat
it is
is
of course necessary in case
desired to keep the terminal volt-
age constant with varying current output.
compound
shunt
In case of the
flat-
generator, also, the terminal voltage always varies to
some extent with

generator
89
is
circuit so as
field
and the compound
variation of current output,
therefore always provided with a field rheostat in

to enable an attendant
to control
its
its
terminal voltage at will.
The
usual form of field rheostat consists of coils or zigzags of
wire or metal ribbon connected in series, and arranged with a

points over which a metal
number of contact
arm may be moved,
so as to include any desired portion of the rheostat in series with
the
The
winding.
field
made
insulation of the rheostat
is
generally
of fireproof material, such as mica or asbestos.
provision
is
made
for cooling, either
by
ventilating or
Special
by great
expanse of radiating surface.
There
stats.
is
a wide variety in the design of commercial field rheo-
Fig.
by the Wirt
away
is
70
is
a general view of a
Electric
show the
to
Company.
rheostat manufactured
field
Part of the front plate
EE E.
resistance strips,
cut
is
This resistance
strip
a long ribbon of high resistance alloy, coated on one side
wound
with fireproof insulation, such as flake mica, and

helix on a mandril of flat-oval section.
This
flat
in a
helix
is
long
then
slipped off the mandril, and arranged in a circle between two

circular plates,
mica,
F G.
J,
and insulated from the
The two plates
siderable pressure,
and a
plates
flat
by sheets of
are then clamped together with con-
steel
band
is
spun over the outer
edge of the plates to hold them together.
The
deeply ribbed, front and back, to
the radiation of heat.
One end
of the resistance helix
facilitate
is
metal plates are
connected to one of the
ter-
minal binding posts, shown at the bottom of the figure, and the
other binding post connects to the rotating metal
arm
C which
makes contact with the inner ends of the convolutions of the

helix.
The
rheostat
is
connected
in
series with the
shunt
flat
field
winding of the generator by wires attached to the rheostat binding
90
posts,

and
it
is
mounted
in
a convenient position on the switch-
board panel.
Fig. 70.
In the rheostat manufactured
by the Ward-Leonard Company,

embedded in a thick layer ot
the zigzags of resistance wire are
glazing or enamel on the back of a deeply-ribbed cast-iron plate.

50.
Adjustment
of
a compound generator.
A compound gen-
erator always has a low resistance shunt, usually
made
of Ger-

man
silver
field
winding.
for all,
ribbon, connected across the terminals of
series
By
adjusting the resistance of this shunt once
any desired
fractional part of the current output of the
machine
may
The machine
wire in
its
be made to flow through the series

is
field
winding.
manufactured with a greater number of turns of

winding than are
its series field
strictly necessary,
and by
changing the resistance of the above-mentioned shunt, the machine
may
be adjusted
in
the factory for flat-compounding, or for any
This adjustment should
desired degree of over-compounding.
be made when the machine
is
at its
normal running temperature.
69 shows a compound generator (short-shunt) with the abovementioned shunt, S, between the terminals of the series field
Fig.
winding.
Over-compound generators
livered to
it is
are used where current
lamps or motors over a long transmission
to be de-
is
line
and where
desired to maintain an approximately constant voltage at the
terminals of the lamps or motors in spite of the increased loss of
electromotive force in the hne (line drop) with increase of current.
For example, railway generators are usually over-compounded so

volts at the generator terminals
as to give
500
output
zero, a;id
is
the current output

case
the machine
inasmuch as the
550
is
is
full
when
the current
volts at the generator terminals
at
normal
the
said to
load voltage
is
load value.
full
be 10 per
cent,
when
In this
over-compounded,
10 per cent, of the no load
voltage.
Brush
51.
lead.
with ring armature.
Fig.
71
The
fine
represents
curved
lines
magnetic flux from the north pole of the
two-pole
generator
show the trend of the

field magnet into the
armature core, and from the armature core into the south pole of
the field magnet.
The
turns of wire as they pass the points a and
have zero electromotive force induced
in
b,
Fig. 71,
them, whereas the elec-
tromotive force induced in the individual turns of wire becomes

greater and greater on either side of the points a and b up to the
pole
tips,
and approximately equal electromotive forces are
92
induced in every turn which

is
is
under the pole
faces.
Fig. ^2
a diagram, similar to Fig. i8, in which the circle represents the
endless circuit formed
by the windings on the
The arrows
show the
in
Fig. 72
ring armature.
directions of the electromotive
Fig. 71.
forces induced in the various turns of wire on the armature,
the lengths of these arrows are intended to

relative values of these
Figs.
in the
show roughly
and
the
induced electromotive forces.
71 and 72 show the state of
armature windings
is
small.
affairs
When
when
the current
the armature current
Fig. 72.
is
large, the trend of the
in Fig. 71 to that
shown
magnetic flux
in Fig. 73,
in the various turns are altered
what
is
shown
in Fig. 74.
is
altered from that
shown
and the electromotive forces
from what
is
shown
in Fig.
72 to

The
line
and 74,
Figs. 71, 72, 73
ab,
The
axis of the armature.
the axis of commutation,'^
line
is
called the neutral
connecting the brushes
When
93
is
called
the brushes of a generator are
Fig. 73.
by moving the rocker arm, the electromotive
shifted
force be-
tween the brushes, as indicated by a voltmeter, reaches a maxi-
mum
value
when the
axis of
commutation coincides with the
Fig. 74.
neutral axis.
which
is
In fact the whole of the electromotive force, E^,
induced
the brushes
in
when
each half of the armature,
is
available between
the brushes are at the points a and
b,
Figs.
72
and 74.
* The leads which connect the armature conductors
supposed to be radial,
for the
to the
sake of simplicity of statement.
these leads are nearly always curved like segments of a spiral.
commutator bars are
In commercial machines
94
When
the brushes are shifted from the neutral axis to the
points a' and b\ Fig. 72, for instance, the available electromotive
them
force between
reduced
is
in
(E^
value to
where
2e),
e is
the electromotive force induced in the portion of the armature
winding between a and
The angle between

tion
is
a' , or in the portion
between b and
of the brushes from the neutral axis
is
the shift of the brushes
is
is
The sparking
and
at the
brushes of a generator
pending upon the current output.

is
lead, the
minimum when
amount
of the motor, that
designed
dynamo
is
lead,
and
the angle
a,
when they
b'
the brushes have a slight forward lead, the
of a motor
Thus
the angle of forward lead of the brushes
are at the points a'
ward
fonvard
in the opposite direction, the
brushes are said to have a backward lead.

Fig. 72,
the shift
in the direction of rotation
of the armature, the brushes are said to have a
when
When
called the afigle of lead of the brushes.
b'
commuta-
the neutral axis and the axis of
is
The sparking
minimum when
lead de-
at the brushes
the brushes have a slight back-
of lead depending
upon the current intake
upon the motor
to say,
amount of
usu'ally requires continual
load.
poorly
adjustment of the
brushes forwards or backwards to keep them at the
minimum
sparking point with changes of load, otherwise the sparking will
be excessive.
satisfactorily
well-designed dynamo, however, will operate
from zero load to
full
load with fixed brushes.
of the dynamo, equation (21), was
derived on the assumption that the angle of lead of the brushes
was
zero.
CHAPTER
IV.
THE OPERATION OF THE DYNAMO AS A MOTOR.

52. Conditions
motor.
which determine the direction
Precisely the
of
running of a
same conditions which determine the
direc-
which a self-exciting dynamo with given connections of
tion in
field to
brushes, must be driven, in order that
it
may
build up as
a generator, determine the direction in which the machine will
run as a motor when
it is
supplied with current.
The shunt dynamo^ with given connections of

runs as a motor in the same direction in which
in
order to build up as a generator.
as follows
This
may
field to
it
brushes,
must be driven
be made evident
The heavy arrow
in Fig.
tromotive force and current
75 shows the direction of the elecin
the armature of a shunt generator,
and the dotted arrows show the direction of the currents
in field
supply main
maw
field \viading
eM
b.
winding
i^
>,
.<
Fig. 75.
and
in
main
supply main
Shunt Generator.
mains
armature
8+
Fig. 76.
the heavy arrows in Fig. y6
Shunt Motor.
show the
direction of
the current delivered to a shunt motor, and the dotted arrows
show the
direction of the currents in field and armature.

Figs.*
and
76 show at a glance that the current in the armature of a
75
shunt machine is reversed with respect to the field current, when
* There are four possible combinations of arrows
combination has the property here specified.
95
in Figs. 75
and 76, and each
96
the function of the machine
changed from generator to motor,

so that the mechanical force with which the field acts upon the
armature,
is
reversed
is
but the force action opposes the motion
of the generator, and helps the motion of the motor.

fore since the force action is reversed, the
same
Theremotion must be in the
whether the machine operates as generator or as
direction,
motor.
The
dynamo^ with given connections of field to brushes,

runs as a motor in a direction opposite to that in which the
machine must be driven to enable it to build up as a generator.
This
series
is
evident from Figs, jj and 78 which
main
field wiiulinfi
show
supply maia
Series Generator.
connections of
in
armature and
Fig. 78.
field to bru.shes,
in field is
which the
in direction
field acts
when the
generator to motor
the relative direction of current

is
oper-
Therefore the mechanical
upon the armature
function of the machine
is
is
unchanged
changed from
but the force action opposes the motion of
the generator and helps the motion of the motor.
motion must
Series Motor.
the same, whether the machine
ating as a generator or as a motor.

force with
<
armature
"'^g
<r
Fig. 77.
QAQ
that, with given
be reversed, since the force action
Direction of running of a motor.
a motor, with given connections of
The
field
is
Therefore the
unchanged.
direction of running of
winding to brushes,
is
the
same, irrespective of the direction of the current supplied to the
machine.
This
is
evident
the supply current, which
when we
is
consider that the reversal of
represented
by the heavy arrows
in
Figs. 76 and 78, reverses the current both in the armature and
in the field,
and that the reversed
field
of course exerts a force

upon the reversed armature currents
9/
the same direction as
in
the direction of rotation unchanged.
To
reverse the direction of running of a motor the connections
must
before, thus leaving
be changed so that the current through armature (or

reversed while the direction of the current in the
ture) remains
field) is
field (or
arma-
This requires the reversal of the arma-
unchanged.
ture connections, or a reversal of the field connections, but not of
both.
Fundamental equation
53.
Let
of the motor.
E^ be the
This
tromotive force applied at the terminals of a motor.
impressed electromotive force.
the
partly used to
part so used
equal to
where /
RJ^,
motive force balances
the electromotive
it is
induced
is
the current flowing
of the impressed electroforce,
E^
{=
Therefore
numerically equal thereto.
which E^
'a
motor, R^
is
(23^)
the impressed electromotive force acting
'a
the armature resistance *
is
ing through the armature,
armature from one
^Z'?i)
the rotating armature by the field flux, and
in
E^=^Z'n + RJ^
in
is
The
overcome the resistance R^ of the armature.

is
The remainder
is
called
This electromotive force
which
is
elec-
and Z'
olutions per second,
is
field pole,
is
is
on a
the current flow-
the magnetic flux entering the

the speed of the motor in rev-
is
written for the factor
pZ jp'
10^.
(See Art. 30.)
The
electromotive force,
ing armature of a motor,
is
is
and
<J>ZO/,
which
is
induced
in the rotat-
opposite in direction to the impressed

to the current,
Therefore
^Z'n
called the counter electromotive force of the motor.
In the generator the voltage
is
determined by the fundamental
equations (21) and (22), inasmuch as

these equations are fixed in value
by
all
the other quantities in
the conditions under which
* In the long-shunt compound motor the combined resistance of armature and series
field coil,
Ra,
-|-
R^,
is
to
be used
for
Ra.
It
very slightly different behavior of the short-shunt
is
hardly necessary to formulate the
compound motor.
98
the generator
is
In the case of the motor, on the other
used.
determined by these fundamental equations,
hand, the speed
is
inasmuch as
the other quantities in these equations are, as a
all
value by the conditions under which the motor
rule, fixed in
is
Therefore, the most convenient form of equation (23^) is

that which gives speed in terms of the other quantities.
Solving
used.
we have
equation (23^) for speed,
n^~^^f~^
Another
/^ in
useful
form of
this
equation
(23^)
that which expresses
is
terms of the other quantities, namely
From
this
equation
it
evident that the current /^
is
by
general equal to E^ divided

of E^
is
R^,
used to overcome resistance.
running, that
is
when n
and the value of

flow of current
connected
Torque.
= o,
then /^
is
When
the motor
To
in series with the
armature as explained
motor
is
not
R^^,
must be
in Art. 59.
Another equation of considerable importance
discussion of the
is
avoid this excessive
small, an auxiliary resistance
is
not in
equal to E^ divided by
/^ is excessively large.
when n
is
inasmuch as a small part only
the expression for torque.
in
the
The value
magnet acts upon the armature,

may be derived by considering the side push on each armature
wire, multiplying each side push by its lever arm, namely the
of the torque with which the field
radius of the armature,
and adding these
results together.
method of derivation, however, repeats many of the
This
essential con-
siderations involved in the derivation of the flmcfamental equation of the
dynamo
as given in Art. 30.
It is
simpler to derive
the expression for torque directly from the ^ndamental equation

(23) with the help of Lenz's law as follows
The
rate at
which work
is
done, in watts, in forcing the cur-
rent /j through the armature in opposition to the counter elec-
99
/ x ^Z'n\
and,
tromotive force ^Z'jt,
equal to the product
is
according to Lenz's law, this
developed by the torque
T with which the field magnet
developed by a torque of
making
11
is
2.54x453.6x980
27rx
upon
in watts
pound-inches acting upon a body
revolutions per second
acts
Now, the mechanical power
rotating armature.
the
equal to the mechanical power
is
,,j^
^^tts
or
P=o.7i;^7'watts.
Therefore by Lenz's law
(24)
we have
= o.yinT
/ X ^Z'n
whence
7^=
in
= pZjp'
which Z'
is
1.4 1 ZV^
o^,
/^
is
pound-inches
(25)
the armature current in amperes,
the magnetic flux entering the armature
magnet
pole,
is
number of magnet
the
from one
poles, /'
is
the
field
number
of paths in parallel through the armature between brushes, and

is
the total
The
number
net effective torque at the pulley of a motor
is
less
friction
torque
If the net or useful
power
will
than
by the amount of the torque required

and other so-called " stray power" losses.
in equation (25)
overcome
of conductors on the armature.
is
used
for
in
to
equation (24) the
be the power actually delivered by the motor
pulley.
54.
Siemens' law of
efficiency.
The dependence of the
ciency of a motor upon the conditions of driving
by the
loss of
power
in field excitation,
currents and hysteresis.
V.
it is
is
by
friction,
effi-
complicated
and by eddy
fully discussed in
Chapter
very simple expression for the efficiency of a motor, due
to Siemens,
sion.
This matter
is
is
especially useful for purposes of general discus-
The formula
is
only approximate, however, inasmuch as
based on the assumption that the only loss of power
in the
100
motor is that which is expended in heating the armature windings

by the armature current that is to say, field loss and friction
The total power delivered to a motor,
losses are ignored.
;
neglecting
field loss, is
voltage, and
/^
EJ^, where E^
equal to
the impressed
is
the current- flowing through the armature.
is
Part of this
power
and part
used in forcing the current through the armature
is
is
consumed
heating the armature windings,
in
opposition to the electromotive force, E^ which
is
induced
armature windings by the motion of the armature.

part
EJ^ and
equal to
is
This latter
according to Lenz's law,
it is,
in
in the
all
con-
verted into the mechanical power which turns the armature.

Therefore, ignoring the power used for field excitation, the in-
take of electrical power

losses of mechanical
friction,
by the motor
power
and magnetic
in
EJ^
is
the motor,
friction,* the
always gives an overestimate of
when a motor
is
is
known
This expression for efficiency,
EJE^.
a motor; and
the- efficiency of
be many times as great as the actual
EJE^ may
efficiency.
and constant current motor driving.
The
discussion of the electromagnetic behavior of a generator, that
the discussion of the variation of

put,
is
its
is
E-Ja "^ ^xâ ^^

as Siemens' law,
running under a small load the ratio
55. Constant voltage
friction, air
output of mechanical power
so that the approximate efficiency
EJ^y
and, ignoring the
by bearing
voltage with
its
is,
current out-
impossible unless the mechanical conditions of driving are
specified.
In
fact,
constant speed driving
is
nearly always taken
as the basis for the discussion of generator characteristics.

Similarly, the
motor, that
is,
discussion of
power output or with

trical
the mechanical
the discussion of the variation of

its
torque,
is
speed with
its
impossible unless the elec-
conditions of driving are specified.
of the mechanical characteristics of a
behavior of a
its
Usually the discussion
motor
is
based upon the
assumption, either of a constant voltage between the motor ter* The
effect
of eddy currents and hysteresis in a
dynamo armature
is
to create a
drag which opposes the motion of the armature, very much like ordinary mechanical
friction.
lOI
minals or of a constant current flow through the motor.

practice motors are always used under conditions
mate
constant voltage driving
to
In
which approxi-
constant current
driving
is
never used.
Therefore, the following discussion of the behavior
of motors
based upon the assumption of constant, or approx-
is
imately constant, voltage between the supply mains.
motor
discussion the shunt
compound motor
and the
loaded,
a motor
and
is
considered
is
In this
in detail
YdiiQdftill load of a motor
and
field
is
the
motor
last.
output of mechanical power
its
and
delivering mechanical power,
The
rise
first
treated as a modification of the shunt
motor
series
When
is
considered
is
is
it is
said to be
called
load.
its
the load for which the armature
currents are as large as permissible without excessive
any of the motor
of temperature in
parts,
or
excessive
sparking.
6Q.
The
The shunt motor.
essential connections of a
motor to constant voltage supply mains are shown
in
shunt
Fig. 79.
be particularly noted that Fig. 79 shows the connections of

the motor after it has been started .
It is to
supply mains
and brought up to speed. Special

connections are
made
at starting
as will be explained later.
The shunt
nected
are con-
field coils
supply
the
directly to
mains, usually without including

a
field
current
rheostat,
is
armature
and the
therefore
flux,
<l>,
is
armature
0000000
$btwt &eid winding

^'^' ^9-
field
constant, so that the only variation of the
the slight variation due to the demagnetizing
action of the armature current.
Shunt motor unloaded.

necessary to drive
is
it is
When a motor
small,
small, according to equation (25).
^Ja^ ^^ the impressed voltage which

resistance of the armature,
is
is
unloaded the torque
and therefore the armature current

Consequently the
is
part,
used to overcome the
negligibly small, since both
/ and
I02
Therefore, neglecting
are small.
equation (23^)
Raâ^
may
be
written
E
= ^y,
Inasmuch as
we
motor,
^Z'n
is
at zero load
(26)
the counter electromotive force of the
motor
see from equation (26) that a shunt
runs at a speed such as to
make
its
at zero load
counter electromotive force, E^,
sensibly equal to the impressed electromotive force, E^,
When
Shunt motor loaded.
a load
ency
is
tive
at zero load, its tend-
and thereby to decrease the
to lower the speed slightly
counter electromotive force,
thrown on a shunt
is
motor which has been previously running
As
^Z'n,
the counter electromo-
force decreases, the armature current increases according
to equation (23^),
(25),
and the torque increases according
thus enabling the motor to carry
load.
its
speed of a shunt motor, from zero load to
to equation
The drop
full load,
in
ranges from
2 per cent, of zero load speed for large-sized motors, to 10 per

cent, or
more
for small motors.
Tendency in a shunt motor for the demagnetizing action of the

y
armature current
to
counteract the tendency of the speed to decrease
with increase of load.
When
a shunt motor
is
loaded
it is
neces-
sary for the counter electromotive force to decrease sufficiently

to permit
enough current
to flow
through the armature
Now,
velop the torque required to carry the load.
if
4>
to de-
were
invariable, the necessary decrease of counter electromotive force
could be produced only by a drop

fact the flux

is
in
speed, but as a matter of
decreased slightly by the demagnetizing ac-
tion of the current in the armature,
and consequently the neces-
sary decrease of counter electromotive force
about
in part
by
this decrease of
<l>,
and
speed, so that the actual decrease in speed
be
if
4>
(^Z'li)
is
brought
by a decrease in
less than it would
in part
is
were invariable.
The dependence
of the speed of a shunt motor
of the armature flux,
,
is
strikingly
upon the value
shown by the following ex-
periment.
shunt motor
is
103
supplied with current from constant
voltage supply mains and runs at a certain speed, as indicated
a tachometer.
slab of iron
now
is
so that a considerable portion of the flux

slab,
and the armature flux
is
passes through the
<l>
speed
rise in
is
due
by the tachometer.
to the fact that the reduction of
torque than
<J>
re-
^Z'n, of the motor.
duces the counter electromotive force,
sudden increase of current through the armature

ing to equation (23^).
The speed
consequently reduced.
of the motor immediately increases as indicated
This
by
laid across the pole pieces
accord-
results,
This increased current produces more
required to carry the load on the motor, so that
is
the motor speeds up until the increase of
counter electromotive
its
force reduces the current to the value corresponding to the re-
quired torque.
An
motor
interesting
is
and important
connection with a shunt
that such a motor runs at a lower speed
than after
it
has been running for some time.
fact that the rise of
resistance,
rise
fact in
temperature of
when
This
much
due
to the
coils increases their
its field
decreases the field current, and decreases
of speed often amounts to as
started
first
is
<l>.
as 5 per cent, in
This
com-
mercial machines.
Dependence of speed upon brush

Art.
lead.
It
was pointed out
generator running at a given speed with given
reduced
in
is
field excitation, is
value by shifting the brushes from the neutral axis,
and that the electromotive force

lead
in
that the electromotive force between the brushes of a
zero.
is
maximum when
the brush
In the case of a shunt motor supplied from con-
stant voltage mains, the speed
is
minimum when
the brushes
are in the neutral axis, and the effect of shifting the brushes either
forwards or backwards,
is
to increase the speed.
particularly noticeable at zero load.
loaded the matter
is
When
greatly complicated
This
the motor
is
effect is
heavily
by the magnetizing or
demagnetizing action of the armature current.
The
explanation of this variation of speed of a shunt motor
with brush lead
is
as follows
When
the brushes are shifted from
104
the neutral axis, the net counter-electromotive force between the
brushes
is
As
decreased, speed remaining unchanged.
a result,
the impressed voltage, E^, forces an increased current through

the armature, thus producing an increased torque which causes
the motor speed to increase until the counter-electromotive force

reaches a value sufficiently large to reduce the current to the
value required to supply the necessary driving torque.
A motor which
is
designed for supplying mechanical power at constant speed
is
Speed regulation of the shunt motor.
57.
called a " constant speed " motor.
'*
a shunt motor
is
called
constant speed " motor, although the maintenance of a strictly
constant speed
by such a motor can be accomplished only by the
The range
manipulation of a rheostat.
*'
Thus
constant speed
"
motor with change of load, when the rheostat
wholly unchanged,
is left
is
an important practical matter.
change of speed from full load

of full load speed,
of variation of speed of a
is
to
^^
called the
TJie
no load expressed as a percentage

speed regulation ''of the motor,
voltage of supply and resistance of armature circuit and of field

circuit
Thus,
being kept constant.
from i,ooo revolutions per minute at

per minute at no load,
its
if
the speed of a motor rises
full
load to 1,050 revolutions
speed regulation
It
is
regulation
Resistance
o
O
^
o;
.^
*
per cent.
to be noted that the
suppymam
is
is
applied to changes of
speed inherent in the machine

while the
word
word
control
is
itself,
applied to
changes of speed due to deliberate

adjustments by an attendant.
Armature
hifluence
of armature
resistance
upon the speed regtdation of a shunt
supply main
motor.
Fig. 80.
the
When
the
r
resistance
of
armature of a shunt motor
is
when a considerable resistance is connected in series

the
armature
as shown in Fig. 80, then the speed of the
with
The cause of
motor falls off greatly with increase of load.
large, or
this great
drop
in
speed under load
is
evident from equations

The very
(23^) and (25).
considerable current which
is
motor
sary to develop torque sufficient to enable the
105
neces-
to carry a
load, demands a large value in the numerator of equation (23^)

when R^ is large, and this large value of {E^ ^Z'n) necessitates a great
drop
in
speed
siderably less than E^.
in
It is to
^Z'n may
order that
be especially noted, however, that
the zero load speed of a shunt motor
is
not perceptibly affected
by a moderately large value of R^, inasmuch as

at zero
load.
It
motor cannot be
in series
is
cut
down
The
way while
when more or
in this
difficulty
the motor
Speed control of the shunt motor.
is
The
runs at a definite speed at zero load, that
little
when
the speed
loaded, the speed
thrown off
and valu-
peculiar
compound) motor are
tendency to race when the load

speed drops but
very small
is
inserting resistance
that,
is
less of the load is
able properties of the shunt (and

it
by
satisfactorily controlled
/^
speed of a shunt
for this reason that the
with the armature.
increases greatly
58.
is
be con-
is
thrown
is
to say,
and
off;
(a) that
it
(J?)
has no
that
its
below zero load speed even when the motor
For many purposes, for example, in the driving

by motors, it is desirable to run the motor fast or slow
at will.
This speed control is accompHshed in the case of the
shunt motor by five different methods, as follows
(i) Annature rheostat method.
When the load on a motor is
is
fully loaded.
of lathes
constant,
its
speed
may be
series with its armature, as
controlled
by
inserting resistance in
explained in the
(2) Field rheostat method.
last article.
From equation
(26)
it
evident that the zero load speed (and consequently the
speed to nearly the same extent)
of the
shunt
<l>.
load
by decreasing
<l>,
field circuit
4>
may
be raised or lowered, thus decreasing or
increasing the field current,
ing
raised
once
by increasing ^. These changes of

may be accomby means of a rheostat in circuit with the field winding
motor.
By means of this rheostat the resistance of the
or lowered
plished
may be
at
full
is
and thereby decreasing or increas-
I06
This method of speed control

not feasible to increase
count of what
through which
is

called the
this flux
<l>
Hmited as follows
is
much beyond
{a) It is
a certain value on ac-
magnetic saturation of the iron
To
passes.
increase

to this satu-
ration value requires an excessive value of field current
involve excessive heating of the

is
field
magnet
coils,
(b)
may
and
When
<l>
decreased more and more, the operation of the motor becomes
unsatisfactory
the torque that can be developed
[see equation (25)] becomes very small when
by the machine
is
small,
and
the magnetizing action of the current in the armature begins to
preponderate over the weakened magnetizing action of the

windings, and serious sparking at the brushes results.
field
Experience
shows that the maximum practicable range of speed control of

the shunt
dred per
field
its
motor by means of the

cent., that
magnet
will operate
is,
of course
(3)
more or
about one hun-
when
a shunt motor which runs at speed n
less satisfactorily
down to
a value of
equal
and the corresponding speed
2n.
Method by
altering the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
If the reluctance of the
creased, the flux

stant.
is
near saturation (largest feasible value of ^)
is
to about half the saturation value,

is
rheostat
field
<l>
The speed
explained above.
widening the gap
is
magnetic
circuit of
a shunt motor
is in-
decreased, the field excitation being con-
of the motor will, therefore, be increased as
produced by
If the increase of reluctance is
the sparking
space, then
difficulties
which
accompany a decrease of ^ are largely obviated by the

increased width of the gap space as explained in Arts. JJ and 78.
This method of speed control is exemplified by the '' multiThe
speed " motors of the Stow Manufacturing Company.
usually
details of
eral
one of these motors are shown
view of the same motor
four field
magnet cores
is
in Fig. 8
cylindrical plunger of iron A,
shown
1
rt:
is
in Fig. 8
in Fig. 81^.
a and a gen-
Each of the
hollow and contain^ a solid
In motors of large size the ends
of these plungers are the central parts of the pole faces, whereas
in the smaller
motors of the Stow Company a thin
shell of iron
Fig. 8
a.
covers the end of each plunger as

cases,
lO/
shown
in Fig.
8i^.
In both
however, the increase of reluctance produced by the with-
drawal of the plungers takes place chiefly
Fig. 813.
in the
gap spaces.
I08
The withdrawing
of the plungers diverts the larger part of the
reduced flux into the pole
tips
where
it
most
is
effective in the
prevention of sparking, and at the same time interposes a greatly

increased reluctance in the path of the cross-flux,
(4) Midtivoltage
speed
CC, Fig. io8.
From equation
control.
dent that the zero load speed (and consequently the

to nearly the
(26)
full
it
is
evi-
load speed
same extent) may be made high or low by supplying
current to the armature at high or low voltage E^, the field flux
<&
The range
being kept constant.
motor by
can
this
method
is
mechanically, and
stand
by the
by
the speed the motor

limit of
safe
impressed
sapply main
supply main
of speed control of a shunt
limited only
S
A
240:
'
supply maiv
r.
supply main Jj
.
voUa
volts
6o^>
volts
Fig. 82.
voltage
rent
In carrying out this
supplied over a
is
and D,
Fig. 82,
method of speed
number of mains,
for
control, cur-
example, A, B,
between which constant electromotive forces of
any chosen values are maintained by a set of generators. The

field winding of the shunt motor is permanently connected to
one pair of these supply mains, and arrangements are made, by
means of a
suitable " controller," for easily
and quickly connect-
ing the motor armature to any pair of mains at
will.
This multivoltage method of speed control gives a series of

distinct
tages indicated in
and \n,
The
where
;/
method is usually combined with the field

method, so that by the latter method the intermediate
multivoltage
rheostat
speeds
(5)
For example, with the volFig. 82 the available speeds would be n, 2n

E^ = 60 volts.
is the speed corresponding to
and widely separate speeds.
may be obtained.
The Ward Leonard method
of speed control of a shunt motor
of speed control.
A wide range
by means of a field
rheostat can-
THE OPERATIOxN OF THE DYNAMO AS A MOTOR.
IO9
not be realized, inasmuch as very low speeds cannot be reached
because of the saturation of the iron parts of the motor as explained above, and inasmuch as very high speeds are not practicable
because of the trouble from sparking when the
motor
tation of the
is
very small
ing constant in value.
not tend to spark badly
when
the
segments
is
from
zero,
when
its
low
when
its field
field
magnets are saturated.
erator as follows
excitation
control
An
The
stant speed.
maximum value,
The Ward Leonard
this
property of a gen-
field
motor takes cur-
and drives a generator, G,
winding of
this generator, Gy is
ble speed, has
of the generator from
The main motor, which

its field
field excitation is
is
to
its full
it
is
its
its
arma-
With
this
practicable to supply the main variable speed

at
any desired voltage from zero up
greatest voltage obtainable from the generator

is
value
connected to the supply mains so that
maintained at a constant value, while
motor with current

of the latter
at con-
provided
be driven at varia-
supplied with current from the generator G.
arrangement
G when
to the
the field
fully excited.
Cojupai'ison of methods of speed control.

stat
sat-
zero, to a
auxiliary constant speed
field excitation
to nearly zero.
is
be
rheostat which has a sufficient range of resistance
field
change the
ture
is
makes use of
rent from the supply mains
with a
may
used to give a range of values of electromotive force
method of speed
to
commutator
the voltage between
Therefore a given generator
also.
field exci-
the impressed voltage E^ be-
Now, on the other hand, a generator does

when run at low field excitation, because
field excitation is low,
isfactorily
method of speed control
load does not vary rapidly.
is fairly
The armature rheo-
satisfactory
The disadvantage
when the motor

of this method,
aside from the great fluctuation of speed with load,
is
that the use
of a rheostat in series with the armature involves a very considerable waste of
power due
to the
advantages of this method are

it
PR
that
loss in the rheostat.

it is
The
simple and cheap, that
can be arranged to give fine gradations of speed control by
having
many
resistance steps in the rheostat,
and that
it
permits
no
of a speed control ranging from
vided the motor load
speed to zero speed, pro-
full
constant.
is fairly
The control of speed by a field rheostat does not

much waste of power, inasmuch as the field current
involve
is
very
small in comparison with the armature current of a shunt motor.
Additional advantages of this method are
simplicity
and cheap-
ness, the absence of great fluctuations of speed with load,
the possibility of fine gradations of speed control
subdivided rheostat
that
is
used.
The
disadvantage of
and
when a finely
this method is
has a limited range, as already explained.
it
The
by the change of reluctance method posmethod using a

it
saves
subdivided rheostat, and
the cost of such a
control of speed
sesses all of the advantages of the field rheostat
very finely
rheostat and gives a wider range of speed control because of the
On
partial elimination of sparking as before explained.
the other
hand the change of reluctance method requires a motor of a

special and rather expensive design.
The
multivoltage method of speed control has the great disad-
vantage that
tors,*
it is
expensive, requiring as
it
does, several genera-
an elaborate system of wiring, and a complex controller for
each motor.
The disadvantage that it does
graded speed control

the field rheostat
ready explained.
is
it
method for giving intermediate speeds, as alThe combined multivoltage and field rheostat
system of speed control

for driving
not provide for a finely
overcome by combining with
entirely
is
extensively used in machine shops
machine tools where
it
is
desired to
make
ments quickly to drive the tool at that speed which

plish a particular kind of
work
arrange-
will
accom-
in the shortest time.
The advantage of the multivoltage method over the armature

method of speed control in securing a greater constancy
rheostat
of speed under variations of load,
is
well illustrated
perimental data in the following table.

* In practice a single main generator
or
more motor-generator
sets,
is
by the ex-
These observations were
used, and this main generator operates one
technically called balancers, for subdividing the voltage
of the main generator, as explained in the chapter on electrical distribution.

made upon
a motor-driven lathe turning a piece of steel 3| inches
The
in diameter.
by an armature
when
when
Ill
speed, which has been reduced to a low value
rheostat, rises
the depth of cut
is
from 60.8 to 210
reduced from
per minute
feet
inch to zero
whereas,
the speed has been reduced to the desired low value
using E^
= 60 volts
instead of
-"^
236
when
only from 60 to 71 feet per minute
speed
volts, the
by
rises
the depth of cut
is
reduced to zero.
ARMATURE RHEOSTAT CONTROL.
MULTIVOLTAGE CONTROL.
3 "
(Speed Reduced to Desired Value with the

Full Cut by Using a 6o-Volt Supply
Instead of a 236-Volt Supply.
(Rheostat Adjusted to Give a Desired

Speed with the Full Depth of Cut )
Amperes.
Armature.
n-l
Volts.
Armature.! Line.
53
105
143.2
146.6
179
53.S
38.5
27.3
25.7
16.2
zJro.
Cutting Speed Amperes.

Volts.
Cutting Speed
in Feet per
in Feet per
Armature.
Minute.
Armature. Line.
Minute.
60.8
I2I.5
236
236
236
236
236
48
165.5
172.5
25
17
210
Field current 0.82 amp.
The Ward Leonard system
57
method of
speed from
full
all,
giving as
of speed control
it
is
perhaps more
the most
it is
This system
guns and
disadvantage which
trol of
is
common
to all
an electric motor, where the motor
mately the same amount of power at
all
is
is
the motor
much
is
it
is
used
of prime
secondary.
methods of speed conis
to supply approxi-
speeds,
is
motor
amount of
that the
mu.st be very large to be able to deliver the requisite
power when
com-
on war-
turrets
where completeness and fineness of control
importance, and where the question of cost
71
does a finely graded control of
speed down to zero speed.
to a considerable extent for operating
ships
66.2
66.5
66.8
Field current 0.82 amp.
expensive than the multivoltage system, but

plete
60
60
60
60
60
60
52
54
runs at the lowest speed, and that the capacity of
not fully utilized
when
it
runs at higher speeds.
smaller and cheaper motor could take the place of the
large variable speed motor,
constant
full
speed, and
if
if
the small motor were driven at
the variations of speed of the driven
machine were accomplished by mechanical means
and the
112
The
smaller motor would run at a higher efficiency.

variable speed motors
is justified,
however,
in
many
use of
cases because
of the great ease and quickness with which speed changes can be
accomplished.
59.
is
The shunt motor
starting rheostat.
From equation
evident that an excessively large current,
will flow
through the motor armature
(23^)
it
/,[= (^^ ^Z'n)IR^
at starting
if
the armature
terminals are connected directly to the supply mains, inasmuch as
^Z'n
is
zero at starting, since n
of the armature
R^^
is
small.
It is
is
then zero, and the resistance
necessary to prevent this excessive flow of current at starting
by
an
connecting
resistance
in
motor armature (not

with
the
motor
is
is
in
series
While the
increases,
tending to
current
it
field).
the
speeding up, the value
^Z'n
of
auxiliary
series with
and the
decrease,
permissible to gradually
cut out the auxiliary resistance.
When
the motor has reached
nearly
full
speed, the auxiliary
Fig. 83.
resistance
is
wholly cut
out.
This auxiliary resistance, when conveniently arranged for being

put
in
series with the
speeds up,
Fig. 83
is
armature and slowly cut out as the motor
called a starting rheostat.
shows the simplest arrangement of a shunt motor with
a starting rheostat, the motor being connected to the supply mains
through a double-pole single-throw switch.
The
closing of this
switch connects the field circuit of the motor to the mains, the
first
movement
of the rheostat
arm a connects the armature
to the
supply mains through the whole of the starting resistance R, and

the continued
movement
the starting resistance.
of the rheostat
arm slowly
cuts out

Starting rheostat with automatic overload release
release.
The most frequent causes of
are as follows
When
becoming ''dead."
fails,
the Hne wires
happens the motor of course
this
stops, but the connections to the

all
supply mains remain
of the resistance cut out of the starting rheostat.
supply of current
trouble with a shunt motor
other, the supply of current
some reason or
for
and dead line
The motor may be running normally when,
(a)
II3
intact,
with
When
the
again established under these conditions, an
is
amount of current flows through the motor armature and

In service, a motor should be prolikely to be burned out
excessive
it is
way by a dead line release which autoarm

of the starting rheostat back to the
matically throws the
starting position when the supply of current fails.
tected from
damage
in this
The motor may be
{b)
When this
greatly overloaded.
happens
the motor takes excessive current from the supply mains, and the
motor may be overheated or even burned

should be protected from damage
release
in
In service, a motor
out.
this
way by an
overload
which automatically throws the arm of the starting rheostat
to the starting position
when an
excessive current flows through
the motor armature.
The
electrical connections of a
shunt motor starting box with
automatic dead line release and overload release, are shown in
The motor armature is represented by A, and the shunt

To start the motor, the switch is closed,
and the rheostat arm C is slowly moved in the direction of the
dotted arrow until it reaches B.
The first move of the arm C
Fig. 84.
field
winding by F.
connects the shunt
same time
it
resistances
RR.
field
winding directly to the mains, and at the
connects the armature to the mains through the
The continued movement
of the
arm
cuts the
resistance out of the armature circuit.
In the particular arrange-
ment shown
RR
in Fig. 84, the resistances
* The name applied
to this device
with overload and no-load release."
what
is
called the
does not operate
**
by the manufacturers
This name
is,
no-load release " operates only
when
are
the load on the motor
is
is
left in series
with
the "starting rheostat
howêver, misleading, inasmuch as
when
the line becomes dead, but
reduced to zero.
114
the field winding as they are cut out of the armature circuit, but
this
has but
resistances
upon the
little effect
RR
field excitation,
inasmuch as the
are very small in comparison with the resistance
supply maias
Qom(rwooum5
Fig. 84.
of the shunt field winding, and the resistances
RR
are cut out
when the arm C touches the contact point B,

When the rheostat arm C is pushed to the right in starting the
motor, it stretches a spring and the rheostat arm is held in the
running position by an electromagnet, of which the winding D is
of the
field circuit
with the
in series
field
winding
become dead, current ceases
F of the
to flow
motor.
When
the lines
through ) and F, the
elec-
tromagnet releases the rheostat arm, and the stretched spring

pulls the
arm back
The overload
to the starting position.
release
which the winding
is
is
by the electromagnet
0, of
with the motor armature.
The
actuated
in series
armature of this electromagnet

tension of which
is
is
held back by a spring, the
so adjusted that the lever
a prescribed value of current through 0.

current
is
reached, the
movement
may be moved by
When
a small switch s which short-circuits the winding D.

the electromagnet > to lose
as before.
its
this
of the armature of
value of
actuates
This causes
magnetism, and release the arm

85^
Fig.
is
a general view of one of
the General Electric
motor
II5
Company's shunt
starting rheostats with an auto-
matic dead line release, and Fig. 85^
is
a complete diagram of the connections
of this starter to a motor, and, through
a double pole switch and two fuses, to

the supply mains.
rheostat
Fig.
arm
Fig.
85^ shows the arm
position.
switch,
To
and
Sâ shows the
in the starting position,
start the
move
in the
and
running
motor, close the
the
rheostat
arm
slowly to the right until the block of

Fig. 85^.
iron on the rheostat
comes against the

ing
arm
retain-
electromagnet,
which the winding
is
of
in
series with the field
wind-
ing of the motor, as
shown
in Fig. 85^.
Fig. 86is a view of one of
Com-
pany's automatic double

release (dead line and over-
load) starting rheostats for
The figure
a shunt motor.
shows the rheostat arm

in
the
This
starting
starter
connected
is
position.
usually
to the supply
mains through a doublepole switch and two fuses.
To
start
switch
Fig.
85
is
rheostat
i.
the
motor the
and the
closed,
arm
is
moved
Il6
slowly to the running position where

electromagnet.
The
held by the retaining
it is
connections of this starting box are shown

in
Fig. 84,
and the discussion of
figure gives the details of
its
that
action.
Precautions to be observed in the op-
a shunt motor.
eration of
start cautiously.
If
Always
the motor does
not start promptly with the

of the arm,
circuit is
first
move
likely that the field
is
it
broken, or that the load on
the motor
is
Do
excessive.
not allow
the motor to run long with the rheostat
arm not
in
the running position,
as the resistance in a starting rheostat overheats
manently
in circuit with the
the switch and leave the starter

the starting position.
To
armature.
arm
if it is left
per-
stop the motor, open
to set itself automatically at
Further instructions for the operation of
generators and motors are given in Chapter VII.

60.
the
The compound motor.
There
compound motor, according
series
to
are
two arrangements of
whether the current
in the
winding opposes the magnetizing action of the shunt wind-
ing, or helps
The
it.
first
arrangement
is
called the differential
compound winding, and the second arrangement

cumulative compound winding.
The
differential
pound motor
series field
is
compound motor.
When
is
called the
a differential com-
loaded, the current through the armature and the
winding increases, and, by opposing the magnetizing
action of the current in the shunt field winding, reduces the arma-
ture flux
^Z'n,
is
^, and thus decreases the counter electromotive force
if
the speed n remains constant.
If this decrease of
just sufficient to give the requisite decrease of counter electro-
motive force to permit enough current to flow through the armature to enable the
motor
to carry
its
load, then the
will not fall off with increase of load, at least
motor speed
not until the load
THE OPERATION OF THE DYNAMO AS A MOTOR

The
becomes excessive.
of a motor
compounding
object of the differential
to prevent the decrease of speed with increase of
is
an actual increase of speed with increase
load, or even to cause
of load up to
speed which
full
The shunt motor, however, runs
load.
compound motor is seldom used.

The speed of this
The cumulative compound motor.
has, however, the great
advantage that at
and
rent through the armature
compound motor has
to say, the cumulative
torque like the series motor, as explained

starting,
when
winding of
at starting
is
twofold
motor
is
The
larger than
is
result
is
{a) that
it
greater than
it
That
large.
a large starting
later.
large field excitation (large
{B)
is
large
(= laî^Z' I^
the counter electromotive force,
the motor accelerates more rapidly, and
would be
motor
if its
^)
ac-
would be with a smaller value of
that during the time that the

is
the cur-
large, the
large, the total field excitation is
{a) the torque
cording to equation 25), and
^Z'n^
is
is
the current through the armature and series
this
The advantage of this
very large.
when
winding
and hence the torque
total field excitation is large
At
starting,
series field
iotor
Such a motor
decreases very considerably with increase of load.
field
at a
nearly enough constant for most purposes, and
is
therefore the differential
is
I17
is
speeding up
its
<l>.
(U)
efficiency
counter electromotive force were
smaller in value.
The cumulative compound motor has
the disadvantage that
its
running speed decreases very considerably with increase of load,
on account of the increase of

viding
produced by the
<l>
series field
This disadvantage may, however, be obviated by pro-
winding.
a device for automatically cutting out the series
winding by short-circuiting
it
after the
motor
is
The machine then runs as a simple shunt motor.

Cumulative compound motors are frequently used
elevators
and
hoists,
large starting torque
rolling mills,
is
under variations of load

cumulative
required,
is
for operating
and other machinery where
and where constancy of speed
not necessary.
compound motor over
field
fairly started.
The advantage
of the
the series motor for service of
Il8
the kind above specified (where the load
may
inseparably connected to the motor)
that the former
is,
not be always and
motor
speed up indefinitely (race) when its load is thrown off.

The simple shunt motor may be made to operate more or less
like a differential compound motor by giving the brushes a backward lead (see Art. 5 1), or Hke a cumulative compound motor by
will not
giving the brushes a forward lead.
This
is
due to the
fact that
with a backward lead of the brushes of a motor, the armature current opposes the magnetizing action of the shunt field winding,
and that with a forward lead of the brushes, the armature current
helps the magnetizing action of the shunt field winding.
61.
The
series motor.
Series motors are used (with constant
or approxirnately constant voltage supply mains) only where the
motor load is always and inseparably connected to the motor,

and where constancy of speed with variations of load is not
especially desired.
Slippy
mam
^'
series
motors
^^^ Hiuch uscd for driving fans, where
the fan
.
. ,
. .
starling
rheostat
Thus
inseparably attached to the
is
motor, and for driving

automobiles and
=>
^-4-^
^ "*^^ ^
'
The
street cars.
necessity of having
the load of a series motor attached to
inseparably
armature
have
its
eld iviading
its
all
""
At
if
supply mains, were to
rise indefinitely,
centrifugal forces
and the
would
in
probability wreck the armature.

Fig.
87 shows the connections of a
series fan
stat.
fact that
load reduced more and more,
speed would
enormous
supply main
due to the
voltage
stant
series
is
motor, connected between con-
series
it
motor with
starting considerable resistance
is
its
starting rheo-
connected
in
series
with the motor, and as the motor speeds up this resistance
is
slowly cut out.
When
a street car
is
operated by a single series motor, the

connections of the motor to trolley wire and
the same as the connections
vision
made
is
shown
rail
in Fig. 87,
for quickly reversing the
II9
are essentially
except that pro-
armature connections (or
the field connections) in order to reverse the direction of running
of the motor.
In street car service, where stopping and starting
is
frequent,
the motor runs for a great portion of the time at low speed with
a considerable resistance in series with

ditions
most of the energy supplied
Under these conmotor circuit is lost as
it.
to the
heat in the rheostat, and the efficiency of the motor
is
very low.
trolley wire
starting rheostat
trolley wire
starting rheostat
motor No. x
-<
-motor No. t
motor No. 2
motor No. z
-<
L.
rail
Fig. 89.
Fig, 88,
Some
idea of the efficiency
Siemens'
EJE^
is
law.
Art.
54.)
be obtained with the help of
The approximate
efficiency
small at starting, inasmuch as the counter electro-
^Z'n), is small when the speed is small.

EJ^
using two motors on a car, and arranging to have them con-
motive force,
By
(See
may
nected in series at starting, the counter electromotive force

doubled, and the efficiency
is
nearly doubled.
is
I20
The two motors

out
in series are of
shown
in circuit as
in steps as the
course started with resistance
and
in Fig. 88,
this resistance is
When
speed increases.
hour and the resistance
say, lo miles per
nections are quickly changed * to those

is,
slowly cut
the speed has reached,
is all
shown
cut out, the conin Fig. 89.
That
the motors are quickly connected in parallel and the starting
resistance
connected
is
continues to
rise,
The speed then
with them.
in series
and as
rises the starting resistance is again
it
slowly cut out.
The use of two

parallel
motors
series f
system of control."
described above are
made
in this
way
is
called the " series-
All of the successive connections
in the
proper order by turning a crank
which actuates a spindle upon which metal sectors are mounted

as
shown
This figure shows a controller spindle
Fig. 90.
in
with eleven sectors (some of which are hidden behind the spin-
and eleven contact-fingers which touch the sectors when
dle)
the spindle
hand
is
The
turned.
small cylinder at the upper right
arranged to make the necessary changes of
in the figure is
connections of the armature terminals for reversing the direction of driving of the motors,
The
top.
of which
dle,
larê oval structure
is
by turning the small

is
spread out in the region behind the controller spin-
and the other pole piece
tromagnet, no that
it
is
hinged to the core of the elec-
may be swung
*This change of connections
Some
two motors,
2, Fig. 88, is
[d]
One
motor, No.
cuit con-'titutes a connection

is
During operation
rpnni'ng in the
{d) motor
wrong
resistance
from motor No.
then disconnected.
to the rheostat terminal of
shown
back, as
{(/)
motor No.
is
it is
to the rail,
that
is,
are in parallel.
The
giving the connection
rail
is
terminal of
then connected
shown
in Fig. 89.
it is
direction.
customary to connect the motors as two

in parallel.
two single motors, and operated by the

;
[c)
No. 2 cannot build up as a generator, inasmuch as
two motors permanently connected

above
in
then short-circuited, and this short-cir-
This terminal of motor No. 2

I,
made
reconnected in series with the
With such a four-motor
f Sometimes four series motors are used on one car.
equipment
in the figure,
actually carried out in four distinct steps
is
rapid succe<'sion as follows: (a)
motor No. 2
lever at the
an electromagnet, one pole piece
at starting the
two
units,
These two
each unit consisting of
units are then treated as
series-parallel controllers exactly as explained
units are in series
and
at full
speed the two units

to give access to the controller spindle
and contact
121
This
fingers.
swinging pole piece carries twelve plates of a compressed asbestos
insulating
compound which
serve
between the various pairs of sectors and

the electromagnet
is
to "
the sectors and fingers
blow out
" the arcs
when connections
li..
as
fire-proof partitions
fingers.
The
object of
which form between
are broken
by turning
vo
the spindle, and the asbestos plates serve to prevent the arcs
from flashing from sector to sector or from finger to

apparatus as a whole
90 shows a
is
finger.
called a series parallel controller.
series-parallel
controller of the General
The
Fig.
Electric
Company.
shows a
commutator and all,
Fig. 91
typical
is
street railway motor.
enclosed
in
The motor,
a steel case to protect
it
from
122
The
dust and moisture.

ject inwardly
The
yoke.
from
field poles,
usually four in number, pro-
which serves as a
field magnet
shows the lower half of the motor case
this steel case
figure
dropped, thus exposing the armature and commutator to view.
The motor
case
is
supported at one side by the car axle, the two
shown in Fig. 91, and on the opposite side

supported by a spring which rests on the truck frame.
axle bearings being

the case
is
This gives the heavy motor structure that freedom of motion
Fig. 9
which
is
necessary
when
the car
is
running over a rough track at
high speed, but at the same time the car axle and the armature shaft
are at a fixed distance apart, so as to
accommodate the spur gears
which transmit power from the armature to the

gear shown in Fig. 91
armature
shaft.
series field
The
is
axle.
The spur
attached to the projecting end of the
wire-leads from the brushes and from the
windings are brought out of the
steel
case through
rubber bushings and connect through flexible insulated cables to
POWER LOSSES
GENERATORS AND MOTORS.
IN
The brushes
the rheostats and controlling devices.
23
are not sup-
ported in a rocker arm but in rigid holders attached to the inside

of the case, and
when
to be replaced, they
is
covered by a metal
62.
be reached through a hand hole which
one end of which shows
lid
in Fig. 91.
The behavior
Characteristic curves of motors.
under given
worn and need
the brushes are badly
may
electrical conditions of driving
is
most
of a motor
clearly repre-
sented by a curve showing the relationship between any two of

the following variable quantities
When
power output.
speed, torque, and mechanical
the current
is
supplied from constant vol-
1000
800
600
ioo
200
Power output
25
in
30
of full rated load

125
75
Fig. 92.
tage mains,
it is
often convenient to
ship between the current

factors
speed, torque, and
quantities
ing
its
it is
power output.
first,
Such a curve
curve of the motor.
customary to designate
which are represented by
ordinates
the relation-
and any one of the three mechanical
in general, a characteristic
characteristic curve
show by a curve
and
its
its
called,
it
in
terms of the
coordinates, always
abscissas second.
a speed-torque characteristic would
is
In speaking of a
nam-
For example,
be a curve of which the
ordinates represent speeds, and the abscissas represent torques.

(a)
Shunt and compound motor
A^ Fig. 92,
is
characteristics.
The
curve
a speed-power characteristic of a simple shunt
24
motor, curve
is
a.
speed-power characteristic of a
compound motor, and curve Cis

a cumulative compound motor.
The
(d)
series
acteristic of a
rise in
motor.
series
a.
Fig. 93
motor.
differential
speed-power characteristic of
shows a speed-torque char-
This curve shows the enormous
speed at light loads (very small torques).
400
/6OO
800
25
50
75
Torgae xa
100
iZ5
of full rated torqta
Fig. 93.
The
characteristics of street railway motors, as usually plotted,
are as follows
(a)
The
speed-current curve in which the ordi-
nates represent the speed of the car in miles per hour, instead of
the speed of the motor armature in revolutions per minute

(^)
and
the tractive-effort-current curve in which the ordinates repre-
sent the net tractive effort in
pounds weight exerted, instead of
the torque in pound-inches developed
Such
by the motor armature.
characteristic curves involve the gear ratio of the motor,
and the diameter of the drive wheels on the
The curve marked
car.
" miles per hour " in Fig.
94
is
a speed-
current curve of a 2 5 -horse power Westinghouse railway motor,

and the curve marked " tractive-effort 3 3 -inch wheel " is the trac-
same motor under the following

conditions
The electromotive force between trolley wire and
rail is 500 volts, and the motor is connected between the trolley
tive-effort-current curve of the

:

wire and the
if
without "any rheostat
rail
two of these motors are used
12$
Of course
in its circuit.
without any resistance
in parallel
connected in series with them, the total tractive effort
will
be
twice as great at a given speed as that shown in Fig. 94.

1
p^
1
w
?c3^
WESTINGHOUSE
NO. 68 RAILWAY MOTOR

500 VOLTS.
GEAR RATIO, 14 TO 68.
WHEELS,
^
QA
-70-
Ef'plClENnv
S.
W/-
'-
^'^PR ox /MATE
-----iiL
EFF
vcy=
y
/
S55_
i^,_
^"25^
,^ ^/y
s
c
\A
>JJ
-60-
33"
CONTINUOUS CAPACITY, 35 AMPERES AT 300 VOLTS,

OR 33 AMPERES AT 400 VOLTS.
.2
-ISO-
j/
// /
/
ISO-
\\
<
/A-
.f^
4/
05
nrt-
>^/. 'i/
rn
\H
14^
^f4
/ \/
<
l-n
QA_
CA
is
^H
lOOO
V^
^
/ // \\
-10-
20/-
^^^>-iÊ_2!l. 75 C.
1
e10
tlAm] eres
1 30
.1
^0
Fig. 94.
The
general trend of the speed-torque curve of the series
motor supplied from constant voltage mains, as shown
in Fig. 93,
126
can be explained as follows
When the
motor speed
is
small, the
counter-electromotive force developed in the armature
is
small,
so that a large current flows through the series field winding and
the flux
As
(25).
large,
is
field excitation
falls off
large,
on account of
due to increase of counter-electromotive
due to the decrease
If the torque required to turn the armature
when
it is
is
large according to equation
and on account of the decrease of
of current.
as
is
the speed increases, the torque
decrease of current
force,
Therefore the
and the torque
is
is
small,
motor speed
zero, then the
will increase greatly.
There
is in
the case of the series motor, no well-defined zero-
load speed as there
motor
at zero-load
of supply.
is
in
the case of the shunt motor.
approaches that speed for which

^Z'ft,
motor
is
losses.
at zero-load
approaches
this limiting
speed
resistance of
its
arma-
armature resistance, the smaller
its
power
In the shunt motor the armature flux 4>
stant irrespective of speed

definite
Any
counter-
equal to the electromotive force
more and more nearly the smaller the

ture, or, for a given
its
and of
load,
is
nearly con-
and therefore a perfectly
speed (the zero-load speed) gives a counter-electromotive

In the series
force equal to the electromotive force of supply.
motor, on the other hand, the armature flux

approaches zero
with decrease of load on account of the decrease of current

with decrease of load, so that an indefinitely high speed would
be necessary at zero load, to
motive force of supply.
make
4> Z'tt
equal to
E the electro-
CHAPTER
POWER LOSSES
V.
IN
EFFICIENCY.
63.
Motor and generator
generator or
in
a motor are
losses.
:
The
A, and the stray power loss
The
5.
heat generated in the field windings
no power
is
required to excite the
armature current
in
is
power
in a
field loss is
due to the
by the field current, that is,

magnet except the power
field
used to overcome the resistance of the

ture loss, as here defined,
losses of
the field loss F, the armature loss
due
field
The arma-
winding.
to the heat generated
by the
the brushes, in the brush contacts, and in the
armature windings.
Field and armature losses can be accurately
calculated as explained below.
The
stray
power
loss includes
eddy current and
hysteresis losses, chiefly in the armature core,
and losses due to
friction in the bearings
to air friction.
and
at the brushes,
and
Stray power loss cannot be accurately calculated
from any simple data.
This loss
is
usually determined
by
experiment.
{a)
Field
loss.
maintaining the
field
amount of power
All
current of a dynamo.
certain
is
consumed
this
in
power goes
is, no
to heat the field coils in accordance with Joule's law, that
power would be consumed
in field excitation
if it
were possible
to make the field windings of a material having zero resistance.

The field loss in watts may be calculated by means of the follow-
ing equations.
(
For a shunt dynamo.
F=RP
(27a)
F=B/,
(276)
or
or
127
128
F^
in
which R^
(27.)
the resistance of the shunt winding including the
is
rheostat,
field
is
the current in the shunt winding, and ^
is
the electromotive force between the terminals of the machine.
The
resistance of the shunt winding increases considerably after
the machine
started,
is
on account of
rise
of temperature.
In
calculating field loss, the resistance of the winding at the steady-
running temperature of the machine should be used
this is fre-
quently called the hot resistance, for brevity.
The
field loss
is
dynamo (generator or motor) is apThus the field winding of a shunt motor
of a shunt
proximately constant.
usually connected directly to the constant voltage mains, and,
after the
steady running temperature has been reached, the
strictly constant
whatever the load on the motor
field
may
be.
loss
is
On
the other hand, the terminal voltage of a shunt generator
more or
varies
field
winding
is
less with its current
the field current, and therefore the
When
output and, inasmuch as the
connected across the terminals of the machine,

field loss also,
the terminal voltage of a shunt generator
is
vary slightly.
kept constant
with increase of current output by the manipulation of a

rheostat, the field current
and also the
field
loss
field
change consid-
erably.
(2)
For a compound dynamo :
F= RI^ + RJ!
in
(28)
which R^ and / have the same significance as
{2'ja),
R^
is
in
equation
the resistance of the series field winding, and
is
the current in the series field winding.
In applying equation (28) to
compound dynamos,
**
long shunt" or ''short-shunt"
careful attention
must be given to the diagram

/ and / are cor-
of connections to insure that the values of

rectly derived
(3)
For a
from such data as
series
may
dynamo equation
be given.
(28)
may be
used by dropping
POWER LOSSES
the term
The
RJ^-
IN
field loss
of a series
dynamo
29
(generator or
motor) varies greatly with the load.

(/;)
Armature
dynamo
loss.
The
include the
power
losses in the armature of a
losses in the armature core
These core losses

included under the term "stray power"
is here meant simply the power which
currents and hysteresis.

ally
loss
armature windings
in
due to eddy
are,
however, usu-
loss.
By armature
is
consumed
in the
accordance with Joule's law, together with
the power lost at the brushes on account of contact resistance.
The armature
loss in watts
may
be calculated from the equation
a=rj:
in
which R^
is
(29)
the resistance of the armature from positive to
negative brushes
R^
includes the resistance (hot) of the arma-
ture windings, the contact resistances of the brushes, and the

resistances of the brushes themselves
and
/^
is
the total cur-
rent leaving the armature at the positive brushes, or entering the
armature
at the negative brushes.
Armature
loss varies
generator, and with the

{c)
Stray power
cannot be
losses are
(i)
core,
loss.
satisfactorily
Eddy
greatly with the current output of the
amount of load on a motor.
This
term includes
calculated
from simple
losses *
data.
due to reversals of magnetization as the armature
may
conductors of a bar-wound armature
occur
is
in the
These
friction loss, or
windage, as
rotates.
massive copper
explained in Art. 32.
Friction losses in the bearings and at the brushes,
(3) Air
which
current and hysteresis losses, chiefly in the armature
Considerable eddy current loss
(2)
all
it is
called,
due
and
to the fan-
like action of the rotating armature.
These losses cannot be separately measured with accuracy.

stray power loss which is the sum of these losses can, how-
The
ever,
be quite accurately determined for a given machine by an
experimental
^ That
is,
test.
all losses
except
RI"^ losses.
130
When
dynamo runs
speed with constant
field
approximately constant,
irre-
at constant
power
excitation, the stray
loss is
spective of the current output of the
machine
if it
is
generator, and irrespective of the load on the machine
acting as a
if it is
act-
Therefore the stray power loss of a shunt
ing as a motor.
.
generator driven at constant speed or of a shunt motor supplied
from constant voltage mains,

tive of the load
approximately constant irrespec-
is
The
on the machine.
stray
generator or motor varies greatly with

find the
It is often desired to
(generator or motor),
tion as to give
when run
its
power
load.
power S'\
stray
loss of a series
in
such speed and
at
dynamo
field
excita-
an armature voltage EJ', having given the experi-
mentally determined value S' of the stray power loss of the
dynamo when run
at
such speed and
Now
armature voltage EJ.

stray
power
loss are
the various
component
very different functions of
and speed, and the dependence of
give an
field excitation as to
^ upon
parts of the
field excitation
field excitation
and
speed cannot be accurately represented by any simple formula.
For small
sufficiently exact to
assume that the stray power
which we obtain the equation
S"
loss
power
from any
loss of a
is
propor-
is
^"
= S'^
(30)
Experimental determination of stray power
64.
it
induced in the armature, from
tional to the electromotive force
stray
and speed, however,
variations of field excitation
dynamo
loss.
The
cannot be satisfactorily calculated
The
easily obtainable data.
simplest
method
for deter-
mining the stray power loss of a dynamo at a prescribed speed
and prescribed degree of
P required
to drive the
field excitation, is to
dynamo
the prescribed speed, and with

degree.
This power
very small
below.
observe the power
as a motor, without
its
field
any
exceeds the stray power loss
amount, which can
load, at
excited to the prescribed
be calculated
as
5 by
explained
POWER LOSSES
The
may be
prescribed degree of field excitation
three different
ways
terms of the current that
(a) In
the field winding
in
IN
the electromotive force that
specified in
is
to be used
terms of the voltage that
(d) in
applied to the terminals of the field winding

is
or
131
(c) in
is
to be
terms of
to be generated in the armature at
the prescribed speed.
Let us consider, for example, a shunt dynamo of which the
power
stray
loss
is
to be determined at a speed of, say, 1,000
revolutions per minute with
tromotive force of
no
its field
by applying an
excited
Let the machine be separately excited by connecting

winding to
10- volt supply mains,
the armature through an
By
and
let
is
at zero load at the prescribed speed.
rent, /j,
is
resistance.
made to run as a
The armature cur-
then read off the ammeter, and the voltage
off a voltmeter connected
its field
current be supplied to
ammeter and an adjustable
adjusting this resistance the machine
motor
elec-
volts to the terminals of the field winding.
E is
read
between the brushes.
Inasmuch as the machine
is
driven as a motor without load,
all of the power, /^, which is delivered to the armature, is

used to supply the stray power loss S, and the armature loss
RJ^\
so that
a a
This gives the stray power loss under the prescribed conditions
as to field excitation
The
and speed.
stray
power
loss at full
load (slightly different value of E^ from that which obtains at zero

load)
vS
may be
Example.
generator,
is
approximately calculated from the above value of
by using equation
when
driven at a speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute,
tested for stray
excited
(30).
given dynamo, rated as a loo-volt, 50-ampere
power
by being connected
adjustable rheostat.
I
loss as follows
to
and the machine
starts,
The
field is separately
no-volt mains
The armature
lo-volt mains also, through an
stat,
in series
with an
terminals are connected to the
ammeter and an adjustable rheo-
running as a motor.
voltmeter
132
is
connected to the armature terminals, and the two rheostats are
adjusted until the machine runs at 1,200 revolutions per minute,
and shows an electromotive force of 100 volts between the
The ammeter then shows that 2.4 amperes is flowing

through the armature. The resistance of the armature (hot) is
found by measurement to be 0.25 ohm.
From these data the power P delivered to the armature is
found to be P = 2.4 amp. x 1 00 volts = 240 watts, and the armabrushes.
ture loss corresponding to the current of 2.4 amperes is (2.4amp.y^x
0.25
ohm
1.44 watts, so that the stray power loss under the
condition of the test
is
240 watts
slight correction to this result
1.44 watts, or 238.56 watts.
may be applied
to find the value
of .S", corresponding to a speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute and
E^ equal to 100
test,
I^=
100 volts
volts, as follows
E =E
4-
Under the conditions of the

where R =0.21; ohm and
2.4 amperes, so that E^ of the test
is
equal to 99.4 volts.
Therefore, according to equation (30), the value of 5, corres-
ponding to
iS"^
100
volts,
approximately
is
100
238.56 watts X
^
If
it
230.8
^^ watts
find
from the above
test the
approximate
speed of i,TOO revolutions per minute and a
for a
excitation
99-4
were desired to
value of
field
which gives with
speed
this
E^=
105 volts,
equation (30) would give
105
5= 238.56
watts
^
65. Efficiency of
defined as the ratio
This
ratio is
a Generator.
:
= 25 1.8 watts
99.4
The
efficiency of a generator
is
output of power divided by intake of power.
sometimes called the tnie efficiency or the commer-
cial efficiency to avoid confusing
it
with the two partial efficien-
cies defined later.
Calculation of true efficiency.
dynamo has been determined
When
the stray power loss of a
for a given
speed and a given volt-
POWER LOSSES
age,
is
it
IN
easy to calculate the true efficiency of the
dynamo
33
for
a specified output of power as a generator at the given speed and

voltage, the resistances of the various windings of the
being known.
This calculation
efficiency
much more
It is
power output
power output -f- losses
instructive to discuss this matter of efficiency
by means of
calculation
several typical numerical examples, than
by deriving a general formula.

ExaiJiple
The shunt generator.
I.
Given a
which delivers 50 amperes of current

terminals.
It is
dynamo
based upon the equation
is
at
no
shunt generator
volts between
its
required to calculate the efficiency of the gen-
erator under these conditions having given the following data
R^
= 44
ohms
(hot) including the portion of the field rheostat
which must be
in circuit to
bring the voltage between
the terminals of the machine to the specified value.
i?^=
o.
14
ohm
(hot).
Stray power loss at given speed and voltage

Solution
=700
watts.
(a)
Power output
=110
(d)
Field loss
= ^, X (^j =
(c)
Armature loss=
(d) Efficiency
^
Example
2.
i?^
volts
50
x 50 amperes
-^M
5,500 watts
275 watts
=386
watts
'
^^
5,500+275 + 386+700
.
= 0.801
The compound generator (long-shunt).
Given a
long-shunt compound generator which delivers 50 amperes of

current at
10 volts between
its
terminals.
It is
required to cal-
culate the efficiency of the generator under these conditions hav-
ing given the following data
134
= 5 5 ohms (hot)
R^ = 0.02 ohm (hot)
i^^
R^
0.14
ohm
(hot)
700
watts.
Solution
(a)
=110
Power output
volts
x 50 amperes = 5,500 watts
^\ =220 watts
(c) Series field loss = RXS^ +
^sY = 54- watts
(d) Armature loss = RJ^S^ + ^sY =379 watts
^
(e) Efficiency
^
^^
Example j.
-^
;
5,500+220+ 54.1+ 379'+ 700
short-shunt
compound generator which

10 volts between
Given a
The compound generator (short-shunt).
current at
its
delivers
terminals.
It is
=0.803^
50 amperes of
required to cal-
culate the efficiency of the generator under these conditions, hav-
ing given the following data
= 55 ohms (hot)
R^ = 0.02 ohm (hot)
^^ = o. 14 ohm (hot)
7?^
700
5,500 watts
watts.
Solution
{a)
Power output
(b)
Shunt
=110
volts
x 50 amperes
= RJ^ =224 watts

\E^ =E^ + RJ^= III volts
field loss
so that
2.018
amperes]
(c)
Series field loss
{d)
Armature
loss
^^ Efficiency
(e)
Example
^.
= R/^ = 5^ watts
= RJ^ = 379 watts
=
5,500
The
+ 224 + 50 + 379 + 700
series generator.
Given
which dehvers 50 amperes of current
at
=0.80^
a series generator
10 volts between
its
POWER LOSSES
terminals.
IN
required to calculate
It is
efficiency
its
I35
under these
conditions, having given the following data
= o.i2 ohm (hot)

7?^ = o. 5 ohm (hot)
R^
= 700 watts.

Solution
=50
Power output
{a)
(b)
Series field loss
(c)
Armature
5,500+300
Efficiency of conversion
66.
The
total
is,
to
and
is
used
eddy
field
power
is,
700
= 0.800
developed
sion the total mechanical

5),
in
The
them.
'
in the
portion
armature.
EJ^, developed
in the
From
power delivered
portion. A, of the total electrical
armature of a generator
EJ^
is
AF
is
expended
is
The
(J?)
of
ratio of
armature to
is
called the
the above discus-
to the armature
is
evi-
EI
77
t-
a a
a portion, F,
and
so that
to the rotation of the armature
efficiency of conversion of the generator.
arma-
and hysteresis
according to Lenz's law, equal to the total
E^T^,
the total electrical power,
{EJ^
arma-
to the rotation of the
currents,
the total mechanical power supplied to the armature,
dently
a genera-
in driving the
magnet on the armature conductors
on account of the current flowing

the total power
+ 375 +
5,500 watts
supply the stray power loss S,
{a) to
overcome the opposition
due to the action of the
electrical
electrical efficiency of
overcome the opposition
ture due to friction, windage,

{b) to
lO volts
mechanical power expended
ture of a generator
that
= 7?// = 300 watts

= 7^y/= 375 watts
*
=
loss
(d)
^
^^ Efficiency
tor.
amperes x
"V o
(3 ^)
power developed
in the
used to overcome armature resistance,

in field excitation,
delivered as useful
power
and the remainder

to the external re-
136
ceiving circuit.
The
by a generator,
to
armature,
That
is
ratio
of the useful electrical power delivered
the total electrical
power developed
the
in
of the generator.
the electrical efficiency^
called
is
Electrical efficiency
E I A F = EI
= -^-^-^
j^j
a
The
values of
and
may
(32)
a a
be calculated with the help of
equations (27), (28) and (29).
The product
of the
two
partial efficiencies
That
or commercial efficiency.
is,
equal to the true
is
the efficiency of conversion
the fraction of the total mechanical power which

electrical
power, and the electrical efficiency
of the latter which
the fractional part
delivered to the receiving circuit.
is
of a shunt or
The shunt
the series field loss

rent output.
when
losses,
field loss
compound generator driven
as
is
converted into
Variation of the efficiency of shunt and compound generators
67.
with power output.
small
is
is
is
The
the
On
at constant
loss
speed are ap-
the other hand, the armature loss plus
nearly proportional to the square of the curefficiency of the generator
power output
namely shunt
and the stray power
field loss
is
small,
and stray power
compared with the power output.
is
therefore very
inasmuch as the constant
The
loss, are
then large
efficiency of the gener-
ator increases with increase of output, passes through a
maximum
value for a certain output, and then with further increase of output, the efficiency decreases because of the rapid increase of
arma-
ture loss.
The
efficiencies of a
shunt or compound generator
calculated for a series of assigned values of
may
be
power output by the
method explained in Art, 65, and a curve may then be plotted

showing power outputs as abscissas, and efficiencies as ordinates.
Such a curve is called the efficiency curve of the generator. Efficiency curves are frequently plotted showing efficiencies as ordinates,
and current outputs
in
* Sometimes called the economic
amperes as abscissas.
coefficient of a generator.
POWER LOSSES
The
full line
curve in Fig. 95
The
shunt generator.
is
IN
3/
a typical efficiency curve of a
is
compound generator
efficiency curve of a
very similar in form to the efficiency curve of the shunt gener-
ator.
generator
is
usually designed to give
The
efficiency at its rated full load output.
its
maximum
ordinate of the hori-
zontal dotted curve represents the approximately constant loss
power and
to stray
RJ^
loss in the shunt field winding.
due
The
ordinates of the curved dotted line, measured from the horizontal
dotted
line,
represent the
Efficiency
loss in the armature.
RÎ^J'
fio
/^
io
^^^-
^-'''
^^
^^"^
^^^
'"""
i<
__,..-'
'
'
/_
Zo
Wl 'r%
I
2J
50
Atnperes output in
Efficiency
Fig. 95.
The maximum
too
75
and
IZ5
of full rated output
loss curves of
a shunt generator.
efficiency of a shunt or
compound generator
sum of the
occurs for that particular current output for which the

variable losses (series field loss
sum
Proof.
Let L be the sum of the constant losses, and
age of the machine.

us represent this
much
when
and armature
loss)
is
of the constant losses (shunt field loss and stray
For the sake of simplicity
common
current by
as the shunt field current
the current output
is
is
/.
let
let
E^
us assume
This assumption
is
equal to the
power
loss).
be the terminal
^ =^
/g
volt-
and
let
approximately true, inas-
small as compared with the current output, except
very small.
Then we have
Power output ^= EÎ.

Armature
for
R^
-L R,.
loss
4- series
field loss
=(i?a-f-
-^c)
I^=^RI'^,
where
is
written
138
Therefore
Efficiency
= ^^^^-^^,^^
Differentiating this expression with respect to /, assuming
we
placing the differential coefficient equal to zero,
which shows that the

field losses is
The
efficiency is a
equal to the
sum
find
maximum when
the
of shunt field and stray
to
be constant, and
sum
power
of armature and series

losses.
efficiency of a series generator is also zero at zero current
output,
it
increases with increase of current output, reaches a
maximum, and falls off with further increase of current output.

The efficiency of a generator depends also upon its size. A
generator of one or two kilowatts rated capacity would have an
65 per cent, at best, while very large generators

as high as 95 per cent., or even higher.
efficiency of about
have
efficiencies
68.
Efficiency of a motor.
as the ratio
ratio is
The
efficiency of a
motor
defined
is
output of power divided by intake of power.
This
sometimes called the true efficiency or the commercial
efficiency to avoid confusing
it
with the two partial efficiencies
defined later.
a
is
Calculation of true efficiency.
When the
dynamo has been determined
for a given
easy to calculate the efficiency of the
as a
motor
at the given speed
specified intake * of electrical
ous windings of the
This calculation
lation
more
power
loss of
speed and voltage,
dynamo when
it
operating
and voltage, and supplied with a
power
the resistances of the vari-
dynamo being known.
is
based upon the equation
efficiency
It is
stray
= power intake
-.
losses
;j
power mtake
instructive to discuss this matter of efficiency calcu-
by means of
several typical
examples than by deriving a
general formula.
* The calculation of the
more complicated than
efficiency of a
motor
for a specified intake of
for
a specified output of power
power or
current.
is
POWER LOSSES
Example
IN
Shunt motor.
i.
A given
shunt motor
is
39
supplied
with 50 amperes of current from iio-volt mains, and
it is
re-
quired to calculate the efficiency of the motor, having given the

following data
R^ = 44 ohms
i?^ = o. 14 ohm
hot
= 700 watts
Stray power loss

Solution
[a)
),
hot).
Power
intake
{b)
Shunt
{c)
Armature
= ^s\-^) =2/5
field loss
loss
Effidency
Example
pound motor
is
and
volt mains,
= â(
5,500 watts.
watts.
Ey =3^^
5^""^'')
watts.
= S'^--^^y^-^ = o.765.
Compound motor
2.
amp.=
110 volts x 50
and speed.
at the given voltage
(long-shunt^.
given com-
supplied with 50 amperes of current from iioit
required to calculate the efficiency of the
is
motor, having given the following data
7?^= 55 ohms (hot),

R^ = 0.078 ohm (hot),
i?^
= 0.09 ohm
(hot).
Stray power loss

Solution
{a)
= 700 watts
at given voltage
=110
Power intake
(B)
Shunt
{c)
Series field loss
field loss
volts
x 50 amperes
= R\-^\ =
= 7?
= ^
50
=
J
^"^ =
Armature
loss
/x
T-rr,
5,500220179.7
= ^-^
Efficiency
5^
5,500 watts.
220.0 watts.
{d)
(e)
and speed.
179.7 watts.
207.4 watts.
207.4700 =
^
'
0.762.
I40
A given comExample J. Compound motor {sJiort-shtinf).

pound motor is supplied, with 50 amperes of current from iiovolt mains, and
required to calculate the efficiency of the
is
it
motor, having given the following data
= 55 ohms (hot),
= 0.078 ohm (hot),
R^ = 0.09 ohm (hot).
Stray power loss = 700
7?^
R^
watts at given voltage and speed.
Solution
=110
(a)
Power intake
(^d)
Series field loss
(c)
Shunt
field
= 0.078 x (50
~
loss = R^ x I
^
Efficiency
amp.)^
= Mô^
95
5,500 watts.
195 watts.
~ = 204.7 watts.
''
(E
^ R
50
(.)
^
x 50 amperes
volts
y.
Ko\^
^
= 208
- 2047 -
208
7,00
^^
5,,
5,500
Example
Series motor.
/j..
given series motor takes 50
amperes of current with an electromotive force of

tween
watts.
its
definite
no
volts be-
Under these conditions the motor has a
terminals.
speed and a definite stray power
loss.
It is
required to
calculate the efficiency of the motor under the given conditions,
having given the following data
= o.\2
7?^ = o. 5
R^
ohm
ohm
(hot),
(hot).
Stray power loss

Solution
(a)
= 700
watts at the given speed and voltage.
Power intake
10 volts
X 50 amp.
5,500 watts.
= R^ x (50)^ = 300 watts.

= R^ x (50)^ = 375 watts.
5,5oo - 3,00-375 - 700
^^
Efficiency =
{b) Series field loss

(c)
(d)
^
Armature
5,500
It is
series
loss
important to remember that the stray power loss of a
motor
varies
greatly with the load on the motor, or in
POWER LOSSES
GENERATORS AND- MOTORS.
IN
by the motor, and
Other words, with the intake of current
power
the stray
(a) to
total electrical
and mechanical
supply the power
and
loss,
in opposition to the
E^.
The
part (8)
it is
all
is
RJ^^
The
That
EJ^
equal to
the current
induced electromotive
and, according to
loss
and the useful power
deliv-
mechanical power,
EJ^,
EJ^,
delivered to the motor,
motor.
(U) to force
to
the armature to the total electrical power,
ered at the pulley.

in
used
and
converted into the actual mechanical power
which supplies the stray power

developed
is
lost in heating the field windings,
Lenz's law,
efficiency of a motor.
delivered to a motor
power, EJ^,
supply the armature
force
that
loss varies also with the speed.
69.
The
141
is
is
ratio of the
called the efficiency of conversion of the
= EI
-~y
(33)
X X
portion
motor armature
and magnetic
at the
power developed
of the total mechanical

is
used to overcome bearing
friction,
and the remainder,
motor pulley as useful power.
in the
friction, air friction,
\_EÎ^^
The
ratio of the
"^l
>
delivered
i^
useful
power delivered by a motor, to the total mechanical power

developed in the motor armature, is called the mechanical efficiency
of the motor.
That
is
Mechanical efficiency
T S
E^"-y
=
u
The
actual or commercial efficiency of a
(34)
motor
is
equal to the
product of its efficiency of conversion and
its
mechanical efficiency,
inasmuch as the efficiency of conversion
is
the fractional part of
the delivered electrical
power which
power, and the mechanical efficiency

total
70.
mechanical power which
is
is
is
converted into mechanical

the fractional part of this
available at the
motor
pulley.
Variation of the efficiency of shunt and compound motors
with load.
The shunt
field loss
and the stray power
loss of a
142
shunt or compound motor supplied with current from constant

voltage mains, are nearly constant.
armature loss plus the series
On
the
the square of the current intake of the motor.
the motor
much
is
therefore very small
when
other hand, the
nearly proportional to
field loss is
The
the load
as the constant losses, namely, field loss
small, inas-
and stray power
The
then a large part of the motor intake.
loss, are
efficiency of
is
efficiency
of the motor increases with increase of load, passes through a
maximum
value for a certain definite load, and then, with further
increase of load, the efficiency decreases because of the rapid in-
crease of armature loss.
The
efficiencies of
compound motor may
a shunt motor or a
be calculated for a series of assigned values of current or power

intake,
and from these data a curve may be derived showing the
relation
between power output and
Ejfficiencu
'^
^,^,*
^^
efficiency.
'
"^
Fig.
96 shows a
^
~~"
60
40
so
Power output
25
Fig. 96.
50
15
in
as
Efficiency Curve of a Shunt Motor.
typical efficiency curve of a shunt motor.
compound motor is very similar

a shunt motor shown in Fig. 96.
The upper curves in Fig. 94 show
of a
of fuU rated load
too
The
the efficiency of a street
railway motor at various loads (current intakes).
way motor
is
efficiency curve
to the efficiency curve of
street rail-
run for a great portion of the time at about ^
full
POWER LOSSES
and such a motor
load,
IN
is
therefore designed to give
its
143
maximum
about ^ full rated load, as shown in Fig. 94. When

to be used most of the time at full load, it is always
efficiency at
a motor
is
designed to give
its
The maximum
power
loss
maximum
efficiency at or near full load.
efficiency of a shunt
namely
proposition
(in
which the stray
approximately constant) occurs for that particular
is
load for which the armature loss,

loss,
motor
stray
is
power
RJ^,
is
equal to the constant
The proof
loss plus field loss.
of this
very similar to the proof of the corresponding
proposition concerning the efficiency of a shunt generator (see

article 6y).
The
efficiency of a
motor depends also upon
very small motor of ^-horse power
may have
Thus a
its size.
an efficiency under
the best conditions of about 60 per cent, while a 20- or 30-horse
power motor may have an
The use
71.
One
efficiency of
90 per
cent, or
more.
motor as a dynamometer.
of the separately excited
of the most convenient methods
for
determining the
amount of mechanical power required to drive a machine of any

kind, is to drive the given machine by a separately excited motor,
measure the electrical input of power to the armature of the
motor, and subtract from this observed input the stray power
loss
and the armature
loss in the motor, thus
finding the net
mechanical power delivered to the given machine.
Example.
fan
is
The
power required
With
to be determined.
to a shunt motor.
to the
The
field
this
to drive a certain ventilating
end
in view, the fan is belted
winding of the motor
lo-volt supply mains.
The armature
is
connected
of the motor
is
also
connected to the supply mains with an ammeter and a rheostat in

series with
it.
The rheostat is adjusted until the fan is driven at

when the armature current is observed to be
the desired speed
16.4 amperes, and the electromotive force between the brushes, as
measured by a voltmeter,
The
belt
in series
is
then thrown
is
observed to be 92. 5 volts.
off,
much
larger resistance
with the armature, and this resistance
is
is
placed
adjusted until
144
the motor speed
is
the
same as
The ammeter
before.
reading
is
then observed to be 0.85 ampere, and the electromotive force
between the brushes
is
observed to be 91.6
(hot) of the armature, as determined
The
volts.
resistance
by separate measurements,
is
found to be 0.4 ohm.

Solution
(a) Total
power delivered
= 92.5
(d)
(^d)
Stray power loss
to
motor armature
16.4 amp.
=91.6
to drive the fan
1,517 watts.
volts
x 0.85
amp.
0.4
ohm
amp.)^= yy.6 watts.

Armature loss when motor is driving the fan = 0.4 ohm
X (16.4 amp.)^= 107.6 watts.
Mechanical power delivered to the fan = 1,517 watts 77.6
(c)
volts
(0.85
watts
107.6 watts == 1,332 watts.
CHAPTER
VI.
RATINGS AND GUARANTEES.
Dynamo
72.
speeds.
The
dynamo, whether
sized
it
capacity (power output) of a given
be used as a generator or as a
to
is
motor, depends upon the speed at which the machine

run.
Roughly speaking the
to
speed.
its
is
to be
dynamo is proportional
dynamo might be rated as a
capacity of a
Thus, a given sized
lO-horse power motor or a 15 -horse power motor according

to
whether
is
it
to
be run
at a speed of 1,000 revolutions* per
minute or at a speed of 1,500 revolutions per minute; and another

7
dynamo might be
rated as a 50-kilowatt generator or as a
generator according to whether
5 -kilowatt
it
to
is
be driven
speed of 500 revolutions per minute or at a speed of 750
at a
revolutions per minute.

It is of
from
prime importance
making a
in
different manufacturers,
fair
comparison of prices,
on generators or motors of a given
rated output, to consider the speeds at which the machines are to
be driven.
large,
One manufacturer may very properly
charge, for a
slow-speed machine, a higher price than that charged by
another manufacturer for a small, high-speed machine of the
same rated output.
The speed
at
may
which a dynamo
upon mechanical conditions, such
be driven depends partly
as completeness of balance of
the rotating part, strength of the rotating part to withstand the

stresses
due to
and brushes
rotation,
and
if
and
satisfactory running of the bearings
dynamo
is
to be directly connected to an
engine as a generator, or to a printing press or other machine as

a motor, the speed at which the
speed of the machine to which
dynamo must run
it is
is
fixed
The speed at which a dynamo may be driven depends

some extent upon electromagnetic conditions as follows
:
10
145
by the
to be connected.
also to
146
shunt dynamo has an inherently proper speed.
shunt generator should be driven
Thus a
speed which
at that
will de-
velop sufficient electromotive force in the armature to produce
enough current through the shunt

field
magnet
field
If a
nearly to saturation.
winding to magnetize the

shunt generator
much lower than this, its field excitation will

maximum permissible output of power will be
be low,
at a speed
and
its
erably less than
it
would be
if its field
driven
is
consid-
winding were redesigned
to give full field excitation at this reduced speed.
shunt motor should have
field
its
winding connected to
supply mains giving the proper electromotive force to fully excite

its field
magnet, and under these conditions the armature when
connected to the same supply mains,
will
run at a certain definite
speed.
A
if
dynamo does not have an
series
Thus, a
series generator
may
inherently proper
the receiving circuit has a suitable resistance, the
current will be delivered

excited,
its best.
speed.
be driven at any desired speed, and,
by the machine,
its
and the electromagnetic action of the machine

Driven at high speed a
full
field will
series generator will
be
will
rated
fully
be
at
develop a
high electromotive force, and driven at low speed the machine
wilPdevelop a low electromotive

full
force,
when
the current
is at its
load value.
series
motor does not have an inherently proper speed.
Such a motor may be run

at full field excitation) at
at full current intake (and consequently
any speed, although, of course, a high
electromotive force will be needed to drive the machine at high
speed with
full
current intake.
Correlation of speed
From what
and
even a given shunt dynamo,

at a
voltage ratings of shunt dynamos.
has been said above,
it is
may be
evident that a given dynamo,
run more or less satisfactorily
speed very considerably above or below the rated speed of the
machine, but the use in commercial work of certain widely separated standard voltages of supply,
volts, leads to
10 volts, 220 volts, and 500
very definite speed ratings of generators and motors.

Thus a motor which has a
winding designed to give
field
field excitation from 220-volt mains,
enough insulated
enough mechanically
and an armature that
is
full
well
220-volt supply, and strong
withstand a
to
I47
to run at the speed given
by a 220-volt
supply, will run at a definite speed, say 1,200 revolutions per
Such a motor would be
minute, under these conditions.
rated as
a 220-volt motor at a speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute, and
although
1
would hardly be permissible
it
10- or 500-volt mains,
factorily from, say, 2 50- volt
lutions per minute.
to run this
motor from
the motor would perhaps run satis-
still
mains
shunt
herently proper speed, which
at a speed, say, of 1,350 revo-
dynamo
has a fairly
definite, in-
taken in conjunction with the
fact,
widely separate standard voltages used in practice, limits a shunt
machine (generator or motor) to a
73.
motor.
dynamo
Limitation of output of a
The output
by three
as a generator or as a
of a motor or generator
things
distinct
certain very definite speed.
(a)
By
is
Hmited
overheating and
in practice
consequent
destruction of the insulating materials used in the construction of
the machine
(d)
by excessive sparking
at the brushes
and the
consequent rapid wear, unsatisfactory running, and excessive

heating of the commutator
and
(c)
by excessive drop
in
voltage
of a generator or excessive drop in speed of a motor, at excessive
That
loads.
it
is
to say, a
dynamo
is
rated for that load for which
neither heats nor sparks excessively,
voltage,
nor
its
if it
speed,
falls off
is
to
if it
is
more than a
sparking
is
and
for
which neither
its
be used as a "constant voltage" generator,

to be used as a ''constant
certain small
amount.
speed" motor,
Heating rather than
the thing that usually limits the output of a machine,
especially in the case of completely enclosed machines like the
enclosed motors shown
in
Figs.
60 and 91
while closeness of
regulation (voltage regulation in case of a generator and speed

regulation in case of a motor) sets a limit to the permissible rating
of a machine only in rare special cases where very close regulation
is
demanded.
148
Estimation of ratings
important to be able to
from dimensions and speed.

It is often
make an approximate estimate of the
proper rating of a machine from

sions
example
for
fully guaranteed,
in
its
and
specified speed,
dimen-
its
the purchase of machines which are not
such as second-hand machines.
There
of
is
course a considerable difference between the legitimate ratings of

well designed and poorly designed machines of the same
that
no accurate general rule can be given
The
following formula
so
size,
for finding ratings.
as good, perhaps, as can be devised.
is
P^kld^n
in
is
which
the gross length of the armature core in inches,
the external diameter of the armature core in inches,
speed
in
/ is
in revolutions
the approximate values of which are as follows
to about
rating of an enclosed
motor of the same

kilowatts,
tor,
^^
a factor
is
For motors,
P in horse-power, k ranges from about 0.00002 for a
power motor
0.000032
0.00004
motor
size
is
about 65 per
for a
for a
0.000030
may
The
an open
to give
in
for a 5 kilowatt genera-
50 kilowatt generator, to about
200 kilowatt generator.
the above equation
cent, of that of
For generators,
and speed.
to
horse-
50 horse-power motor.
for a
k ranges from about 0.000015
to about
the
per minute, Pis the power rating of a motor
horse-power, or of a generator in kilowatts, and
give
is
?i
Ratings obtained from
very properly be slightly increased or
decreased according to a general estimate of the degree of perfection of design of a given machine.
74. Heating.
The
any part of a dynamo
ultimate steady running temperature of

is
the temperature at which the part gives
offbeat (by radiation, convection and conduction) to

ings as fast as heat
is
generated
currents and hysteresis, or

current.
in less
under
in
the part
by the heating
by
its
surround-
friction,
effect of the
This ultimate steady running temperature
is
by eddy
electric
not reached
time than from six to eighteen hours of steady running

full
load, according to the size of the machine.
Small
49
machines require a short time, and large machines a long time, to

reach this ultimate temperature.
On
account of the time required for a dynamo to reach
steady running temperature,
evident that a machine
it is
its final
may
be
run for a short time under excessive load without causing undue
temperature.
rise of
The
rated capacity of a machine which
ous service
perature,
intended for continu-
is
always based upon ultimate steady running tem-
is
and operating engineers usually exact from the manu-
facturers a definite short period over-load guarantee, for example,
a 50-per cent, over-load for one hour, or a 2 5 -per cent, over-load

for three hours,
The
without exceeding a prescribed
rated capacity of a machine which
kind of intermittent service

period run.
Thus
may
of temperature.
properly be based upon a short
motors are usually rated on the
street car
horse power would overheat
than one hour at
from
rise
intended for a specific
one-hour run, and a street railway motor rated at 25-
basis of a
It is
is
were operated
if it
for
making a fair comparison of prices

manufacturers on generators or motors of a given
of prime importance in
different
consider this time element which should always be
rating, to
specified
One manufacturer may very
by the manufacturer.
properly charge for a large machine which will give
output steadily (or say 125

price than that charged
which he rates
his rating
75.
at
by another manufacturer
100 kilowatts,
on a three-hour run
The heat run.
machine,
it is
actual test.
00 kilowatts
kilowatts for three hours) a higher
if
for a generator
the second manufacturer bases
at full load.
Inasmuch
as
dynamo
guarantees are usually based upon
rise
ratings
and overload
of temperature of the
evidently important to check these guarantees
This
by
test is called the heat run.
Temperatures of armature and

rating
much more
full load.
field
windings, as specified in
and overload guarantees, are understood
to be calculated
from the measured resistances, cold and hot, of these windings.
ISO
The temperature
stood to be
its
of a machine part, other than windings,
surface temperature as indicated
of which the bulb
is
small
wad
would
interfere too
laid flat against the part
of clean, dry cotton waste.
much
is
under-
by a thermometer
and covered by a
large
wad
of waste
with the free cooling of the part under
test.
The heat run
is
made by operating
the machine under
full
load
conditions for the specified time, or until a constant running tem-
perature has been reached.
The machine
is
then shut down, and
the temperatures of the various parts are determined by ther-
mometers
as above explained.
Also the
**
hot " resistances of the
various windings are measured, from which the

tures of the windings
may
mean tempera-
be calculated, the resistances at room
temperature having been measured beforehand.
Important practical points concerning
this heat test are given
in Art. 79.
The commutator and brushes may be

This
is
because the mica insulation
fireproof, while the cotton
and
field
much
field
and varnish insulation of the armature
windings can not withstand a temperature beyond 100 C.
without charring.
tively
safely run at a
magnet windings.
of the commutator is nearly
higher temperature than the armature and
The
bearings should be run at a compara-
low temperature to ensure
satisfactory lubrication.
allowable temperatures, as specified in the report of the

mittee on Standardization of the
American
The
Com-
Institute of Electrical
Engineers,* are partly determined by the above considerations
and partly by
temperatures.
differences in the
methods used
for determining
Temperatures calculated from resistance meas-
urements are accurate mean temperatures, whereas temperatures
by thermometer
refer to the surface
layers,
which are always
Thus a magnet winding may show a

50
temperature rise of
C. by a thermometer laid on its surface
when a temperature rise of 75 C. is obtained by calculation from
cooler than the interior.
resistance measurements.
* See Art. 79.

Sparking.
76.
One
effect of the
151
dynamo
sparking of a
is
to
roughen the commutator and cause the brushes to chatter and

to
wear the commutator rapidly
sible to specify precisely the
nor
sible,
to
which
any
there
is
another
not pos-
It is
degree of sparking that
is
permis-
satisfactory quantitative sparking
machine may be subjected.
a finished
cause ex-
effect is to
commutator and brushes.
cessive heating of the
test
It is for this rea-
son that ratings and guarantees are based specifically upon

of temperature.
may be
It
should not show any visible sparking when
from zero load to

brushes being
dynamo
mum
full
left in
will
load, or
from
rise
way that a dynamo
stated in a general
output
its
is
changed
load to zero load, the
full
a fixed position.
bear a
cost of materials,
maximum
when
it
output rating, with a mini-
reaches
heating and sparking
its
limits simultaneously.
The cause
of sparking, and the means adopted
to obviate sparking are discussed in
by the designer
the following articles on
armature reaction and commutation.
Armature
77.
in
reaction.
dynamo armature
The magnetizing
is
called armature reaction.
reaction has a two-fold effect,
{a) It causes the
which enters the armature from the
crowded toward the
It
field
shown
action,
magnet poles
to
be
towards
98 and 99.
opposes (generally) the passage of the flux through the
armature and thus reduces the amount of
The
Armature
magnetic flux
trailing pole tips of a generator, or
the leading pole tips of a motor, as

(p)
action of the current
part {a) of armature reaction
and the part
{U) is called
is
in Figs. 97,
flux.
called cross-magnetizing
demagnetizing
action.
The
cross-
magnetizing action has an important influence upon the sparking

of a dynamo, and therefore
rating of a
much
as
it
given
machine.
it
has to do more or less with the
The demagnetizing
action,
inas-
reduces the flux through the armature, affects the
voltage regulation of a generator and the speed regulation of a
motor.
152
Demagnetizing action and cross-magnetizing action.

of armature reaction and
netizing
Fig. 97.
field
armature current
Fig. 99.
Same
resolution into the
and cross-magnetizing
action
Undistorted
its
of a
is
dynamo when
small.
two
action,
Fig. 98.
is
Distorted
The nature
parts,
field
of a generator wlien
armature current is large.
as Fig. 98, but showing motor distortion for
same
direction of running,
brought out by considering a bipolar dynamo as shown

100.
the
demag-
most clearly
in
Fig.
The brushes are shown at an angular distance a ahead of

line AB, which is at right angles to the axis of the field.
All of the conductors marked with a dot are supposed to carry
outward flowing current (towards the reader), and
all
conductors
its

marked with a
153
cross are supposed to carry inward flowing current
(away from the reader).

Fig.
10 1
is
like Fig. 100,
conductors which
lie
but
it
shows only those armature
within the angular distance db a from the
Fig. 100.
line
AB.
Each of the conductors
may be thought
in the
top group in Fig. lOi
of as paired with a conductor in the bottom
154
may
group, and the pair
be looked upon as a complete turn of
wire, or in other words, all the conductors
may be
CD
looked upon as a magnetizing
The magnetic
as an axis.
coil
shown
Fig.
loi
surrounding the
line
action of this coil
in
is
demag-
the
netizing action of the armature.

Fig.
02
is
like
loi except that
Fig.
armature conductors which
lie
at a greater
it
shows only those
angular distance than
Fig. 102.
from the
102
in Fig.
left,
line
may
AB.
Each of the conductors on the
right
be thought of as paired with a conductor on the
and the pair may be looked upon as a complete turn of
or in other words,
all
the conductors
looked upon as a magnetizing

(Fig. 100) as an axis.
coil
shown
in Fig.
102
surrounding the
The magnetizing
wire,
may
action of this coil
be
AB
line
is
the
cross-magnetizing action of the armature.
The
state of affairs
in a generator, as
shown
may be
in Figs, 100, loi
seen
by applying the
and 102 obtains

rule
which corre-
lates direction of a current in a wire, direction of field in
placed, and direction of side-push on the
which
wire.
Fur-
thermore, the demagnetizing action of the conductors shown
in Fig.
the wire
01
is
is
positive, that
is, it is
a genuine demagnetizing action which
opposes the passage of the flux
<l>
through the armature, as
may
155
be seen by applying the rule which correlates direction of current

in a coil
marize,
and
direction of magnetizing action of the coil.
we have
in
Fig.
To sum-
lOO a generator of which the brushes
have a forward lead from the
AB
line
and the armature has a
demagnetizing action.
In a generator with brushes having a
backward lead from the
line
action
ture.
AB,
the armature has a magnetizing
which helps the pdssage of the flux
through the arma-
In a motor, on the other hand, forward lead of brushes
gives magnetizing action,
and backward lead of brushes gives
demagnetizing action of the armature.
The effect of the cross-magnetizing action in the armature of a

dynamo may be made more easily intelligible with the help of
Figs.
103,
104 and 105.
through armature and
field
shows the magnetic
Fig. 103
flux
poles due to the magnetizing action
Fig. 103.
of the armature alone (field excitation zero), Fig. 104 shows the
magnetic flux due to the action of the
field coils
alone (armature
current zero), and Fig. 105 shows the composite effect due to
field coils
and armature acting together.
At
the pole tips a and
103 and 104, and therethe flux is in the same

fore the resultant flux density under these tips is great, as shown
in Fig. 105.
At the pole tips d and c the flux is in opposite
direction, in Figs.
156
directions in Figs. 103
and 104, and therefore the resultant
density under these tips
is
shown
small, as
in Fig.
flux
105.
Fig. 104.
^"T
Fig. 105.
Fig.
106 shows
a multipolar machine with the brushes at
AB.^
an angle a ahead of the diagonal lines

at a greater
angular distance than
The conductors
from the
line
ance each other's magnetizing action on the magnetic
mean path through which

* Which
ter of the
bisect the angles
is
shown by
between the
lines
AB
bal-
circuit,
the
the heavy dotted line
CD
.
which are drawn from the cen-
armature to the middle points of the pole pieces.

That
is
to say, to each conductor in the
group
responding symmetrically located conductor

an oppositely flowing current in
it.
On
from the
line
AB
is
there
in the
is
a cor-
group h with
the other hand, the
magnetizing action of the conductors which

distance
157
lie
within the angular
unbalanced, and this unbal-
u^^^y*^
Fig. 106.
anced magnetizing action
is
the demagnetizing action of the arm-
ature on the magnetic circuit represented
The value
turns,
is
by the dotted
line
.
of this demagnetizing action, expressed in ampere-
found by multiplying the number of conductors * within
the space 2a
by the current flowing
in each.
That
* If a wire encircles an iron rod which constitutes a magnetic

rod encircles the wire.
is
circuit,
then the iron
In reckoning an ampere-turn, one must be sure either that the
wire encircles the iron rod which constitutes the magnetic

circuit encircles the wire.
circuit,
or that the magnetic
158
Z>
in
which
ZIa
(35)
i8o' /'
the demagnetizing ampere-turns (per magnetic
is
cir-
dynamo armature, a is the angle of forward lead of the

brushes, Z is the total number of armature conductors. / is the
total armature current, and /' is the number of paths into which
cuit)
of a
the current
(35)
is
divides in flowing through the armature.
true whatever the
armature
is
conductors which
than
d= a
evident,
lie
from the
however,
the armature
all
lines
that
the
The
which encircles
Zx
shown
/ //'
all
x/
may be
in Fig. 107.
under the pole
field
armature alone,
may
tips in
be quite easily calcu-
CC, Fig. 107,
of the conductors under a pole face.
Z x /S/360,
The
and the current in each
so that the magnetomotive force around

//'* ampere-turns, or 47r/io
Now the iron
c.g.s. units, t
ture core
tips in Fig. 103.
Consider the magnetic circuit
IJp',
0/360
cannot
In fact
number of these conductors is

is
tips
under the pole
of the magnetic
to the
lated as follows
conductor is
is
contribute to the magnetic flux
under a pole face as shown
due
It
conductors
the cross-magnetizing action of the arma-
intensity cK'
Fig. 103
AB.
upon the number of armature conductors
ture depends only

lie
the
at a greater distance
which are beyond the pole
which
be.
represented in the above dis-
cussion as being due to
Fig. 107.
Equation
number of field magnet poles may

The cross -magnetizing action of
Zx
CC
yS/360
of the pole face and of the arma-
considered to have zero magnetic reluctance as
compared with the
air
in the
gap space, so
that approximately
* This gives the cross-magnetizing ampere-turns (per magnet pole) of a dynamo

armature.
t See Appendix
zation of iron.
for a full discussion of
magnetomotive force and of the magneti-

the whole of the magnetomotive force around the circuit
d where
brought into action at the two points a and
brought into action
is
Fig. 107, so that, dividing the
gap
a ox
2.t
d by
59
CC
is
the circuit
Therefore one half of the whole mag-
crosses the gap space.
netomotive force
and one half
at a,
at d^
magnetomotive force across the
the distance / in centimeters across the gap,
we
have the desired value oi oK' namely,

,
The
various devices and schemes for reducing the effect of
armature reaction are chiefly of interest to
the,
dynamo
builder,
but they are of some importance to the operating engineer also,
and they are

In the
briefly as follows
first
place the demagnetizing action of the armature can
be reduced to a very small value by making the brush lead

small, a condition
which
is
realized,
most modern machines.
in
effect of
where
cross-magnetizing action depends upon the ratio
d{' is
the
ture alone, and
the
field
under the pole
field intensity
cl{ is
tips
The
arma-
to the
disturbing effect of armature reac-
troublesome when the value of
A small value
due
3{' jd-C^
the field intensity in the gap space due to
winding alone.
tion is never
(a)
without excessive sparking,
In the second place, the disturbing
of the ratio
cH!'
may
j 3{
this ratio is small.
be obtained by using
a very large value of d{ or, in other words, by using a very

strong
may
field excitation,
a given current
in
small value of the ratio
3{'
small
(b)
be realized by keeping
each path
in
number of armature conductors,

(36), the use of
wide
air
narrow pole
gap (large value of
The angular breadth
yS
and
to
magnet
*The
ratio
3{'
cK' jcK
small for
the armature and for a given
requires, according to equation
faces (small value of
yS),
and of a
/).
of the pole faces
is
never reduced below
about 65 per cent, of 360// degrees, where

field
keep
is
the
number of
poles. *
/3 -i-
multipolar dynamos.
360//
(= pole
span/pole pitch)
is
usually
made about
0.7 in
l6o
The
value of d{'
equation (36)
by
may
be reduced below the value given by
constructing the pole pieces as
CC
108, so that the magnetic circuit
shown
in Fig.
includes, not only the air
gaps at a and
but also the very
d,
considerable air space at
which does
r,
not interfere with the flow of the use-
^.
ful flux
The
effect of a
long gap space
may
be produced by using narrow teeth
and wide slots on the armature. These

narrow teeth are then highly saturated
by the
flux O, so that their magnetic
reluctance
luctance
long
is
CC,
gap space under the middle of the pole

accomplished most advantageously
away the
tips of half of
<l>,
may be produced by
tips,
in a
leaving a short
This
face.
effect
may
laminated pole piece by
in the
pole
tips.
Under these
conditions the least overcrowding of the flux under a pole

in Fig.
105, tends to
push the iron of the pole
magnetic saturation, thus vastly increasing

nearly sparkless operation under
design,
is
be
the laminations, thus greatly re-
ducing the sectional area of the iron
shown
re-
Fig. 108, of the cross-flux,
lengthening the gap space under the pole
cutting
high
this
the exact equivalent of a
the path of the useful flux
in
and
air gap.
A high reluctance in the path,

but not
great,
is
all loads,
tip,
as
beyond
reluctance.
The
dynamos of
recent
its
of
tip
largely due to the use of pole pieces of the kind here
described.
The
best
method of
all for
reducing armature reaction
is
by the
use of the so-called compensating zuinding, which consists of a

layer of wires, parallel to the armature shaft,
faces, as
shown
in Fig. 109,
embedded
and so connected that the
rent, or a definite fraction of the current,
in the
pole
total cur-
from the brushes of the
machine flows through each wire, as indicated by the crosses and

dots in Fig. 109.
The
use of this compensating winding
is
not

ordinarily warranted
on account of
essential feature of the ordinary
its cost.
I6l
It
is,
however, an
commutator motor when driven
Fig. 109.
by
alternating current, as exemplified in the recent development
of the single phase alternating current motor for railways.

78.
The phenomena of commutation.
The cause
Non-sparking condition.
means
of sparking, and a clear idea of the
reducing sparking,
what takes place
may be
in
available for
obtained by a careful consideration of
a section of the armature winding and at the
two commutator bars
to
which
it is
connected,
when
the two bars
pass under a brush.

Fig.
lo shows the positive brush of a generator, a portion of
the commutator with
its
segments or bars
r,
tion of the ring winding of the armature with
W and Xy and the leading
tip
d,
its
^,/and
g^ a por-
sections T, U, Vy
of one of the pole pieces.
The line
represents the neutral axis (see Art. 51)

Before a given section of the armature winding reaches the
nn'
positive brush, current
is
flowing through
it
towards the brush, as
r62
by the small arrows
indicated
section of the armature

in the section
is
in Fig. no, and after the given

wmding has passed the brush, the current
reversed in direction,
still,
of course, flowing
towards the brush.
The
cuited
e
figure shows the instant when the section Fis short-cirby the contact of the brush with the two commutator bars
This state of
and/.
affairs lasts for
a very brief time, and if an
action could be brought about whereby the previously existing currefit

in this section could be
current established
would not be the

brush and the bar
iii
reduced
to
during
the section
least
{a)
As
it
and an equal and

this brief time,
opposite
then there
tendency for a spark to form between the
e at the instant
Fig.
F while
zero
they separate.
110.
to the establishing of a reversed current in the section

is
short-circuited,
it
is
to be noted that electromotive
forces are induced in the armature windings everywhere except
exactly in the neutral axis, as explained in Art.

if
we
give the brush
neutral
brush
axis,
will
induced
in
be
shown
the sections
in a region
them
in the
in Fig.
no
Therefore,
a forward lead from the
as they are short-circuited
by the
where they have electromotive forces
proper direction to establish the reversed
current above mentioned
and the greater the forward
lead, the
greater these electromotive forces will be, so that an angle of

lead
may be found by
commutation above
(b)
The
trial
stated,
for
is
63
which the condition of sparkless
completely realized.
use of high resistance brushes of carbon tends not only
to cause a decrease to zero of the current existing in the sections
before they reach a brush, but also to establish the necessary
reversed current during the time that a section
by the brush.
The
decrease to zero
is
is
short-circuited
due mainly to the
resis-
tance of the brush material which forms a part of the short
The
circuit.
is
establishment of the reversed current in the sections
due mainly to the contact resistance between the brush and the
commutator, as follows
when
the commutator has
moved a
little
beyond the position shown in Fig. no, the increased resistance

between bar e and the brush, due to decreased area of contact,
diverts the current
a through the section
F as
a reversed current
in V.
It is
impracticable to depend solely
above under
as to
{a) for
upon the
action described
producing sparkless commutation, inasmuch
do so would require the lead of the brushes to be read-
justed with every change of load.
above under
{b)
Therefore the action described
must be depended upon
to a greater or less
extent.
In the case of generators and of motors which are driven
always
in
the
same
best commutation
direction, the brushes are adjusted to give the

at,
loads the action {a)

(or excess)
say, half load,
is
and
at greater (or smaller)
deficient (or excessive)
must be counteracted by action
and the deficiency
{b).
In motors for cranes and electric cars the direction of running

is
repeatedly reversed and the brushes are fixed permanently in
the diagonal axes
AB,
tizing action of the
Fig. 106.
In this case the cross-magne-
armature current
shifts
the neutral axis so
that the action {a) tends to maintain rather than to reverse the
current in the short-circuited sections.
described above under (U)
is
In this case the action
not only the sole cause of the re-
versal of the current in the short-circuited sections, but in produc-
ing this reversal the action {B) has to counteract the opposing
64
Motors which are repeatedly reversed would not
action (a).
operate satisfactorily with low resistance brushes of metal.
current in a circuit of large inductance has great electrical
momentum and
the quick reversal of a current in such a circuit
requires a very considerable electromotive force.
Therefore the
reversal of current in the short-circuited sections of an armature
during the brief time that the short-circuit continues,
is
vitally
dependent upon a small value of the inductance of the sections.
Small inductance
(d)
especially important
is
above described
is
chiefly relied upon,
inasmuch as the action
and
this action is equiv-
alent to a very small electromotive force.
The inductance
an armature section, wound
size, is
to the square of the
in slots
number
of a given
of
proportional
of turns of wire in the section.
Therefore a small inductance necessitates few turns of wire in
each armature section.

79. Standard rules for ratings
days of
electrical engineering,
and guarantees.
different
In the early
manufacturers followed
widely divergent rules for fixing the ratings of their machines

with the result that ratings were almost meaningless.
tion to this,
cially the
In addi-
the terminology of electrical engineering, and espe-
mathematical notation employed in electrical engineer-
ing literature was badly confused.
To remedy this
state of affairs,
a Committee on Standardization was appointed
by the American
Institute of Electrical Engineers in 1898 and their report,* some
of the details of which have since been revised, was laid before
The revised report is dated May,
the Institute in June, 1899.
1902.
The recommendations of this committee on rise of temperature,

The
insulation, and rating of dynamo machines are given below.
remainder of the report of the committee
recommendations concerning notation, to

enunciation of principles.
represented in the general

* Trans. A.
I.
E. E., Vol.
is
devoted chiefly to
definitions,
This part of the report
mode
XVL,
the Institute as a separate publication.
is
and
to the
adequately
of treatment adopted in this text.
pp. 255-268.
This report has been issued by
65
RISE OF TEMPERATURE.
General Principles.
Under regular
26.
service conditions, the temperature of electrical machinery should
never be allowed to remain at a point at which permanent deterioration of
its
insulat-
ing material takes place,
The
27.
rise
of temperature should be referred to the standard conditions of a
C,
room-temperature of 25
of ventilation
that
mm. and normal
a barometric pressure of 760
conditions
the apparatus under test should neither be exposed to draught
is,
nor enclosed, except where expressly specified.

If the
28.
room temperature during
the test differs from 25
C,
the observed rise
Thus with a
of temperature should be corrected by j^ per cent, for each degree C.
room temperature of 35 C, the observed rise of temperature has to be decreased by
5 per cent.,
and with a room temperature of 15 C, the observed
rise of
temperature
has to be increased by 5 per cent. The thermometer indicating the room temperature
should be screened from thermal radiation emitted by heated bodies, and from draughts
of
When
air.
it is
impracticable to secure normal conditions of ventilation on account
of an adjacent engine, or other sources of heat, the thermometer for measuring the air
temperature should be placed so as
machine would have
if it
were
order that the rise of temperature determined
be that caused by the operation of the machine.
shall
The temperature should be measured
29.
practical constancy.
This
is
construction of the apparatus.

test
the temperature which the
fairly to indicate
idle, in
by running a
lesser time
after a
run of
sufficient duration to
reach
usually from 6 to 18 hours, according to the size and

It is permissible,
on an overload
the load to normal, and maintaining
it
however, to shorten the time of the
in current
and voltage, then reducing
thus until the temperature has
become con-
stant.
In apparatus intended for intermittent service, as railway motors, starting rheostats,

etc., the rise
of temperature should be measured after operation under as nearly as
possible the conditions of service for

ditions of the test should
be
which the apparatus
is
intended, and the con-
specified.
In apparatus which by the nature of their service

railway converters, and in very high voltage
may be exposed
circuits,
to overload, as
a smaller rise of temperature
should be specified than in apparatus not liable to overloads or in low voltage apparatus.
In apparatus built for conditions of limited space, as railway motors, a higher
rise of
temperature must be allowed.
30. In electrical conductors, the rise of temperature should be determined
increase of resistance
where
practicable.
measured either by galvanometer

coefficient of
copper.
test,
or
0.42 per cent, per degree
For
this
by drop-of-potential method.
C,
Temperature elevations measured
from and
in this
at
way
C, may
be assumed
i?o(
-f 0.0042/) and I?t+g
for
are usually in excess of tem-
* By the formulas
may be
A temperature
perature elevations measured by thermometers.
i?^
* by their
purpose the resistance
= I?Qli -|-o.oo42(/-(-0)]
66
When
thermometers are applied to the free surface of a machine,
that the bulb of the
thermometer should be covered by a pad of
may be formed
venient pad
it
is
desirable
definite area.
con-
of cotton waste in a shallow circular box about one and a
half inches in diameter, through a slot in the side of which the thermometer bulb
is
An
inserted.
unduly large pad over the thermometer tends to
interfere with the
natural liberation of heat from the surface to which the thermometer
With apparatus
31.
qualities, a higher
temperature elevation
In apparatus intended for service
32.
applied.
is
which the insulating materials have special heat-resisting
in
is
permissible.
in places of
abnormally high temperature, a
lower temperature elevation should be specified.

2^. It
is
recommended
should not be exceeded
that the following
maximum
Commutating machines,
rectifying machines
Field and armature, by resistance, 50
Commutator and
values of temperature elevation
collector rings
and synchronous machines.
and brushes, by thermometer, 55 C.
Bearings and other parts of machine, by thermometer, 40 C.
Rotary induction apparatus

Electric circuits, 50
C, by
resistance.
Bearings and other parts of the machine, 40 C.
In squirrel-cage or short-circuited armatures, 55
by thermometer.
C, by
may be
thermometer,
allowed.
Transformers for continuous service

parts
by thermometer, 40
C,
electric circuits
by
resistance,
50
C,
other
under conditions of normal ventilation.
Reactors, induction and magneto-regulators
electric circuits
by
resistance,
C,
50
other parts by thermometer, 40 C.
Where a thermometer,
elevation than that
applied to a coil or winding, indicates a higher temperature
shown by
should be accepted.
resistance measurement, the
bulb as to prevent radiation from
it,
it is
applied.
the case of apparatus intended for intermittent service, except railway
motors, the temperature elevation which
sponding to the term of

circuits.
its
and, at the same time, not to interfere seriously
with the normal radiation from the part to which

34. In
thermometer indication
In using the thermometer, care should be taken so to protect
full load,
is
attained at the end of the period corre-
should not exceed 50 C. , by resistance in electric
In the case of transformers intended for intermittent service, or not opera-
ting continuously at full load, but continously in circuit, as in the ordinary case of
lighting transformers, the temperature elevation above the surrounding air-temperature
should not exceed 50 C. by resistance in electric circuits and 40 C. by thermometer

in other parts,
where
/^t is
I^t+e
is
after
the period corresponding to the term of
the initial resistance at
room temperature
/ C.
the final resistance at temperature elevation 6 C.
/^Q is the inferred resistance at
These combine
0 C.
into the formula
= (238. +
1
/)
(^ -
i) degrees C.
full
load.
In
this

instance, the test load should not
167
be applied until the transformer has been in
for a sufficient time to attain the temperature elevation
due
formers for commercial lighting, the duration of the full-load test

three hours, unless otherwise specified.
With
to core loss.
may be
circuit
trans-
taken as
In the case of railway, crane and elevator
motors, the conditions of service are necessarily so varied that no specific period cor-
The commercial
35.
75
rise
load can be stated.
full -term
respoding to the
rating of a railway
motor should be the h.p. output, giving
of temperature, above a room temperature of 25
after
one hour's con-
tinuous run at 500 volts terminal pressure on a stand, with the motor covers removed.
For determining the service temperature of a railway motor, the temperature
rise
should be determined by operating the motor on a straight and level track and under
specified conditions
As to the load carried in tons per motor.

(2) The schedule speed in miles per hour.
(3) The number of stops per mile.
(4) The duration in seconds of the stops.
(5) The acceleration to be developed in miles per hour per second.
(6) The braking retardation to be developed in miles per hour per second.
( 1 )
These
specifications should
ual service,
and the motors
to
be determined or agreed upon, as equivalent

be closed or open, according to the way
in
to the act-
which they
are to be operated in service.
The tests should be made in both directions over the same track.
By a ''level track" should be understood a track in which the
exceed one- half per cent,
By a
ture
is
mum
at
gradient does not
any point.
"straight track" should be understood a track in which the radius of curva-
nowhere
less
than the distance travelled by the car in 30 seconds, at the maxi-
speed reached during the run.
The wind
velocity during a test should not exceed 10 miles per hour in
any
direction.
INSULATION.
36.
The ohmic resistance
of the insulation
is
of secondary importance only, as com-
pared with the dielectric strength, or resistance to rupture by high voltage.

Since the ohmic resistance of the insulation can be very greatly increased by baking,
but the dielectric strength
is
liable to
be weakened thereby,
it is
a high dielectric strength rather than a high insulation resistance.

test for dielectric
preferable to specify
The
high-voltage
strength should always be applied.
Insulation Resistance.
37.
Insulation resistance tests should,
the apparatus
The
is
if
possible, be
made
at the pressure for
which
designed.
must be such that the rated

more than 1/1,000,000 of the full load current,
insulation resistance of the complete apparatus
voltage of the apparatus will not send

at the rated terminal voltage,
way exceeas
megohm,
through the insulation.
megohm
Where
the value found in this
is sufficient.
Dielectric Strength.
38.
The
dielectric strength or resistance to rupture should
tinued application of an alternating e.m.t. for one minute
be determined by a con-
The
source of alternating
68
e.m.f. should be a transformer of such size that the charging current of the apparatus
as a condenser does not exceed 25 per cent, of the rated output of the transformer.
In alternating-current apparatus, the
39.
which the apparatus
The
40.
is
test
should be
when
high-voltage test should not be applied
to dirt or moisture,
made
at the
frequency for
designed.
the insulation
and should be applied before the machine
is
low, owing
is
put into commercial
service.
The high
potential test should be
made
temperature assumed under normal
at the
operation, as specified, in Paragraph 2 under "Efficiency."

41. It should be pointed out that tests at high-voltages considerably in excess of
the normal voltages, to determine whether specifications are fulfilled, are admissible
on new machines only.
The
42.
test for dielectric
apparatus and not with

follows
its
made with
the completely assembled
and the voltage should be applied
as
1st.
Between
2d.
Between adjacent
The
tests
electric circuits
where such
exist, as in transformers.
should be made with a sine wave of e.m.f., or where
wave of the
needles,
and surrounding conducting material, and
electric circuits,
able, at a voltage giving the
sine
strength should be
individual parts,
same
striking distance
specified e.m.f., except
new sewing
where expressly
needles should be used.
this is not avail-
between needle points
It is
in air, as a
As
specified otherwise.
recommended
to shunt the ap-
paratus during the test by spark gap of needle points set for a voltage exceeding the
required voltage by 10 per cent.
The
43.
following voltages are
recommended
for apparatus not including trans-
mission lines or switchboards.
Rated Output.
Rated Terminal Voltage.
Not exceeding 400

*<
"
<<
400 and over but
'<
<<
800"
"
1,200"
"
"
"
2,500
*<
'*
"
"
<<
less
than 800 volts...
**
"
"
"
Testing Voltage.
Under 10 k. w
ID k. w. and over
volts
<<
<*
1,200"...
" 2,500" ...
" 10,000 " ...
'*
Under 10
k.
1,000
volts.
1,500
1,500
10 k.w. and over
2,000
Any
Any
Any
3,500
5,000,
Double the normal rated
vol-
tages.
10,000 "
"
20,000 "
"
"
**
" 20,000 "
...
Any
10,000 volts above normal rated
...
Any
50 per
voltages.
cent,
above normal rated
voltages.
Except that transformers of 5,000

cuits,
should be tested at 10,000
Synchronous motor
fields
nating current side
and
volts or less, directly feeding
consumption
cir-
volts.
fields
of converters started from the alter-
S,ooo
volts.
69
Alternator field circuits should be tested under a breakdown test voltage corres-
ponding
i.
Condensers should be tested
to
an output equal to the
the exciter should be rated for this test as having an
<?.,
output equal to that of the machine
The
and referred
to the rated voltage of the exciter,
output of the alternator
it
excites.
at twice their rated voltage
and at
their rated frequency.
values in the table above are effective values, or square roots of
mean
square,
reduced to a sine wave of e.m.f.
and
44. In testing insulation between different electric circuits, as between primary
secondary of transformers, the testing voltage must be chosen corresponding to the

high- voltage circuit.
45. In transformers of 20,000 volts upwards,
transformer by operating
sufficiently
it
at
50 per
above
cent,
should be sufficient to
it
its
rated voltage
if
test the
necessary, with
higher frequency to induce this voltage.
The test of the insulation of a transformer, if no testing transformer is availmay be made by connecting one terminal of the high voltage winding to the
46.
able,
core and low-voltage winding, and then repeating the test with the other terminal of
The
the high-voltage winding so connected.
test
of dielectric resistance between the
low-voltage winding and the core should be in accordance with the recommendation
in Section 43, for similar voltages
High
47.
and
capacities.
voltage tests on transformers or other apparatus should be based upon the
voltages between the conductors of the circuit to which they are connected.
"When machines or apparatus are
48.
sum
be operated
to
in series, so as to
employ the
of their separate e m.f.'s, the voltage should be referred to this sum, except
where the frames of the machines are separately insulated both from ground and from
each other.
The
insulation
between machines and between each machine and ground should be

one machine, and the
tested, the former referred to the voltage of
latter to the total
voltage of the series.

49.
Underground
an alternating e.m.f.
is
to
cables,
for
and
be tested by the application of
line switches, should
one minute
at twice the voltage at
which the cable or switch
be operated.
RATING.
75.
Both
electrical
when otherwise
and mechanical power should be expressed
specified.
in kilowatts,
except
Alternating-current apparatus should be rated in kilowatts
on the basis of non-inductive condition
t.
e.,
with the current in phase with the
ter-
minal voltage.
76.
its
Thus
the electric
power generated by an alternating-current apparatus equals
rating only at non-inductive load, that
is,
when
the current
is
in
phase with the
terminal voltage.
77.
real
Apparent power should be expressed
power
78.
in kilovolt-amperes as distinguished
If a power-factor other than 100 per cent,
expressed in kilovolt-amperes and power-factor, at

79.
The
from
in kilowatts.
full-load current of
an
is
specified, the rating should
be
full load.
electric generator
is
that current
which with the
I/O
rated full-load terminal voltage gives the rated kilowatts, but in alternating- current
apparatus only at non-inductive load.

80. Thus, in machines in
which the
full-load voltage differs from the no-load volt-
age, the full-load current should refer to the former.
/*= rating
If
load current
^=
of an electric generator and
full-load terminal voltage, the full-
is
/= P in a continuous-current machine or single-phase alternator.

p in a three-phase alternator.
-p,
/= in a quarter-phase alternator.
81. Constant-current
machines, such as series arc-light generators, should
rated in kilowatts based on terminal volts and amperes at

82.
The
be
full load.
rating of a fuse or circuit breaker should be the current- strength which
In addition thereto, the current-strength at which
will continually carry.
it
will
it
open
the circuit should be specified.
Classification of Voltages and Frequencies.

83.
In direct-current, low-voltage generators, the following average terminal volt-
ages are in general use and are recommended
250
125 volts.
84. In direct-current
and
550
volts.
average terminal voltages are in general use and are recommended

1
10
In direct-current power
600
to
alternating- current low-voltage circuits, the
220
volts.
volts.
following
volts.
railway and other service, 500 volts
circuits, for
may be
considered as standard.
85.
In alternating-current,
average e.m.f. of 2,200

in general use,
86.
and
is
volts,
primary-distribution
constant-potential,
recommended
In alternating-current, constant-potential, high-pressure
10,000.
15,000.
an
is
ing end, the following voltages are in general use, and are
6,000.
circuits,
with step-down transformers of ratios i/io and 1/20,
20,000.
30,000.
87. In alternating-current generators, or generating
circuits, at the receiv-
recommended
60,000.
40,000.
systems, a range of terminal
voltage should be provided from no-load voltage to lo per cent, in excess thereof, to
cover drop in transmission.
If a greater range than
ten per cent,
is
specified, the
generator should be considered as special.

88.
In alternating-currrent
recommended
circuits,
25 cycles per second.
them
*lhe
frequencies are
in extensive use
and
120 cycles per second.*

it is
deemed advisable
to
adhere
as closely as possible.
frequency of 120 cycles per second
existing commercial frequencies
second.
following approximate
60 cycles per second.
These frequencies are already

to
the
as desirable
may be
considered as covering the already
between 120 cycles per second and 140 cycles per
I/I
Overload Capacities.
89.
All guarantees on heating, regulation, sparking, etc., should apply to the rated
load, except
where expressly
to the current in
is
and
specified otherwise,
in alternating-current apparatus
phase with the terminal e.m.f., except where a phase displacement
inherent in the apparatus.

90.
All apparatus should be able to carry the overload specified in Section 92,
without self-destruction by heating, sparking, mechanical weakness,
etc.,
and with an
increase in temperature elevation not exceeding 15 C. above those specified for full
loads, the overload being applied after the apparatus has acquired the temperature
(See sections 30 to 34.)
corresponding to full-load continuous operation.

91.
Overload guarantees should refer to normal conditions of operation regarding
speed, frequency, voltage, etc

ratus, except
92.
1st.
The
where
and
to non-inductive conditions in alternating appa-
phase displacement
is
inherent in the apparatus.
following overload capacities are
recommended
In direct-current generators and alternating-current generators, 25 per cent, for
two hours.
2d.
In direct- current motors, induction motors and synchronous motors, not includ-
ing railway motors and other apparatus intended for intermittent service, 25 per cent,
for
two hours, and 50 per
3d.
4th.
cent, for
Synchronous converters.
Transformers.
to apparatus
for
one minute,
50 per
for
cent, for
25 per cent, for two hours.
which a
different overload
is
momentary overload
capacity.
one half hour.
Except
in transformers
connected
guaranteed, in which case the same
guarantees shall apply for the transformers as for the apparatus connected thereto.
5th.
Exciters of alternators and other synchronous machines, 10 per cent,
overload than
is
required for the excitation of the synchronous machine at
teed overload, and for the
its
more
guaran-
same period of time.
7th. All exciters of alternating-current, single-phase or polyphase, generators should
be able to give at constant speed,
sufficient
voltage to excite the alternator, at the
rated speed, to the full-load terminal voltage, at the rated output in kilovolt-amperes
and with 50 per
cent,
power
factor.
CHAPTER
VII.
THE PRACTICAL OPERATION OF DYNAMOS.
STATION
EQUIPMENT.
80.
General instructions for managing generators and motors. *
Dynamos
or chains for
in
lifting
may
removing an armature
be attached.
upon a hard
floor
In handling a dynamo, or
for repairs, great care
to avoid abrasion of the windings.

laid
are usually provided with an eye-bolt to which ropes
An
must be exercised
armature should never be
but should always rest upon a soft bed of
sacking.
The
bearings should be kept thoroughly lubricated with a fine
grade of
and
in
oil.
tator, since
oil
Carbon brushes do not need much oil lubrication,

oil must be used very sparingly on the commu-
any case
the sparking tends to char
collects dust
and
copper producing a
it,
and furthermore, the
retains the worn-off particles of carbon
gummy
and
coating which leads to poor electrical
contact between the brushes and the commutator.
The commutator should be cleaned occasionally with a tightly

woven cloth (free from lint), and, after this operation, a mere trace
of
oil,
or preferably vaseline,
may be
applied to the cloth and
thence to the commutator.
The
tension of the brush springs should be ordinarily adjusted
to give a pressure of about 1.5
surface
pounds per square inch of contact
between the brushes and the commutator.
Too
little
pressure leads to chattering of the brushes and consequent spark-
ing and roughening of the commutator.
Excessive brush pres-
sure gives rise to excessive brush friction and undue heating of
the commutator and brushes.

*This
discussion,
and the discussion of dynamo diseases or
the excellent
little
book
Crocker and
S. S.
Wheeler.
**
Practical
faults, is
adapted from
Management of Dynamos and Motors," by
172
F. B.
PRACTICAL OPERATION OF DYNAMOS.
1/3
A dynamo should be kept perfectly clean and dry, and should

A water-proof covering should be
it
not be exposed to dust.
thrown over the machine when
When
it is
not in use.
a dynamo, generator or motor,
time (or after
is
started for the
first
has been standing unused for a long time),
it
it
should be very closely watched for an hour or more, inasmuch as
an unexpected defect
If there is the
even moist,
its field
may
develop.
remotest possibility that a generator
is
wet or
should be driven for several hours without exciting
it
the idea being to accelerate the drying process
The
fan-like action of the rotating armature.
field is
by the
then to be
gradually and cautiously excited by cutting out resistance in the

field rheostat,
increased to
When
and
its full
output
finally the current
is
to be cautiously
rated value.
a motor has been exposed to dampness
it
should be run
as a generator and treated as above described, the idea being to

drive the machine for a
number of hours and dry
before any electromotive force
various windings.
it is
is
brought
as a generator.
it
damp it should be dried by gentle and

In many cases, however, it is allowable
it,
and run
it
for several
motor may then be gradually loaded

Unless a
assumed
dynamo
to be moist
may become damp
between the
In the case of an isolated motor, however,
not feasible to drive
motor, start
thoroughly
it
into action
in
If the machine*
to excite the field of the
hours on zero load
positively
the
until full load is reached.
known
In the opening of a switch a destructive arc or spark
is
to be dry it must be
and treated accordingly. A new machine
transit from the factory.
is
to be formed, especially
of the circuit
very
is
long-continued heating.
if
the current
is
is
likely
large, or the inductance
high, as in the case of a field winding.
Properly
constructed switches have carbon blocks so arranged as to take

this arc or
spark off the metal parts of the switch, thus lessening
the wear on the switch.
In any case a switch must be opened
and closed with a vigorous and unhesitating movement.
belted dynamo, generator or motor, should be provided
1/4
with a screw device for adjusting the tension of the belt by moving the machine back and forth on shde
81.
General directions for starting.
rails.
Before
generator or motor, see that the machine
dynamo,
starting a
clean, especially the
is
commutator and brushes. The metaUic dust which comes from

the wear of the commutator and brushes is likely to make a short
and
circuit,
should therefore be removed with special care.
it
Examine the whole machine

and contacts are
see that the
oil
ings, the rings
dip into the
Fill
tight.
to
oil
ducts are clear.
cups, adjust the
oil in
the reservoir.
If
it is
screws
all
and
oil feed,
In the case of ring oiling bear-
should work freely and they should at
has the proper tension.

it
closely to be sure that
the
See that the belt

the
first
is
all
times
and
in place
starting of the machine,
should be turned a few times by hand, or very slowly by power,
make
sure that the machine rotates freely, and that the belt
runs in the center of the pulleys.
Examine the brushes
see that
they press with sufficient pressure against the commutator, and

adjust
them
the proper position for

last
by moving the rocker-arm.

the brushes is not indicated by a mark,
to the proper position
adjustment must be
left until after
the
machme
is
If
this
running and
Then the proper position of the brushes is

indicated by minimum sparking, and by maximum voltage in the
case of a generator, or minimum speed in the case of a motor.
The machine should then be started and brought up to full
its
field
excited.
speed, gradually
being
left
if
open.
readiness to stop
possible, all switches, in the case of a generator,
While
if
starting, the attendant
in instant
anything should seem to go wrong.
82. Directions for starting
pound generator.*
should be
The
and stopping a single shunt
or
com-
arrangement of a single shunt or com-
pound generator for supplying current to lamps or motors is

shown in Fig. 69. In the starting of a single generator plant
like this the
procedure
is
simple, there being
special precautions required in the starting

* The management of the various types of
no necessity
for the
and stopping of one
series generators
used for arc lighting
described in special books of instruction issued by the manufacturers.
is
1/5
of a set of generators in parallel, as pointed out in a subsequent

article.
To
switch,
if it is
start the
generator shown in Fig. 69 open the main
not already open, turn the hand wheel of the
rheostat so as to include
start the
of
all
its
field
resistance in the field circuit,
engine and generator and bring them slowly up to
full
speed, cut out resistance from the field rheostat until the generator
builds up to nearly full voltage, close the main switch
adjust the
field
the voltage above the proper steady value
incandescent lamps, and

generator, turn the
all
and
rheostat to give the exact voltage desired.
to
is
is
damage the
likely to
To
be carefully avoided.
hand wheel of the
field rheostat
finally
Raising
stop the
so as to include
of the resistance of the rheostat in the field circuit, open the
main switch and stop the engine.

to short circuit out
In case of an over-load, due
on the mains or to the connecting of too many
lamps or motors, the
circuit
breaker
will
open the
circuit.
Before
closing the circuit breaker again, open the main switch, then close
the circuit breaker, and finally close the main switch
ceeding in this
way
by
pro-
the circuit breaker will operate instantly
the short-circuit on the line
still
if
exists.
Directions for starting and stopping motors are given in articles
59 and 61.
83.
Diseases of dynamos.
operate
is
Difficulty in getting a
dynamo
to
most frequently due to a broken connection or a loose
contact.
Always make sure
made and
that the various circuits are free from loose
Troubles
tain contacts.
that the connections are properly
in the
dynamo
according to their symptoms as follows

I.
II.
III.
Sparking
at the
itself
may
commutator.
Heating of commutator and brushes

Heating of armature.
IV. Heating of
field
magnet.
V. Heating of bearings.
VI. Noise.
Symptoms
VIII. Symptoms
VII.
peculiar to generators.
peculiar to motors.
and uncer-
be
classified
176
Sparking and noises
The
by applying the hand to the various parts of the machine, or by holding
the hand in the stream of air that is thrown off from the rotatingoverheating of a
is
readily perceived.
easily detected
In general a temperature that cannot be borne by the
armature.
hand
are, of course,
dynamo may be most
to be considered excessive, although carbon brushes
a commutator in which there
is
no solder may be
and
safely run at a
Of
higher temperature than can be borne by the hand.
course,
much higher temperature in a non-conducting

wood or varnish than it can in a conducting sub-
the hand can bear a
substance like
stance like metal, so that a
little
experience
is
necessary to enable
one to judge whether the temperature of any part of a dynamo
An
odor of burning varnish
is
indicative of serious
overheating, and a machine which shows this
symptom should be
is
excessive.
Never use water or
stopped at once.
I.
Sparking at the commutato7\
ice to cool
a dynamo.
This may be due
to the fol-
lowing causes
1.
Excessive current on account of a simple overload on a
motor or generator, or to a
short-circuit
on the supply mains
leading out from a generator.

2.
Brushes not
3.
Commutator
in
This defect
jump.
proper position.
may
be remedied by using a
which
is
by using
fine
fine file
field
unex-
wood
hollowed out to
fit
is
in
motion and the
the commutator
care must be taken
remove sand and copper dust when the job is finished.

use emery paper or emery cloth on a commutator.
Never
to
If the
commutator surface
is
very uneven, the armature,
too large, must be removed, placed in a lathe, and the

tator turned true
on the
sand-paper applied by a block of
commutator while the armature

cited, or
(See Art. 78.)
surface rough or uneven causing brushes to
and smooth, making one or more
if
not
commu-
fine cuts
with
a diamond-pointed tool.
4.
Very poor balance of the armature may

make the brushes jump.
also cause sufficient
vibration to
5.
Brush contact poor.
This
may be due
to insufficient
brush
77
pressure, or to the fact that the ends of the brushes are not
worn
makes
When the commutator becomes
contact at a few points only.
and
dust
the
ends
of the brushes become dirty
foul with grease
and the contact between the brushes and the commutator is poor.
to the exact shape of the
6.
that the brush
short-circuited coil, or an open-circuited (broken) coil in
may
armature
the
commutator so
cause
This sparking
sparking.
is
always
located at one point on the armature, namely at the commutator
segments
which the defective armature
in
short-circuited coil
partly
by
coil
terminates.
distinguished from an open-circuited coil
is
and, partly
less violent sparking,
Sometimes a
heating in the former case.
by excessive
local
short-circuit or break
occurs on account of the displacement of the armature conductors
by
centrifugal force while the

often very perplexing
on the machine when
test
7.
trical
''Grounds"
machine
is in
inasmuch as
it is
standing
motion.
contact between two or
more
fault
still.
armature winding, that
in
Such a
cannot be detected by
it
is,
accidental elec-
points of the armature con-
ductors and the armature core, will produce sparking.

8.
Weak
in a
indicated
is
motor
by
This cause of sparking
any one of three ways, namely
voltage which
speed
excitation.
field
identified in
associated with
;
(d)
it
in
(a)
may
a generator, or the high
by the weakness of the magnet poles
their attraction for a bit of iron
(care being taken that the bit of iron
is
be
by the low
as
held in the hand
not pulled out of the hand
and thrown against the rotating armature)
(c)
by the abnormally
large angle of lead of the brushes required to give sparkless running.
This
defect,
weak
field
excitation,
is
usually due, in a
shunt or compound dynamo, to an excessively high resistance in

the shunt field circuit due to a faulty contact either in the field
winding
9.
in the
II.
itself
or in the
rheostat
When the
brush-holders the vibration
brushes are improperly held
may
cause them to chatter.
Heating of commutator and brushes.
the following causes

12
field
Chatter of brushes.
This may be due
to
178
Conduction of heat from another and hotter part of the
1.
dynamo.
Sometimes a degree of sparking that is scarcely
Sparking.
2.
visible
may
cause overheating of the brushes and commutator.
Arcing or short-circuit between the commutator segments

This may be due to the collection of
across the mica insulation.
3.
The remedy
metallic particles.
is
to clean the
commutator thor-
oughly.
Imperfect electrical connections between the brushes and the
4.
This frequently happens with carbon brushes.
brush holder.
any
is
case, carbon
brushes heat more than metallic brushes
especially the case
if
In
this
the ends of the carbon brushes do not
fit
the commutator accurately, thus giving a surface of contact which

is
from uniform.
far
upon
Carbon brushes should not be depended
much more
to carry
than 40 amperes per square inch of
contact surface.
Heatiiig of the armature.
III.
This may be
due to the
fol-
lowing causes
Conduction of heat from another and hotter part of the
1.
dynamo.
Overload as explained under cause
2.
(i) for sparking.
This
always causes an overheating of the entire armature.
Poor insulation of armature windings due to moisture.
3.
may
cause local heating
if
the moisture
is
localized.
This
It is indi-
by the steaming of the armature. The wet armature should

be baked for several hours at about 240 F. in an oven, near a
cated
or
fire,
by passing
the armature
the
field
4.
may
full-load current
be
left in
through
it.
In the latter case
the machine and kept in motion, but
should not be excited.
Short-circuited coils.
This produces local heating.
See
discussion of cause (5) of sparking.
IV. Heating of field

1.
coils.
This may be due
Conduction of heat to the
field
coils
to
from another hotter
part of the dynamo.

2.
Excessive current
in
the field coils caused either
by an exces-

sive voltage, or
by the
79
short-circuiting of a portion of the field
winding.
Moisture
3.
in
the field
armature heating,
V. Heating of bearings.
See discussion of cause
coils.
This may be due
to
(3) of
Conduction of heat to the bearings by another and hotter
1.
part of the dynamo.
Any
2.
grit
ing
common
one of the
roughness of shaft
crooked shaft
collar, or pulley, or
mechanical defects
too tight a
fit
lack of
oil
between shaft and bear-
poor alignment of bearings
end thrust of
shoulder on shaft against the bearing
or
excessive belt tension.
Side pull of field magnet upon the armature
3.
ture
is
when
the arma-
nearer to one pole-piece than to the other or others.
VI. Noise.
The
sound produced by almost any machine
perhaps the best indication to an experienced attendant of
The
condition.
legitimate sounds of a
dynamo
are the
movement
by pulsating or
noises are the following
The
1.
vibration
to
currents.
and demag-
The abnormal
accompanied by more or
fluttering noise
due
The
2.
alternating
tips of
of the iron parts,
especially of the laminations, as they are magnetized
netized
its
humming
sounds due chiefly to the armature teeth as they pass the

the pole pieces, and to the slight
is
less violent
unbalanced armature or pulley.
noise due to the striking of the armature against the
pole pieces, or to the striking of the shaft collar, or pulley, or

belt against the bearings.
and
at full
speed
it is
like
against the pole pieces
At low speed this is a scraping noise,

No. i. The striking of the armature
may
be detected by the scraping noise at
low speed, by the abrasion of the armature
surface, or
by look-
ing through the gap space in front of the various pole pieces.
3.
noise
4.
Rattling noise due to loose parts, such as screws.

is
most perceptible
at
This
moderately low speeds.
Flapping of belt or the pounding of the laced or cemented
joint against the
pulley.
certain
amount of
flapping
and
l8o
pounding noise
unavoidable and legitimate, but a whip-like
is
crack as the joint passes over the pulley indicates a loose lacing.
5.
sharp screeching noise, like that produced by rubbing
the hand over a varnished table, indicates the slipping of the belt
due either to overload or to
A squeaking or
6.
When
this
produced by the brushes.
is
may be
of this noise
brush at a time,
finger against one

in
hissing noise
becomes very prominent, a
The source
brush
insufficient belt tension.
each
set,
The
commutator.
little
vaseline
needed.
is
determined by pressing the

or, if
one brush at a time
there
is
may
be
chattering of the brushes
more than one

lifted
from the
indicated
is
by
noise intermediate between a rattle and a screech.
VII.
Symptoms
which have
to
up
may
at all,
it
may become
I.
of trouble peculiar to a generator are those
do with
its
voltage.
The
generator
may
not build
develop only a weak electromotive force, or
it
reversed.
Failure to build up.
This
is
perhaps the trouble most
The
quently encountered in the starting of a generator.
fre-
follow-
ing brief statements of the causes of failure to build up are based
upon the
full
discussion in Art. 44.
(a) Excessive resistance in the field circuit
tact or
an actual break.
excessively high resistance
due to a poor con-
The brush contacts often have an

when a generator is first started, and
a momentary pressure of the fingers on the brush or brushes
may
enable the machine to build up.

(d)
short circuit in the machine or in the external circuit
prevents a shunt generator from building up.

(r)
Residual magnetism too weak.
In this case the
be disconnected from the armature and excited for a
field
must
moment from
an outside source.
(d) Reversed connections or reversed direction of rotation.
(See Art. 44.)

(e)
Brushes not
this treatise the
tions
when they
in
proper position.
In
all
brushes are represented as

are nearly
midway between
of the discussion in
in their
proper posi-
the field poles.
T/its

however
is
seldom or never the Case in actual machines because the
connections
the armature conductors to the commutator seg-
from
That position of the brushes
ments are seldom or never radial.
which gives a
indicated
l8l
maximum
by a voltmeter
electromotive force between
is
at full speed
due to an excess of resistance
is
as
the proper position.
Excessively low voltage of a shunt generator which
2.
them
is
driven
shunt
in the
field
circuit.
When
Reversal of a generator.
3.
a machine
standing idle
is
be reversed by proximity to another
residual magnetism may

dynamo, or by stray current from some outside source. When
the generator is next started it will build up in a direction the
its
This reversal of a generator
reverse of that desired.
rected
by stopping the machine,
exciting
its field
for
may be cora moment in
the proper direction from some outside source, and then starting
it
up
again.
When
shunt
bus
field
number
of generators are to
windings of
* bars, for then
Symptoms
of
be run
in parallel, the
them should be connected
to the
not possible for one of the machines to
it is
become reversed with

VIII.
all
respect to the others.
of trouble peculiar to a motor are abnormal
variations of speed, and,
inasmuch as the speed of a
series
motor
varies greatly under ordinary running conditions, the following
simple statements apply primarily to the shunt motor.

1
This
Failure to start.
connection, but
it
may
is
most
likely to
be due to a faulty
be due to excessive starting
friction,
or to
a combination of moderate starting friction with an under-excitation of the field magnet.

2.
Running
at
low speed.
a greatly over-excited
field,
This might conceivably be due to
but
it
is
more probably due
to an
over-load, or to the combination of a heavy load with an under-
excited
3.
field.
Running
* Omnibus
which receive
at excessive speed.
bars, the bars

all
This never occurs on a very
which run along the back of the switchboard panels and
the current from
all
of the generators.
82
heavy
The
load.
It
is
generally due to under-excitation of
displacement of the brushes from
their
causes a shunt motor to run faster than
not too great, but this
load
is
and
this trouble, therefore, is
class
proper positions
normal speed
if its
always accompanied by sparking
covered by the discussion under
I.
84.
Tests for faults in armatures.*
below, the
is
is
its
field.
field
of the machine
is
In the four tests described
not excited and the armature
not run.
{a)
Tests for broken leads.
stitute for
Clean
the commutator and sub-
one of the regular brushes a piece of sheet metal which
touches one commutator bar at a time.
Connect a low voltage
and low resistance battery through an ammeter to the metal

brush and to the carbon brush, and turn the armature very slowly
by hand causing the metal brush to make good contact with each
commutator bar in succession. Usually there are two leads soldered to each commutator bar.
will
A break in
any one of these leads
be indicated by a reduced deflection of the ammeter, and a
in both leads will be indicated by zero deflection of the

ammeter when the metal brush touches the commutator segment
break
to
which the
(b)
If
faulty leads belong.
no broken lead
the armature winding
is
itself
found by
may
test [a), a
broken
be located as follows
the low resistance battery through an ammeter to

strips
which touch adjacent commutator
ture very slowly
by hand.
An
bars,
circuit in
Connect
two metal
and turn the arma-
armature section which
is
broken,
or which has an abnormally high resistance, will be indicated by
a reduced deflection of the ammeter.
armature section
will
In this test a short-circuited
be indicated by an increased ammeter de-
flection.
In both of these tests {a) and
{b)
the
ammeter
circuit will
be
repeatedly broken as the metal brush (or brushes) rides over the
^See paper on " Location of Grounds in Armatures, Fields,
Am. I. E. E.y Vol. XIL, pages 260-267.
ford, Trans.
etc.,"
by C. E.
Gif-
83
mica insulation between the commutator bars, and care must be

taken to distinguish these breaks from the partial or complete
may be found
breaks which
tact with the
may
commutator
bars.
Test for short-circuit.
(c)
make good con-
while the brushes
short-circuited armature section
perhaps be best located as follows
Pass a current from a
battery through the armature, using the regular brushes of the
Then
machine.
take a very low reading voltmeter (or a galva-
nometer), connect wire leads to
one pair
to
after
it,
and touch these wire leads
another of adjacent commutator bars.
zero
or greatly reduced deflection of the voltmeter indicates a shortcircuited section.
{d) Test for ground.

that
is,
ground
armature winding,
in the
a connection between the armature winding and the arma-
ture core
dynamo
may be
brushes.
located as follows
Connect a battery to the
Bring two leads from a very low reading volt-
meter (or a galvanometer) and connect one of these leads to the
armature shaft and the other to one

tator bars.
A deflection
the ground
is
after
another of the
commu-
of the voltmeter indicates a ground, and
located near the commutator bar that gives the
least deflection.
85
Rules for personal safety.
from the passage of an
Personal
injury
severe burns due to a short circuit of the mains
To
or other metal tool held in the hands.
the
body must not be made a portion of an

example,
To make
course,
in the replacing of a
the
burned out
body a portion of an
result
by a screw-driver
avoid the
first
danger
electric circuit
avoid the second danger never use a metal tool on

for
may
through the body, or from
electric current
live
to
wires as,
fuse.
electric circuit requires, of
To
two points of contact with the body.
avoid this
it is
important to use one hand, only, in manipulating apparatus which

is
connected with
live
wires, the
pocket or held behind the back.

this
other hand being put

It
must not be forgotten,
connection, that the greatest risk
through the hand to the
feet
in the
when one
lies
in
making a
in
circuit
stands on a moist floor
84
and when there
is
working with
A workman
a ground on one main.
Rubber overshoes,
live wires.
insulate a person effectively
they are whole,
if
from the ground, and the use of
rubber gloves and of tools with insulated handles

advisable.
It is
should,
on a dry wooden box or platform when
therefore, always stand
however, not to use
better,
sometimes
is
devices on
such
account of the habit of carelessness they develop.
The
idea that voltages above a certain
dangerous
of the two contacts with the

as low as
minimum,
only, are
Everything depends upon the nature
erroneous.
is
body and
lo volts are dangerous
Voltages
their proximity.
body
the contacts with the
if
are broad metal plates pressed against the moist skin.
An
electrical
shock often produces death indirectly by stopping
the action of the respiratory organs, and in every case a prompt
attempt should be
artificial
from the water

86.
The
rates at its
when
made
in a
first
aid to a person
who
is
taken
drowning condition.
operation of generators in paralleL
maximum
A generator opeTherefore
efficiency at or near full load.
the total output of a station varies from hour to hour, as
always does
in electric lighting
and
desirable to use several generators

vice
by the method of
to restore respiration
breathing employed as a
one
after
street railway service,
which may be put
it
it
is
into ser-
the other as the station output increases, and dis-
connected one after the other as the station output decreases

the object being to maintain nearly
generators which are in
when each generator

the engines also
conditions.
is
is
driven
may then be
full
load at
This
all
especially advisable
by a separate
engine, inasmuch as
operated under the most economical
This use of a number of generating units
also advantageous in that a spare unit (engine
may be
times upon the
is
service.
installed at a
moderate cost to serve
in
a station
and generator)
in case
of a break-
down, whereas a single-unit station would have to be completely

duplicated in order to provide for such an emergency.
When a number
in
of shunt or
a station as above
compound
generators are installed
explained they are always operated in

seldom used
Series generators are
parallel.
I8S
in combination,
but
when they are so used they are always operated in series.

The proper division of the total load among a number of shunt
generators connected in parallel depends simply upon the adjust-
ment of their respective shunt field

a number of compound generators connected
shown
in Fig.
unstable
this
proper
To
obviate
and ensure the

of
distribution
among
other hand,
constitute an
system.
instability
On the
as
parallel
in
1 1 1
rheostats.
load
number of compound
generators operating in parallel,

the so-called equalizing arrange-
ment
of
This
equalizing
connections
is
used.
Fig. Ill,
arrangement
consists simply of the connection of the series field coils of all
the generators in parallel with each other, independently of the

parallel connections of the generator armatures, as
1 1
2.
Two
distinct conditions
must be
satisfied
shown
in Fig.
by the arrange-
Fig. 112.
ment shown
among
(a)
in Fig.
12 to ensure the proper division of the load
the several generators, namely
Each compound generator must be separately adjusted to

same degree of compounding, by means of a German
give the
86
shunt
silver
its
shown
(not
vS
in Fig.
1 1
The
[b)
total resistances aa' ^
and
bb'
in parallel
with
among
The use
in size
and
The
the several series field coils.
compound
two or more compound generators connected
instability of
may
be shown as follows
pounded generators connected

Suppose that the machines
is
machine
If
increased speed a
is
Consider two over-com-
in parallel as
and
in Fig.
1 1 1
is
being delivered to
then runs momentarily at a slightly
momentary
increase of
its
produced, which causes an increase
and a corresponding decrease
delivers
shown
are running steadily and that
giving half of the total current that
the mains.
force
possible to
it
generators which are very different
in design.
in parallel
each
makes
of the equalizing arrangement
operate in parallel
must be
112,
This ensures the proper division of the
respective generators.
total current
Fig.
cc' ^
load current outputs of the
inversely proportional to the full
it
connected
2)
series field coil as explained in Art. 50.
in
in
the current which
the current delivered
causes a
further increase of the induced voltage of this machine,
inasmuch
The
by B.^
as
it is
increase of load current in machine
understood to be over-compounded, and
this increase of
induced electromotive force causes a further increase of load cur-
At
rent in A.
decrease of
its
current
its
still
load between
the
same time the lessened current
more, and so on.
and
when once
negative load current in machine
(or A), that
comes a motor and takes po\^r from the

Generator panels.
due
causes a
extreme and
is
(or
B) and a
one machine be-
other.
The accessory apparatus belonging
one of a number of generators operating

is
This unequal distribution of

started goes to an
leads to an excessive load current in machine
* This
in
induced electromotive force which tends to decrease
to the fact that the
in parallel is
to each
mounted on
two machines form together a closed
circuit of
very low resistance, and a slight difference in the electromotive forces of the two machines causes a large current to flow around this circuit adding to the load current of
one machine and subtracting from the load current of the other.
187
a switch-board panel, and these panels, called generator panels,
shown
are arranged side by side as

lines represent the panels
connections.
Fig.
and the
inasmuch as Fig.
13,
dotted
represent the electrical
14 shows a special form of switch for opening
the shunt field circuit of a generator.

in Fig.
The
Fig. 113.
in
full lines
is
13
This switch
drawn
t ^1
'
not shown
^bus bar
V")
is
to too small a scale.
^bus bar
equalizing
\
-000-
^\\
B'
bus bar
22"
jm^<(^W- \smLj\^y^
F"
F'
\SlSLSSi9SU
Fig.
G^ and
^^ and
and
are
j^^^ their
S^^ are
shunts,
C^''
two
shunt
field rheostats,
triple-pole switches,
and B^ and B^^ are
the dotted lines
When
113.
two compound generators, F^ and F^^
show
and (7 and
A^ and
(7''
A^^ are ammeters,
The
circuit breakers.
persists in flowing across the
winding of
every time the

is
and
dynamo
break
field
more
many
switch
is
s^^
are
in the
is
S^
ammeter
small dotted circles v^ and
spark on account of the great electrical
and, what
s^
the electrical connections of the two voltmeters
the shunt field circuit of a
in a field
their shunt field windings,
their series field windings.
V^ and
z/^
and
V^^.
broken the current
form of a long arc or
momentum
turns of wire.
This
of a current
arc,
occurring
opened, destroys the switch contacts,
serious, the high electromotive force developed
i88
across the break and between the terminals of the field winding
ment shown
in Fig.
is
The arrange-
likely to puncture the insulation of the winding.
14 obviates these difficulties in the following
manner
The two
field
wires
/ and /'
connect to the armature terminals, the
rheostat being placed in the field circuit at any convenient
To open
point.
shunt eld
circuit the
the shunt
metal arm
field
A is turned
slowly to the position A^.
winding
first
arm
the
At
breaks contact
with the metal block 3 and connects the comparatively high reIf
Av.
sistance r in series with the field
This leaves the shunt
winding.
field
circuit
unbroken so that
the current can continue to flow,

P'
but,
on account of the high
sistance
Fig. 114.
slowly,
breaks contact with the metal block
a,
In a
the current dies
the current
small that serious arcing across the break
Feeder panels.
large lighting or
re-
away
and by the time the arm
r,
is
is
already so
obviated.
power
station a
number
of separate circuits are usually supplied with current from a set
Thus Fig. 115 shows the essential connections of three compound generators in parallel supplying current to three circuits F, G and H.
The pairs of wires
and
called
F^ G
are
feeders.
The apparatus for controlling
the feeders is usually mounted upon one or more switch-board
of parallel-connected generators.
panels, called feeder panels.
These feeder panels are arranged
along side of the generator panels, and the
run along behind

Fig.
all
-|-
and
bus bars
of the panels.
16 shows a front, back and side elevation, and the dia-
gram connections of a feeder panel designed by the General

Electric Company for two pairs of feeders.
Each feeder circuit
is controlled by a double-pole switch and a circuit breaker, and an

ammeter
is
arranged to indicate the current delivered to each

In the diagram of connections in Fig. 116 each
pair of feeders.
ammeter
is
shown
an arrangement
is
as a millivoltmeter connected to a shunt,
in series
as to serve as a voltmeter.
The
7
1
with a high resistance so
four short lines at the bottom
of the diagram of connections in Fig.

1
and
provided whereby each miUivoltmeter can be
connected across the bus bars
Fig.
189
16 are the feeders.
a front view of a complete switch-board, of the
is
General Electric Company's design, consisting of two generator

panels and two feeder panels, and Fig.
bus
bus bar
1 1
is
a back view of the
bar
bus
h bus
bar
+ bus
bar
bus bar
bar
Fig. 115.
The large
same.
horizontal bars
are the bus bars.
The
shown near the top
details of
in Fig.
(except the circuit breaker at the top) are given in Fig.
which shows a
front,
1 1
one of the generator panels

119,
back, and side elevation of the panel and a
diagram of the connections. This panel is shown without a voltmeter, and the ''potential buses" are simply voltmeter leads
running along back of the switch-board, so that a single voltmeter placed anywhere on the board may be connected through
these
'
potential buses " to
ers, at will,
any machine, or to any pair of feedby means of a plug switch which is pushed into the
" receptacle."
Fig. 1 19 shows a pair of fuses instead of a circuit
breaker for protecting the generator.
The ammeter is shown in
190
J,
S%M^
g\m-
it
^
B
i^
^^g
li
-l(oj3
l"
MM
oUoVj
oKotJ
c:
II
o| (O)^
._.

Fig.
I91
19 as a millivoltmeter connected to a shunt and also ar-
ranged to be connected through a high resistance to the bus bars

so that
it
may be
lines in the
used as a voltmeter
diagram of connections
(not on the panel)
if
in Fig.
desired.
1
which may be connected
The
dotted
9 show a voltmeter
1
either to the
main
bus bars or to the ''potential buses."
One
of the feeder panels in Fig.
7,
switches, controls eight pairs of feeders
having eight two-pole
and the other controls
Fig. 117.
six pairs of feeders.
tected not
by
circuit
which figure gives a
The
feeders on both of these panels are pro-
breakers but by fuses as shown in Fig.

front, back,
and
of connections of that panel in Fig.
side elevation
1
20,
and a diagram
7 which controls eight pairs
192
The
of feeders.
tions in Fig.
eight pairs of feeders in the diagram of connec-
20 are the short
vertical lines
small semi-circles which represent the fuses.
beneath the sixteen
Two
lamps and a
ground connection are provided on the panel shown

for use as a
ground detector as explained
The first
generator that
Fig.
as explained in Art. 82.
lows
1
is
in operation,
The
13, is
Fig.
a subsequent
120
article.
Starting and stopping of generators which are operated in
87.
paralleL
113,
in
in Fig.
put into operation
is
started
118.
After the
first
generator, say G'
Fig.
the others are started one at a time, as fol-
driving engine
is
slowly brought up to
14, is
is
started
full
and the generator,
speed.
then closed and the machine
The shunt
is
C,
Fig.
field switch,
brought up to a volt-

age equal to that of the generator or generators already
tion,
by adjusting the shunt
field rheostat, R'', Fig. 113.
the load.
S^CroSftlQ
^S=
=J
1
|o
1
&
JT
o_o
13
in opera-
Then
S" is closed and the field rheostat R" is

to make the generator G" take its share of
the triple-pole switch
again finally adjusted
93
1
1
LI
11
194
If
on
starting the generator
direction,
which
is
G^\it should build up
sometimes the
in
a reversed
case, then the closing of the
switch 5'' would be disastrous, inasmuch as the two generators,
G^ and
C would
act together to
produce an excessive current
If)
Is
Hii'
T^
c=fli{Hr
CD
I
CZD

through the local
formed by the two machines.
circuit
therefore, very important, in starting a generator
connected
in parallel
which
is
ensured (a) by leaving the series
connected
shunt
field
field coils
explained below, or
in circuit, as
shown
This
but to the bus bars.
Never open the shunt
(^)
is
switch of a generator which
field
stop a generator which
shunt
field
its
rheostat until
the ammeter.
and 119,
called " bus excitation."
To do
this
is
makes the generaand the arma-
be burned out.
likely to
increase the resistance in

its
This con-
by connecting the
tor armature a short-circuit for the other machines
To
is,
permanently
Figs, iii, ii2, 113
in
operating in parallel with others.
is
It
to be
windings of the generators, not to the brushes of the
respective machines, as
ture
95
with others already in operation, to be sure
that the generator builds up in the proper direction.

dition
is
Then open
is
operating in parallel with others
shunt
its
load
field circuit
by manipulating
very small as indicated by
is
the triple pole switch belonging to the
generator, and stop the driving engine.
Feeder control.
central
usually delivers current
station
over a number of feeder circuits to a number of " distributing

points," from each of
rent through a
which a small
district is
network of mains.
It is
supplied with cur-
desirable, especially in
the distribution of current for incandescent lighting, to maintain
an unchanging voltage at every distribution point.

tance of this requirement
of voltage shortens the
-s
life
due to the
The impor-
fact that a slight excess
of incandescent lamps, and that a
sHght deficiency of voltage greatly reduces their candle power.
number
by proper adjustment of the voltage
constant voltage can be maintained at any one of a
of centers of distribution
between the bus bars

voltages at two or
at the station
more independent
but to maintain constant

centers of distribution the
voltage between each pair offeeders at the station must be adjusted

separately.
tained at
Let
and
j5
be the constant voltages to be main-
two centers a and
b,
R the
resistance of the
a feeders,
R' the resistance of the b feeders, / the current demanded
at ^,
196
and
/' the current
demanded
at
Then
b.
A + RI
is
sary voltage between the a feeders at the station, and
the neces-
-\-
R' F
is
the necessary voltage between the b feeders at the station, and,

since
equal
/ and
/'
vary independently,
A + RI
cannot
in general
be
B \- R' I'
X.o
The maintenance
of a prescribed
constant voltage at each
upon the proper control of the
center of distribution depends
The
voltage between each pair of feeders at the switch board.
following methods of feeder control are feasible in direct-current
Methods of feeder control employed
stations.
tions are described in a subsequent

(i)
One method
Rheostat method.
insert a
volume of
low resistance rheostat
in
in alternating sta-
this text.
of feeder control
each feeder
is
to
circuit at the switch
board, to keep the voltage between the bus bars at the highest
value required by any of the feeders, and to lower the voltage
between each pair of feeders
to the desired value
by adjusting
these rheostats.
(2)
stat
ergy
The
Combination three bus and rheostat method.
method of feeder
in
the rheostats
much below
rheo-
control involves a considerable loss of en-
when many
the bus bar voltage.
of the feeders require voltages
This loss of energy
may be
by operating the generators in two independent

sets, each set consisting of one or more generators operating in
parallel, so that one set may be operated at a voltage somewhat
higher than that of the other set. Then all of the feeders requirgreatly reduced
ing higher voltages

ators,
plied
and
all
may be
first
of the feeders requiring lower voltages
from the second
controlling
supplied from the
set of generators.
set of gener-
may be
sup-
In this arrangement the
rheostats for adjusting the feeder voltages to the
exact desired values absorb but
The operation
little
power.
of the generators in two independent sets requires
only three bus bars inasmuch as one bus bar can serve as the
common
When
positive (or negative) terminal of all of the generators.
the combination
method of feeder
wire of each pair of feeders
is
control
connected to the
is
used, one
common
positive

(or negative) bus bar,
over switch, so that
two negative (or
and the other wire
it
may
positive)
is
9/
connected to a change-
be connected at
will to either of the
Arrangements must also be
bus bars.
provided for quickly altering the connections on the switch board
may
so that any given generator
generators at
The
(3)
will.
booster method.
to connect an
be operated with either set of
method of feeder control
third
auxiliary generator in series with
cuit at the station, so that
by changing
each feeder
is
cir-
the field excitation of this
generator the feeder voltage
may
above the bus bar voltage.
This method of feeder control
be raised to any desired extent

is
not
adapted to a direct current lighting station where the feeder vol-
by only a few
tages differ from the bus bar voltage
much
in the
power would be
excessive,
much
is,
however, frequently used
For example, suppose
stations.
supplying current to four or
suppose that
it
to
excessive
amount of
capital
feeder, or a very large
power
five miles
becomes necessary
an extension of the railway.
and
The
station
is
erected
of electric railway, and
supply current from
this
In such a case either an
must be invested
drop amounting
booster
railway power
electric
in
that a
station to
volts
greater perhaps than
simple rheostat method of feeder control.
method
for
would be too expensive and the
as the auxiliary generators
losses of
volts, inas-
to
in a
heavy copper
one or two hundred
The latter alternative is usually chosen

make up for the excessive voltage drop by
must be permitted.
it is
desirable to
increasing the feeder voltage at the station.
This
is
done by con-
necting the armature of a one or two hundred volt generator in

the feeder circuit at the station.
may
This auxiliary generator, which
be either engine or motor driven,
is
called a booster.
The
booster used as here described would have series field excitation,

so that
its
electromotive force would be roughly proportional to
the current flowing through

distant
end of the feeder
tive of the
The
it,
circuit
amount of current
thus keeping the voltage at the
approximately constant irrespec-
delivered.
use of the booster as outlined in the above example would
198
be commercially economical
the feeder,
the
if
demand
in spite of
for
power
the great loss of
power
in
at the distant section of the
railway lasts but two or three hours each day, otherwise the use
of the booster should be looked upon as a temporary expedient,
inasmuch as a continuous
rant either the use of a
loss of
much
power
in
the feeder might war-
larger feeder or the installation of
the alternating-current long-distance transmission system which

is
described in a subsequent volume of this text.

Modifications of the connections
iig.
field
windings of
parallel as
shown
112, iij and
in Figs.
sometimes considered desirable to leave the
It is
set,
all
the
always
compound
whether
in circuit,
One
are delivering current or not.
series
generators which operate
in
of the generators
all
reason for this
may
be best
explained by an example.
Given two similar compound generators arranged
Suppose that
operation.
it is
for parallel
desired to provide a ten per cent,
increase of voltage at the station at full-load to compensate for a
ten per cent, line drop at full-load so as to provide for a constant
voltage at the end of the
line, that is, at
the lamps.
Now
if
is
machine),
not desirable to have the voltage more than
per cent,
is
it
station load
But
excess of the zero-load value.
in
is
carried
by one generator and
if
is
series field coil of the generator
disconnected, then the
this generator will give its
full
five
this half of full
the series field coil
which
is
in action,
normal full-load voltage which
ten per cent, in excess of the zero-load voltage.
hand, both series
if
current output will flow
of the other
through the
and
the
half full-load value (equal to full-load on one
station output
field coils are left
If,
is
on the other
connected, then only one half
of the current output of the station (and of the one generator)

flows through each series field coil and the voltage does not rise to
no
per cent, of the zero-load value, nor indeed to 105 per cent,
See problems on Chapter VII.

Another advantage of leaving all the series field
for that matter.
nently in circuit
is
coils
perma-
that the field excitation due to these coils always
causes each generator to build up in the right direction at start-
A third
ing.
advantage of leaving the series
nently in circuit
field coils
that the series field excitation
is
added to the shunt

shunt
its
On
connected.
rheostat
field
is
99
perma-
not suddenly
on closing the switch.
field excitation
case the newly connected machine does not take
load until
In this
any appreciable
adjusted after the machine
is
is
the other hand, the series field coils being dis-
connected and the machine being of course brought up to the

station voltage
full
by the shunt
field
connected, the sudden increase of
produced by connecting the

its
When
manently
is
make
its
all
is
take
left
per-
main switches S' and S'\ Fig. 113, are of

field coil
its
in starting is essentially as
The operation
it
is
load excessive until
with a single-pole switch for opening or closing
88.
which
make
the generators are
course two-pole switches, and each series
but the procedure
it
again adjusted.
the series field coils of

in circuit, the
field excitation
series field coil, tends to
load suddenly, and perhaps to
the shunt field rheostat
its
excitation before
test.
Most
is
provided
circuit at will
above described.
electric stations
and equipments
are installed under contracts which are completed only

station or
equipment has been put into
the constructing engineer.
This of course implies an operation
under the supervision of the con-
test of the electrical installation
This
structing engineer.
as
it
satisfactory
when the
operation by
test is
a most important one, inasmuch
frequently brings to light essential details which have been
overlooked, and inasmuch as
person
who
is
it
gives an opportunity for the
to take charge of the apparatus to
work
for several
days under the direction of a more experienced engineer.

operation test
in the regular
foregoing
The
carried out by following the procedure involved

management of the installation as explained in the
is
articles,
the various machines being started with the
utmost caution and a sharp watch being kept for symptoms indicative of trouble.
T/ie
performance
test.
Aside from
the testing of individual
machines to make sure that they meet the guaranteed regulation

(see Art.
48), efficiency (see Arts.
64, 65 and 6Z), and rating
200
(see Art. 75),
is
it
usual to
make
a test of a completed station,
economy
including boilers and engines to determine the

station as a
whole
guaranteed,
make
sure that a certain station economy,
if
realized.
is
An ammeter
Ammeters.
89.
to
of the
is
a galvanometer with a pointer
which plays over a divided scale and
indicates, directly, the value
of the current flowing through the instrument.
many cases
In
small but definite fractional part, only, of the current flows through
the ammeter, the remainder flowing through a
low resistance
may
be made to give
The numbers on
shunt.
the
ammeter
scale
the value of the total current including that which flows through
the shunt.
If desired,
may
the instrument
be
provided with
several interchangeable shunts of different resistances, so that the
instrument
may
be used to measure large or small currents
In such a case the scale readings must be multiplied
will.
factor to give the total current,
low
for a
resistance shunt
and
has a large value
this factor
and a small value
at
by a
for a
high resistance
shunt.
There are
(a)
five distinct
types of ammeters, namely
The tangent-galvanometer type
in
tached to a small permanent magnet which

current to be indicated.
(d)
This type
is
The D'Arsonval-galvanometer type
in
to be indicated (or a definite fractional part of
ent steel magnet.
The
pointer
is
is
deflected
now seldom
small suspended or pivoted coil which
is
which the pointer
is at-
by the
used.
which the current

it)
flows through a
deflected
by a perman-
attached to the pivoted
coil.
is much used for precision ammeters for direct currents.

The Weston direct-current ammeters are of this type.
(c) The electrodynamometer type, in which the current to be
This type
indicated (or a definite fractional
stationary coil
The
force action
between the two
and causes an attached pointer

type
it is
is
much
part of
and a movable (pivoted)
coil
it)
flows
through a
connected in
coils deflects the
series.
pivoted coil
to play over a divided scale.
This
used for precision ammeters for alternating current
suitable also for direct current, but
it
has the disadvantage
20I
that the deflecting forces are small, so that the instrument
be very
Another disadvantage of
finely constructed.
when used
must
this
type
for direct currents is that the direction of deflection is
not reversed by a reversal of the current.
{d) The hot wire type
which the current to be indicated
in
flows through a fine wire, which
by
its
rise
of temperature and
consequent expansion, actuates a pointer which plays over a

This type of instrument, although very cheap in
divided scale.
construction, has not yet
of
its
(e)
come
into very general use
on account
inconstancy.
The plunger
and deflected by a
indicated,
ammeter
type.
ammeters
variety of
in
coil of
The
flows.
This type includes
which a piece of
of the great
is
magnetized
wire through which the current to be
simplest form
that from which
is
all
soft iron
it
takes
wire and a soft iron plunger which
is
of the
its
plunger type of
name, namely a
drawn
coil of
by the
into the coil
current, in opposition to the pull of a spring or to the pull of
In the most approved form of plunger
gravity.
iron vane
springs,
soft iron
is
attached
to
a pivot which
and the instrument
is
ammeter a
by
controlled
soft
hair
so designed as to magnetize the
vane strongly, even when the current to be indicated
a small fraction of that which gives a

ment.
is
full deflection
is
of the instru-
This accomplishes the double purpose of making the
deflections
more nearly proportional
to
the current, and of
eliminating the errors due to magnetic hysteresis, that
tendency of the iron vane to retain
its
is,
to the
magnetism with a decreas-
ing current.
The plunger type
of instrument
is
used more than any other
for switch-boards, especially for alternating currents.
current instrument
its
deflection
is
it
As
a direct-
has the disadvantage that the direction of
not reversed by a reversal of the current.
90. Voltmeters.
The voltmeter
is
a high-resistance ammeter,
the scale of which, instead of giving the value
of the current
flowing through the instrument, gives the value of the electro-
motive force
ri
between the terminals of the instrument, r being
202
There
the resistance of the instrument.
is
but one type of volt-
meter, namely; the electrostatic voltmeter, which
an ammeter.
indicated
is
In this instrument the electromotive force to be
connected to two insulated metal plates.
then attract each other, and one plate which
pended
is
The
the above statement
scale.
might seem that there
it
plates
delicately sus-
which plays over a divided
carries a pointer
From
not essentially
is
is
no
differ-
ence between ammeters and voltmeters, whereas the failure on the

part of a novice to appreciate the very important difference leads
to
many
ing
its
placed in a circuit the current
may
when
meter, on the other hand,
and
tion with a very small current,
always high.
dynamo
small that
its
When the
its
instrument
on the system
is
is
therefore
connected to the terminals
or to supply mains the current which

effect
volt-
its full deflec-
resistance
its
is
resistance.
always designed to give
is
it is
flow through the instrument
with the least possible opposition due to
of a
An ammeter, includ-
serious accidents in the laboratory.
shunt, always has a very low resistance, so that
it
takes
is
so
negligibly small.
The tangent-galvanometer type of voltmeter is seldom used.

The D'Arsonval galvanometer type is frequently used for direct
current circuits.
The electrodynamometer type of voltmeter is
used for precision measurements of alternating voltages.
The
plunger type
is
most frequently used
for
switch-board instru-
ments, especially for alternating currents.

Voltmeter multiplying
coils.
If
an auxiliary resistance be con-
nected in series with a voltmeter, the instrument

motive force which
is
is
by the instrument
indicates the
still
and the
total electro-
greater than the electromotive force

in the ratio
resistance of the instrument
This auxiliary resistance

coils are frequently
terminals,
forcing current through the auxiliary resist-
ance and the instrument

indicated
its
is
used
and
is
(rt
-h
K)lr, where r
called a multiplying
in this
way
is
the
the auxiliary resistance.

coil.
to adapt a
Multiplying
low reading
volt-
meter to higher voltages.

91.
The wattmeter.
Power
delivered
by
direct-current mains

is
usually calculated from
method
is
A method
ammeter and voltmeter
203
readings.
This
not however applicable in case of alternating current.

for
measuring power which
is
always applicable
The wattmeter
means of the wattmeter.
is
by
a special form of
is
electro-dynamometer, the connections of which are shown in Fig-
121.
coil of fine wire,
A,
is
connected to the mains
in series
with a non-inductive resistance R.
This
fine
wire coil
is
delicately
suspended inside of a stationary

coarse wire
coil,
B, through which
flows the current that
is
delivered
lamps or other receiving
to the
The force
units L.
the two coils
action between
and
is
definite
Fig. 121.
for
a definite value of power de-
livered to L, be the voltage high
and the current small, or the
voltage low and the current large.

the movable
coil.
that the scale of the instrument
watts directly.
Therefore the deflection of
A, depends only upon the power delivered, so
The wattmeter
wattmeter to distinguish
it
is
may be
arranged to indicate
sometimes called the indicating
from the watt-hour meter which
is
sometimes improperly called a recording wattmeter.
wattmeter connected as shown
in
Fig. 121, indicates the
Fig. 123.
Fig. 122.
power delivered
On
to
plus the power lost in heating the coil B.
the other hand, a wattmeter connected as
indicates the
power delivered
to
shown
in
Fig. 122
plus the power delivered to the
204
The compensated wattmeter of the Weston ElecInstrument Company is designed to eliminate these sources
AR.
circuit
trical
This wattmeter
of error.
is
the wire leading to the coil
connected as shown
is
and laid alongside of the windings of

Let
/ be
current flowing through
proportional to
coil
it
By
as
the
two
if
as
coils in Fig.
is
shown
let
E be
be the current flowing through
is
and the
(Z-|- i),
^X
force action
123
is
Z,
only,
this
were flowing
proportional to iyÎ,
power
and R.
Then
the
coils is
in
it,
is
reduced to what
so that the force action
or to
E\RyÎ,
or to
between
That
EI.
is,
may be
so that the scale
correctly.
The watt-hour meter
integrating the total
the voltage between
laying the fine wire along side of the coarse wire in
proportional to the power delivered to
arranged to indicate
in Fig. I2j.
between the two
in Fig. 123, the electromagnetic action of coil
the current
the force action
92.
let i
X (^+ 0*
shown
would be
the current flowing through Z, Fig. 122
the terminals of Z, and
in Fig. 122, dul
carried back through the coil
is
an instrument for summing up or
work or energy
delivered to a circuit.
It is
used chiefly as a meter for recording the amount of energy delivered to a
customer by a central
station.
The Thomson
hour meter of the General Electric Company

direct
and alternating current service
meter
is
is
suitable for both
the induction watt-hour
suitable only for alternating current service.
tion watt-hour
meter
is
watt-
The
induc-
described in a later volume of this text.

The Thomson meter
armature and
mometer.
cuit in the
Fig.
as the wattmeter
1
an electrodyna-
shown
to the coil B^
and non-inductive resistance
and the
resistance
led into the rotating armature
is
cir-
The
in Fig. 122.
motor correspond
24, of this
24, correspond to the coil
Current
122.
of which constitute
and the armature
Fig. 122,
Fig.
same way
BB^
a small electric motor without iron, the
connected to the mains and to the receiving
It is
field coils,
is
coils
field
205
i?.
of Fig.
by means of
dd which rub very lightly upon a small silver

The armature A is mounted on a vertical spindle
the metal brushes
commutator
which
e.
and the opposition to
as nearly frictionless as possible,
is
due mostly to the electromagnetic drag of the per-
rotation
is
manent
steel
MM
magnets
upon the copper disk
which
is
attached to the armature spindle.

The integrating action of the watt-hour meter
the armature rotates at a speed which
is
the retarding torque with which the magnets

to the speed.
as follows
is
In the
first
place,
proportional to the driving torque, because
MM
upon the disk/
act
In the second place, the driving torque
is
proportional
is
EI
proportional to
exactly
as in the case of the force action between the coils of a wattmeter as explained in
Art. 91.
Therefore, the speed of the armature
power delivered
that
is
proportional at each instant to the
is
the revolutions per hour of the spindle
is
proportional at
each instant to the watt-hours of work delivered per hour, so that the total number
of revolutions of the spindle in a given time is proportional to the watt-hours of work
delivered during that time.
The starting coil. In the above discussion

opposes the rotation of the armature
is
true inasmuch as the retarding torque consists of
which
assumed that the torque which
is
it
proportional to the speed.
two
parts,
This
is
not strictly
namely, mechanical
fric-
nearly constant irrespective of speed, and

electromagnetic drag which is
strictly proportional to the speed.
If a constant driving torque in
addition to the
torque due to the action of the two coils
and
could be
tion,
is
A
provided to overcome
mechanical fnction, then the speed of the meter
would be proportional to the delivered power, and the indications of the instrument
would be more nearly correct
This IS accomplished in the Thomson meter by
using an auxiliary field coil having a
few turns of fine wire connected in circuit with
A and F, Figs. 122 and 124 This
is
called the starting coil,
and
if
the electromotive force between the

mains
constant, the current through this starting

coil
stant,
and through
and an approximately constant driving torque

on the armature A.
is
and
is
is
nearly
nearly con-
produced by the electromagnetic
action of the starting coil
93.
Fuses and
metal placed
in
circuit breakers.
an
fuse
electric circuit so that
is
a link of fusible
when
the current ex-
206
ceeds a certain value, the link
heated to
is
its
fusing point,
melted, and thereby causes the circuit to be broken.
generally
made
about 80 per
of an alloy of tin and lead and
cent, of the greatest current
is
Fuse wire is
it
is
rated at
can carry for an
it
Thus a rated lo-ampere fuse wire is one which

can carry no more than 12.5 amperes steadily without melting.
The melting of a fuse link is always followed by an electric
indefinite time.
arc which, although of short duration, generates a quantity of
hot vapor, the sudden expansion of which tends to scatter the
melted metal.
set fire
This blowing of a fuse, as
called,
it is
is
likely to
to nearby inflammable materials, and therefore a fuse link
should always be
receptacle
is
usually
fuse links are
enclosed
made
mounted
should be placed
in
side
in separate
by
This
receptacle.
fire-proof
Furthermore, when two
of porcelain.
shown
side, as
compartments
in
in
Fig. 69, they
the porcelain re-
ceptacle so that the arc cannot flash across and short-circuit the
mains.
fuse link
is
sometimes enclosed
in
fire -proof
tube of
insulating material.
Fuse wire or a fuse
link
is
more or
sluggish in action
less
inasmuch as a considerable amount of heat
is
required to raise
the temperature of the wire or link to the fusing point.

especially true of large fuse Hnks.
This
is
Furthermore, the amount of
current that a fuse link will carry steadily without melting varies
greatly with the
mode
of mounting.
against the porcelain of a receptacle
current carrying capacity
is
Thus a
is
fuse link lying
cooled thereby, and
therefore increased
flat
its
again a fuse link
which is mounted in a thoroughly ventilated receptacle has a

greater current carrying capacity than it would have if mounted
in
a receptacle which does not permit of the circulation of air.

The terminals to which the fuse wire or link is connected
absorb considerable heat, and therefore influence the rating of a

fuse of given size, especially
For
definite
if
the fuse
is
short.
the above reasons the rating of a fuse
is
a somewhat in-
and uncertain matter.
The electromagnetic
circuit breaker,
on the other hand,
is
very

prompt
in action
and when once adjusted,
rent of a perfectly definite value.
The
it is
20/
opened by a cur-
electromagnetic circuit
breaker has the further great advantage over a fuse link in that
connections can be reestablished at once after the circuit has been
opened by an excess of current, whereas the replacing of a fuse

is
a tedious operation and
it
is
attended by serious risk as ex-
plained in Art. 85.
The
pole,
is
in
circuit
which
is
breaker
is
a metal switch, single-pole or double-
arranged to open automatically when the current
The
excess of a certain value.
closing of this switch puts
a strong spring in tension tending to open
kept closed by a latch which
is
controlled
it.
by a
The
trigger,
switch
and
is
this
by an electromagnet (through which the main

when the current reaches a certain value.
Inasmuch as a circuit breaker always opens when an excessive
trigger
is
released
current flows)
current flows,
it is
evident that an intense arc will always flash
Fig. 125.
across the break.
It
Fig. 126.
is
necessary to thoroughly protect the
metal contacts of the circuit breaker from the destructive action
by having a pair of auxiliary contacts in parallel with

the main contacts and so arranged that the main contacts open
first (without an arc) and the auxiliary contacts open a moment
of this arc
later (with
an intense
arc).
208
The
auxiliary contacts are sometimes
In this case one carbon block

the movable
and the arm
enough
arm
falls
is
made
mounted
of the breaker so that
of carbon blocks.
at the
when
extreme end of
the breaker opens
back, the carbon blocks are separated widely
to put out the arc.
Fig. 125
shows a single-pole carbon
Fig. 127.
block circuit breaker manufactured by

Fig.
The Cutter Company, and
126 shows two single-pole carbon block breakers of the
Switchboard Equipment
Company mounted
side
by
side as a
double-pole breaker.
127 shows a direct-current magnetic blow-out circuit

In this breaker the
breaker of the General Electric Company.
Fig.
auxiliary contacts
lie
between the poles of an electromagnet
209
which blows out the arc almost instantaneously when the auxiliary
In Fig.
Qontacts are separated.
27 the structure at the top
the blow-out magnet, and the rod which
below the center of
this
is
shown immediately
is
blow-out magnet actuates the auxiliary
contacts which are hidden
by the large
front pole-piece of the
flat
blow-out magnet.
The main
contacts of a circuit breaker are usually
made
of a
bundle of thin sheets of spring copper and a massive block or

blocks of copper against which the ends of the thin sheets are
pressed
when
the circuit breaker
closed, as
is
shown
in Fig. 127.
This figure also shows very distinctly the electromagnetic device
The
which actuates the trigger and opens the breaker.

this
form of a
in the
The rod which
helix.
handle at the lower
left
trigger
by hand when,
handle
is
hand corner
of
it is
terminates in the small
in Fig.
127
is
The breaker can be
tension of the small helical spring
shown
Grounds and ground detectors.
on the other wire
will
A ground on one wire
unsafe because an accidental ground
is
complete the
ground connection
the conductor
is
may become
by
by adjusting the
at the left in Fig. 127.
circuit.
If this
through a human body, a personal injury
either
large
adjusted to be opened
certain limits,
of a pair of supply mains
The
the figure shows the
any desired value of current within
94.
for tripping the
desired to open the breaker.
the lever for closing the breaker
breaker closed.
is
coil
electromagnetic device consists of a massive copper bar wound
second ground
may
result,
and
if
through a wire or other conductor,

hot enough to start a
fire.
In any
case a ground connection on both mains involves a waste of power.
Since accidental ground connections frequently occur on electric

mains, a device called a
ground
detector
is
usually mounted upon
the switchboard in a generating station for showing the existence
of serious grounds on the line wires.
A
to
ground detector usually employed on low voltage lines (up

five or six hundred volts) consists of two incandescent lamp
units * connected in series

* Each unit
14
consists of
between the mains with the middle
one or more lamps
in series according to the voltage.
2IO
shown in Fig. 1 20.

the same resistance,
point between the lamps connected to earth as
Whenever both
line wires
have grounds of
high or low, both lamps burn with equal brightness.
Whenever
low resistance ground, and the other a

high resistance ground, the lamps are unequal in brightness, and
one
has a
line wire
fairly
the main which connects to the dim lamp
low resistance ground.

safe condition with
low
both mains grounded through nearly equal
and the
resistances,
through very high
safe condition with
at a time.
If
lamp
disconnected from main B, then main
ground
and
then main
lamp
if
is
bright
both mains grounded
lamps should be arranged to
resistances, the
be disconnected one
is
the main with the
is
In order to distinguish between the un-
when
A is dim when lamp B

B has a high resistance
lamp B is disconnected
The
has a low resistance ground.
reason for these
statements can be easily worked out by the reader by making a
diagram showing the
two ground resistances
relations of the
to
the lamp or lamps.

95.
Lightning and lightning arresters.
When a
occurs in the neighborhood of a transmission
lightning stroke
line,
a sudden rush
of current takes place over the line due to one or

following causes
{a)
Electric charge accumulated
suddenly released and tends to flow to earth

action of the lightning discharge induces a
rent in the line
(r)
when
(b)
more of the
on the
line is
the magnetic
sudden pulse of cur-
the lightning actually strikes the
an enormous rush of current takes place as the
total
line,
electric
charge of the lightning flash flows to earth.
The damage
stroke
may
to electrical apparatus
be a more or
less
by a very
heat generated by the lightning discharge

discharges are
intense ones,
is
intense lightning
complete destruction due to the

itself.
Weak
lightning
however very much more frequent than very
and the damage done by a weak lightning discharge
usually due to a puncturing of the insulation of the windings of
a machine and a consequent short-circuit in the machine which

causes
it
When
to be
burned out by
its
own
current.
the sudden rush of current which accompanies a light-
211
ning discharge encounters a portion of the circuit which has

considerable electrical inertia or inductance, a very great electro-
motive force
is
created between the terminals of that portion of
same way that an enormous mechanical force is

when a moving body strikes a heavy stationary body.
the circuit, in the

created
Thus a sudden rush

mission
line,
coming
of current
into a station over a trans-
encounters the highly inductive windings of wire on
The
the field or armature of a dynamo.
electrical inertia (induc-
tance) of the winding dams up the rush of current, as
the current rush

at the
to
very entrance to the winding, passing from the copper wire
any metal that
The
were, and
it
almost sure to break through the insulation
is
is
connected more or less thoroughly to earth.
lightning arrester
is
a device for shielding a
dynamo or
come
other electrical machine from the rushes of current which

into a station
Fig. 128
is
on an overhead
line
during a thunderstorm.
a diagram showing the essential features of a lightning arrester, or rather,
to line
\G'
to
X'
of
dynamo
0'
to earth
two
ning
each
to earth
distinct
light-
one for
arresters,
Such a
line wire.
pair of lightning arresters
c"
to line
to
dynamo
one base plate
Fig. 128.
Each of the
line
connected to a
coil,
on
called
is
double-pole
upon entering the
wires
coil
when mounted
arrester.
station building
is
of wire, called a choke coil or reactance
whence the wire leads on
dynamo
to the
or other machine.
Just in front of the choke coils each line wire has a ground
connection broken by a short spark gap G, and just behind the
choke
coils
each
line wire
through a condenser
6^
should
have a ground connection
with very thick insulation.
Fig.
28 shows
every essential feature of a lightning arrester except the device

for extinguishing the arc
which tends to
persist at the spark
G' and G'^ after the lightning discharge has passed to earth.
action of the apparatus
shown
in Fig.
128
is
as follows
gaps
The
A rush
212
of current entering the station over either Hne wire

in front of the
choke
coil
dammed up
is
causing an electromotive force sufficiently
high to break across the spark gap G' or G'\ thus establishing a
The
conducting path to earth.
function of the condenser
may be
best explained in terms of a mechanical analogue as follows

wall
is
to
be shielded from the excessive force of a
by allowing the hammer

which
The
rests against the wall.
must move a
ball
up the momentum of the hammer.
If the ball
both perfectly rigid the ball would
Some
slight
degree of
heavy
to strike against a
fail
hammer blow
ball of iron
little
to take
and wall were
protect the wall.
to
elasticity in the ball or wall
is
necessary,
or an elastic cushion must be interposed between the ball and
the wall.
cushion,
Each condenser shown in Fig. 128 acts like this elastic

permitting some movement through the choke coil of
current which does not necessarily flow on to and through the
dynamo, but merely charges the condenser.
The condenser is
dynamo
not often used with lightning arresters, inasmuch as the
and the connecting wires usually have

or capacity.
line
sufficient electro-elasticity
Lightning arresters installed out on a transmission
do not require choke
but a choke
coils,
coil
should always
be inserted between the spark gap of a lightning arrester and the

generator or motor or other apparatus which
is
to be protected.
The choke coil of a lightning arrester must be extremely well

insulated.
The use of an iron core does not increase the inductance of a coil with respect to excessively quick rushes of current,
inasmuch as the iron does not have time to become magnetized.

Lightning arrester choke coils are therefore usually made of a
single layer of coarse insulated wire
or of an insulated copper ribbon
When
G"
a lightning discharge
wrapped on a porcelain
wound
like
jumps across both gaps G' and
Fig. 128, the gaps constitute for an instant a
path between the
line wires,
and
core,
roll of tape.
low resistance
electric arcs, started
by the
light-
ning discharge, are maintained by current from the generator.
This virtually short-circuits the generator, hence provision must
be made
for extinguishing the arc or arcs
above described.
The
213
various types of lightning arresters in use differ chiefly in the
means employed
The
extinguishing of an arc across the spark gaps of a lightning
arrester
is
By
(a)
for extinguishing the arc.
accomplished by one or more of the following means
An electromagnet may be
the magnetic blow-out.
which
to extinguish the arc
used
gap of a
blow out the
persists across the spark
lightning arrester in the
same way
arc in a circuit breaker.
The spark gap need only be placed

The magfairly strong electromagnet.
between the poles of a

blow-out
netic
{b')
By
is
that
it is
used to
not suitable for alternating current
An
cooling the arc.
persist across even a
circuits.
alternating current arc does not
very short gap between massive blocks of
metal unless the electromotive force

alternating electromotive force of
very large.
is
500 volts
Thus an
cannot
effective value
maintain an arc across a ^^ inch gap between massive blocks of

This is due no doubt to the cooHng of the vapors of the
brass.
arc
by the metal blocks
current,
at the time of a reversal of the alternating
when the current
is
nearly zero in value
the cooled
vapors being a sufficiently strong insulator to withstand the succeeding wave of electromotive force.
(<:)
cept
By
eticlosed space.
arresters
by
An
smothering the arc.
arc cannot be maintained, ex-
by an excessively high electromotive

This fact
is
force,
in
a narrow
utilized in several types of lightning
by enclosing the spark gap
in a
narrow space surrounded
insulating material.
(d)
By
The maintenance of an arc depends

considerable current.
Hence an arc cannot be
using resistance.
upon the flow of
maintained across the spark gaps of a lightning arrester

cient
resistance
is
connected
resistance should of course
made
in
series
with the
be non-inductive, and
if suffi-
gaps.
it
This
should be
of bulky material so as to absorb, without excessive rise
of temperature, the heat generated in

charge.
The
it
best form for this resistance
by the
is
lightning dis-
a soHd rod of non-
conducting material, such as burned clay, coated with a thin layer

of conducting material, such as graphite.
Such a coated rod
214
conducts a current rush nearly as well as a solid rod of graphite,
inasmuch as a very sudden rush of current flows only through

the surface layers, or skin, of a conductor but it offers an enor;
mously
greater
resistance
than a solid graphite rod to

a current which
is
steady or
which changes slowly*
in
Therefore a rod of
value.
clay coated with graphite offers
an easy path for a light-
ning discharge, but prevents

the flow of the generator current which tends to maintain
the arc.
129 shows a single-
Fig.
pole magnetic blow-out dicurrent
rect
rester
Electric
Company.
particular arrester
main spark gap
and
ar-
manufactured by the
General
This
lightning
it lies
spark gap
is
has two spark gaps
in
right in Fig.
The
auxiliary
between the two rounded brass points shown

129.
The
between the two wing-shaped pieces of brass,
between the poles of an electromagnet.

is
series.
The winding
at the
of the electromagnet forms a
shunt around the auxiliary spark gap, and the current which continues to flow across the
two gaps of the
arrester after a lightning
discharge has passed, quickly establishes
itself in
the magnet
winding, excites the magnet, and blows out the arc in the main
gap.
Figs. 130, 131 and 132 show a compact form of magnetic
blow-out lightning arrester enclosed in a porcelain receptacle.
* The current rush which
constitutes a lightning discharge sometimes
grows
at a
500,000,000 amperes per second during the few millionths of a second

continues to grow.
Compared with this the maximum rate of growth of an
rate exceeding
that
it
ordinary commercial alternating current, namely, a few thousand amperes per second,
is
very slow indeed.
Fig. 130.
Fig. 131.
21$
2l6
This arrester
made by
is
suitable for direct current circuits only,
enclosed,
it is
tecting the
Company. It is
and, being compact and
specially suitable for pro-
motors on
spark gap in this arrester
is
\ToL/n&
The
street cars.
between the
ends of two short brass rods which are
shown attached
to a porcelain lug
inside of the cover in Fig. 130.
rod resistance
this
is
connected
SporKjlS^
on the
A carbon
in series with
spark g^p, and the winding of the
blow-out magnet
is
B/okv-outCoI?
connected as a shunt
/y!e ^fârroa
around the whole or a portion of this car-
bon
resistance.
The magnet blows
the
arc out through a hole (shown in Fig.
Jo Grou
131) in the porcelain lug and cover.
132 shows the

which it is connected
Fig.
shows four of these
and two additional
Fig. 132.
and the manner
details of the arrester
to the line
and to the ground.
arresters connected to
two
in
Fig. 133
pairs of feeders,
arresters connected to the generator mains.
134 shows a Wurts alternating current lightning arIt conrester manufactured by the Westinghouse Company.
Fig.
sists
simply of seven massive brass cylinders held
in
a porcelain
clamp, and presents seven spark gaps in series between the end
G and L.
G to ground.
cylinders which are connected to the terminals
point
is
connected to the
line
and the point
The.
Fig.

135 shows two arresters like Fig.
upon the cooling
effect
134 connected to the two

arrester depends
The Wurts
mains of a 2,000-volt alternator.

solely
217
of the massive brass cylinders for
extinguishing the arc across the spark gaps.
Fig. 134.
The "type K'' arrester of the Westinghouse Company extinThis arrester, now superseded
guishes the arc by smothering it.
by the "
MP"
arrester of the
wood to one flat

attached.
The spark gap
of hard
same company,
face of
is
consists of a block
which two metal plates are
between the edges of these metal

Choke
coil
to tine
spark gaps
2000
to earth
volt
alternator
to line
Spark gaps
Choke
'
coil
nsw^
Fig. 135.
plates,
and the rather wide gap
of the wood.
it
is
bridged by the charred surface
Another block of wood, with a small hole through
for the escape of the
hot vapors of the arc,
spark gap as a cover, and serves to smother the

surface of the
wood
is
placed over the
arc.
The charred
enables the lightning discharge to pass across
2l8
the rather wide gap of this arrester without an excessive rise of
electromotive force.
136 shows a two-pole
Fig.
current
alternating
lightning
Fig. 136.
arrester of the General Electric
arc
is
Company.
In this arrester the
extinguished partly by the cooling effect of the massive
brass cylinders between which the spark gaps
lie,
and partly by
the effect of resistances connected in series with the spark gaps.
The middle one of the three short brass cylinders, which are
shown at the bottom in Fig. 136, is connected to ground, and the
brass cylinders
at
graphite resistance
arrester
shown
in
the sides are connected
rods to
Fig.
136
the line
is
wires.
through the long
The
double-pole
suitable for 1,000- volt alternating
For higher voltages several spark gaps and

rods are connected in series between each line wire and
current mains.
resistance
the earth.
Fig. 137
shows the parts of the ''MP" lightning
the Westinghouse Company.

coil
which
is
of course separate, consists of a block of porous
material filled with small hard

is
arrester of
This arrester, aside from the choke
clamped between two
flat
grains of carbon.
This block
metal plates and connection
is
219
made from
the line through a very short air gap to one of these

and from the other plate to earth.
lightning discharge
passes through the block in the form of innumerable microscopic
sparks between the carbon grains, and no arc is developed.
The
plates,
Fig. 137.
spark gap between the line and the
complete break
in
first
metal plate serves as a
the circuit from the line to ground, except of
course at the instant of a lightning discharge.

suitable for both direct
96. Fire risks
and alternating current
and the Underwriters'
rules.
the installation of electrical apparatus of
formulated by a National
all
This arrester
is
circuits.
Rules governing
kinds have been
Conference on Standard
Electrical
220
Rules * with the object of minimizing
fire
These rules are published
sonal injury.
risks
in
and
risks of per-
convenient form and
nominal price by the National Board of Fire Underwriters f

under the title ** The National Electrical Code," and a supple-
at a
ment, which
revised semi-annually, contains a
is
list
of electrical wires and fittings which are approved
Any
writers.
who assumes any degree
person
even the maintenance, of
for the laying out, or
of
kinds
all
by the Under-
of responsibility
electrical installa-
tions should be familiar with the National Electrical Code.
The
and requirements which constitute the National
rules
Electrical
Code
are classified in the edition of 1905 as follows
Class A.
Rules applying to stations and dynamo rooms.
Class B.
Rules applying to outside work.
Class C.
Rules applying to inside work.
Class D.
Rules applying to
fittings, materials,
and
details of
construction.
Class E.
Miscellaneous rules.
Class F.
Rules applying to marine work.
97. Installation
engineering
and operation
a composite of
is
another point of view
it is
Any elementary treatise
costs.
all
From one point
of view
the physical sciences, and from
a branch of the science of economics.
on engineering must, however, be
chiefly
devoted to purely physical problems inasmuch as the student
must become
familiar with engineering as a
branch of physical
science before he can possibly undertake as a practicing engineer

to
choose that particular physical solution of an engineering prob-
lem which
*The
following
American
ican
will best
is
meet the requirements of economy.
list
of the Associations composing this National Conference
Institute of Architects,
Society of Mechanical
American
Institute of Electrical Engineers,
Engineers, American
American Street Railway Association,
Institute of
Amer-
Mining Engineers,
Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance
Companies, Association of Edison Illuminating Companies, International Association

Electricians,
National
Board of Fire Underwriters, National Electric Light Association, National
Electrical
of Fire
Engineers, International Association
of Municipal
Contractors' Association, Underwriters' National Electric Association.
f General Agency 34 Nassau
St.,
New York
City.
PRACTICAL OPERATION OF DYNAMOS
221
The economic problem is in every case to produce the best reminimum of cost and this is always a very complicated
sults at a
problem, inasmuch as the cost of erection and maintenance of engineering works and the value of the service rendered thereby
are both dependent
upon minute
variations of local conditions,
they both fluctuate from year to year with the varying stress of
business activity, and they both change with every improvement
in industrial processes.
The
is
first
estimate of the cost of any engineering undertaking
more or less
determined by the bids
usually based upon general statistics of the cost of
similar undertakings,
of contractors
and the
final
cost
who have had more
is
or less experience in the par-
work and whose margin of profit must in general

be great enough to cover the many uncertain items that always
appear in any new undertaking.
The following data on the cost of installing and operating
ticular line of
steam and
electric plants
may
be used for making a preliminary
estimate of the costs of an electric station.
These data are aver-
ages based upon the records of a large number of actual cases,
and the cost of a given station may depart more or less widely
from these figures on account of peculiar local and temporary
conditions.
Cost of steam poiver."^
The
ordinates of the curve
in Fig.
138 give the approximate total cost per horse-power capacity,

including buildings, chimneys and
engine plants of various

the coal consumption in
The
all
accessories, of boiler
and
give
and the ordinates of curve

pounds per horse-power-hour.
sizes,
ordinates of the curves C,
D, E, iând
in Fig.
139 give
the costs per horse-power-year (308 days of 10 hours each) of

the following items
:
*The
data from which the curves in Figs. 138 and 139 are plotted are taken from
Wm. O. Webber, The Engineer (Cleveland), Vol. 40, p. 145, February

Important data on the cost of steam power are given by C. E. Emery,
Trans. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng., Vol. 12, pp. 358-389, 1895
and by H. A. Foster,
Trans. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng., Vol. 14, pp. 385-421, 1897.
a paper by
2,
1903.
222
!200
loo
f
-2
\ \4
t
1"
\ X,
\^
^, ^^
^^
1
1
V.
"S-
-i
^B
^--
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
700
800
900
Horse-power of engine.
Fig. 138.
300
400
500
600
Fig. 139.

Curve
C.
223
This item
Fixed charges per horse-power-year.
is
reckoned at 14 per cent, on the total cost, and it includes interest

6 per cent, depreciation 4 per cent., repairs 2 per cent, insur-
at
ance
per cent., and taxes
per cent.
Curve D. Cost of coal per horse-power-year
i\.oo per ton
at
of 2,000 pounds.
Curve E. Wages per horse-power-year.
Curve
F.
Cost of
oil
and supplies per horse-power-year.
Curve G. Total cost per horse-power-year.
These curves are based on the assumption that the smaller

sizes of engines are
type, that the

ing,
simple non-condensing engines of the Corliss
medium and
and that the largest
The item
large-sized engines are run condens-
sizes are
compound
engines.
of wages in a 100 horse-power plant
would include
an engineer at ;^2.5o per day and a fireman at ;î.5o per day,
which would amount
to about
;^
1,200 per year.
In a 1,000
horse-power plant the item of wages would include one engineer

at ;^3.oo per day,
men
one assistant engineer
in the boiler
at 1^1.50 per day,
Where
at ;^2.oo per day, three
room during the day and one night watchman
which would amount to about ;^3,SOO per year.
the cost of coal
is
more or
cost of coal per horse-power-year
less
may be
than ;^4.oo per ton, the

easily determined
from
curve D, Fig. 139, the ordinates of which represent the cost of
and the
total cost
by curve G, may be
corrected
coal per horse-power-year . at ;^4.oo per ton,
per horse-power-year, as given

accordingly.
It is
important to remember that the cost of power as given
by curve G,
Fig. 139,
gines are working at
the year.
When
is
full
based on the assumption that the enload for 10 hours per day, 308 days in
a plant operates at a fraction of
capacity the cost per horse-power-hour

in
Art
97.
The
cost
factor * of
is
its
full-load
increased as explained
The load
of electrical power at the sivitchboard.
an ordinary electric light station varies from o. 1 5 for
* See Art. 97.
224
plants in small towns where there
day, to as
there
is
much
is
but
little
lighting during the
more for plants in large cities where

demand for current during the day. The
as 0.40 or
a considerable
load factor of a plant which supplies current for an electric
way maybe
as high as 0.50 or 0.60.
The
rail-
following estimate of
the cost of electrical power at the switchboard
is
based upon the
cost of steam power as given in Figs. 138 and 139 and upon the
assumption that the plant operates at full-load for 10 hours per
day
for
The
308 days per year.
equipment of a station costs about ;^30 or $^^

per kilowatt of capacity for large stations and somewhat more for
electrical
small stations.
The
ordinates of the curve /of Fig. 141, which
represent the annual fixed charges on the electrical equipment
300
400
500
600
700
900
Fig. 140.
per kilowatt of station capacity, are based on a cost of the electrical
equipment which ranges from ^45 per kilowatt for a 100
kilowatt station to ;^35 per kilowatt for a 700 kilowatt station.
The
is
cost of the additional labor required
by the
electrical plant
about 25 per cent, of the cost of labor for the steam plant alone.

The
additional cost of
oil
and supplies
is
225
about 40 per cent, of
the cost of this item for the steam plant alone.
The
ordinates of the curve
in
Fig. 140 give the capacity
equipment corresponding to various
in kilowatts of the electrical
horse-power capacities of engine plants.
This curve
is
not exactly
a straight line inasmuch as the efficiency of an electrical generator

increases with
The
its size.
curves in Fig. 141
cost of electrical
for
show an approximate
power when the
station
is
analysis of the
operated at full-load
3,080 hours each year.
Curve / shows the cost of steam power per kilowatt-year of

electrical output.
Curve
J shows the
per kilowatt -year.
k4
0
\\
70
1'"
on the
^
.
S
3
'
5.
cent,
s.
s N
s
X
0_
<^
s^
V ^ J ^ v^ -^ X ^
^
^^
l^
reckoned as 14 per
\V
^
5
is
\ \ -f
K\
C5
1.
fixed charges on the electrical equipment
This item
\^
^ ^^
^r:::^
^^ ^C
^^
M
7l
"^
^^
s
^
-X
200
300
500
400
600
700
Kilowatts capacity of generator.

Fig. 141.
cost of the electrical

cent., depreciation
cent,
and taxes
15
equipment and
4 per cent,
per cent.
it
includes interest at 6 per
repairs 2 per cent., insurance
per
226
Curve
in
K shows the cost of attendance
of electrical equipment
addition to attendance of steam plant.
Curve
shows the cost of
oil
and supplies
for electrical equip-
ment.
Curve J/ shows
put
total cost per kilowatt-year of electrical out-
and
Curve
N shows
the total cost per kilowatt-hour of electrical
output.
Cost of electrical power delivered to the consumer.

in Fig. 141 give
The curves
a general idea of the cost of electrical power at
The
the switchboard on the assumption of unity load factor.

of electrical power delivered to the consumers
cost
greater than the
is
of the
by an amount sufficient to cover the cost

(a) The power lost in the distributing
following items
system
cost at the switchboard
(8) interest
on the cost of the
distributing
system
depreciation and repairs on the distributing system
(c)
and
d^
The sum of these items for a whole year divided by the

number of kilowatt-hours delivered per year often amounts to
more than the original cost per kilowatt-hour at the switchboard,
taxes.
especially
where the consumers are scattered over a large
or where current
98.
The load
of power.
In
is
distributed
factor of a station
most
electric
and
maximum amount
its influence
stations the
fluctuates greatly, so that a station
the
of current
which
its
upon the
demand
is
cost
for current
designed to deliver
demanded
large portion of the time at a fraction of

Fig.
district
through costly underground cables.
is
operated for a
rated capacity.
142 * shows the daily load curves of an electric light-
ing station in Christiania, Norway.
The upper curve
AA
is
the
load curve for midwinter when the days are extremely short and
dark, the lower curve
BB
is
for
very long, and the dotted curve

for the
whole year.
* Taken from an
5,
article
1905, pp. 919-921.
The
midsummer when the days are

the mean daily load curve
CC is
difference
between the winter and sum-
by Norberg-Schulz, Electrotechnische
Zeitschrift^ October

mer demand
for current is
very considerable even
tudes and, as Fig. 142 shows,
The sharp maximum

middle latitudes
load."
The
must be
sufficient to
middle
and usually between 7 and 8
in winter time, is
boiler, engine,
constitutes the
in
lati-
excessively great in Christiania.
of station load, which occurs at 6 P.
in Christiania in winter time,

in
it is
227
P.
M.
M.
called the ''peak of the
and generator capacity of a
meet the excessive demand
peak of the load, although
it is
station
for current that
usually permissible,
during the short time that the excessive demand
lasts, to force
the boilers and overload the engines and generators to
some
extent.
Fig. 142.
The
actual output of a station in kilowatt-hours during a given
period, a
month
for
example, divided by the output that could
be obtained during that period by operating the station night and
day
tion.
at its full rated capacity,
Thus
* The load
if
is
called the load factor * of the sta-
the Christiania plant, referred to in Fig. 142,
factor of a station
is
which operates a certain number of hours each day
a
is
sometimes defined as the actual output during the day's run divided by the output that
would be obtained were the
station operated at full-load for the
whole time of the run.
228
1,040 kilowatt plant,
load factor during midwinter would be
its
equal to the area under the curve

the dotted line
DD, and
AA
be equal to the area under the curve
under the dotted
When
ing certain hours each day

neither of these items
terest
On
BB
operated at light load the item of wages
is
be somewhat reduced, especially
of load.
midsummer would
divided by the area
DD.
line
a station
by the area under
divided
load factor during
its
if
reduced
is
the station
is
also the item of fuel
shut
is
down dur-
reduced, but
in proportion to the reduction
the other hand the fixed charges, that
on the investment, depreciation,
is,
the in-
and taxes are ap-
repairs,
Therefore a reduction
may
in
station does not reduce the operation costs very
the output of a
much, so that the
cost per kilowatt-hour increases greatly with decrease of load.
The
influence of load factor
estimated in a given case
day the
station
be effected
in
is
to
upon the cost of power can be
when we know how many hours each
how great a reduction will

how great the increase
kilowatt-hour will be.
The following
be shut down,
the item of wages, and
of coal consumption per
although based upon rather old data,
table,*
illustration of the decreasing cost
will serve as
an
per kilowatt-hour with increas-
ing load factor.
Example.
Consider a
,000 horse-power electric lighting sta-
tion which, with its distributing system, represents a total invest-
ment of ^150,000, and the equipment of which includes four 250

horse-power engines each driving a 160 kilowatt generator.
The
and
fixed charges (interest,
*From
factors, is given
Electric
by R.
Power for
tember 24, 1898.

Street
;^
as
repairs,
power
at the
14 per cent, on the
W. Conant
in a
also
very complete
switchboard, showing a wide range of load
paper entitled The Cost at the Switchboard of
Street Railways, Electrical
See
insurance,
2 1,000 per year.
the Electrical World, Vol. 24, p. 120, Aug. ii, 1894.
table of costs of electric
Dec.
round numbers
taxes), estimated in
total investment, are
depreciation,
Cost of Electric
World, Vol. 32, pp. 313-319, SepRailway Power by A. S. Richey,
Railway Journal, Vol. 25, pp. 126-128, Jan. 21, 1905, and Vol. 18,
1901 and Pittsburg Street Railway System, Street Ry. Rev., Vol.
7,
185-198, April, 1903.
p.
13,
827,
pp.
229
Taule Showing Effect of Load Factor on Cost of Power.

Cents per Kilowatt-hour.
Load Factor.
Interest
on investment..
1.70
1.20
1.50
Depreciation
Management and
taxes
0.4.
0.6.
0.8.
0.85
0.66
0.57
0.44
0.50
0.40
1.30
0.42
0.33
0.40
0.30
Labor
1.50
1.50
Petty stores
0.20
0-75
0-55
1.40
1.20
0.15
Cost per kilowatt-hour in cents
8.60
5-56
Repairs
Fuel
I.
were run
If the station
GO
at full-load
1.20
I.
GO
o.
10
G.90
0.08
4.31
Z'^Z
day and night the year
round the running expenses would be approximately as follows

(a)
Wages
neers at
;^
of one chief engineer at
2.
;^5
50 per day (one to have charge
at night the other
the day), one lineman at ;^2.5oper day, one
day, three helpers in the engine
ing the day) at
;^
room (one
1.50 per day, and six
hneman
at night
men
;^ 1
0,000 per year;
power-hour and
year; and
{c)
The
year.
at
(b)
during
at ;î.50 per
and two dur-
room
making
in the boiler
(three at night and three during the day) at ;î.50 per day,
a total of
per day, two assistant engi-
Coal at 6.^ pounds per horse-
$^ per ton would amount to ;^ 11 0,400 per

amount to about ;^6,5oo per
Petty stores would
total
annual expense of
of 6,000,000 kilowatt-hours, which
;^
147,900 would be the cost
would be
at the rate of 2.46
cents per kilowatt-hour.

If the station
were run night and day the year round
average load equal to 0.20 of
its
full-load capacity, the
expenses would be approximately as follows
room helpers and three firemen

amount to ;^7,26o per year {U) Coal
engine
power-hour and
year; and
total
(c)
at
{a)
at
an
running
Wages
(two
less
than before) would
pounds per horse-
at
$4 per ton would amount to ;^29,440 per
Petty stores would be, say, ;^5,500 per year.
The
annual expense of ;^63,200 would be the cost of 1,200,000
kilowatt-hours, which
would beat the
rate of 5.26 cents per kilo-
watt-hour.
It
would
certainly
pay
in this plant to
use a more economical
ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEE^RING.
230
type of engine than
is
assumed as a
basis for Figs. 138
so as to reduce the cost of coal.

99.
Examples
of installation
and operation
averages of cost which are given in
The general
costs.
Figs.
139 and 141
138,
would be misleading without a few actual examples

widely costs vary
and 139,
to
show how
in particular cases.
The
Installation costs.
accompanying table of
actual cost data on seven electric
power
Total costs are
part of the distributing system.
thousands of dollars.
The
costs
gives
stations not including

all
any
given in
which follow Max. and Min.
figures
are the extremes of variation of cost per kilowatt capacity under
ordinary conditions.
actual plants are
plant No.
due
which
Wide
deviations from these figures in the
Thus the land
to unusual conditions.
is in
very expensive foundations of concrete on
and
piling,
3,500 horse-power would be
The
sufficient.
of the various parts of the station equipment
by the capacity
engine
its
when perhaps
capacity aggregates 4,500 indicated horse-power
total cost divided
for
a large city cost ;^43,ooo; this plant has
cost per kilowatt

in
is
each case the
in kilowatts of the generators
installed.
Operation
is
costs. *
The accompanying
table of operation costs
taken from the records of two lighting stations for one year.
Station
is
owned and operated by a city

The equipment includes
Connecticut.
a 225 kilowatt plant
of 7,000 inhabitants in
a 150 kilowatt alternator and a 75 kilowatt alternator each belted

to a separate engine.
The entire plant represents an investment
of ;^62,5i2 of which ;^37,674
ment of the
station,
including the transformers.

is
is
in the building
and ;^24,838
The
is
in
total
and the equip-
the distributing system
number
of lamps installed
9,000 16 candle-power incandescent lamps and 107 arc lamps.
The
cost of trimming and cleaning the arc
*The
costs
(1^230. 79)
is
not
Electrician (London) publishes each year a digest of the data on operation
which
Trade.
lamps
electric lighting stations are required
by law
These digests contain much valuable information.
to report to the
See also
tion
and Distribution of Electrical Energy" by Robert W&xamon^^
tion
of Elech-ical Engineers^ Vol. 27, pp. 246-437, 1898.
**
Board of
Cost of Genera-
Jomnal
Institu-
231
included in the tabulated costs of operation of the station and dis-
The
tributing system.
years.
cost of repairs
portion of the
fixed
is
the average for three
charges, namely, repairs and
insurance, are tabulated in accordance with actual expenditure
and the remainder, namely,
interest, depreciation,
and taxes, are
6 per
cent., deprecia-
estimated at 11 per cent., that
4 per
tion
fact the
cent.,
and taxes
investment
is
interest at 3.5 per cent,
is,
interest
per cent, although as a matter of
covered by municipal bonds which bear
and the plant pays no taxes.
supplies current to consumers on a sliding scale of

is
so
much
flat rates,
that
per month for each lamp installed, the rate being less
the greater the
sumer.
This plant
number
This station
is
of lamps installed
by an
individual con-
operated 15 hours per day, 365 days per
year.
Station
city of
is
owned and operated by a

The equipment inConnecticut.
a 405 kilowatt plant
7,500 inhabitants
in
ExPENSE Accounts for One Year of
Two
Electric Plants.
A = 22J kilowatt plant. B = 4.0$ kilowatt plant.
Total investment
Kilowatt-hours output for the year
Plant A.
Plant B.
;?>62,5i2.oo
$89,880.00
525,346.00
356,575.00
Labor and superintendence
$4,064.71
754.00
7,225.53
31.00
105.00
188.00
187.00
40.00
883.86
Repairs
Coal (at about $4.10 per ton at both plants)
Water
Oil and waste
Building and boiler insurance

Liability insurance
Office rent
Printing stationery and incidentals
Total disbursements
$7,029.91
1,142.00
6,956.84
J
1
\
2,686.72
V
1
'
..
$13,479.10
$17,815.47
Cost per kilowatt-hour (cents) including 3)^ per centinterest and 4 per cent, depreciation
5.10
4.78
Cost per kilowatt-hour (cents) including 6 per cent,

interest, 4 per cent, depreciation, i per cent, taxes...
571
5.46
eludes four
60 kilowatt
direct
current
generators each
direct
connected to a 100 horse-power engine, one 165 kilowatt direct
232
current generator direct connected to a 300 horse-power engine,

and a Brush arc generator driven by a 90 horse-power electric
The
motor.
;^29,7
installed
is
in the
building and equipment of the station and
The
the distributing system.
5 is in
an investment of ^89,880 of
entire plant represents
which ;^6o,i65
total
number of lamps
6,300 16 candle-power incandescent lamps and 109

separate account is not kept in this station of the
is
arc lamps.
The
cost of trimming and cleaning the arc lamps.

pairs
is
cost of re-
The same remarks con-
the average for three years.
cerning interest, depreciation, and taxes apply to this station as
meter
This plant supplies current to consumers on a
A.
to station
basis, the
monthly
being
bill
made out
at the following net
prices
For
lighting
and
for fan
motors
100 kilowatt-hours at 9.0 cents per kilowatt-hour.
First
Next 200
"
"
Over 300
"
"
7.2
"
''
*'
"
" 5.4
"
"
"
"
'*
For motive power (not including

200 kilowatt-hours
"
"
Next 400
"
"
Over 600
First
The
plant
is
*'
3.6
"
*'
2.7
**
"
"
operated continuously except from one hour after
energy
may seem
low
"
on Sundays.
seen from the table that the average cost of generation of
electrical
it
at 4. 5 cents per kilowatt-hour.
sunrise to one hour before sunset

It is
fan motors)
cost.
and night
is
between
that station
This
is,
and 6 cents per kilowatt-hour and
power be-
supplies energy for motive
however, not the case
irrespective of the
demand
the station
for
is
run day
current for motive
power, and the added cost of operating the station due to the
supply of current to motors

kilowatt-hour.
100.
Systems
rate system.
This matter
is
is
probably
less
than one cent per
discussed in the next
of charging for electrical energy.
Many small
electric light stations
article.
(
The flat
supply current
233
month for each lamp installed.

The 1 6 candle-power incandescent lamp is the unit generally employed, and the price in many cases is fifty cents per month per
lamp, with a scale of discounts increasing with the number of
to
at a certain price per
consumers
This system of charging
lamps.
The
avoids the cost of meters, but

as a wasteful customer pays
2.
is
called the
rate system.
flat
use of this system simplifies the station book-keeping and
The meter system.
very unsatisfactory inasmuch
it is
no more than an economical one.
The
selling of electrical
kilowatt-hour as indicated by a watt-hour meter

sal in large electric plants,
small plants also.
meter would,
and
it is
may seem
It
coming
is
energy by the
almost univer-
to be the rule
among
that the use of the watt-hour
an equitable
like the use of the gas meter, insure
system of charging customers, but
it is
not
In supplying gas
so.
a large storage * reservoir makes the gas generating
for lighting,
plant independent of the irregular consumption of the gas.
an
electric plant,
most
cases,
must be
That
is
it
on the other hand, the
electrical
In
energy must,
in
be generated as used and the capacity of the plant
meet the
sufficient to
to say, the size
maximum demand,
maximum demand
and cost of the plant
for current.
determined by the
is
so that the greater value of the electrical
energy at the time of
maximum demand must be considered in

prices.
Two simple cases will serve
any equitable schedule of
as a basis for the discussion of prices as follows
Case
I.
If the
central station
demand
for
current
by each customer of a
were uniform day and night, or
\i all
the customers
were to use current according to one fixed daily regime, f then
would be
hour, inasmuch as the

to each
it
entirely equitable to charge a uniform price per kilowatt-
same
fraction of the total energy supplied
would be supplied during the time of maximum demand.
This uniform schedule of prices should be subject to a scale of

* The use of the storage battery
for equalizing the load of
an
electric station is dis-
cussed in a subsequent chapter.
f Imagine a curve of which the abscissas represent the hours of the day and the
This curve represents the ** daily regime "
ordinates the current used by a customer.
of the customer.
234
discounts provided the station
demand
general
demand
mand
is
less
for current,
management wishes
which
than can be met by the station.
reaches the
full
to increase the
be the case so long as the
will
When
the de-
capacity of the station the scale of dis-
counts should be rearranged so as to be less favorable to larger

users than before, unless
it is
possible at once to secure funds for
increasing the size of the station.
Case II,
If there are
differing as to their daily
several distinct classes of customers
regime
in the
use of current, then [on
the assumption that the total cost of operation of a station
may
be approximately separated into two parts, namely, a constant
part
which depends upon the
station,
and a variable part
the proper
load]
schedule of prices
[a)
basis
is
size (that is the capacity) of the
which
is
upon which
as follows
proportional to the station

to establish an equitable
Each customer should be charged so much per year on
the rate at which he uses electrical energy during the period of
excessive station load.

to a scale of discounts
constant part
margin of
This charge should of course be subject
and the income from
it
should cover the
of the total cost of operating the plant,
v/ith
profit.
Each customer should be charged, in addition to {a), a

certain amount per kilowatt-hour for the total electrical energy
{b)
supplied to him.
This charge should also be subject to a scale
of discounts, and the income from this charge should cover the
variable part
margin of
of the total cost of operating the plant, with a
profit.
There are three practicable methods

system of charging, as follows
for carrying out
this
The usual method is to classify

By classification of rates.
I
customers according to their daily regime in the use of current,
.
and
to establish a distinct rate per kilowatt-hour for each class.
For example, there are three more or less distinct classes of

service in most electric plants, namely, (a) domestic lighting
service with its neghgible demand for current during the day and

demand
excessive
its
from
for current
or 6 or 7 o'clock to 10
o'clock P. M., {b) store and factory lighting service with
or
1 1
its
almost uniform demand for current from
demand
uniform
of the
second class at a lower

lower
It is to
rate.
rate,
This system of class rates
which are given
prices
2.
By
may
in Art. 98.
The
an ordinary watt-hour meter with two
one
into gear
in dis-
be applied to
in fact
exemplified
is
still
refer to
and not to differences
the use of the two-rate meter.
which throws
class at a
and those of the third
be understood that these statements
the same scale of discounts
to
(c)
differences in scheduled selling price
counts
4 o'clock
for current
class
first
or
motive power service with a nearlyCustomers

from 7 A. M. to 6 P. M.
those
of the
rate,
high
at
a
charged
should be
or 8 o'clock P. M., and
all.
235
by the
scale of
two-rate meter
is
and a clock
sets of dials,
set of dials during the period of ex-
cessive station load, between 7
and 10
M.
P.
example, and
for
the other set of dials during the remainder of the 24 hours of
When
each day.
this
meter
is
used the customer
is
charged
a high rate per kilowatt-hour for the energy indicated by the

set of dials,
and
second set of
3.
By the
for the
energy indicated by the
use of the
maximum demand meter.
a device, generally an
is
The maximum
ammeter
of which the indicator, which
features,
to
low rate
dials.
demand meter
affected
at a
at
first
is
in its essential
too sluggish to be
by a momentary short-circuit, is left standing at the point

it is carried by the greatest current used by the customer
which
during the month.

to the
customer
is
In the use of this device the monthly charge

so
much
for the
maximum
rate
and so much
per kilowatt-hour for the energy indicated by an ordinary watt-
hour meter.
The minimum charge.
There
is
a certain
amount of
service
rendered to a customer by the mere fact that the current from a

central station
is
at his disposal at
any time night or day
on the
other hand the interest on the cost of the watt-hour meter, the
cost of
its
maintenance, and a portion of the cost of the station
236
book-keeping represents a corresponding expense to the
and
this
tomer
expense
for the
usually
made
justifies
above-mentioned
in the
This fixed charge
service.
is
form of a minimum monthly charge.
Fluctuating and intermittent service.
by each of the customers of a
rent
station,
a certain fixed charge against each cus-
If the
demand
for cur-
station varies in a purely erra-
way from hour to hour and from day to day, the resultant
demand of a large number of customers will approximate very
nearly to a perfectly uniform demand day and night.
If there
are several distmct classes of customers and if the demand for
tic
by a customer in
way from a certain mean
current
either class departs in a purely erratic
daily regime
that class, then the resultant
mers
will
demand
be very nearly the same as
use current in
strict
which
is
of a large
if
characteristic of
number
of custo-
each customer were to
accordance with the mean regime of his
class.
In both of these cases the system of charging outlined above
under cases
the
number
I.
and
11. is
applicable
when
the station
is
large and
of individual customers great.
number of individual
customers, erratic variations in daily regime by individuals becomes a serious matter, inasmuch as the resultant demand shows
In the case of a small station with a small
considerable erratic variation.

as
motor service
for elevators,
variations should be
In such a case any service, such
which
is
peculiarly subject to wide
charged for at a high rate which should be
determined partly by a consideration of the
mean
daily regime
and partly by a consideration of the amplitude of the departures

from
this
mean.
There
is
mining an equitable charge

justified in
no very satisfactory method
for deter-
in this case, in fact a small station is
making the charge
for elevator service, for
example,
prohibitory.
Advantages of the meter system as compared with the
The equitable distribution of charges which is reaby the use of the meter system leads to an economical use
system.
lized
flat rate
of current and enables a station of given capacity to supply current to an increased
number of customers.

Frequently a newly installed electric light plant
the
flat
rate system,
for current
system
is
which
it
station.
out on
starts
retains until the increasing
exceeds the capacity of the

adopted to
237
Then
demand
the meter
waste of current and so relieve
curtail the
the situation.
The pecuniary
is
great enough
saving incident to the use of the meter system

to give the
customer the service he needs at
a reduced total cost, to cover the cost of installing and hiaintaining the meters and the cost of the extra book-keeping involved,
and
to yield, in addition,
station
an increased margin of
profit to the
The advantage to the station may not

demand for current is such that it
management.
appear, however, unless the
would exceed the

used.
This
is
station capacity
evident
when we
if
the
flat
rate
system were
consider that a very slight saving
in the cost of operating the station
would be effected by decreasing
a moderate station load by adopting the meter system

the large income that
under the
flat rate
some extent
is
in
sight
when
the
demand
system exceeds the station capacity
realized
by the adoption
whereas
foi
current
may be
of the meter system.
to
'
CHAPTER
VIII.
STORAGE BATTERIES.
101. Electrolysis.
When
a conducting hquid which
is
an electric current passes through
not a chemical element the liquid
is
Thus melted salts, and acids and salts in solution,

decomposed by the electric current. This chemical decom-
decomposed.
are
position
is
called electrolysis^
takes place
is
and the
liquid in
which electrolysis
called an electrolyte.
Electrolytes generally have very high specific resistances as
compared with the metals, so that

out
in
a vessel provided with two
electrolysis
flat
is
usually carried
plates of metal or carbon
which serve to lead the current into and out of the
Such an arrangement
is
called an electrolytic cell
The electrode
metal or carbon are called the electrodes.

the current enters the electrolyte
is
electrolyte.
and the plates of

at
which
called the anode, and the
electrode at which the current leaves the electrolyte
called the
is
cathode.
Consider a solution of hydrobromic acid

electric current is
liberated at the cathode
and bromine (Br)
is
two parts by
and
is
called the cathion,
anode and
is
salts
is
one part
is
separated
liberated at the cathode

is
liberated at the
Thus hydrogen (H)
the anion of hydrobromic acid.
or halogen constitutes the anion.
(Cu),
is
is
the cathion
In
all
me-
the metal constitutes the cathion, and the acid radical
tutes the cathion,
anion.
is
and the other part
called the anion.
and bromine (Br)

tallic
electrolysis
an
liberated at the anode.
In general the molecule of any dissolved salt or acid

into
When
(HBr).
passed through this solution, hydrogen (H)
Thus
In acids the hydrogen consti-
and the acid radical or halogen constitutes the
the cathion of copper sulphate
and the anion
is
the acid radical (SOJ.

238
(CuSOJ
is
copper
STORAGE BATTERIES.
many
In
cases the cathion and anion are not actually liberated
because of what are called secondary reactions.
at the electrodes,
Thus
in
the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sodium chloride
when
(NaCl), the cathion Na,
it
is
liberated at the cathode, im-
NaOH
mediately reacts upon the water forming
gen
and
hydro-
free
(CuSOJ between
the electrolysis of copper sulphate
in
239
copper electrodes, the anion SO^ combines with the copper of
anode forming fresh CuSO^ which goes into solution, or
the
which
deposited in crystals on the anode
is
saturated
in the electrolysis of
the hydrogen
is
the solution
if
H2S0^ between
is
inert electrodes
liberated at the cathode as a gas,
and the anion
SO4 reacts on the water according to the formula SO^ + H2O

= H2S0^ -|- O, and the free oxygen escapes as a gas. The
reason for taking the unfamiliar substance, hydrobromic acid, in
the above example
is
that in the electrolysis of hydrobromic acid
there are no secondary reactions at the electrodes.

102.
The
voltaic cell.*
The chemical
action that
the flow of current through an electrolytic cell

to the
usually forced, that
is,
work has
caused by
is
confined wholly
immediate neighborhood of the electrodes, and
ical action is
it
is
to be
this
chem-
done to bring
about, or, in other words, an outside electromotive force
quired to push the current through the
When, however, secondary chemical

or both electrodes,
action that
is
it
is
trolytic cell itself
cell.
actions take place at one
frequently happens that the total chemical
a source of energy.
In such a case the elec-
can maintain a current through the electrolyte
from electrode to electrode and through an outside
which connects the electrodes.

cell
Examples.
re-
brought about by the flow of current through an
electrolytic cell
a voltaic
is
Such an
circuit of wire
electrolytic cell
is
called
or primary battery.
When a
strip of clean zinc
and a
strip of
copper or
carbon are dipped into dilute sulphuric acid, no chemical action

takes place.
^
word
number
battery
is,
When
the plates are connected together
by a
of voltaic cells connected together constitute a voltaic battery.
however, frequently applied to a single
cell.
wire,
The
240
a current immediately starts to flow through the

the
leaving
circuit,
the copper or carbon electrode (the cathode) and enter-
cell at
This current decom-
ing the cell at the zinc electrode (the anode).
poses the sulphuric acid (HgSOJ, the hydrogen
and the sulphuric acid
radical (SO^)
which
liberated at
is
the copper or carbon cathode and escapes from the
cell as
a gas,
set free at the zinc
is
anode combines with the zinc and forms zinc sulphate (ZnSOJ
The combination of Zn and SO^
which goes into solution.
develops more energy than
the
H^SO^ so
required for the decomposition of
is
that the chemical action in this cell
is
a source of
energy.
The
above
which takes place
available energy of the reaction
may be
cell
by providing an
greatly increased
the
in
oxidizing
agent in the neighborhood of the cathode so that the hydrogen
may be
added
moment
oxidized and form water (HgO) at the
liberation
by the
The energy
current.
to the available
energy of the
of this oxidation
chemical action
total
of
is
its
then
in
the
cell.*
103. Voltaic action
and
local action.
Two
{a)
The chemical
current,
and does not
action are to be distinguished in a voltaic cell

action which depends
exist
is
when
there
is
upon the flow of
no current
and
{p)
kinds of chemical
the chemical action which
independent of the flow of current, and which exists whether
the current
is
flowing or not.
The chemical
action
tional to the current,

cell as
which depends on the current
it is
a generator of current,
tenance of the current, and
The
its
it is
energy is available
cell
which
the flow of current does not help in any

current,
it
*The
for the
is
way
independent of
Local action takes place more or less

is
referred to Professor
by Allyn and Bacon,* Boston, Mass.,

primary battery
tests.
main-
to maintain the
represents absolute waste of materials, and
student
propor-
called voltaic action.
chemical action in a voltaic
local action.
is
essential to the operation of the voltaic
H.
S. Carhart's
for full
in
it is
called
every type
Primary Batteries, published
information on primary batteries, and
of voltaic
and
cell.
may
it
STORAGE BATTERIES.
241
It is especially great in cells
of the Grenet type,
be reduced to a
by coating the
cell
The
feature of the Grenet type of cell
made
is
agent, which in this case
is
is
which favors
local action
keep the oxidizing
to
in this cell
potassium bichromate or chromic
neighborhood of the carbon cathode, where
acid, confined to the

it
given type of voltaic
in a
zinc with a thin layer of mercury.
that no provision
is
minimum
needed to oxidize the
hydrogen
free
but
is
it
allowed to
mix with the whole of the electrolyte thus coming into contact
Under these conditions the zinc dissolves
with the zinc anode.
rapidly in the electrolyte whether a current
In a well cared for Grenet
even while
cell,
flowing or not.
is
being used to
is
it
give a large current, about 80 per cent, of the zinc
by
local action,
The
useful
and only 20 per
by
is
consumed
voltaic action.
consumption of zinc by voltaic action, while a vol-
taic cell is delivering
tq the
cent,
amount of
a given current for a specified time,
zinc that
is
equal
would be deposited by the given cur-
rent during the specified time
upon the cathode of an auxiliary
electrolytic cell containing a solution of a zinc salt, zinc sulphate,

for
example.
An
essential feature of voltaic action
current
is
that
is
is
it
forced backwards through a voltaic cell
reversed
if
by an outside
agent, provided that no material that has played a part in the
previous voltaic action has been allowed to escape from the
cell.
Thus, in the operation of the simple voltaic
of a
zinc
is
anode and carbon cathode
decomposed, ZnSO^
is
liberated at the cathode.
in dilute
cell consisting
sulphuric acid, the
H2SO^
formed at the anode, and hydrogen

If the current
is
is
reversed so that the
carbon plate becomes the anode and the zinc plate the cathode,
then the
ZnSO^
previously formed will be decomposed, metallic
zinc will be deposited

liberated at the carbon
of hydrogen that
is
upon the
zinc cathode,
anode where
it
will
and SO^
will
be
combine with the trace
clinging to the carbon plate and form H2SO4.
In this cell the greater part of the liberated hydrogen has of
course escaped
16
and the reversed chemical
action,
due
to
242
reversed current cannot long continue.
Local action, on the
other hand, being independent of current
not affected by a
is
reversal of the current.
The
104.
storage celL
action and in which
voltaic cell that
use by sending through
it
may
is
is
called charging
is
called discharging.
free
from local
discharged.
both
action, the
must be kept
in the
cell.
storage cell always requires a larger voltage between
electrodes to charge
cell,
cell.
and the electrodes must not crumble to pieces with frequent
charging and discharging of the
voltaic
and the use of the
is
an electric generator
good storage battery must be
called a storage
materials which take part in the voltaic action

cell,
produced by the
article.
process of regeneration
cell as
adapted to be thus regenerated
after
This regeneration
due to the reversed chemical action that
The
from local
be regenerated
a reversed current.
reversed current, as explained in the previous

cell that is
free
of the materials which take part in the
all
voltaic action are conserved in the cell,
is
is
This
inasmuch as
in
is
it
than
due
it is
able to maintain while
in part to the resistance *
this resistance
drop Ri
its
being
it is
in the
drop opposes the flow of current
charging and in discharging
and
it
is
due
in part to
variations in the concentration of the electrolyte at the electrodes
during charging and discharging as
explained
can be regained by discharging

105.
The lead
storage cell.f
Conse-
later.
quently more work must be done in charging a storage
than
cell
it.
The
voltaic cell which,
up
to
the present time, has been found to meet most satisfactorily the
* The resistance of the
cell is
here intended to include what
is
sometimes called
transition resistance at the surface of the electrodes, together with the effect at the
surface of the electrodes which
The
voltaic cell
is
sometimes called irreversible polarization.
having a cathode of lead peroxide, an anode of
electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid has
been used
to
some extent
zinc,
and an
as a storage cell;
see Secondary Batteries by E. J. Wade, pages 1 18-126, The Electrician Company,

London.
The Edison storage cell (spongy iron anode, nickel peroxide cathode in a
solution of caustic potash)
for
May, 1901.
is
described by A. E. Kennelly in the Trans. A.
I.
E. E.y
STORAGE BATTERIES.
requirements of a storage
cell,
243
as above specified,
a voltaic
is
cell
having a cathode of lead peroxide (Pb02), an anode of spongy

metallic lead,
and an electrolyte of
lead peroxide and the
lead
into insoluble
current,
and
spongy metallic lead are both converted
(PbSOJ when
sulphate
this lead sulphate
is
The
cell.
ported in
the
when a
delivers
reversed current
These
cell.
weak and porous, and they

of massive
interstices
cell
are called the active materials of the

are mechanically
this
converted back into lead per-
oxide and spongy lead respectively

forced through the
The
dilute sulphuric acid.
grids
is
spongy lead
active materials
are usually sup-
of
metallic
Furthermore, the active material being a rather poor
lead.
electrical
conductor, the lead grids serve not only as mechanical supports,
but also to deliver current to or receive current from the active

material which constitutes the real electrodes.
Action of the cell while discharging.

cell
HgSO^
The hydrogen
lead storage
up by the
delivers current, the electrolyte
is
split
Hg and SO^.
is
liberated at the
current into
cathode, where
PbO
When the
it
reduces the lead peroxide to
PbO, and
this
combines with a portion of the H2SO4 of the electrolyte
forming PbSO^ and water.
The SO^ which
is
liberated at the
anode combines with the spongy lead and forms PbSO^.
During
this process the active material
peroxide
expands because the
more bulky than the spongy lead and the lead

and the electrolyte grows less concentrated (and of
lead sulphate
;
is
course increases in resistance) because of the absorption of
by the
active material.
This decrease of concentration
is
SO^
especi-
ally great in the pores of the active material.
Action of the
cell is
cell
while being charged.
When the
lead storage
regenerated by forcing a reversed current through
above-described action
electrode
is
material,
reversed.
The
it,
the
lead sulphate on one
converted back to lead peroxide, the lead sulphate
on the other electrode

electrolyte
is
is
reduced to spongy metallic lead, the
grows more dense, especially
and the
in the
active material contracts.
pores of the active
244
the usual practice
It is
among
electrical engineers to call that
terminal of an electric generator out of which current flows, the
and that terminal into which current
positive terminal,
negative terminal.
of a storage cell which

positive
flows, the
In conformity with this usage, that electrode

is
cathode during discharge
The
grid and the other the negative grid.
is
called the
positive grids
and the negative grids are a neutral
are of a pale salmon color

gray.
The
following arrangement gives a clear idea of the action of
the lead storage
cell
while discharging and while being charged
Discharging.*
Positive grid.
+ II,SO^ + H^ = 2H2O + PbSO^
TbOj
*
Negative grid.
80^=
Pb
Direction of current through the

(negative to positive grid;.
cell
PbSO^
Charging.*
Positive grid.
PbSO^
+ 2H.p + SO^ = 2H2SO4 + PbOj

I
Negative grid.
PbSO^
Direction of current through the cell

(positive to negative grid).
H,
-|-
= H^SO^ + Pb
and
Variation of voltage during charge
discharge.
The
elec-
tromotive force between lead peroxide and spongy lead immersed

in dilute sulphuric acid, increases with increasing concentration of
the acid.
circuit, is
Therefore the voltage of a lead storage

large
when
the cell
is
cell,
on open
completely charged, because of
the great concentration of the acid
and
it
grows smaller and
smaller with decreasing concentration of the acid as the cell

discharged.
Furthermore, while the
cell is
is
being charged, the
concentration of the electrolyte in immediate contact with and

especially in the pores of the active material
*The
is
greater than the
above-described action of the lead storage cell constitutes the simple working
theory of the
cell.
These actions do take place but they are no doubt accompanied
by more complex actions such as the formation of per-sulphates at the anode and of
See The Theory of the Lead Acctimulatorhy Friedrich
sub-sulphates at the cathode.
Dolezalek (English translation by C. L. von Ende,
Sons).
published by John Wiley
&
STORAGE BATTERIES.
mean
is
concentration of the entire electrolyte
245
and while the
cell
discharging the concentration of the electrolyte in contact with
the active material
is
than the mean.
less
largely that a greater electromotive force
It is for this
is
reason
required to charge a
lead storage cell than the cell maintains while discharging.
2^6
2.i
si
Charge
2?
/
N
2.0
Dh charge
18
'
4y
TiLne in hou rs
143.
Fig.
The two curves
in Fig. 143,
show the
between the terminals of a lead storage

ing and while
it
is
variation of the voltage
cell
while
The shapes
being charged.
it is
discharg-
of these charge
and discharge curves depend greatly upon the thickness of the

electrodes, the temperature of the cell, the concentration of the
electrolyte,
and the value
of
current.
Practical limit to discharge.
storage cell
may be
the
charging
The
extent to which a lead
discharged in practice
the following considerations
{a)
or discharging
The
is
determined by
spongy metallic lead which constitute the active materials of a

charged lead storage
fully
tors
is
good electrical conducwhich these materials are
are fairly
whereas the lead sulphate into
converted by discharge
much
cell,
an extremely poor
electrical conductor,
too poor to act as electrode material even in small pieces
246
packed
The
in the interstices of the lead grids.
active material
on the positive grid must always contain a large proportion of

lead peroxide to give
the necessary electrical conductivity, and
it
the active material on the negative grid

large proportion of
it
is
spongy lead
for the
not permissible to discharge a
must always contain a
same
cell so
Therefore
reason.
completely as to con-
vert a large portion of the lead peroxide and spongy* lead into
lead sulphate,
(b)
The conversion
the positive grid and of
all
of
all
of the lead peroxide on
of the spongy lead on the negative grid
to lead sulphate
would involve an excessive expansion of the
materials which
would be more
likely than a
expansion to detach the active materials from the grids,

a storage
cell is
active
moderate degree of
discharged beyond a certain limit
its
(c)
When
electromotive
force falls off excessively.
Usually a lead storage

at
which
current,
voltage
its
and
cell is
falls
in the usual
not discharged beyond the point
to 1.8 volts while giving
its
full
rated
types of cells this degree of discharge
corresponds to the conversion, of from
to ^ of the active material
into lead sulphate.
Limit
tive
to
charge.
When
and negative grids
is
all
of the active material on the posi-
converted into lead peroxide and spongy
lead respectively, then a continuation of the
charging current
causes hydrogen gas to be liberated at the negative grids and
oxygen gas
to be liberated at the positive grids without
ing any further chemical change in the active material.

lution of gas
is
not especially harmful to the
comes so violent
material
as
to
cell
produc-
This evo-
unless
it
be-
cause the disintegration of the active
by the production of bubbles
within the pores, or between
the active material and the solid metal of the grid.

Capacity.
The
ampere-hours, that
rent in
capacity of a
is
storage cell
is
expressed
amperes times the number of hours that the
liver the current
in
to say, in terms of the product of the cur-
when
it is
of charge and discharge.
cell
can de-
operated between the practical limits
The
capacity of a storage cell varies
greatly with the discharge rate as explained later.
STORAGE BATTERIES.
Efficiency.
ratio of the
The
247
energy efficiency of a storage battery
energy delivered by the
energy delivered to the
cell
during discharge to the
cell
during
the
is
The
charge.
efficiency
ranges from 70 to 95 per cent, according to the conditions of use

If the battery is discharged to 1.8 volts per cell,
of the battery.
then completely charged, then discharged to 1.8 volts per

cent, with
rates
from about 70 per

of charge and discharge to about 80 per
rates
of charge and discharge.
is
and so on, the
efficiency varies
with low
cent,
If the battery
cell,
high
charged and
discharged through a very narrow range during short intervals

of time, for example
if
a battery
is
charged for one minute then
discharged for one minute repeatedly,
high as 93 or 94 per cent.

Rates of charge and discharge.
storage
cell,
by
measures
rate *
it,
Thus one may properly speak
of charge or discharge.
rate
When
discharged at a high rate the voltage of the

rapidly, partly
as
current delivered
or the current used in charging
of discharge or charge.
ampere
The
may be
efficiency
its
its
of a ten-
a storage cell
cell
tends to
is
off
in the cell,
but
on account of the large Ri drop
fall
chiefly because of the fact that the rapid absorption of the sul-
phuric acid in the formation of lead sulphate makes the acid in

the pores of the active material very dilute.
when a
cell is
charged at a high
On
the other hand,
rate the voltage tends to rise
excessively.
Furthermore,
in rapid
charging or discharging the tendency
is
for the surface layers, only, of the active material to take part in
the voltaic action, so that the ampere-hour capacity of the cell
is
reduced, and the rapid and non-uniform expansion and contraction

of the active material tends to cause disintegration.
106.
Examples
of storage battery grids.
processes for making
There
Plante process and (b) the Faure process.

*
discharge rate
is
are
{a)
The
In the Plante process
number of hours
Thus engineers speak of a two-hour
usually specified in practice by giving the
required to discharge the cell at the given rate.

rate, a five-hour rate, etc.
two general
storage battery grids, namely
248
a lead plate with a finely corrugated surface
subjected to the
is
which converts the surface layers
action of a suitable acid bath
of the metal into active material
by
corrosion.
Plante's original
process was to expose the lead plates to the action of dilute sul-
phuric acid, the corroding action of which he accelerated by making the plates alternately anode and cathode.
Plante processes *
now used
the corrosion
In the modified
accelerated by the
is
addition of a small percentage of a lead dissolving acid, such as
or acetic acid.
nitric acid
In the Faure process the active material
is
manufactured
in
bulk by any suitable chemical process and introduced mechanically

into the interstices of the lead grids. f
which
is
Faure's original process
extensively used was to apply the active material
still
in the
form of a paste made by wetting
litharge or a mixture of litharge
and
red lead with dilute sulphuric acid.
The
tery,
Gould storage batshown in Fig. 144, is an
grid of the
which
is
example of a grid made by the
acceler-
Thick plates of
ated Plante process.
metallic lead of the desired shape are
placed between rapidly rotating spinning

p.g
rolls
44
which
raise thin fins of the
cross-ribs of
untouched lead are
left
to give the grid the requisite
strength and conductivity, and the active material
the greatly increased surface of the fins
Each spinning
roll consists
of a large
with thin spacing washers between,
on a
shaft.
The
buckling and
it
all
is
formed over
by a process of corrosion.
number
of thin steel disks
clamped
positive grid always gives

is
metal on
A central web and
the faces of the plate.
rigidly together
more trouble from
weakened by corrosion much more rapidly
* See Storage Battery Engineering, by Lamar Lyndon, Chapter XVI.

t A variety of grids made by modifications of the Faure process are described by
Lyndon, Storage Battery Engineering, Chapter XVII.
STORAGE BATTERIES.
249
than the negative grid and therefore a greater number of crossribs is left
The
on the positive grid than on the negative
Storage Battery Company, which

cell,
grid.
grids of the stationary type of storage cell of the Electric
are
shown
in Fig.
145.
is
known
as the
**
Chloride
This figure also shows one of the
wooden plates which are used as separators beThe positive grid of this cell is a plate of leadantimony alloy cast with numerous holes into which circular
plugs or coils of pure corrugated lead tape are placed.
These
plugs are then converted into active material by an accelerated
The negative grid is made by. inserting small
Plante process.
thin corrugated
tween the
grids.
Positive grids.
Negative grids.
Fig. 145.
blocks of active material into holes in a grid of pure lead.

grid
is
made
in
This
two halves which are pressed together over the
blocks of active material and riveted together under pressure.
The
grids of the portable type of storage cell of the Electric
Storage Battery Company, which
is
known
are grids cast of a lead-antimony alloy.
as the
The
and the
Exide"
cell,
interstices in the
positive grid are filled with a paste of red lead

acid,
'*
and sulphuric
interstices of the negative grids are filled with a
paste of litharge and sulphuric acid.
Storage battery grids made by the Plante process are usually
much
heavier than Faure grids of the
same
capacity, but the
2 so
which
active material
formed by the Plante process
is
compact and more firmly attached

material that
and
is
more
applied to the grids mechanically in the Faure
Heavy
process.
is
to the grids than the active
stationary batteries usually have Plante grids,
light portable batteries usually
have Faure
grids, or,
what
is
perhaps better, Plante positive grids and Faure negative grids.
The
following quotations from a large manufacturer give
idea of the weights and costs of storage batteries
some
Heavy Stationary Type.

Weights and
costs of a
400 ampere
loo-voIt (50-cell) storage battery rated at
hours on an eight-hour discharge and capable therefore of delivering 40 kilowatthours.
Weight.
Cost.
Pounds per
Pounds.
kilowatt hour.
In glass jars.
In lead-lined
wood
tanks.
258
365
10,300
14,600
Depreciation 6 or 7 per cent, per
Dollars.
Dollars per
kilowatt-hour.
1,400
1,650
35 -OO
41-25
annum when properly cared
for.
Light Portable Type.

Weights and
rated at
costs of a loo-volt
(50-cell)
storage battery of the carriage type
200 ampere-hours on a four-hour discharge and capable therefore of delivering
20 kilowatt-hours.
Weight.
Cost.
Pounds per
Pounds.
kilowatt-hour.
In covered rubber
jars.
annum
Depreciation 15 per cent, per
107.
117
2,340
Management and
Dollars.
Dollars per
kilowatt-hour.
800
40.00
or more.
care of the lead storage cell.*
lead storage cell deteriorates rapidly in service, especially

is
not properly cared for
*The
ing
reader
is
and, therefore, since the
referred to Chapter
XIV.
for a very full discussion of this subject.
first
The
when it
cost of a
of Lyndon's Storage Battery Engineer-
STORAGE BATTERIES.
storage battery
is
high,
it is
important that
25
should have proper
it
care.
The electrolyte should be made of very pure sulphuric acid.

The least trace of platinum (from the platinum still used in the
manufacture of the acid)
salt
is
of any kind
is
In general a metallic
very harmful.
is
objectionable,
inasmuch as the foreign metal
deposited on the grids and gives rise to local voltaic action.
Also the presence of lead dissolving acids such as
nitric
or acetic
The
objectionable, as
is
also the presence of chlorides.
of these impurities
is
to accelerate the corrosion of the solid lead
is
of the grid converting
into active material.
it
High concentration of the

sistance of the cell,
effect
and
electrolyte reduces the internal re-
facilitates to
it
some extent
On
of acid into and out of the active material.
the diffusion
the other hand,
high concentration of the electrolyte tends to cause trouble from
Therefore a
sulphatation as explained later.

to stand for a
trolyte,
and a
cell
which
is
likely
long time unused should have a low density eleccell
density electrolyte.
that
is
The
may have
cared for properly
usual densities range
a higher
from 1.21 to 1.24
charged, and from 1.185 to 1.195 discharged.
The over-concentrated
acid at the surface of the grids during
charge tends to flow to the bottom of the
cell
and the under-
concentrated acid at the surface of the grids during discharge

tends to flow to the top of the
deep
cells the electrolyte
When
it is
In large and especially in
should be continuously circulated by
pumping a small stream of

stirred
cell.
air to
the bottom of the
desired to test the electrolyte
by blowing
air
through
it
cell.
should be thoroughly
it.
Water must be occasionally added
to
make up
This should be poured to the bottom of the
rubber tube attached to a funnel.
The
cell
for evaporation.
through a long
electrolyte should always
cover the grids.
The
grids should be frequently inspected with a view to the
discover}^ of
any sulphatation, or buckling, and a
thin
wooden
stick should be occasionally passed between the grids to make
252
by a block
sure that the grids are not connected
continued standing at discharge, which

unnoticed internal short-circuit of the
of detached ac-
Sulphatation and buckling are usually due to long-
tive material.
is
brought about by an
cell.
storage cell should not be allowed to stand discharged for
any length of
time.
storage battery standing unused should be partly discharged
and immediately recharged
When
time,
it
a storage battery
at least
once per week.
to be put out of service for a long
is
should be partly discharged, the electrolyte should then
be drawn off from each

ately, then the battery
(on open-circuit)
falls
cell
and pure water poured
should be short-circuited
about 0.5 volt per
to
in
immedi-
until the
voltage
The
cell.
cells
should then be rinsed with several changes of water, allowing

the plates to soak thoroughly in each, and the final washing water
When
should be drawn off and the plates allowed to dry.

battery
is
again put into commission
in electrolyte
it is
the
only necessary to pour
and give the battery a long-continued over-charge.
Sulphatation of the grids of a lead storage cell consists * of

the conversion of portions of the active material wholly into lead
sulphate.
it is
This pure sulphate
formed,
it
is
and thus reconvert
tively.
it
is
a very poor conductor and, once
make
act as
anode or as cathode
to lead peroxide or to
spongy lead respec-
difficult to
it
layer of pure lead sulphate sometimes forms between
the active material and the metallic lead of the grid, and some-
times the external surface of the active material becomes covered
with a crust of pure sulphate.
Pure lead sulphate
is
white and
whenever white spots appear on the grids of a lead storage
cell,
the cell should be subjected to a very long-continued over-charge

in
the attempt to reduce the pure lead
sulphate into active
material.
The normal discharge
rate of a lead storage cell,
of an eight-hour discharge,
*It
is
is
on the basis
from 6 to 7 amperes per square foot
claimed by some authorities that sulphatation consists in the formation of hy-
drated lead sulphate.
STORAGE BATTERIES.
253
of positive grid area, where positive grid area

I
is
equal to 2lbn^
being the length, b the breadth of each grid, and n the number
The
of positive grids.
reason for referring the discharge rate to
the area of the positive grids rather than to the area of the negative grids is that the positive grids are
always one
number
less in
than the negative grids, so that both sides of every positive grid
are active.
The
discharge rate of a storage battery in amperes should
times the^ normal rate of discharge
never exceed four or
five
(eight-hour basis).
a greater current must be taken from the
battery
it
should be at
The
full
rate of
discharged, but
full
If
should be for a few minutes, only, and the battery

charge.
may
charge
it
be high when the battery
is
nearly
should be low when the battery approaches
charge, especially after the evolution of gas begins.
rule for rapid charging
is
the total ampere-hours during the

the next two hours, and
A good
to deliver to the battery 3 5 per cent, of

first
hour
52 per cent, during
14 per cent, during the fourth hour.
Thus a 100 ampere-hour cell may be completely charged in

four hours by using a charging current of 35 amperes during the
first
hour, 26 amperes during the second and third hours, and
14 amperes during the fourth hour.
Very slow charging
is
The charging
injurious.
current should
never be less than about one fourth of the normal discharge rate
of the cell (on an eight-hour basis).
The
variation of the
ampere-hour capacity with the
rate of dis-
charge depends greatly upon the thickness of the active material
and the freedom of
The
circulation
and
diffusion of the electrolyte.
values for the stationary batteries of the Electric Storage
Battery
Company
are as follows
cell that
has 100 ampere-
hours capacity on an eight-hour discharge (12.5 ampere
dis-
charge rate) has a capacity of 87.5 ampere-hours on a five-hour

discharge (17.5 ampere discharge
rate),
75 ampere-hours on a
three-hour discharge (25 ampere discharge
rate),
and 50 ampere-
hours on a one-hour discharge (50 ampere discharge
rate).
254
108.
The use
of
storage
batteries.*
Storage
used for the one fundamental purpose of storing
and place
at a given time
where
and
it
may
in
order that
The
be desired.
annum even when they
first
in
are
energy
used when and
cost of storage
are properly cared
commercial use to those cases
their
may be
which amounts to from
their rapid depreciation,
cent, per
large
it
batteries
electrical
cells
to lo per
for, limits
which the advantages of
storage are very great.

Portable
cells.
Storage
cells
which are intended to be carried
about are generally made as light as possible by using thin grids
and hard rubber containing vessels
Thus a storage
very great.
and capable of operating
and even then the weight
is
battery designed for car lighting,
i6-candle-power incandescent
thirty
weighs about 3,240 pounds. The necessity

of recharging a battery promptly after it has been used is also a
serious matter, and storage cells which are used in small sets for
lamps
for 8 hours,
driving small motors and induction coils are almost never properly cared for,
Stationary
in
cells.
Storage
last
For supplying the
demand.
most extensively used
station output during the
In this case the battery
in operation,
but a very short time.
batteries are
connection with central stations

()
is
and therefore they
is
hours of small
charged while the station
and discharged during the remainder of the day,
thus obviating the expense of operating the station continuously.
For equalizing a rapidly fluctuating
(b)
case provision
load
is
is
is
made
for the battery to
below the average and
above the average.
This
is
station load.
In this
charge while the station
to discharge while the station load
the most important use of large
storage battery installations, and the cost of installing and maintaining the battery
is
set over against the saving in the first cost
of the station and the saving in the cost of operating the station.
{c)
As
a reserve.
In alternating-current generating stations a
small direct-current generator

*
is
used to excite the
very complete discussion of the uses of storage batteries
Lyndon,
in his Storage
Battery Engineering.
is
field
magnets
given by
Lamar
STORAGE BATTERIES.
of the alternators, and
it
255
desirable either to
is
duplicate this
direct-current generating machinery or install a storage battery so
may
that the station
accident
not be thrown out of service
a comparatively
to
machinery.
When
Controlling Devices.
part
insignificant
of
a storage battery
by a
the
slight
station
used for
is
operating motors, as in case of automobile batteries for example,
no attempt
is
made
to
compensate for decrease of battery voltage
When, however, a
during discharge.
battery
is
used for oper-
ating incandescent lamps, the decrease of battery voltage during
discharge must be compensated so as to give a constant voltage
between the lighting mains.
When
a storage battery
is
used for equalizing a rapidly
tuating station load, provision
must be made
causing the battery to discharge
and to charge when the
The use
109.
is
is
the station load
is
large
small.
of the storage battery for supplying the station
output during the hours of

battery
when
station load
fluc-
for automatically
used for
this
small demand.
purpose
it
is
When
a storage
nearly always required to
deliver current at constant volt-
age.
storage
sufficient
cells
is
number of
used
the required voltage

battery
is
to
when
give
the
discharged and has 1.8
volts per cell,
and the control-
ling device
arranged to take
is
up the excess of voltage when

the battery voltage
is
higher than
Control of voltage by rheostat.

current,
battery
is
i,
made
delivered
ip.
^p
"T"
g*
T"
the desired value.
The
by the
f
-^
to flow throue^h
^
Fig. 146.
an adjustable resistance, R, Fig.

146, so that the excess of battery voltage
voltage drop, Ri, in the resistance.
may
When
the
be used up as the
lamp load
is
con-
256
stant this
method of
control
is
fairly satisfactory, for, in this case,
the resistance has to be adjusted only as the battery voltage falls
When
off.
the lamp load fluctuates, however, the rheostat re-
quires constant attention, inasmuch as the voltage drop, Ri, in
the rheostat
may change suddenly with
a sudden change of load.
Control of voltage by counter-electromotive-force
When
cells.
current flows through a low-resistance electrolytic cell consisting

of plain lead plates in dilute sulphuric
through the
cell varies
from about
2.
acid,
the voltage drop
to 2.4 volts according to
The excess voltage of a discharging

up by causing the current to flow
may
be
taken
storage battery
through a number of such cells connected in series, the number
The advantage
being reduced as the battery voltage decreases.
the value of the current.
of this arrangement
trolling
that the voltage which
is
is lost in
does not vary greatly with the
cells
method of voltage
control
seldom used
is
in practice.
advantage over the rheostat method when the load
and the end-cell method
usually preferred
is
these con-
This
current.
when
It
is
has no
constant,
the load
is
variable.
This method of control will be
Control of voltage by end-cells.
explained by giving an actual example of a battery to be used for

delivering current at
of
volts.
end of the discharge
at the
cell.
no
is
The lowest
permissible voltage
usually taken to be 1.8 volts per
minimum
The highest
Therefore the number of cells required to give a
no
voltage
volts
is
is
about
10 -H
2.
1.8,
which
is
equal to 61.
volts per cell at the very beginning of the
discharge (see Fig. 143), and 51 cells are therefore required at

the very beginning of the discharge to give
fore,
the entire battery being fully charged,
i
1
lo volts.
There-
cells are
used at
the beginning of the discharge, and as the voltage of the battery

falls off
the
number of
tional cells at
cells is increased,
one end of the
the limit of discharge,

these conditions
it is
all
set, until,
by connecting-in
when
addi-
the battery reaches
of the 61 cells are in service.
Under
evident that the end-cells, which are in ser-
vice only a portion of the time during the delivery of current
by
STORAGE BATTERIES.
the battery, are not completely discharged.
battery
start
is
257
Therefore,
and cut out one by one when they become
indicated, for example,
An
when
the
recharged, the end-cells are placed in circuit at the

fully charged, as
by the copious evolution of gas.
important detail in the carrying out of the end-cell method
of voltage control
the design of the switch for connecting and
is
disconnecting the end-cells without interrupting the delivery of

current,
and without momentarily short-circuiting the individual
The
cells.
Fig. 147.
The
Main
b^
ULA/W\AAq
"ja
series of contact blocks, c c c
of two pieces, ^ and
when they
circuit current to
of the
and the movable contact consists
which together bridge across between the
^,
through a resistance,
c,
Main
147.
Fig.
cc,
in
terminals of the end-cells are brought out to a
blocks,
shown
essential features of this end-cell switch are
are
7?,
moved along and
which
is
large
enough
short-circuit a cell
to limit the short-
about the value of the normal discharge current
cells.
T/ie
shunt
booster.
In
the use of a storage battery as above
described, a voltage greatly in excess of the normal station volt-
age
is
required in charging, especially
complete charge.
at
1.8 volts
17
per
Thus
cell,
the 61
when
cells,
the battery approaches
required to give
10 volts
require about 2.5 volts each, or a total of
258
152.5 volts,
when they
batteries to the station
This
are nearly charged, see Fig. 143.
high voltage for charging
is
usually obtained by connecting the
mains through a small shunt-wound genMain

Sbunt eli
wiading
r~
^^^
^M
^
^"
^7^
^m
b
3
-,
^
CO
"^"
IB^
^r"
Main
Fig. 148.
erator,
is
which
called a booster, as
is
110. Automatic
slowly, as
is
shown
in Fig.
the main generator of the station and
is
boosters.
When
is
148, in which
the booster.
the station
load changes
usually the case in an electric lighting station, there
ample time
an attendant to connect up a shunt booster and
for
charge a storage battery when the station load
is
small,
and
to
disconnect the booster and make the necessary arrangements for

discharging the battery when the peak of the load comes on.
When, however, the station load fluctuates rapidly and irregularly
as
is
usually the case in an electric railway
control of the storage battery
impossible.
is
power
station,
hand
In such cases auto-
matic boosters must be used.
The floating
battery.
The
simplest arrangement for causing
a storage battery to operate automatically and tend to equalize

a station load,
is
that which
is
frequently employed in connection
with long feeders over which a considerable drop of voltage takes

place
shown
when a
large current
in Fig. 149, in
which
is
delivered.
is
This arrangement
is
Ba
is
the main generator and
STORAGE BATTERIES.
Any
the storage battery.
great
demand
259
for current causes the
voltage, E, to decrease, so that the battery can discharge,
when
the
battery
is
demand
charged.
and
is
small the voltage, E^ rises and the
A battery
connected as shown in Fig. 149
for current
Long feeder
E
Long feeder
Fig.
is
149.
Such a floating battery cannot comdemand on the station, inasmuch as the rise
of the voltage, E^ depends upon some decrease and increase
called a floating battery.
pletely equalize the
and fall
of the current flowing through the long feeders.
The negative
booster,
and also
provision
starts
at the
is
frequently happens that a small gen-
made
building supplies current for
office
for operating
require constant voltage

if
It
modern
erating plant in a
lighting
an elevator motor.
and the motor operates most
for a great decrease in voltage
and takes excessive current.

lamps
may be
The lamps
satisfactorily
when
the motor
In this case the voltage, E^^
kept nearly constant, and a large delivery
of current to the elevator motor
decrease in the voltage, E^, see Fig.
may
be made to cause a great
50,
by interposing an auxiliary
Lamps
Fig. 150.
26o
series
motor
veloped by
(a negative booster), J/, as
Mis
the elevator motor takes but
and the battery
shown.
The power
is
current the voltage, ^,
little
When
charged.
M,
causes
electromotive force so that
to develop
it
E.^ is
coil, S,
of the
an increased counter
decreased and the battery dis-
The motor, M, produces an
charges.
high
is
the elevator motor takes a
large current, the current flowing in the series field

auxiliary motor,
de-
When
belted back to the main generator G.
effect
to a voltage drop in a long pair of feeders,
which
is
equivalent
and the battery operates
exactly like a floating battery.
The motor, M, keeps the output of the main generator, G, much

more nearly constant if it is provided with two field windings, 5
and
S'y
which oppose each other.
and
5',
may be made
motor takes
less
than
its
In this case the windings,
to balance each other
average current.
Then
average current the
coil, S',
its
if
when
the elevator
the elevator motor takes
predominates,
M becomes
a generator, increases E^* ^^^ causes the battery to be charged

if
the elevator motor takes
more than
its
average current the
coil.
Fig. 151.
S, predominates,
M becomes
the battery to discharge.

S',
a motor, decreases E^, and causes
The use
which opposes S, makes
it
of the additional field winding,
possible to use
many more
turns
STORAGE BATTERIES.
261
of wire in the winding, S, so that a very small variation of current
produce the variations of voltage required to control
in vS will
the storage battery.

T/ie
due to Mailloux,
in
and S'
When
5 and
the
the windings,
B,
develops
Fig.
shows an arrangement,
which a booster, B^
The
of line current.
wS
booster.
differe7iiial
is
actuated by variations
booster has two opposing
demand
5',
for current
is
When
charges nor discharges.
force,
and the battery neither
the line current
winding, 5, predominates, and the voltage of
winding, S'
windings,
balance each other, the small generator,
no electromotive
tery to discharge
field
at its average value
when, however, the
excessive the
is
helps the bat-
line current
is
small the
predominates and the reversed voltage of
helps
the line voltage to charge the battery.

liine
Fig. 152.
Booster with
shows a carbon
automatic
rheostat,
carbon
RR'
the storage battery, and the
rheostat
control.
Fig. 152
connected across the terminals of
field
winding, F, of the booster, B,
connected from the middle of the rheostat to the middle of the
262
battery.
to
A solenoid, S, pulls on an iron plunger which
one end
of the lever,
//.
The
current
the resistances,
and
the current through
R\
and
in the
R\
is
attached
lugs on this lever press on
and R', which constitute the
the two piles of carbon plates,

rheostat.
is
Two
in the field winding,
F,
is
when
zero
of the piles of carbon plates are equal,

in
one direction when
other direction
when
is
R is
less
greater than
Any
than R^.
Fig. 153.
increase in the line current above

slight increase of current in
lever,
reduces
and increases
its
mean value produces a
very-
which increases the pull on the

i?',
and so excites the
booster as to cause the battery to discharge.
a decrease of line current below
its
field
In a similar
mean value causes
of the
manner
the bat-
STORAGE BATTERIES.
In practice the current controlled
tery to charge.
stat,
RR'
excites the field
263
magnet of a very small
by the rheo-
auxiliary gen-
erator which delivers current to the field winding of the booster.
The
loss of
power
RR'
in the rheostat,
is
thus greatly reduced.
manushown in
general view of the automatic carbon rheostat, as
factured
by the
Company,
Electric Storage Battery
is
Fig. 153.
Example showing
equalizing effect of an
the
automatically
regulated storage battery upon the generator load in a street rail-
way plant.
Fig.
The
ordinates of the extremely irregular curve in
154 represent during an interval of ten minutes the
demand
ating
for current at
a typical
fluctu-
railway power station.
Without a storage battery the generators would have to meet

this extremely irregular demand, varying from a minimum of
about 180 amperes to a
maximum
of about
The
850 amperes.
ordinates of the slightly undulating dotted curve show the values
of generator output
when an adequate
storage battery
In this particular case the battery was regulated
which the
rheostat as
in Fig.
installed.
was under the control of a carbon
field excitation
shown
is
by a booster of
152.
When
the total load curve
^bove the dotted curve the battery discharges and when the
load curve
The
is
is
total
below the dotted curve the battery charges.
general average of the generator load must be slightly
greater than the general average of the station output inasmuch

as
some energy
is
lost in the battery,
load during a short period
may
be
but the average generator
much
greater or
than the average station output during the period.
much
less
Thus
the
average station output during the ten-minute run shown

1
in Fig.
54 was evidently greater than the average generator load during
was on the whole being discharged.

Example of a storage battery and booster installation.'^
A
power station supplies current at a constant electromotive force
that time so that the battery
An
Moore
example of a large storage battery
in the Street
Railway Journal
Batteries to the System of the
installation
is
described by Franklin E.
The Application
Brooklyn Heights Railroad Company."
for Sept. 21, 1901,
**
of Storage
264
of 500 volts to a street railway and the

irregularly from zero to a
maximum
demand
for current varies
value of 400 amperes, having
Ampere
mean
value of 150 amperes.
are designed to deliver a
little
The boiler, engine and generator

more than the mean station load
STORAGE BATTERIES.
265
and the variations of load are equalized by a

storage battery which has to deliver a maximum current of 250
of 75
kilowatts,
amperes
(=400 amperes 150
load
zero.
is
On
on discharge, and ab-
amperes)
sorb the entire generator output of
50 amperes when the station
account of the greater values of current on dis-
charge than on charge, the
maximum
duty of the booster
sened by choosing the number of storage
cells so as to
is
les-
have the
mean voltage of the battery greater than the station voltage.

The storage battery in fact consists of 234 cells, which require a
maximum
charging electromotive force of about 562 volts (2.4

and the battery is never discharged below 445
volts per cell),
The duty required of the booster

varies between wide limits.
The heaviest duty required for
charging the battery comes when the battery is at nearly full
charge and the demand for current zero then the booster must
volts (1.9 volts per cell).
develop 62 volts with 150 amperes of current flowing through

its
The
comes when
armature.
battery
mand
for current a
heaviest duty required for discharging the
the battery
maximum
55 volts with 250 amperes in

therefore be rated, say, as a 5
much
is
;
its
nearly discharged and the de-
then the booster must develop

armature.
5 -volt
The
booster would
250-ampere generator,
inas-
as the voltage of such a machine could be easily pushed
up to 62 volts with an armature current of only
This booster
having a very
differs
from an ordinary generator
large space provided for
its field
the two opposing windings
may
in
50 amperes.
windings so as to give room for
and 5' of
Fig. 151.
This booster
be driven by the same engine that drives the main gener-
ator, or, as is
more
usual,
by a shunt motor which
with current from the station bus bars.
is
supplied
CHAPTER
IX.
ELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION AND WIRING.
The conmethod of electrical distribution is briefly discussed

41 and the system of connecting lamps and motors in
111. Series
and parallel systems
of distribution.
stant-voltage
in Art.
between the supply mains
parallel
constant-voltage
method
in
the carrying out of the
shown in Fig. 69. This is called the

The constant-current method of
is
parallel system of distribution.

electrical distribution
also briefly discussed in Art. 41,
is
system of connecting lamps

constant-current
series
is
method
shown
is
The
system of distribution.
used
and
This
in Fig. 6'^.
parallel
is
called the
system of distribution
majority of electric installations both for
in the great
direct current
and the
in series in the carrying out of the
for alternating current.
In the case of alternat-
ing-current distribution the use of transformers, and especially the
employment of
several phases of voltage
the scheme of connections to
second volume of
this text.
The
series
generally used for street lighting in
power transmission by
and
in
When
method of
some
is
cases for
and motors.*
and parallel connections,
of series-groups in parallel.
constant-voltage
current, complicates
as described in the
system of distribution
cities
series generators
Combinations of series
and
some extent
(a)
Connection
the voltage of supply in the
distribution
is
greater than can be
conveniently used for operating single lamps, the lamps are usually
arranged
in
groups, each group consisting of a
*Thury's System of Direct-current Power Transmission.

Vol. 38, pages 683-687,
March
Vol. 16, pages 5-10, 1898
19,
number of lamps
See London Electrician.
1897; Zeitschrift fiir Electrotechnik (Vienna),
Btdletin de la Society International des Electriciens,
Vol. 17, pages 9-93, January, 1900; and Electrical Review

1901.
266
(New
York), January,

connected
in series,
and these groups of lamps are connected
in
This arrangement
each other across the mains.
parallel with
267
is
exemplified in the lighting of electric cars where the standard supply-voltage
550 volts and where the lamps for lighting the cars
no-volt lamps connected in series-groups of five
is
are usually
lamps each, these groups being connected in parallel with each
other between the trolley and the
employed
for the
now coming
similar arrangement is
rail.
very low voltage osmium lamps * which are
into
osmium lamps
Thus
extensive use abroad.
three
37-volt
are connected in a series-group and such groups
are connected in parallel with each other across standard
lo-volt
mains.
(p)
The connection of parallel-groups of lamps in
series.
early days of electric lighting the constant-current
method of
Many
supplying arc lamps for street lighting was quite common.
towns which were provided with
In the
this series-system of distribution
were not provided with any other means for supplying incandescent lamps, and the only feasible
method
for operating incandes-
cent lamps was to connect a group of such lamps in parallel
and to connect
this
arrangement
now seldom
is
group
in series in the
arc-lamp
circuit.
This
or never used.
Advantages and disadvantages of the connection of series -groups

In order to clearly understand the advanof lamps in parallel.
tages of grouping electric lamps in series
mind the
in
tric
lamps could not be made
than about 100 or
no
volts
it is
necessary to keep
days of electric-lighting elec-
fact that in the earlier
satisfactorily for
higher voltages
and* that, at the present time, the
higher-voltage carbon-filament lamps are less efficient or shorter

lived than low-voltage
size of the filament of
up
in the general
lamps because of the excessively small
a high-voltage lamp.
statement that the
low-voltage device^ so that
if
This
electric
may
lamp
be
summed
is essentially
one wishes to use a high voltage
a
in
order to reduce the amount of copper required for a given installation the
lamps must be arranged
*See London
in series-groups.
Electrician, Vol. 55, p. 141,
May
12, 1905.
The saving
268
by using a high voltage * is evident when we consider

that the dehvery of a certain amount of power can be accomplished by half as much current when the voltage is doubled,
of copper
that the doubling of the voltage permits in general a double vol-
tage-drop in the line wires, and that this double voltage-drop with
much
half as
heavy as
means
current
of the series-grouping of lamps
group must be turned

is
which
may be one
and on as a
off
unit, unless
used to connect an equivalent resistance

is
to
be turned
The grouping
is
that each
a special de-
in place of
a lamp
lamps
in
on
high-
series
exemplified in the lighting of streets
incandescent lamps from a
by
lOO- or 2,200-volt alternating-current
In this case the lamps are arranged in series-groups of
10 or 20 lamps each and provision
is
made
for automatically in-
serting an equivalent resistance in place of a

to break
is
off.
of incandescent
voltage supply mains
supply.
quarter as
before.
The disadvantage
vice
that the wires
lamp
that happens
down.
000 00 00 (t>Q
000000000000
Fig. 155.
The Edison three- wire system of distribution.

Fig.
shows
number
seriesa
of
in
iio-volt
lamps
connected,
155
groups of two lamps each, to 220-volt mains, and supplied with
112.
current from two iio-volt generators connected in series; and
Fig 156 shows an arrangement which

*See equation (43),
Art. 117.
is
the same as Fig. 155,

except that a third main, CD^
main makes
this third
it
is
269
The addition
added as shown.
possible to turn single lamps on and
of
off,
by each consumer are judiciously placed,

some in the yi-set and some in the -5-set, there will always be
nearly the same number of lamps in each set, even when entire
freedom is allowed in the turning off and on of single lamps, so
and
if
the lamps in use
much
that the middle main need never carry
In fact
current.
the current in the middle main will be a small incoming current
when the
y4-set contains a
small outgoing current
few more lamps than the B-set, or a
when
the ^-set contains a few
more lamps
than the ^-set.
666666 66OOQO A'set
66666666666 QB-set
Fig. 156.
The arrangement shown

wire system of
made
side
distribution.
156
in Fig.
is
called the Ediso7i three-
In practice the middle main
is
usually
of the same size wire as each outside main, and each out-
main need be only one quarter as heavy as would be required
to supply the
tem using
in the
same number of lamps
10 volts
simple parallel sys-
therefore to supply a given
number of lamps
Edison three-wire system requires only three-eighths as
much copper
same per
as
cent,
would be required
simple system with the
in the
drop of voltage.
When the number of lamps
in the
from the number of similar lamps

to be unbalanced.
main
in the
When
carries current,
^-set
in the
the system
and the
effect of
is
in Fig.
56
is
different
^-set the system
is
said
unbalanced the middle
the voltage-drop in the
270
middle main
set of
is
to tend to increase the voltage
which acts on one
lamps and to decrease the voltage which acts on the other
set of lamps.
These voltage
relations are clearly represented for
a particular case in Fig. 157.
This figure shows the state of
100 amperes
QA'set
10 amperes
B'set
90 amperes
Fig.
affairs
when
157a.
the A-set of lamps takes 100 amperes, and the -5-set.
90 amperes, each main having J^-ohm resistance, and the lamps

being supposed to be bunched at the ends of the mains for the
sake of simplicity.
may always
Electric current
1
be considered
00 amperes
10 amperes
go amperes
= 5 volts.
= % volt.
= 4% volts.
Fig. 157-5.
as flowing
down
hill
be thought of as
so that the electric level (or potential)
falling off
along each main
is
to
in the direction of
the current, as indicated by the fine inchned lines in Fig. 1S7^>
271
and the distances between these inclined lines at the ends of

the mains represent the vpltages acting on the two sets of lamps.
Thus the voltage
volt
volts
on the
y^-set is
109.5 volts, and the voltage
4%
volts 4- yi volt
volts
5 volts
acting on the ^-set
is
115
111 volts.
Special three-wire generators and three-wire balancers.
113.
The
b acting
use of two generators as indicated in Figs.
involves an added
station,
expense
for
machinery
156 and 157
the
in
generating
and the extensive use of the Edison three-wire system
has given
rise to several
which can be used singly
special types of three-wire generators

for supplying a three -wire system,
and
to several types of an auxiliary device, called a three-wire balancer
which enables a single 220-volt generator of the ordinary type to

supply an Edison three-wire system.
{a)
The
split-pole three-wire
generator.
rated into two parts

b,
collect current at
by deep
220
with the commutator
The
auxiliary brush,
c,
shows a
The main
brushes, a and
an auxiliary brush,
is
8<3:
and SS\ sepa-
midway between a and
main of the three-wire system

c.
158.
slots, //.
volts,
NN'
two-pole 220-volt generator with each pole,
Fig.
Fig.
b,
r,
makes contact
and the middle
connected to this auxiliary brush,
cannot be used on an ordinary solid
pole generator because the sections of the armature winding as
2/2
they are short-circuited by the auxiliary brush,
c,
would have
excessive short-circuit currents produced in
them by the
induced electromotive forces
The
therefore,
in
the sections.
be out of the inducing
field in
large
sections must,
the neutral spaces, pp,
when they are short-circuited by the auxiliary brush. When the

generator shown in Fig. 158^ is heavily loaded the armature current tends to crowd the magnetic flux into the portions N' and
S' of the pole pieces thus causing the voltage between brushes,
become greater and the voltage between brushes,

b and r, to become less.
This tendency must be to some extent
counteracted, and it must be possible for the station attendant to
a and
c,
to
control the voltages, a
\.o
and c
This
three-wire generator.
is
to
b,
separately, in a practicable
accomplished
generator of Dettmar * as follows
in the three-wire
four-pole field structure
is
excited so as to be essentially a two-pole field magnet acting on

Mnin
Fie.
158<5.
an armature properly wound for a two-pole

158^^.
The magnetic
ing
coils,
AA
field as
flux out of iV(and into
duces the voltage, b to
c,
and
this flux
and AA^ the current
* Electrotechnische Zeitschrift, Vol.
in
18, pp.
is
vS),
shown
in Fig.
Fig. 158^, pro-
produced by the excit-
which can be controlled by
55 and 230,
897.

a
Similarly the magnetic flux out of
field rheostat.
S') produces the voltage, a to

exciting coils,
by
BB and BB,
c,
and
this flux
is
273
N'
(and into
produced by the
the current in which can be controlled
a second field rheostat.
The tendency
N' (and
5) may be
of
AA
coils,
field coils,
of the armature current to increase the flux out
into S')
and
to decrease the flux out of
to some extent counteracted
by connecting
and AA^ between brushes, a and
BB
field
winding
that
it
b^
and BB, between brushes,
method, however,
for counteracting this
N (and into
and
The
b.
tendency
best
to place a
is
in series with either of the outside mains,
acts to increase the flux out of
the field
and connecting the
or
so
2,
N (and into S) and to de-
crease the flux out of iV' (and into 5').
The double-current generator.
(U)
or rotary converter as
current
dynamo with
it is
The synchronous
sometimes
an ordinary
called, is
the addition of two or
converter,
more
tapped into equidistant points of the armature winding.
such a machine
is
driven
by mechanical power
it
direct-
collector rings
When
can supply direct
current from the brushes that rub on the commutator, or alternat-
ing current from the brushes that rub on the collector rings, or
it
can supply direct current and alternating current simultaneously.

Therefore such a machine
machine
This
is
fully
is
called a double-current generator.
described
in
the
second
volume
of
this text.
An
arrangement, due to
Dobrowolsky,
for using a double-
current generator for supplying direct current to an Edison three-
wire system
is
volume of
also described in the second
this text.
The use of rheostats for balancing a three-wire system.

If
a three- wire system is kept exactly balanced, an ordinary 220(c)
volt generator having
When
tem.
two brushes can be used
such a generator
is
to supply the sys-
used, approximate balance
is
maintained by arranging the lights in and near the station in
groups which
may be
transferred
by the
the ^-set to the ^-set or vice versa, at
station attendant
will,
from
by throwing switches
on the main switch-board, and the approximate balance so ob18
274
tained
is
made exact by
the use of a pair of adjustable resistances
connected from the middle main to the outside mains.

{d)
in
The two generators shown
The motor-generator balancer.
Fig. 156
maybe
replaced
by a
single 220-volt generator of
the ordinary type and the current that comes into or flows out
may be
of the station on the middle main
taken care of by a
small motor-generator, consisting of two small
dynamos
P and
and connected
shunt-wound
Q, with their armatures mounted on one shaft
electrically, as
shown
in
Consider the
Fig. 159.
100 amperes
10 amperes
gosunperea
Fig. 159.
particular case in
which the upper main
carries
an outward current
of 100 amperes, the middle main a return current of 10 amperes,
and the lower main a return current of 90 amperes as shown in

Part of the current which enters the station on the
Fig. 159.
middle main will then flow down
hill,
as
it
the negative terminal of the large generator, thus

to act as a
motor and
deliver mechanical
act as a generator and
middle main up
large generator.
main,
is
hill,
pump
as
When
it
P to
causing P to
were, through
power
to
which
the remainder of the current
will
the
were, to the positive terminal of the
an outward current flows
in
the middle
operated as a motor by current that flows
from the positive terminal of the large generator, and

as a generator
in
and pumps current up
minal of the large generator.
hill
down
hill
P operates
from the negative
ter-
In order to keep the potential of
the middle main at the proper value so as to divide the electro-
275
motive force of the large generator into two equal parts,
must have
field
compound
carefully adjusted
rheostat of
P or Q
rent in the middle
field
P and Q
windings, or the
must be repeatedly adjusted as the cur-
main changes
in value.
In the use of a motor-generator balancer
it
desirable to
is
keep the system approximately balanced as explained above under

(c)
By
and thus greatly reduce the duty of the motor-generator.
grouping of the consumers' lamps and motors, the unbal-
careful
ancing of a three-wire system may,
in practice,
be kept within
eight or ten per cent., so that the rated output capacity of each
of the
dynamos of a motor-generator balancer need be only
eight
or ten per cent, of that of the main generator.

114. Factors
There are
which determine the
size of wires in practice.
the size of wires for distributing electric current, namely
The
must have
wire
ical stresses to
which
sufficient strength to
it
may be
especially to wires strung
enough
as to
poles,
(d)
its
The
(a)
This condition applies
subjected.
The
wire must be large
becoming so hot
insulation or to ignite adjacent inflammable
This condition applies especially to wires
terials.
(c)
on
withstand the mechan-
to carry the prescribed current without
damage
conditions which should be considered in selecting
five
ma-
in a building.
wire must be large enough to keep the variations of vol-
tage at the lamps, or other receiving units, within certain limits.
This variation of voltage
is
briefly discussed
the point of view of feeder control, and

in
Art
117.
This condition,
c,
it is
on page 195, from
more
fully discussed
applies only to the distributing
wires of a constant- voltage system,
(d)
The
size of a wire
should
be chosen so as to give an economic balance between the cost of

the copper and the cost of the power lost in the wire.
dition
is
of a wire
discussed in Art. 120.
may be
(e)
This con-
In extreme cases the size
determined by a consideration of the
electric
strength of the air or other insulating substance surrounding the

wire,
inasmuch as the strength of an insulating medium to with-
stand the electric stress between two wires due to a given voltage
2/6
between them, depends
in part
wires as explained in Art.
Whenever,
mands a
in
upon the
a given case, any one of these conditions de-
larger wire than
would be required by any of the other
conditions, the larger wire should be used.
neer
and shape of the
size
Frequently an engi-
guided by one only of the above conditions
is
laying out
in
When
the preliminary plans for a distributing system.
this is
the case the preliminary plans should be examined carefully to

see that
all
of the conditions are satisfied before the plans are
finally adopted.
and their supports.*
115. Mechanical stresses in aerial wires
Stresses in the supports.
The
cross-arms, and poles are
(^)
stresses in the insulator pins,
The
stresses
due to the weight of
the wire plus the weight of an occasional coating of ice
weight
and constituting a force acting

stresses
upon the
to be considered as resting directly
is
vertically
downwards. f
due to the unbalanced tensions
The
opposite sides of an insulator.
this
insulators
{b)
The
of the wire on the
tensions of the wire on the
opposite sides of an insulator are in nearly eveiy case sensibly
equal in value and unbalancing occurs only where the wire terminates or changes
its
direction.
In the case of a straight pole-line
on a slope the tension of the wire
is
generally greater on the
down-hill side of the pole, but the unbalanced force
downwards, that
a force acting vertically
is
in this case
a given insulator
is,
supports a large part of the weight of the lower span of wire and
a correspondingly small part of the weight of the upper span of
wire,
(
{c)
Stresses due to wind pressure.
The weight
of wire and ice produces, in the poles and pins, stresses of simple
compression, which stresses
*
text.
may
nearly always be neglected, inasmuch as poles and
discussion of the details of pole-line construction
Information concerning these details
may be found
is
in
beyond the scope of

**
this
Electrical Transmission
of Energy," A. V. Abbott, 1905 edition. Chapter III.
t This force
two
sides of
is
the
sum of
the vertical components of the tension of the wire on the
an insulator.
X Horizontal
components of the
sidered under ().
tensions,
inasmuch as
vertical
components are con-
277
pins which are strong enough to withstand the bending stresses to which they are subjected are not perceptibly affected by these slight stresses of compression.
The weight
breadth,
b,
of wire and ice produces a bending stress in the cross-arms, and the
and depth,
d,
of the cross-arms must be sufficient to sustain this bending
number of wires and

shown in Fig 160, which
the length of the cross-arms being determined by the
stress,
The
their required distance apart.
simplest case
is
that
Fig. 160.
In
shows a cross-arm carrying two wires.
shown
in the figure
must
satisfy the
this case the dimensions, by dy
and
S=
in
which
is
the permissible fiber stress of the cross-arm material in pounds per
The
dimensions,
b, d,
and
/,
îs
the total weight in pounds resting
are expressed in inches.
coating of ice one-eighth of an inch thick
to repair the line after
is
seldom exceeded, and
an excessively severe sleet storm than
much more than one-eighth of an inch

The permissible values of S may be taken from the
enough
as
(37)
square inch at the points, TT, Fig. 160, and
on one pin.
/,
equation
to sustain
it
is
to
cheaper
it is
make
strong
it
of ice on the wires.

table of tensile strengths of
timber.
(2)
The
stresses
due
to
unbalanced tensions are the most important stresses to be
considered in pins and poles.
Having given the value of
turned at a corner, the side force, IV^, Fig.

sions, /^
and d^ (diameter of pin
60,
is
at base). Fig. 160,
S^
= 32
the tension
easily determined,
must
satisfy the
and the angle

and the dimen-
equation
JV^/^
(38)
2/8
in
which S^
is
the
maximum
permissible fiber stress in pounds per square inch, IV^
the resultant horizontal force in pounds acting on the insulator, and
/^
is
and d^ are ex-
pressed in inches.
The
force
cross-arms on a corner pole are usually set so as to be parallel to the resultant
due to wire tensions, and hence, except
at the
end of a
line, this resultant force
does not produce a bending stress in the cross-arms.
The unbalanced
tensions of the wires produce a bending stress in the poles
the diameter, d^, of the pole at the ground and the height,
inches,
all
must
satisfy equation (38), using for
and
of the pole, both in
JV^ the resultant horizontal force due to
In most cases a corner pole
of the wires.
Z',
is
guyed or braced so that the bending
a great extent eliminated.
stress in the pole is to
(3) Stresses due to wind pressure vary with the direction as well as the velocity
When the wind blows parallel to the line its effect is slight because the
of the wind.
wires are parallel to the wind.
It is
considered sufficient in practice to provide the
necessary strength to withstand a side wind giving a
30 pounds per square
maximum
foot of surface, according to the
pressure of from 20 to
degree of exposure of the
line.
In calculating the force of a side wind on a cylinder like a pole or wire, the effective
exposed area
times
its
The
effect
in the poles,
satisfy
is
taken as two thirds of the product of the diameter of the cylinder
length.
of a side wind
to
produce bending stresses
where JV^
equation (38),
pounds, and S^
the
is
Also the height of
must
is
and the dimensions of the pin
Z'
maximum
is
total
as
in the insulator pins
shown
force of the
in Fig.
and
160, must
wind on the wire
in
permissible fiber stress in pounds per square inch.
of the pole and
satisfy equation (38), in
the
in inches,
its
diameter, d^, at the ground, both in inches,
which case fV^
is
the force of the wind on all the
wires plus about half or two-thirds of the force of the wind upon the pole and cross-
arms.
In estimating the stresses on pin, cross-arm and pole due to weight of wire and
ice,
or the stresses due to wind pressure on the wires, a length of wire equal to the distance between adjacent poles must be assumed to be supported by each insulator.
Tensile Strength of Timber in Pounds Per Square Inch.

ii,oco
Cedar (American)
Chestnut
7,000 to 13,000
6,000
Cypress
Elm
Oak
6,000 to 10,000
10,000
Pitch pine
Yellow
7,600
pine..:
5,000 to 12,000
8,oco
White pine
Red wood
Spruce
The
ii,oco
(California)
5,000 to 10,000
usual factor of safety being 4 to 6, the permissible fiber stress in pounds per
square inch
is
from one-sixth to one-fourth of the values given
in this table.
In
Stresses in the wire.

in particular
should be provided
maximum
(b) a certain
by the
for,
namely,
two
sides of each insulator,
tension in the wire
condition
first
is
which
an approximate
when
it is
desirable not only because
cross-arms, and poles from
because
cannot
(a)
and
shortened
coldest winter weather.
The
pins,
on poles two things
stringing a wire
equality of wire tension on the
279
it
slip
it
is difficult
unnecessary
to tie a line wire to
lengthwise through the
should not be
if it
it
relieves the
stress,
but also
an insulator so that
unless the line wire
tie,
can be avoided.
The
is
horizontal
it
bent
com-
ponents of the wire tension can always be made equal on the
two
sides of
an insulator
but
in the case
of a pole line on a
grade the vertical component of the wire tension
will
when
greater on the down-hill side of an insulator
be somewhat
the horizontal
components are equal.
The second
Pole line on a
condition
level.
The
is
explained
the following discussion.
in
calculation of the tension in a span of wire in terms
of length of span, vertical sag at the center of the span, and weight of the wire, or
the calculation of the sag corresponding to a prescribed tension,
When
equation to the curve formed by the wire.

length of the span, say one twentieth or
less,
a parabola and the working formulae are
the sag
is
is
based upon the
a small fraction of the
the curve formed by the wire
is
sensibly
Ihv
^=81
(39)
and
'
T is the
= /+f
(40)
tension of the wire in pounds, /
in
which
is
the sag at the center of the span as
wire in a span, and
w is
shown
is
the length of the span in
the weight of the wire in pounds per foot.
gives the tension of the wire at the center of the span.
the span
is
2 per cent
negligible.
effects
wh
pounds greater than
feet,
in Fig. 161, s is the length in feet of the
at the center
The
Equation (39)
tension at the ends of
but this difference amounts to only
when the sag is one twentieth of the length of the span, and it is always
The important use of equation (40) is in making allowance for the
of changes of temperature.
Equation (39) when solved
for / gives
where T^ represents the maximum safe tension of the wire in pounds, which is equal
to the breaking tension T), in pounds divided by the factor of safety.
See following
28o
From
tables.
may
this equation it is evident that the poles
the weight
less
the size
of the
of the
and
and the
be spaced farther
farther apart the greater the value of T^y the greater the permissible sag,
of the wire ; but it is to be noted that the ratio T'\w is independent of

inasmuch as T^ and w are both proportional to the sectional area
wi7'e,
ruire.
The spacing
of a pole
of the poles
When a
line.
is
transmission line supplying
together in order to
enough
usually chosen tentatively as the
great deal depends
make
power
to
many
the line substantial
first
step in the design
upon the permanence of a

customers,
and
in order that the sag
swaying into contact.
to avoid the possibility of the wires
line, as in
the poles are placed close
may be
small
Close spacing
is
heavy wires so as to distribute the weight of the
especially necessary in the case of
heavy wire over a large number of insulators, the insulator being one of the weakest
Poles are usually spaced as follows on straight-pole
elements in the construction.

lines
Heavy power
(a)
transmission lines about 80
Niagara- Buffalo transmission line
suburban
150
districts,
feet,
which
is
the spacing on the
{b) Ordinary electric-lighting circuits in city or
from 100 to 125
feet
Telegraph and telephone
[c)
lines 125 to
In every case the poles should be placed near together where the pole line
feet.
follows a curve, thus
making the
line turn a very obtuse corner at each pole, in order
supporting structure due to unbalanced tensions
to avoid excessive stresses in the
of the wire.
Furthermore pole spacing
is
often determined by surrounding local
conditions such as the presence of obstacles or the recurrence of cross-streets in
The amount
This swaying
swaying of the wire by the wind.

break the wire where
it is
is
that
is
Once the spacing of
the poles
is
may be allowed
tends to
it
likely to bring
is
it
chosen, the
determined as explained in the next paragraph
minimum
although the
has a great deal to do with the choice of the pole
Very long spans,* such as spans across
spacing.
objectionable because
fastened to the insulators and because
adjacent wires into contact.

permissible sag
amount of sag
cities.
of sag in a span of line wire should be small in order to prevent the
rivers,
have a sag equal
to
one
In ordinary pole-lines the sag seldom exceeds
twentieth or one thirtieth of the span.
one one-hundred-and-fiftieth of the length of span,
in coldest weather.
Wires are usually strung on poles during warm weather,

of temperature.
the wire grows shorter as the temperature falls, and the tension of the wire is thereEffects
Hence,
fore greatly increased during cold winter weather.
it is
important to string a
wire with sufficient sag (and a correspondingly low tension) so that the coldest weather
may not
increase the tension of the wire
perature,
/,
of the wire
when
it is
calculation of the necessary sag, h,
follows
Take the
values of T^
beyond the
strung,
and
(=
tension, 7) at temperature,
^j/w) and
these, together with the chosen distance,

/i^,
safe value, T^.
Knowing the tem-
and the lowest winter temperature, t\ the
/,
/,
from the following
is
carried out as
tables,
using equation (39), and calculate the corresponding length of wire,
**
Long spans
for
transmission
lines,"
and from
between poles, calculate the winter

^',
sag,
in a
by F. O. Blackwell, Trans. American
of Electrical Engineers, June, 1 904.

" Conductors for long spans, " by F. O. Blackwell, Trans. International Electrical
Institute
Congress^ Vol. 2, St. Louis, 1904.

Then
span using equation (40]

ture, /, by the equation
in
which
may be
the value of
temperature,
tension
so calculated, the value of the sag, A, at temperature,
may be
/,
and then
finally the
but this
as the error
is
tension,
7] at
/,
summer
calculated from equation (39).
be noted that as a line wire cools and shortens,
thermal contraction
its
j,
calculated from equation (40),
It is to
summer tempera-
the coefficient of linear expansion of the wire as given in the following
(3 is
From
tables.
calculate the length of the wire at
281
accompanied by an
is
its
tension increases, so that
elastic elongation
due
to the increase of
generally neglected in practical line calculations, inasmuch
effect is
always on the safe
side, that
is,
the actual winter tension
is
less
than
that anticipated in the calculations.
Po/e line on a grade.

sion of the wire the
sion of the wire
each pole.
tension,
is
same
slightly greater
The problem
in case of a
the horizontal component of the ten-
along a pole line on a grade, so that the actual ten-
on the down-hill side than on the up-hill side of
of determining the sag corresponding to a given horizontal
and the problem of allowing
same way as
make
It is usual to
in value all
for the effects of
temperature are treated in the
pole line on a level except that the following equations are
used instead of equations (39) and (40)
Y
s
2Hd
si^-yj^-i)
in
which T,
d is
/,
w, and
2{HdYd
(41)
(42)
3/^+ 3/^(1
-V^-^,)
represent the same quantities as in equations (39) and (40),

JI is the sag of the wire
the difference in level between the ends of the span, and
below the upper end of the span, as shown
in Fig. 162.
y-axia
Fig-.
161.
Consider a wire, Fig. 161, suspended

Derivation of equations {sg) to {42).
between two points, / and /'. If the wire is nowhere greatly inclined the actual
282
length of any element, ab, of the wire

jection, dx^ of the element.
dx,
equal to zv
horizontal
very nearly equal to the horizontal pro-
is
Therefore the weight of the element
being the weight of the wire per unit length.
is
very nearly
Furthermore, the
component of the tension of the wire has necessarily the same
value, T, all
along the span of wire.

Consider the element, ab, of the wire of which the coordinates of the end,
and y, and the coordinates of the end,

value of the
its
first
differential coefficient oi
value at the end,
The
b.
tension of the wire at a,
downwards
is
is
7" tan 6 or
its
upwards
is
T tan 6^ or
b, its
x -{- dx and y -}-
at the end, a, then
component
The
force,
horizontal
TJ,,
is
T d^yjdx^
is
and
T,
component
equal to the weight of the element,
dy\dx
its
-\-
a^yjdx^
component
pulling at the end,
T{dyldx -\- d^yjdx^ dx)
pulling upwards on the element, ab,
a, are
is
T,
and
Let dy\iix be the
dy.
Ta, pulling at the end, a, of the element
horizontal
Tdyjdx.
the tension of the wire at
cally
force,
are
b,
its
b,
dx
is
the
is
vertically
of the element
component
verti-
Therefore the unbalanced force
dx, and this unbalanced force
is
dx, so that
d^v
(i)
dx*'
whence
= Iwx* -{-cx-\-c^
dyjdxô when x = the constants,
Ty
but, since
y=o and
o,
and
c^,
must be each
equal to zero, so that

>'
From
Fig. i6i
it is
values in equation (ii),
The second member

series
w
= ^-*'
evident that^;=>^
when
jr^=//2
(")
therefore, substituting these
we have
equation (39).
of equation (40) consists of the
first
which expresses the length of the arc of a parabola
in
two terms of the

terms of
its
chord,
infinite
/,
and
the distance, k, of the middle of the arc from the chord.
Fig.
162.
Consider a
Equations (41) and (42) are derived from equations (39) and (40).
and B, Fig. 162, at a horizontal distance,
given span of wire between two poles,

/,
from each other,
being the difference in level of the tops of the poles, and /Tthe
The
sag of the wire below the top of pole, Ay as shown.
and the portion,
S be
Let
BD,
BD.
Then
is
may be looked upon

AC, and P the length
the length of wire in the given span,
con-
Z, as shown in the
of the given span
the length of wire in the long span,
short span,
AB^ may be
given span,
AC, of which the length
sidered as part of a longer span,
ure
.283
AB,
fig-
as a span also.
of wire in the
is
= S .P
2
(iii)
\-
Furthermore, applying equations (39 J and (40) to the span,
AC, we have
r"8^
and
S-s=
Applying equation (40)
L^
to the span,
and
(V)
ZL
BD,
gives
(vi)
^^3(2/ Z)
The
(iv)
equation to the parabolic curve formed by the wire
at the
top of the pole, B,
y=
d,
and
jr ^=^
is
Z/2
so that
(vii)
Equations (41) and (42) are obtained by eliminating Z,

by means of equations (v), (vi) and (vii).
and
6"
from
iii)
and
(iv)
Tensile Strengths, Weights and Coefficients of Expansion OF Wires.

Tensile Strength
iti
Pounds per Circular

Mil = a.
0.0785
0.0417
0.0300
0.0204
Steel
Iron
Hard-drawn copper
Aluminum
Density in Pounds
per Mil-Foot = ^.
^-Coeffic ent of Linear
X
X
X
0.0000064
0.0000064
0.0000094
0.0000128
2.65
2.65
3.03
0.91
io~^
io~^
io~^
io~^
Expansion per
Degree F.
Usual factor of safety from 2 or 3 in warm climates to 6 or 7 in cold climates.

Factor of safety for aluminum must be larger than for other metals on account of
low elastic limit of aluminum.
Breaking tension of wire
Tj,
= a</2 in pounds.
Weight of wire w^^bd'^'m pounds per
foot,
where
is
the diameter of the wire
in mils.
Length at / F.
length at //
For weight of galvanized iron or
wire.
[i
steel
+ ^{t t^Wwire add about 6 per cent, to weight of plain
284
116. Safe carrying capacity.
perature until
is
generated
it
in
An
gives off heat to
it
by the
current.
its
electric wire rises in
surroundings as
Therefore the
rise
tem-
fast as
heat
of tempera-
ture for a given current, or the current corresponding to a pre-
scribed rise of temperature depends
the wire gives off heat
and
upon the
this facility
with which
facility
depends greatly upon the
degree of ventilation of the region in which the wire
is
placed,
and upon the nature of the adjacent materials, whether they be

wood, or plaster, or stone, or metal. Wires covered by wooden
mouldings or enclosed
in the
narrow
of a building are located most

of temperature because
cause any great
rise
air
space inside of the walls
unfavorably with regard to
they cannot give off heat readily,
rise
and be-
of temperature involves a serious risk of
fire.
Table of Carrying Capacity of Wires.

{^From National Electrical Code.)
For insulated aluminum wire the
safe carrying capacity is eighty-four per cent, of
that given in the following tables for copper wire with the
Brown and Sharpe

Gauge.
18
16
Sectional Area in
Circular Mils.
1,624
2,583
4,107
6,530
10,380
16,510
26,250
33,100
41,740
52,630
66,370
83,690
105,500
133,100
167,800
211,600
H
12
10
8
6
5
4
3
2
I
00
000
0000
400,000
600,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
The lower
Insulation.
Amperes.
insulation.
Other Insulation.
Amperes.
6
17
8
16
23
24
ZZ
32
46
46
54
65
77
65
76
no
90
131
107
127
150
177
156
12
210
330
450
650
850
1,050
92
185
220
262
312
500
680
I,OCO
1,360
1,670
limit is specified for rubber covered wires to prevent gradual deteriora-
tion of the rubber
The
Rubber
same kind of
by the heat of the wires, but not from fear of igniting the insulation.
is not taken into consideration in the above tables.
question of voltage-drop

117. Voltage
The
vjîres.
tribution
power
is
regulation as a
factor determining
285
the
size of
so-called constant-voltage system of current dis-
the system that
installations,
is
and the
generally used in electric-light and
and service
sizes of feeders, mains,
wires used in such a system are generally determined on the
This
basis of a prescribed voltage-drop.
when
current
is
is
especially the case
supplied to incandescent lamps, the satisfactory
operation of which depends upon approximate
The voltage-drop
voltage.
in the feeders
central station to a center of distribution

for
by what
is
page 195.
constancy of
which lead out from a
is
usually compensated
called feeder control at the station as explained
On
on
the other hand, the voltage-drop in the mains
which lead out from a center of distribution and the voltage-drop

in the service wires which lead from the street mains to the lamps
are not compensated
at the
for,
and, as they affect the value of the voltage
The
lamps, these voltage-drops must be small.
between a center of distribution and the lamps
total
drop
generally
is
limited to a certain percentage of the voltage at the lamps.
total drop of about 5 per cent, 2 per cent, in the mains and 3
per cent, in the service wires, is frequently allowed although a
;
greater or less drop
may
be advisable
center of distribution and the lamps
the distance between the
if
is
very great or very small
respectively.
Dependence of total iveight of wire upon the voltage at the la^nps

and upon the distance of the lamps from the center of distribution,
If a given amount of power, P, is to be supplied to lamps at
voltage, E, with a given percentage drop, p,
by a separate
pair of
wires leading from the center of distribution to the lamps, then
the weight of the copper required

/ is
is
proportional to I'^jE^, where
the distance between the center of distribution and the lamps.
This
is
evident
when we
consider that the current
the drop
/^/ 100
and that
W= 0.00000303 x
is
equal to
x PjE, that
2ld'^,
R=
is
Pj E,
10.8
that
x 2//^^
so that
PP
J^= 0.006542'
(43)
286
where
weight
is
in
pounds of the two copper wires required
watts of power to a receiving unit at
drop
dro^
in the wires (actual
E volts, / is
pEj lOo), and
/ is
feet from the center of distribution to the lamps.

in
the resistance of the two wires in ohms,
is
the
to deliver
the percentage
the distance in
The
constant
equation (43) applies only to copper wires.

Inasmuch as the weight of the copper is inversely propor-
tional to E"^, according to equation (43),
great saving in copper
The
at the lamps.
hov/ever, {a)
by the
may be
effected
it is
evident that a very
by using a high voltage
permissible voltage at the lamps

fact
is
220
to operate satisfactorily at voltages higher than about
and
{b)
by the danger
The saving
in
limited,
that incandescent lamps cannot be made
that
is
volts,
involved in the use of high voltages.
copper by the use of high voltage, combined
with the practical necessity of low-voltage delivery, has led to the

use of the Edison three-wire system as explained in Art. 112.
In the alternating-current system of distribution
power can be
transmitted at any desired high voltage and cheaply and efficiently
transformed near the place of consumption to any desired low
Therefore the alternating-current system permits of
voltage.
very great economy of copper

not involve any of the
difficulties
zation of high voltages at
When
by
in
the transmission lines and does
or dangers incident to the
utili-
lamps and motors.
che voltage-drop in a transmission line
is
not limited
the Tiecessity of maintaining an approximately constant voltage
9X the lamps, or other receiving units, the size of wire should be
determined on the basis of economic considerations as explained
20
and
to be particularly noted that the weight of
in Art.
copper,
demanded by economic
of a given
it is
amount of power
is
considerations,
for the delivery
not proportional to PjE^ but to
IIE.
118.
Wiring calculations in constant-voltage systems
or for a concentrated group of lamps.

in the laying
Two important
for a
motor
cases arise
out of wiring plans in a constant-voltage system,

namely, {a) the case
to a
motor or
in
which current
delivered at one point
is
group of lamps, constituting what
to a
28/
is
called a
concentrated load ; and (f) the case in which current is delivered

to a scattered group of lamps or motors, constituting what is
called a distributed load.
The problem
of determining the size of wire required to deliver
a specified amount of power, P^ to a concentrated load at a specified voltage,
^(at the lamps), with a
specified percentage drop,
in the wires, is solved as follows
pEJ lOOy
equal to PjE.
Sometimes the current
number of lamps
a specified
rent per lamp.
is
the value of
is
and the length,
diameter, d, of the wire in mils

tion
given directly, as
/, is
when
to be supplied with a specified cur-
the resistance, R, of the two line-wires
Knowing
current,
Given the percentage drop, /, the actual drop

(3) This actual drop is equal to RT, so that
(2)
known.
in volts is
is
The
(i)
may be
thus determined.
2/,
of the wire in
feet,
(4)
the
calculated from the equa-
R= 10.8 X 2//^^
The
result of these separate steps
may
be most conveniently
represented in the formula
d^
in
which
deliver
is
/ amperes
thus
J>
(44)^*
the diameter in mils of copper wires required to

to a concentrated load distant / feet from the
center of distribution,
cent.;
circular mils
=6
for
is
the drop of voltage expressed in per
6 per cent, and
is
the voltage at the
lamps.
It is preferable to
percentage
and
in
avoid the specification of voltage-drop as a

fact the
* In laying out the wiring

ing of time to
make use
for a
drop
is
usually specified in volts.
complete electric-lighting system
it
is
a great sav-
of what are called wiring charts, which give at a glance the
solution of equation (44)^ or (44)^ for any particular case.
The
construction
and
use of such charts are fully explained in a small book, entitled TAe Wiring Computer^ by Carl Hering (The
McGraw
Publishing Company.)
288
In this case the sectional area of the wire in circular mils
by
^2
in
is
given
the formula
which
e is the
same meanings
In a great
circular mils
drop expressed
'-
and
in volts,
(44)^*
d, I
and / have the
as in equation {44)11.
many
cases the size of wires to be used to deliver
current to a uniformly distributed load with a specified drop of
voltage
determined by equations (44), by assuming a concenand located near
is
trated load equal to the given distributed load
the center of the given distributed load.

119.
Wiring calculations
tributed loads.
for constant-voltage
When a number of widely
supplied with current
number of widely
of street mains,
distributed customers
we have what
ber of scattered customers
lamps.
In the
sideration,
vice point
is
first
is
in the
is
pair
The
num-
supply a number of scattered
case the voltage-drop between the center of

is
the important con-
second case the voltage-drop between a ser-
and the individual lamps
a service point
is
the same as the problem of deter-
and the various service points
and
by one
mains to supply a
size of street
is
supplied
called a distributed load.
size of service wires to
distribution
lamps
by one pair of service wires, or when a
problem of determining the

mining the
systems with dis-
distributed
is
the important consideration
understood to be the point of attachment of a pair
of service wires to the street mains.
In a distributed load two kinds of variation of voltage occur,
namely,
(a) the variation of voltage
number of lamps
in
operation
is
voltage at any given lamp as the

is
from lamp to lamp when the
fixed,
and
(b^
the variation of
number of lamps
in operation
increased or decreased.
Concerning the
eral that the
lamp
is
first
type of variation
lamp voltage
is
less
and
it
may be
less the
stated in gen-
more remote the
from the service point, the most remote lamp having
always the lowest voltage.

Concerning the second type of variation
general that the voltage at every lamp
when
lamps are turned on, and
additional
The range
rises
in operation are
turned
from a lowest value, when
off.
may
be stated
in
some extent
falls off to
a given lamp
is
it
289
when lamps already
of variation in voltage at
all
the lamps are in
operation, to a value very nearly equal to the voltage at the service point,
when
the lamp that
is
the given lamp, only,
is
in operation.
most remote from the service point
Therefore,
is
subject to
the greatest range of variation of voltage as other lamps are
turned on and
off.
There are two clearly defined cases that
arise in the laying out
of wires for distributed loads, namely, Case

supplied
by a given
and Case
rately,
II., in
which
all
pair of service wires are turned
case the wiring

tions of
must be
laid
both types {a) and
second case the wiring
in
which the lamps

on and off sepa-
of the lamps supplied by a given
on and
In the
off together.
first
out so as to keep the voltage varia-
(J?)
may be
within certain limits
and
in
the
out with reference to the lim-
laid
itation of voltage variations of the first
tions of voltage
/.,
pair of service wires are turned
type only, that
is
varia-
from lamp to lamp, inasmuch as voltage variations
of the second type (b) do not exist in Case
II.
EIIIiI03Supply mains
Fig. 163.
Case
I.
An example of a
When
163.
all
distributed load
the lowest voltage of any lamp

this
lamp
19
varies
is
shown
in Fig.
of the lamps are in operation the end lamp, Z, has

in
the group, and the voltage at
through the greatest range when other lamps are
290
turned off and on.
Therefore,
the voltage at the end lamp
if
to be kept within, say, 3 per cent, of

is
the value
drop
in
must not exceed
per cent, of
E when
minimum weight
the wires, the sectional area of each portion, a^
must be
* proportional to the
of the current in that portion. f
same amount of
takes the
the portions
c and d, are as
b,
<2,
Thus,
if
V" 3
V2
1/
in
imum amount
b,
and
dy
Fig. 163
in
current values in
4:3:2:1,
order to give a
the end lamp, Z, with a given
all
of copper
square root
each lamp
current, then the
and the
tional areas of the respective portions of the wires

:
when
secure a specified drop out to the end lamp, Z,
Fig. 163, of the wires
V\
the
all
in operation.
the lamps are in operation, with the

in
is
normal value, E, which
the lamps are in operation, then the voltage-
all
the wires
lamps are
To
when
its
minimum
sec-
should be as
voltage-drop at
amount of copper, or
to give a
min-
of copper for a specified voltage-drop at the end
lamp, L.
In laying out street mains to supply a group of scattered cus-
tomers
it is
generally advisable, on account of the large
amount
of copper involved, to taper the mains in steps in going farther
and farther from the center of

successive steps should be
distribution
made longer than
but, as a rule, the
the distance between
number of
adjacent customers, in order to avoid an excessive

joints in the mains.
In laying out service wires to supply current to a scattered
group of lamps,
steps,
generally not advisable to taper the wires in
it is
because the amount of copper involved
whereas the expense of making

* It should be kept
amount of copper
for a
mind
in
many
joints,
may
not be large
that the fundamental condition here
given voltage-drop.
together with the
A minimum amount of
is
minimum
copper for given
watts lost in the line requires the sectional area of the wires to be proportional to the
current at each point
that
same throughout the system
power
is,
the
number of
to give a
circular mils per
minimum amount
ampere must be the
of copper for a given loss of
in watts.
f The general proof of

the calculus of variations
this proposition involves the
highly elaborate methods of
and therefore the proof of the proposition
is
not given here.
29
expense of inserting fusible cut-outs at each point where wires of

unequal
size are joined, as
required by the insurance rules,
may
be considerable.
Rule
street
When
I.
it is
desired to reduce the size of a pair of
mains (or service wires)
in steps so as to secure the greatest
economy
of copper, the size of each portion of the mains
mined as
follows.
to the
Having given the
end of the
line, calculate
__ 2
~~
10.8
which
a, b, c
tions of the
amperes
in
deter-
drop to be allowed out
total
the factor s from the equation
X {aVT^ ^bV\-\- cV\-\-''')

total
in
is
drop
in volts
"^^
are the lengths in feet of the respective por-
--
pair of mains,
and
Z^,
\,
^3
The
the respective portions.
are the currents in
sectional areas of the
various portions of the mains in circular mils are then equal to

sVi^y ^Vic^, ^1/^3
Rule
When
2.
respectively.
service wires of uniform size are to be used
for supplying current to a scattered
group of lamps, the
the wire to give a prescribed drop out to the end lamp
determined as follows
Estimate the distance, Z, of the
of gravity " of the group of lamps
where
/',
/",
l"\
etc.,
by the formula
the group.
Then
may be
**
center
are the distances in feet of the individual
lamps * from the service point and n

in
size of
is
number of lamps
wire that would be
the total
calculate the size of the
required to supply the n lamps as a concentrated group at the

prescribed total drop and at the distance
Case
and
II.
When the lamps
L from
of a group are always turned on
off together the variation of voltage from
* If the lamps are arranged

the distance of the
first
in
the service point.
subgroups
it is
lamp
to
lamp can
easier to take l^ as the product of
subgroup times the number of lamps
in that
group, l'^ as the
product of the distance of the second subgroup times the number of lamps in that
group, and so on.
292
of course be kept within bounds
by
limiting the voltage-drop be-
tween the service point and the end lamp of the group.
a group of lamps which
In fact
to be operated as a unit
is
generally
wired according to the same rules as a group that
is
not to be
operated as a unit, that

ing to rules
is
is
the wiring
generally laid out accord-
is
and 2 of Case L; but a special wiring scheme,
called the retm-n loop scheme,*

variations of the
first
may
be used to eliminate voltage
type (a) in a group of lamps that
as a unit, whatever the total voltage-drop
The fundamental
may
idea of the return loop
with the help of Pig. 164^.
The
is
operated
be.
scheme may be seen
current in the wire, ab, at any

point, /,
is
proportional
the distance, pb, the
to
lamps being assumed to

be uniformly distributed
jj,
point, /', in the wire, cd^

is
<
p.
nf
and the current at any

proportional to the disIf the wires,
tance, p'd.
ab and cd, are tapered

so as to have sectional
^
,_
Fig. 164a.
areas proportional to the
current at each point, then
the
Ri
but Ri
value of
both wires between any pair of lamps
the
is
is
same
in
a drop of vol-
tage in a given direction along one wire and a rise of voltage in

the same direction along the other wire, therefore the lamp vol-
tage
is
constant throughout the group of lamps, whatever the
total voltage-drop
The
between the service point and the lamps
use of tapered wires
return loop
scheme
is
is
may be.
of course impracticable and the
always carried out either with wires tapered
in steps or with wires of
uniform
size,
usually the
latter.
Under
such conditions the voltage varies to some extent from lamp to
lamp but the range of
this variation is
total drop.
* Sometimes called the anti-parallel scheme.
very
much
less
than the
return loop scheme of wiring evidently requires three
The
wires of a given length instead of two, and therefore
much more copper

same
293
scheme however
very large
total
requires
than the simple parallel wiring scheme for the
The advantage of
voltage-drop.
total
it
the return loop
that a
is
drop
is
per-
missible, so that the size of
the wires
may always
be de-
economic
from
termined
considerations.
The
is
return loop
scheme
usually employed in the
wiring of churches, lecture

halls
and
where
theaters,
the lamps are either
use or
In
Fig. 165.
in
out of use, or where the lamps in certain groups
all
are either
all
all in
many
use or
all
out of use.
cases the lamps in a group are arranged in a circular
or reentrant row.
carried out as
shown
In such a case the return loop scheme

in Fig.
165, or as
shown
is
in Fig. 166.
Fig. 166.
Return loop scheme
zvith
wires of uniform
size.
When the
wires used in the return loop scheme are of uniform size (not
tapered) the middle lamp, /, Fig.
64^, has the lowest voltage of
294
any lamp
in
the group, and the size of the wires, efab and gcd,
is
usually determined with reference to the voltage-drop between the

service point, eg,
group of lamps, and
rent delivered to the
to be uniformly distributed as
A;ir, is
let
the lamps be assumed
in Fig. \6dfi\ then the cur-
is
per unit length of the wire,
cd from
shown
total cur-
I(X x) j X, and the voltage-drop in the

p Ax times /(X x) j X, where p is the resistance
rent in the element, A.r,
element,
Let / be the
and the middle lamp, /.
c to the middle
pi
Therefore the voltage-drop along
cd.
lamp
is
.X/2
{X-x)dx=lpXT
Also the voltage-drop along ab from a
to the middle
lamp
is
}i pXI, so that the total drop between the service point, eg, and
the middle lamp, /,
is I(r'
r"),
plus the resistance of efa, and r"
where
is
r' is
gc
the resistance of
equal to }{pX, where
pX
is
the resistance of one of the wires, ab or cd.
\mmm
M
H*
->;
Fig. 164^.
Ride J.
vice point
To
give a prescribed voltage-drop between the ser-
and the middle lamp of a row, which
according to the return loop scheme,
make
is
that the total current delivered to the group of lamps
the prescribed drop over a length

the
sum
/'
-j-
connected
the wire of such size
would give
I" of the wire, where
of the distances, ^^ and efa, in Fig. i64<^, and I"
the distance ab.
is
/' is
of

Modifications of Cases
in
I.
and
II.
Every
295
practical case of wiring
the constant-voltage system of distribution can be treated as a
slight modification of Cases
I.
and
II.
Thus
above described.
Fig.
167 shows two groups of lamps each exactly like the single
^^!^<^!'^<^'^
.
WMm
Fig. 167.
group
in
Fig. 163
163 and 164, that

in
168
Fig.
portion, pd,
is
is
and Fig. 168 shows a combination of Figs.

the portion, pa, of the group of lamps
is,
arranged
in
arranged
in
conformity with Fig.
163 and the
accordance with the
return
loop
scheme.
'IHU<^H!^HHU|H{
Fig. 168.
120.
The economic balance between
loss of
power and the cost
of copper in the distribution of electric current.
The
original
cost of erection of a distributing line consists of two nearly inde-
pendent parts, namely
(a) the cost of the
copper and
(^)
the cost
of poles, cross-arms, pins and insulators and the cost of erection.
That
is
to say, even
used the cost of item

able extent.
if
one were to double the
(d)
size of wires to
would not be increased
The disadvantage
to
be
any consider-
of using large wires
lies,
there-
296
fore,
almost wholly
the annual charge, including interest on
in
the cost of the wire, depreciation of the wire, and taxes thereon.
The advantage
* of using large wires,
the decreased loss of
economical
power
on the other hand,
size of wire is that for
lies
in
Therefore, the most
the wires.
in
which the additional annual
charge on a larger wire would exceed the annual value of the
power saved by the use of the

most economical size of wire
larger wire, or, in other words, the

is
which the sum of the
that for
annual charge on the total copper plus the annual value of the
power
and taxes
1.5
The annual charge may
minimum.
lost in the wires is a
be estimated at:
per cent., depreciation 3 per cent,
interest 5
per cent.
The economic
balance between loss of power and cost of cop-
per always leads to a definite number of circular mils of sectional

area of wire per ampere of current, without regard to the voltage
or to the distance of transmission.
power
Electric
The
customer.
is
cost of
power
at the
kilowatt-hour, the cost of copper

interest
h hours each year to a
to be supplied for
is
switchboard
c dollars
dollars per
charge on invested capital (including a small percentage
and taxes)
to cover the depreciation of copper wires
per annum.
per wire
that
is
per pound, and the
It is
per ampere of current on the condition
in circular mils
any increase
per cent,
is t
required to find the sectional area of the cop-
in
amount of copper would
the
effect
a saving
of power of which the annual value would be less than the interest
Let 2/ be the length of
on the cost of the additional copper.
the wire in feet (equal to twice the length of the
area in circular mils,
its
pounds, and /the current
in
amperes.
in kilowatts
that the lost power
^
'-
of enerpry
^^
*
It is to
is
I'^h
1,000 s
be kept
in
mind
that
Then
'-
is
line), s its sectional
ohms, VV
resistance in
1,000 s
R=
its
10.8
weight
in
2//^ so
P- and the annual
loss
kilowatt-hours, of which the value at ^

/
'
we
are not here considering the fact that in the con-
stant-voltage system the wires must be large
enough
to limit the voltage-drop.

dollars ^
per kilowatt-hour
the other hand

is
'
1,000
is
W= 0.00000303
I^pk dollars per year.

^
^
2/s
pounds, of which the cost
o.ooooo6o6/^<r dollars, the interest on this cost
/sc^ dollars
per year, and the quantity to be
choosing s
is
this
21.6
' /
-I'^ph
equal to zero gives
-^
'
i,ooo.y
from which
is
0.0000000606
made a minimum by
Differentiating
o.ooooooo6o6/.yc:/.
expression with respect to
efficient
On
-^
J-
297
and placing the
differential co-
Pph +
o.ooooooo6o6/<:/
we
cancels out, and
find
=o
= circular mils per ampere =
597
or
=
The meanings
above.
ph
59;^ -^
~ci
of the symbols,
When the
I, h,
s,
delivered current,
/, is
(46)
p, c
and
t,
are specified
not constant, the average
value of the current must not be used, but the square-root-of-theaverage-value-of-the-square should be used in equation (46).
Example
i.
The
electric-power station
cost of
is
power
switch-board of an
1.6 cents per kilowatt-hour
the interest on invested capital

depreciation and taxes
at the
is
is
per
three per cent.
(/
(/
= 0.016),
cent.,
and the annual
the cost of cop-
8),
= 0.16), and
per wire
is
16 cents per pound
amperes
is
delivered to a customer for 1,000 hours each year.
Considerations of
{c
economy would
to the use of transmission wires
lead,
under these conditions,
650 mils
in diameter,
the distance of the customer from the station

If the distance
a current of 200
may
from the station to the consumer
then the total length of wire
is
1,076
feet, its
ohm, and the voltage-drop with 200 amperes
is
resistance
is
whatever
be.
538
feet,
is
0.0275
5.5 volts.
That
29^
current
is, if
size
is
is
to be supplied
ô the customer
of wire required on the basis of a
the
same
at
volts, the
per cent, drop of voltage
as the size of wire required to give an economic
balance between the loss of power and the cost of copper under
If the distance is greater
the specified conditions.
economy would
then considerations of
would be required by a
distance
is
less
than 538
than 538
per cent, drop in voltage
would give a larger wire than would be required by a

drop
and,
then considerations of
feet,
feet,
give a smaller wire than
if
the
economy
per cent,
in voltage.
Example
2.
Cost
of power, rate of interest and cost of cop-
per being the same as in example
most economical
size of wire for
i,
it
is
required to find the
carrying 100 amperes for 400
hours each year and 300 amperes for 600 hours.

square of the current
(100^
X 400)
400
is
+
+
(300^
X 600)
600
and the square-root-of-average-square

fore using h
tion (46),
The average
58,000 amperes^
is
241 amperes.
There-
= 400 + 600 hours and /= 241 amperes in equas 509,200 circular mils, or the diameter of
we have
the wire must be 7 1 3 mils.
Dependence of total weight of copper on voltage of delivery and

A given amount of power, P^
distance of custorner from station.

is
to
be delivered to a customer
and
at a voltage, E.
(46)
we have
The
at a distance,
current
is
PfE
/,
from the station
so that from equation
E\ct
which, substituted in the formula
=^
0.00000303 x
W=o.oo36iSP^^^
2ls,
gives
(47)
which shows that the amount of copper required by economic

considerations
is
proportional to the distance,
/,
299
and inversely pro-
portional to the voltage of delivery.
Limitations of Kelvin's law.
power
the loss of
The
economic balance between
transmission wires and the cost of copper
in
was first pointed out by Lord Kelvin, and the condition expressed
by equation (46) is sometimes called Kelvin's law of economy.*
In the derivation of equation (46) it was assumed, first, that
the cost of poles, cross-arms and pins, and the cost of erection
may
of the pole line are the same whatever the size of the wire
and second, that the cost of the wire
be,
The
assumption
first
is
is
so
much
per pound.
approximately true only for wires of
For very heavy wires the supporting strucmust be very strong and therefore expensive. The second
assumption is approximately true only for bare wires.
For insulated wires the cost per pound varies considerably with the size
moderate weight.
ture
of the wire.
The sum
in a line,
of the three items
the switchboard
line,
{a)
reckoned on the basis of
and taxes
Annual value of energy

its
lost
cost per kilowatt-hour at
Annual interest on the entire cost of the

Annual cost of line depreciation and repairs,
{U)
{c)
makes the
difference
board and
its
between the cost of the energy at the switch-
cost delivered to a customer.
121. Electric strength of line insulation as a factor in the deter-
mination of the size of wires.

represent
Fig.
169,
two
lead-encased
same
the
insulating
the
radial
fine
represent the lines
of
between
radial lines
of force of
the
wire
medium
for the
and the lead -covering
very complete discussion of Kelvin's law
book
is
in
same
volt-
each case.
given by Dr. F. A. C. Perrine in
entitled Conductors for Electrical Distribution (D.
pages 161-178.
and B,
with
thickness
the electric field in the insulating
his
wire and the lead
and the
age between
two diagrams,
section
cables
substance
central
sheath,
in
The
Van Nostrand,
1903),
300
The
voltage determines
field
between the core and the casing, and the figure shows
that the
of the
electric
small
field
wire
much more
is
in
than
it
intense near the
near
is
electric
surface
the surface of the
Therefore the strength of a given insulating
large wire in A.
medium
the average intensity of the
to withstand the electric stress
between the core and
sheath of a cable depends not only upon the radial thickness of

the insulation but also upon the radius of the central wire.
Fig. 170.
Each of the diagrams,
and B^ Fig.
the two wires of a transmission
line,
70, represents in section
and the
fine
curved
lines rep-
resent the lines of force of the electric field in the insulating
medium for the same voltage between the wires in each case.
The voltage determines the average intensity of the electric field
along the straight
field is
lines,
much more
//,
and the figure shows that the
intense near the small wires in
near the large wires in A.

sulating
medium
line wires
electric
than
it
is
Therefore the strength of a given in-
to withstand the electric
stress
between two
depends not only upon the distance from surface to
surface of the wires, but also
upon the
size of the wires.
This dependence of the strength of the line insulation upon

the size of the wires
may
be made more intelligible in terms of a

Thus a block of glass is much more
mechanical analogue.
severely strained
tools than
when
when
it is
two blunt-pointed
it
is
squeezed between two fine-pointed
squeezed with the same total force between
tools,
and
it is
in the
immediate neighborhood
of the fine points that the excessive strain occurs.

Maximum
electric stress in the insulation
of a
cable.
Let
i^j
301
be the radius of
the central wire of a cable and R^ the inside radius of the sheath.
The
electric
Fig. 171.
field intensity (volts
the cable,
where/"
is
is
is
per centimeter) at a point/, Fig. 171, distant
Therefore
proportional to ijx.
we may
the electric field intensity at a point distant
The
a constant to be determined.
wire and the sheath
is
x from
the axis of
write
centimeters from the axis, and
Ey between the
central
whence, substituting the value
of/
E=
f.dx
from (i),
we have
(ii)
E = k'Loge^
(iii)
Therefore
Now the electric

(i) or,
field intensity
a/ the surface of the central wire
using the value of k from (iv),
f
/max.
- "
in
which /max.
is
the
R^
is
maximum
k\Rx from equation
^
^2
^jLoge^
tion of a cable,
is
we have
^.
..;p
2.3^1 i.
logio;^
electrical stress (volts
(48)
per centimeter) in the insula-
the radius of the central wire in centimeters,
R^
is
the inside
302
radius of the metal sheath,
is
the electromotive force in volts between the centra
wire and the sheath, and Log^jRJJ^^
is
the Naperian logarithm of the ratio J^^jRy
Let R be the
medium between parallel wires.
The electric field inradius of each wire, and d the distance from center to center.
tensity volts per centimeter) at a point, /, on the line, //, distant x from the center of
Maximum
electric stress in the
and
distant
x from
W^
the center of
TT'
see Fig. 172, consists of
parts,
/"^
W"
fr
'
'
two
Fig. 172.
and Z'^, which are proportional
to ijx
and
to i\[d
x) respectively,
we may
so that
write
and
/"=^-^
()
x and
These two equations are only approximately true unless the distances
are measured from points a very
"When, however,
wires.
measure x and
The
is
little
small in comparison with d,
x from the axes of the
electromotive force
closer together than the axes of the
E between
it
is
two
sufficiently exact to
wires.
the wires
is
-s: "yW-^r)dx
(iii)
Therefore, using the values oi f^ and/'^ from equations (i) and
(ii),
we
find,
by
integration
^=2/^Loga-ôr, since
is
usually small in comparison with d^ this equation
may be
written
E=2k\jQg,^
whence
.
(iv)
2Loge-^
Now
the region of greatest intensity of the electric field
the other) of the wires where
= R,
and where
is
at the surface of
one (or

Therefore, using the value of k from (iv), and neglecting k\{^d
small in comparison with k\R^
we have
which ^max
is
maximum
the
in volts,
and Loge d\R

The
Example.
wires,
is
is
R centimeters, E
^^^^
the distance in centimeters between the axes of the
electrical strength of air is
about 26,000 volts per centimeter.*
we
find that
the greatest electromotive force that the air can sustain between
diameter and 6 inches apart; and that 101,800 volts

force that the air can sustain
apart center to center.
breaks
It is
is
3,014 volts
is
two wires 6 mils
in
the greatest electromotive
between two wires 500 mils in diameter and 6 inches

worthy of note that when the voltage between two very
but slightly exceeds the sustaining strength of the intervening
down
medium
is
the Naperian logarithm of the ratio, d\R.
Therefore, substituting 26,000 forymax in equation (49),
fine wires
very
-^
4.6i? logô-^
electric stress (volts per centimeter) in the
between two parallel wires each of radius

between the wires
is
_
^-
2R Log
in
R) which
-f
/max-
303
air,
the air
only in the immediate neighborhood of the wires, and discharge from
wire to wire takes place mainly by convection currents of electrically charged
air.
7
1
/
Ty/"-.a.^
VUUl 6-r
(Artn
1
/
/
ii
1
800
J?/
400
*
y
^
,/
Vi /ni (f\l f c
_jL-L_tL30
40
50
60
70
Fig. 173.
The dependence
wires
is
shown
of the safe value of voltage between wires upon the size of the
in a very interesting
way by
the curves f in Fig. 173.
Curve
shows
* Dielectric Strength of Air, by C. P. Steinmetz, Transactions A. I. E. E.y Vol.

XV., pp. 281-326, 1898.
f From a paper by Charles F, Scott on High- Voltage Power Transmission,
Transactions A, I. E. E.y Vol. XV., pp. 531-576.
ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERLNG.
304
the watts lost
by discharge between two bare wires each 0.0126 inch
in diameter
1,040 feet long stretched side by side at a distance of 48 inches apart
shows the watts

eter,
lost
1,040 feet long and 48 inches apart.
The
motive force reaches a
maximum
An
value equal to about 1.4 times
122. Pole-line insulation.

less
is
tervening
wire
rent
is
in
diam-
173 represent
alternating electro-
its effective
value.
When the voltage between two
line
than that required to cause a break-down of the in-
air,
the leakage of current through the air from wire to
The only
entirely negligible.
at the supporting insulators
is
Fig.
abscissas in
and
and curve
by discharge between two bare wires each 0.128 inch
effective values of the alternating electromotive forces used.
wires
and other objects which happen

If the insulators are
made
perceptible leakage of cur-
and through branches of trees
to touch the wires.
of glass or thoroughly vitrified
porcelain the leakage of current through the material of the insulator
is
always negligible, unless the insulator
is
ruptured, but the
leakage of current over the surface of the insulator
may be
reduced to a
minimum by
great as possible, and
This
is
accomplished by making a
of deep grooves around the bottom of the insulator as
shown by the
sectional view of the insulators in Fig. 160.
type of insulator
is
called the petticoat type
may
triple petticoat as the case
insulator
is
be.
An
single,
This
double or
objection to the petticoat
that insects are apt to build their nests in the deep
recesses between the petticoats

is
may be as
may be
so that a portion of the surface
shielded from rain and mist.
This
is
designing the insulators so that the
length of the leakage path measured along the surface
series
con-
This leakage over the surface of the insulators
siderable.
especially the case
when
and thus impair the
insulation.
the insulators are opaque and the
grooves dark.
The
strength of an insulator to withstand a high voltage with-
out rupture has nothing directly to do with

ance.
its
insulation resist-
Analogously, the strength of a porous earthenware jar to
withstand pressure without bursting has nothing directly to do

with the
facility
with which the porous walls of the jar permit the
water to flow through them.
Insulators for high-voltage lines are

usually tested for electric strength
by subjecting them
about twice as great as they are to withstand
Wires on pole
only when
it
is
lines are
305
to a voltage
in service.
provided with an insulating covering
desired to reduce the risk of accidental contacts
Thus the high-voltage
with adjacent wires.
lines
which supply
arc lamps in city streets should have insulating coverings to re-
duce the danger of accidental contacts with telephone and
graph
On
wires.
transmission
insulation
tele-
the other hand the wires of a very high-voltage
line are
usually bare, inasmuch as any ordinary
would be inadequate
to ensure protection in case of
accidental contacts with other wires or with persons.

123. Insulation of underground,
house and station wires.
In
the installation of underground, house and station wires, two

things should be kept in mind,
namely
be absolutely water-proof, and
will
{a)
The
insulation of the
and especially the employment of insulating material that
wires,
{b)
the protection of the
wires and their insulating covering from mechanical injury.
only water-proof insulation
is
The
a covering of rubber or a covering
of fibrous insulation encased in a seamless lead sheath, and the
most
by
satisfactory mechanical protection
by a
an iron pipe or
vitrified
is
that
which
Supplementary references.
afforded
clay conduit laid in concrete
underground, or built in the walls and floors of an

124.
is
full
office building.
description of the great
and underground distributing wires and cables, and a full discussion of the
details of station- and house-wiring including the questions of
variety of structural details involved in pole lines
location and design of junction boxes, switches and cut-outs, are

beyond the scope of this text. A very complete treatment of pole
lines and underground wires and cables is given by A. V. Abbott in his book entitled Electrical Transmission of Energy, Van
Nostrand, 1905.
wealth of practical information concerning
outside and inside wiring
which
is
is
given in the National Electrical Code
described on page 220 of this text.
tion concerning wires of all
and insulated,
20
may
be found
Valuable informa-
kinds, iron, steel and copper, bare

in the
little
book
entitled
Wire in
3o6
Electrical Construction,
which
pubHshed by John A. Roebling's
is
Sons Company, of Trenton, N.
J.
Weights and Resistances of Copper Wires.

Brown and Sharpe Gauge.
Gauge
urnbers.
fs
OOOO
OOO
OO
O
I
2
3
4
5
in Alils
365
325
289
258
229
204
182
162
9
lO
11
91
12
81
13
14
15
i6
72
= ^.
460
410
144
128
114
102
Resistances per 1,000 Feet in
W'-ic'V.tc
Diameters
Areas
in Tira?.
International
Per 1,000
Feet
Per Mile.
211,600
168,100
133,225
105,625
83,521
641
509
66,564
52,441
41,616
33,124
26,244
202
1,064
159
126
100
838
665
529
419
20,736
16,384
12,996
10,404
8,281
63
50
39
32
25
ZZ^
262
208
166
132
6,561
5,184
4,096
3,249
2,601
20
105
403
320
253
79
At 60
3,382
2,687
2,129
1,688
1,335
.04966
.06251
.07887
.09948
.1258
.1529
.1941
.2446
.3074
3879
.1579
.2004
.2525
.3172
.4004
.6214
7834
9785
1.229
.5067
.6413
.8085
1. 01
1.269
1-552
1.964
2.485
3-133
3^914
1. 601
2.027
2.565
3-234
4.04
5.028
6.363
7.855
9.942
5.189
6.567
8.108
10.26
12.94
.491
15-7
12.4
9.8
7.9
83
65
52
42
2,025
1,600
1,296
1,024
812.3
6.1
32
4.8
3-9
3.1
25.6
20.7
16.4
25
13
12.53
1-9
10.2
8.2
15-9
16.41
22.6
640.1
510.8
1993
1.2
6.5
5^1
25.2
31.77
40.27
20.57
26.01
64
57
51
45
i8
40
19
20
36
32
21
28.5
22
23
24
253
20.1
404
25
17.9
15-9
320.4
252.8
97
.77
27
28
29
14.2
12.6
201.6
158.8
.61
32
.48
"3
127.7
39
2.5
2
30
10
8.9
100
1.6
50.49
64.13
79-73
101.8
79.2
.24
1.27
128.5
64
159.
50-4
39.7
31-4
25
.19
15
.12
1.02
7.1
.81
202
.63
256.5
324.6
407.2
31
32
33
34
35
Z^
At 75 F.
.04811
.06056
.07642
.09639
.1219
17
26
F.
Ohms.
6.3
5.6
5
1.5
095
.076
32.79
41-56
52 II
66.18
82.29
105.1
132.7
164.2
208.4
264.7
335-1
420.3

This table
is
30/
based on a resistance of 10.51 ohms per mil -foot
at 75 F., a temperature coefficient of resistance of 0.0022 per
degree Fahrenheit, and a density of 3.03 x

or
foot,
pounds per cubic
555
Resistances
Aluminum.
by 1. 6 1 for aluminum wire.
Weights
minum
mil-
in
above table are
to
be multiplied
for alu-
wire.
and Steel.
Resistances in above
by about 7 for iron and steel wires.
Weights
and
pound per
above table are to be multiplied by 0.30
in
Iron
plied
io~*^
foot.
in
table are to be multi-
above table are to be multiplied by 0.876
steel wires.
for iron
CHAPTER
X.
PHOTOMETRY AND ELECTRIC LIGHTING.

125. Radiant heat.
may
Light.
The
waves of
have one
common
The
intensity of a
beam
delivers per second to
body
a train of ether
property, namely, they generate
heat in a body which absorbs them.

the radiation from a hot
is
All of these simple parts of the
definite wave-length.
total radiation
it
radiation from a hot
be resolved into simple parts each of which
body
Therefore every portion of
properly called radiant heat.
is
of radiant heat
is
measured by the heat
an absorbing body.
Thus
the radiation
emitted by a standard candle represents a flow of about
450 ergs *
per second across one square centimeter of area at a distance of
one meter from the candle.

Radiant heat of which the wave-length
between 39 and 75
the optic nerves and gives rise
millionths of a centimeter affects

to sensations of light.
length
lies
Therefore radiant heat of which the wave-
between these
which are called the
lies
These
limits is called light.
limits of the visible
limits,
spectrum, are not sharply
defined, but they vary considerably with different persons
and
with the degree of fatigue of the optic nerves.
The physical
intensity of a
beam
fectly definite thermal effect, that
per second to an absorbing body.

ation of a standard candle
is measured by its perby the heat energy it delivers

Thus those parts of the radi-
of light
is
which
lie
within the visible spectrum
represent a flow of about 9.3 ergs per second across an area of
one square centimeter at a distance of one meter from the candle.
Comparing
this
with the flow of energy which
is
* Heat
heat that
is
is
properly expressed in energy units.
One
equivalent to one erg of mechanical energy.
308
by
450 ergs per
represented
the total radiation from a standard candle, namely,

erg of heat
is
the
amount of

second across an area of one square centimeter
one meter from the candle,
of the energy radiated
ation
it
is,
from a standard candle
is light.
intensity of the light sensation
tensity of the light sensation

is
extremely
may
it
presumably measured
is
can produce, but the
beam
of light entering the eye
produce a strong or a weak sensation depending upon mani-
fold individual peculiarities of the person
fatigue of the retina,
upon the extent
to
and upon the degree of
and the vividness of the sensation depends
which
enhanced by
it is
attention.
in fact
Our
sen-
meaning of that
sations are really not quantitative in the physical
term
in-'
produced by a given beam of light
A given
indefinite.
within the limits
lies
only about 2 per cent, of the radi-
The luminous intensity of a beam of light
by the
at a distance of
follows that only about 2 per cent,
by a standard candle
of the visible spectrum, that
309
they enable us merely to distinguish objects, to judge
whether things are alike or unlike, and the certainty and precision
we can do
with which
of our daily
of light
life.
The
this is exemplified in
ratio of the
luminous
measured by using a device
is
every outward aspect
intensities
to alter in
of two beams
a known
ratio the
physical intensity of one beam until it gives as nearly as one can

^
judge a degree of illumination on a screen which
is
the illumination
126. Photometry.
a lamp
is
equal to
{like)
produced by the other beam.
The measurement of the

This measurement
called photometry.
by comparing a beam of
light
by
always made
light emitted
is
from the given lamp with a beam
of light from a standard lamp, as explained in the previous para-
graph, and the physical device there referred to

eter.
The comparison
lamp with the
of the total light in a
total light in a
is
called a photom-
beam from
beam from a standard lamp
simple photometry ; whereas the comparison wave-length
length throughout the spectrum
is
method
photometer
128.
is
for
overcoming
this difficulty
described in Nichols
&
is
called
by wave-
called spectro-photometry.
fundamental difficulty* in simple photometry

*
a given
by means of what
is
is
that different
called the flicker-
Franklin's Elements of Physics^ Vol. III., p.
3IO
lamps usually show differences of color, and these differences of

color do not disappear
when
the attempt
made
is
to adjust a
photometer to equality of brightness.
The
light,
I74.t
day
results of the
spectro-photometric * comparison of gas
lime light, and day light are shown by the curves in Fig.
The
curves refer to beams of gas light, lime light and
light all of
which have the same intensity

line (the
region of the spectrum)
the
show,
curves
ample, that the

light
at Fraunhofer's
middle of the yellow
and
ex-
for
beam
of day
about six times as
is
beam
of gas
light at Fraunhofer's
F line
bright
the
(in
the
as
blue
region of the
spectrum), and
only about
one fourth as bright as the
gas light at Fraunhofer's

region
red
line (in the
of
the spectrum).
127.
The
is
The Hefner lamp,
lamp which burns pure amyl
made
a sperm candle
1
acetate.
ac-
20 grains of sperm
so called from
taining tube are of prescribed dimensions
up
lamps.
British standard candle
cording to exact specifications and burning

per hour.
Standard
its
inventor,
The wick and

and the wick
its
is
is
con-
turned
to give a flame of prescribed height. {
* A simple form of spectro-photometer
is
described in Nichols and Franklin's Ele-
ments of Physics Vol. III., p. 130.

tSee Nichols and Franklin. A spectro-photometric comparison of sources of
^
artificial
illumination,
American Journal of
Science, Vol.
38,
pp.
100-114, De-
cember, 1889.
J See Zeitschrift fur Instrumentenkunde, Vol. XVIII., p. 257, July, 1893.

very satisfactory discussion of the Hefner lamp may be found in Photometrical Meas-
urements, by Wilbur
M.
Stine,
The Macmillan
Co., 1900, pp. 145-160.

The
is
intensity of a horizontal
beam
I I
of light from a Hefner lamp
called a hefner unit or a hefney.
If a
lamp were to %\v^ one
amount of
by the lamp, would
hefner unit of light intensity in every direction, the

light,
or the so-called flux of light emitted
be what
The
called one spherical-hefner*
is
great reliability of the Hefner lamp as compared with the
standard sperm candle has led to the definition of the candle in
terms of the hefner
The candle or
unit.
of light of which the intensity

ical-candle
is
sperm candle
is i
equal to 1.136
128. Conical intensity
the candle unit
in
is
beam
36 hefner units and the spher-
The standard
spherical-hefners.
no longer used
is
photometric work.
and sectional intensity
of light.
The
beam of light, which is used in the above

of the hefner and the candle, refers to the amount of
expression, intensity of a
definitions
cone of rays.
light in a unit-sized
it
may be
called for brevity,
is
This conical
rays remains in that cone
and
which
expressed in hefners or candles
independent of distance, since the light
it is
intensity,
it
given cone of
in a
depends only upon the area and
brightness of the luminous surface of the lamp.
The
intensity of a
beam
of hght
may
also refer to the
of light per unit sectional area of the beam.

sity
of a
beam
of light, which
it
may
be called for brevity, de-
creases as the square of the distance from the

it
is
expressed
in
amount
This sectional inten-
lamp
increases,
terms of a unit called the lux, which
and
the
is
beam from a Hefner lamp at a

The sectional intensity, /,
lamp.
sectional intensity of a horizontal
distance of one meter from the
of a given
beam
in luxes at
which h
*The
an
is
is
a lamp
/=!
is
(SO)
the conical intensity of the
spherical -hefner
d meters from
in
a distance of
not a kind of hefner.
beam
The word
adjective, but the term stands for a distinct conception
should be written with a hyphen.
in
hefner units.
spherical
it
is
is
not used as
one word, and
it
312
Intensity of illumination.
beam, that
tional area of a
The amount
of light per unit sec-
the sectional intensity of the beam,
is,
measures the intensity of illumination of a surface upon which

the
beam
Therefore the intensity of illumi-
perpendicularly.
falls
may
nation of a surface
Thus
be expressed in luxes.
tensity of illumination required for easy reading
the in-
the intensity
is
of illumination at a distance of one foot from a standard candle,
which
intensity
is
sometimes called the
*'
candle-foot," and
it is
equal to 1.136/(0.305)^= 12.21 luxes according to equation (50).
A complete statement of the

standing of what
at the
various photometric units depends upon a clear under-
Consider a cone, and a sphere with
called solid angle.
is
apex of the cone.
The
solid or spherical angle of the
cone
is
its
center
measured by the
ratio of the area of the portion of the spherical surface within the cone to the square
Thus the
of the radius of the sphere.
unit of solid angle
is
subtended by one square
centimeter of the surface of a sphere of one centimeter radius, and the complete surface of a sphere represents
4T
units of solid angle.
Consider a lamp placed at the center of a sphere of unit radius so that one unit of
may
area of this sphere
lamp
the
to give
amount of
sphere)
is
represent one unit of solid angle or one unit-cone.
one hefner of conical intensity of light
light (light-flux) passing out in
called one
The given lamp
lumen of
light-flux.
is
assumed to be the same
whole spherical surface represents
flux is equal to
The
lux,
\k lumens of
\k lumens.
which
is
47r units of solid
That
light-flux.
is
in every direction
to say, a spherical-hefner of light-
defined above as the intensity of illumination at a distance (hori-
area of a sphere of one meter radius
gave out light equally
in
all
is
40,00077 square centimeters and
directions,
one spherical-hefner or
477
amount
Now
of light flux falling upon each square centimeter of the illuminated surface.
it.
but the
Therefore
angle or 477 unit cones.
zontally) of one meter from a Hefner lamp, represents of course a certain
pass out from
the
one unit-cone (through unit area of the
emits one spherical-hefner (0.88 of a spherical-candle) of light-flux,
because the conical intensity
the lamp emits
Imagine
Then
in every direction.
if
the
the
lamp
lumens would
Therefore one lux represents one ten -thousandth of a lumen per
square centimeter or
^tjtjVjttt^^
^ spherical-hefner per square centimeter.
As an illustration of the significance of the terms hefner, lumen and lux, consider a
beam of light emitted by a glow lamp. Let the conical intensity of this beam be 18.2
Let the solid angle of this beam be o.oi of a unit, that is to
hefners (16 candles).
say, the solid angle
subtended by o 01 of a square centimeter of the surface of a sphere
of which the radius

the
beam
is
0.182 lumen.
the
lamp
is
is
one centimeter.
Then
the
number of lumens of
18.2 hefners multiplied by o.oi unit of solid angle, which
The
sectional intensity of this
18.2 luxes.
beam
at a distance of
light- flux in
is
equal to
one meter from
313
some very interesting features in regard to congiven below will serve as an illustration.
To
understand this example one must remember that light which emanates from 9. point
in the focal plane of a lens or mirror is transformed by the lens or mirror into a beam
of rays which are all parallel (ignoring errors of spherical and chromatic aberration and
The
so-called search-light presents
The numerical example
ical intensity.
astigmatism ) to a line drawn from the point to the center of the lens or to the center
Therefore the light which emanates from a small lumi-
of curvature of the mirror.
nous surface
rays of which
by drawing
plane
in the focal
lie (at
is
transformed into a series of parallel beams
all
the
a great distance from the search-light) within the cone formed
from every point of the small luminous surface to the center of the
lines
lens or to the center of curvature of the mirror,
and the
solid angle of this
cone
is
equal to the area of the small luminous surface divided by the square of the focal
length of the lens (or mirror).
The powerful
arc
lamp of a
certain search-light emits light of 10,000 candles conical
which subtends one
intensity towards every part of a lens (or mirror)
as seen from the arc
which
is
The luminous
at its focus.
unit of solid angle
surface of the
lamp
quarter of a square centimeter and the focal length of the lens (or mirror)
is
one
30 cen-
Therefore the solid angle of the cone which contains the search-light beam
timeters.
is
is
^ divided
by 302 or
g-g*^^
of a unit, and,
if
we assume
that no light
is
lost in the
lens (or on the mirror) by absorption, the conical intensity of the search-light
must be 3,600 times as great as the conical intensity of the

lamp, or 36,000,000 candles.
One who
beam
from the
light direct
considers this example carefully will be im-
pressed with the important fact that the candle
is
The
not a unit of quantity of light.
candle and the hefner are units of conical intensity.
129.
The Bunsen photometer
is
a device for measuring the
conical intensity of a
beam of
or in candles.
the photometer that
used
in
light
from a given lamp

is
almost universally-
simple photometric measurements.
The given lamp
It is
and the standard lamp are placed
at the
bar and a screen of thin unsized paper

until the
in hefners
two
two lamps.
is
ends of a horizontal
moved along
the bar
sides of the screen are equally illuminated
The
by the
intensities of illumination (sectional intensities
of the beams of light) due to the respective lamps are hl(P and
h' jd'^,
according to equation (50), and since these are equal
we
have
^=^
h'
in
which h and
h'
(SI)'
^
d''
are the conical intensities in hefners
candles of the light sent towards the screen
lamps, and
d and
d' are the distances of the
by the
or in
respective
lamps from the screen.
3H
An
irregular grease spot on the thin paper screen enables one
to judge better
when
the illumination
This spot should be
sides.
the same on the two
is
made with
clean paraffin and the
excess of paraffin should be drawn out of the screen by placing

it
between folds of absorbent paper and applying a hot
flat-iron.
In the use of the Bunsen photometer a carbon-filament electric
lamp
is
This lamp
generally used as a working standard.
is
previously standardized for a particular voltage and in a particular

direction,
it is
by comparing
it
with a Hefner lamp
operated at this particular voltage.
and when used
Carefully standardized
carbon-filament lamps are offered for sale
by the United
States
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
i6.of
Fig. 175.
130. Distribution of light around a lamp.
In the
definition of
the spherical-hefner the idea of uniformity of distribution of light
around the lamp was introduced

fact,
for the sake of simplicity.
In
however, no lamp gives complete uniformity of distribution,
but the conical intensity in hefners or candles

in certain directions
and
less in other directions.
is
always greater
Thus
Fig. 175 *
* Taken from a paper by J. R. Cravath and V. R. Lansingh on Reflectors, Shades

and Globes, Electrical World a^td Engineer^ Vol. 46, pp. 907, 947, 991, 1033 and
1074,
November 25
to
December
23, 1905.

shows the
about a typical
of light
distribution
power" carbon-filament lamp without a

shows the
ical intensity
same lamp when
it
is
In these figures the con-
of the Hght in each di-
rection in candles
represented to
is
by the length of the
scale
i6-candle-
shade, and Fig. 176
distribution of light about the
placed in an aluminum cone reflector.
*'
315
corre-
sponding radius vector of the dotted

curve.
X7.6
The
distribution of light about a
lamp, which, like a carbon-filament
lamp, can
electric
may
position,
be held
by
determined
be
mounting the lamp
in
25.6
any
in
25-6
30.0
30.0
universal
36.6
holder at one end of the photometer

bar,
turning
various
by
step
it
and
positions,
photometer reading
for
step
into
taking
the
each position.
In some cases a lamp
is
sym-
Fig. 176.
with
metrical
respect
to
an axis,
so that a complete knowledge of the distribution of light about
the lamp
may be
obtained
by determining the
light in different directions in a single plane
intensities of the
which contains the
axis of symmetry.
In
many
cases a
lamp
spect to an axis so
of the
of no
may
light
is
approximately symmetrical with re-
that the sHght variations of the intensity
around the axis of approximate symmetry are
importance.
In
such
be averaged out, as
it
case
were,
by
the
lack of
rotating
the
symmetry
lamp at
a speed of three or four revolutions per second about
its
axis
of approximate symmetry while the photometric readings are
being taken.
in this
The
data for Figs.
175 and 176 were obtained
way.
In the case of a lamp which must be held in a fixed position,
one or more mirrors are used to
reflect the different
beams from
3l6
the lamp along the photometer bar.

mirrors,
AA,
BB
and CC, arranged
fixed lamp, Z, along a
photometer
Thus
Fig. 177
shows three
to reflect the light from a
The three mirrors
bar.
may be
are sup-
DE,
The figure shows the mirrors in the position to reflect
downward beam from the lamp to the photometer screen.
ported in a rigid frame which
rotated about the
line,
as an axis.
the
JL
Photometer
-i
ficreea
Fig.
The
mirrors,
AA,
BB
177.
and CC,
Fig.
yy,
must be large enough
so that with the eye placed at the photometer screen one can see
the entire luminous surface of the lamp including the globe or
shade
and the distance of the lamp from the screen must be
taken as the
sum
of the distances,/, g, h and
The
Fig. 177.
i,
mirrors reflect a certain fractional part, only, of the light from the
lamp, and, therefore, the photometer reading must be multiplied
by a
This correction factor
correction factor.
is
serving the photometer readings of the horizontal
found by ob-
beam from
lamp with and without the mirrors, making due allowance

effective distance
If
it
is
from lamp to screen
feasible the
in
each case.
lamp should be rotated
vertical axis, kf, in Fig. 177, while the
the
for the
steadily about the
photometer readings are
being taken.
131.
Measurement
were to emit
of total light flux
light of the
same
from a lamp.
If a
lamp
conical intensity in all directions,
then the conical intensity of the light in hefners (or candles)
would be numerically equal
to the total light flux from the
in spherical -hefners (or spherical -candles),
lamp
and a single measure-
ment of such a lamp by means of a Bunsen photometer would

give not only the conical intensity of the light in hefners (or

the total light flux
candles) but also
317
spherical-hefners (or
in
spherical- candles). *
In general, however, light

different directions
ical intensity
and
and
emitted
is
The
total light flux.
by a lamp
ical-hefners emitted
by a lamp unequally
total light flux in spher-
determined by measuring the
is
conical intensity in hefners in every direction
age,
which gives the
age
is
way by adding and

tions in
and taking the averIf this aver-
light flux in spherical-hefners.
be calculated
to
in
necessary to distinguish between con-
it is
the ordinary
in
dividing, the direc-
which the separate readings are
taken must be distributed uniformly over

the surface of a sphere with
the
sphere
This
lamp.
sphere for
reference
center at
its
called the
is
brevity.
If
the
readings are not so distributed, each reading must be multiplied

area which
it,
is
by the
spherical
to be properly assigned to
and the sum of such products must
be divided by the
total area of the refer-
ence sphere to give the correct average.
When a
lamp can be rotated
at a
speed
of three or four revolutions per second

Fig. 178.
about
its
axis of approximate
the total light flux
may be
symmetry,
determined accurately by taking read-
ings of the conical intensity in different directions in one plane only,
namely, a plane which includes the axis of rotation.

lamp, Z, Fig. 178,
* There
is
is
rotated about
a widespread tendency
among
the vertical axis,
Thus the
PQy and the
electrical engineers to confuse the unit of
conical intensity, the candle, with the unit of light flux, the spherical-candle.
is
due
This
to the fact that, in the absence of exact data concerning the distribution of light
around a given lamp, the
irregularities of distribution
thought of as giving out light uniformly in
all directions.
gineers have been inclined to ignore that property of a

tribution of the light of the
are ignored
That
is
and the lamp
is
to say, electrical en-
lamp (the
irregularity of dis-
lamp) which makes the distinction between the candle and
the spherical-candle important.
3l8
R\
conical intensities, R,
tances,
R",
On
are measured.
<^,
R"\
at equal
etc.,
angular dis-
account of the rotation of the lamp
each setting of the photometer gives the average conical intensity

along a parallel of
etc.,
latitude, as
it
Each
were.
reading, R, R' , R'\
represents, therefore, the conical intensity over a zone of the
reference sphere
so that the readings must be multiplied
areas of the respective zones and the
by the
divided
sum
by the
of these products
total area of the reference sphere to give the aver-
age conical intensity
which
in all directions,
equal of course to
is
the total light flux in spherical-units, hefners or candles as the
may
case
be.
Thus the
length of the arc, ab
(=
27r</= 27rrsin
r<j)),
multiplied
of the zone.
6''),
ence sphere cancels out
sum by
reading, R",
which the area
spherical zone, ab, of
when one
Fig.
is
178, refers to the
sensibly equal to the
by the mean circumference

The radius, r, of the refer-
divides the above-mentioned
the total area of the reference sphere
(=
as above
4'Trr^),
explained.
Example.
The
every 10.
The
conical intensities are given in Fig. 175 for
area of each of the two polar zones corre-
sponding to conical
intensities 3.0
and
6.6, is, ir
x (^^q
of 27rr)^
the area of each of the zones corresponding to conical intensities

^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^
5.0 and 7.0 is, 27rr sin 10 x (3^0 ^^ ^'^^)
the zones corresponding to conical intensities 7.5 and 8.1 is,
y
27rr sin
mean
20 x
{-^^^ of 27rr)
and so
on.
calculation of the
conical intensity in all directions from the data given in
Fig. 175 gives 13.33 spherical-candles as the light flux emitted
by the lamp.
The Matthews
132.
integrating photometer.
Two ingenious arrangements of
mirrors have been devised by Professor C. P. Matthews by means of which the light
from a lamp in spherical-candles can be determined by a single setting of a photo-
flux
meter.*
photometer provided with such an arrangement of mirrors
integrating photometer.
ments are shown

axis,
in Fig. 179.
VV, and a number of
*The
tute
The
essential features of
The lamp, Z,
equidistant
to
be tested
beams from Z,
is
all
called an
rotated about the vertical
lying in the plane,
QL V,
Integrating Photometer, C. P. Matthews, Transactions of American Insti-
of Electrical Engineers, Vol. XVIII., pp. 677-697, 1901
1902.
is
one of Professor Matthews' arrange-
Vol.
XX.,
pp. 59-70,
S^%
319
320
and each representing a zone of the reference

screen, S, as shown.
is
made by moving
If the
lamp nearer
the standard
beams of
from
light
all
the beams, that
The
to or farther
setting
from the screen.
intensities of
would be proportional
to the simple
beams.
intensities of all of the
spherical-candle
and the photometer
would be the sum of the conical
the photometer reading
is,
average of the conical
stationary
is
of the mirrors struck the photometer screen at right
angles, the reading of the photometer

all
photometer
sphere,"^ are reflected to the
This photometer screen
power of a lamp
is
found, however, not by taking the simple
average of the conical intensities in various directions, but by taking what
is
called a
weighted average as explained in Art. 131.
by each beam alone were
If the illumination of the screen
be
if
the
beam
zone of the reference sphere which

to
VVf and
z^
z^ jz as large as
would
it
struck the screen at right angles, 2 being the area of the equatorial
is
associated with the
beam
that
is
at right angles
being the area of that zone of the reference sphere which
is
associated
with any given beam, then the reading of the photometer. Fig. 179, would be the
2(3'' 7/2) that
is,
would be proportional
the photometer reading
candle power of the lamp.

the spherical-candle
In
fact the
power ( =r
reading of the photometer would be
where n
Xz^/J^-rrr^),
is
by the mirrors
If the photometer screen
were entirely
free
from gloss an oblique beam of light
over which unit sectional area of the oblique
beam
is
This
is
impossible however to
is
gloss, that is a screen that
more oblique the incident
is,
beam and
a degree of
the plane of
of illumination specified above in terms
precisely the reduction
It
to the area of screen
spread, that
illumination proportional to the sine of the angle between the
the screen.
The incomplete
2.
considered later.
is
would produce a degree of illumination inversely proportional
of the ratio 2^/2.
n times
equal to the ratio of the area of
the entire reference sphere, ^Trr^, to the area of the equatorial zone,
reflection of light
sum
to the true spherical-
make
a photometer screen without
does not show regular reflection to some extent, and the
light the larger the proportion of the light
regularly and the less the proportion that

fore the mirrors near the axis,
FV,
which
is
to S,
and thus
reflected
by the screen.
179 must be somewhat nearer to
in Fig,
so as to lessen the optical distance from
reflected diff'usely
is
There-
intensify slightly the
and
beams
that strike the screen obliquely.
The Matthews
errors
due
integrating photometer
an auxiliary standard lamp

receives the horizontal
Fig. 179,
and errors due
to gloss of screen
in place of
beam from
and take the reading
is
adjusted as follows so as to eliminate
to absorption of light
Z, cover
all
the auxiliary standard, that
^f
of the photometer.
Then
is
is
towards the uncovered
and adjust the uncovered

equal illumination on
until the adjustment
* Compare
f
The
its
is
pair, set the
mirrors 5 and 5' in
cover
except any given pair, turn the auxiliary standard lamp so that
aspect
its
photometer arbitrarily
all
of the mirrors
standard face or
at reading, kz^ fz,
pair of mirrors inwards or outwards until the screen
two
sides.
Proceed
Put
by the mirrors.
of the mirrors except the pair that
in like
manner with each
shows
pair of mirrors
complete.
Art. 131.
quantity ijk
is
the factor
by which any reading of the photometer must be
multiplied to correct for loss of light due to incomplete reflection by the mirrors.

When
the photometer has been thus properly adjusted
its
reading must be multi-
power of a lamp, Z,
plied by the factor zj^nkr^ to give the true spherical-candle
which
being measured,
is
32
being the area of the zone of the reference sphere which
is
associated with the horizontal beam, and 471^2 being the total area of the reference
sphere.
The
theory of the Matthews integrating photometer
of the fact that this photometer
133.
The problem
well lighted
when
is
destined to
come
of illumination.
the eye
is
is
here given in
full
on account
into general use.
A room may be
said to be
easily able to distinguish, in minute
room.
detail of perception, the various objects in the
Complete-
ness of visual perception depends upon three conditions, namely,

{a) a sufficient brightness of the illumination
{b)
a proper loca-
tion of the light sources, so as to bring out that combination of

soft
{c)
shadows which
is
so essential to the perception of form, and
a proper composition * of the
so as to bring out those
light,
physical differences in objects which the eye perceives as variations of color.
room may be
such illumination
by a
intensely illuminated
is ineffective,
single arc lamp, but
even when the eye
is
shaded from
the direct light of the lamp, because the excessive harshness of
the shadows renders the perception of form almost impossible
on the other hand a

light,
which contains
sufficiently intense
certain wave-lengths in great excess,
ineffective
because of the unusual or weak color
thereby.
For example, the
is
very deficient
lengths have
tints
light of
much
to
effects
may be
produced
an ordinary kerosene lamp
the shorter wave-lengths
in
and properly distributed
these shorter wave-
do with the bringing out of blue and
violet
and, consequently, a deep blue or violet piece of cloth
appears almost black by kerosene lamp

ues are produced
in
a very striking
light.
way by
False color val-
the light from the
mercury -vapor lamp on account of the almost complete absence

of the longer wave-lengths
The
brilliant
(red)
in
the light from this lamp.
white light of the carbon arc lamp, on the other
hand, contains
all
wave-lengths in about the same proportion as
* The composition of light refers to the relative intensities of the various wavelength components of the light.
21
322
sun
and
light,
all
show up
colors
well
by the
light of
such an arc
lamp.
Glare.
Excessive contrast of
light
and shade
automatically to the brightest lights in the

perception of detail in the shadows
detail in the
of vision,
field
is
as follows
contracts greatly
when
this contraction
In the
there
is
first
all
brilliant lights in the field
especially
is
itself
of view and
marked when the
The explana-
of vision includes a bright unshaded lamp.
tion of glare
and
called glare,
is
adapts
This blotting out of
is lost.
shadows by excessively
which
field
the field of
in
The eye
vision tends to hinder visual perception.
place, the pupil of the eye
a bright light
in the field of vision
lessens the effective brightness not only of
the " high lights " but also of the deep shadows
in the
second
place the sensitiveness of the retina seems to be greatly reduced

in
may
bright light, and, while this reduction of sensitiveness
more
leave the eye able to perceive detail in the
nated portions of the

tailed perception
intense
beam
in
field
of vision
the shadows
it
tends to obliterate
and
in
the
all
window illuminates a room, and
de-
third place an
of Hght entering the eye from a bright source
minates the whole interior of the eye, just as a

entering a
brilliantly illumi-
beam
illu-
of sunlight
this diffused light in the
eye illuminates and excites the portions of the retina where the
images of the shadows
fall,
and thereby
obliterates all detail of
perception.
An
interesting case involving excessive
which a workman
at a
contrast
is
that in
loom, for example, has his immediate
work illuminated to a fair degree of brightness while the remainder of the room is left in darkness.
If the workman could keep
his eyes fixed upon his work incessantly, it is conceivable that
this
kind of illumination might be satisfactory
about
in spite of
conditions the
but the eye moves
everything one can do, and under the assumed
workman would be unable
to see
when he glanced
about the room and he would be blinded when he glanced

work.
To
tion of the
at his
avoid this impracticable situation a general illumina-
room
is
necessary.

It is
very important
to place the
arranging for the illumination of a room
in
lamps outside of the
field
of vision,
if
possible, so that
from the lamps and render the
light can enter the eye directly
no
323
The
eye insensible to the delicate shading of surrounding objects.

excessive discomfort that
poorly arranged stage,
produced by the glare of improperly
example
located lamps, such for
is
is
is
as the
due not only
exposed foot-lights of a
to the physical pain that
associated with long continued looking at a bright light, but
more
especially to the incessant strain of trying to peer into the
dark region beyond.
Where
bad
a lamp cannot be removed from the
effects of glare
may be
field
greatly reduced
of vision the
by enlarging the
effective
luminous surface of the lamp by means of a translucent
globe.
translucent globe always absorbs a considerable por-
tion of the light of a lamp, but the effectiveness of the globe in
eliminating glare
is
due primarily
amount
to the fact that a given
of light coming from a small brilliant source produces a

greater glare than the
faint source.
Dim
lamps versus
much
same amount of light coming from a
brilliant lamps.
distribution of light in a space to
A much more
be illuminated
large
satisfactory
may be
obtained
by using several lamps of moderate brightness than by using one

or two lamps of great brightness.
Thus very
bright lamps are
not suitable for illuminating small rooms because the one or two
lamps required to produce the desired quantity of light give a

very unsatisfactory distribution, and the number of lamps required
to give a satisfactory distribution
amount of
the
field
light.
To
would produce an excessive
give a satisfactory distribution of light over
of vision in the lower portion of a room, very bright
lamps should be raised to a considerable height over head.
In
general, therefore, very bright lamps are unsatisfactory, except for
lighting very large high
rooms and
lamps may, however, be used
rooms when the

this
system
all
indirect
for
street lighting
satisfactorily in
system of illumination
such
moderately small
is
employed.
of the direct Hght from the lamp or lamps
is
In
thrown
324
upon the
room and
ceiling of the
from the ceiHng produces a beautiful
the diffused Hght reflected

soft illumination in the
portion of the room.

Influence of absorption upon illujnination.
surface,
such as the wall,
An
lower
illuminated
room, or the sur-
ceiling, or floor of a
face of an object in the room, absorbs a definite fractional part of
the light which

ficient of
room
falls
upon
it.
This fraction
is
absorption of the illuminated surface.
called the coef-
The lamps
in a
emit a given flux of light and at the instant the lamps are
turned on the intensity of the illumination

increased
by repeated
in the
reflections of the light
room
is
quickly
from the illuminated
surfaces until the rate of absorption of light by the illuminated sur-
faces
for
is
equal
of emission of light by the lamps.
to the rate
example, two rooms,
of lamps.
Given,
and B, illuminated by the same number
Suppose that the two rooms have the same area of
walls and objects to be illuminated, but suppose that the illumi-
nated surfaces in
room
absorb an average of 40 per cent, of the
which falls upon them, whereas the illuminated surfaces in

room B absorb an average of 80 per cent. In both rooms the
same amount of light is emitted by the lamps and therefore the
same amount of light is absorbed by the illuminated surfaces
but this absorbed light is only 40 per cent, of the mean intensity
of illumination in room A whereas it is 80 per cent, of the mean
therefore the mean intensity
intensity of illumination in room B
of illumination in room A is twice as great as it is in room ^.*
The total flux
Fbix of light required for effective illumination.
light
of light, in spherical-candles, required for the effective illumination

of a given-sized
light
is
room depends upon the manner

upon the composition (color) of
distributed,
upon the mean
Interior lighting
by lamps which give a
soft
În
which the
coefficient of absorption of the illuminated surfaces
as pointed out above.
yellow
is
light,
usually accomplished
the lamps are usually
general the total flux of light required to produce a given
illumination in a
in
the light, and
room
is
surfaces to be illuminated
proportional to ab, where a
and
is
the
mean
is
mean
intensity of
the combined area of all the
coefficient of absorption of these surfaces.

distributed over-head so as to be as
Under these
conditions about 0.2 of a spherical-candle
required
is
each square foot of floor area to give a degree of illumination
that
would be considered
satisfactory in a reception
If the ceiling is
lecture hall.
is
as possible out of the
of vision, and walls and ceiling are usually yellowish-white.
field
for
much
325
required inasmuch as the area of the walls
and walls are very dark,
ceiling
room or
in a
very high a greater candle-power
if
is
If the
increased.
they are made of stained oak
or cherry paneling, for example, effective illumination
may
re-
quire 0.4 or 0.5 of a spherical-candle per square foot of floor area.

Street lighting by arc lamps. '^
Arc lamps
consuming about
500 watts each are usually placed 200 or 300 feet apart
cities, and the height of the lamps above the street
ican
20 or 30
trees,
In
feet.
smaller
many
units
cases, especially in streets
placed nearer
together give
Amer-
in
is
usually
having shade
much
better
illumination.
Old
style open-arc street
sets of carbons,
thrown
daily,
lamps for
and when one
set
into circuit automatically.
one
man
The number
all
night burning have two
burns out the other
set is
Such lamps are trimmed
being able to trim about 80 lahips per day.

of hours of operation per year of street lamps
varies greatly in different cities.
Thus
the all-night schedule,
lamps operated every night from 30 minutes
after
sunset to 30
minutes before sunrise, aggregates 3,950 hours per year in New

York City the aggregate time varies slightly with latitude. In
;
the so-called moonlight schedule the lamps are operated about
2,100 or 2,200 hours per year.

134.
The
electric
lamp. -^
The production of light by means
of
the electric current depends upon the heating
by the current of a
portion of an electric circuit to incandescence, and the electric
lamp consists essentially of an element which is so heated, and
in some cases, of special regulating devices.
Electric lamps may
*See
Electrical Engineer'' s Pocket Book,
(third edition), for information
393-402 and 414-422.
H. A.
Foster, D.
Van Nostrand, 1903
on arc lamps and on arc-lighting schedules, pages
326
be conveniently
classified
under three heads, namely,
lamps, in which the heated element
form of a rod or filament
in the
light
is
is
{b)
vapor lamps,
glow
which the
in
given off by a highly incandescent or luminescent column
of vapor through which the electric current flows
ordinary carbon-arc lamp, in which the light
by the
(a)
a solid electrical conductor
tips of the
is
and
(r)
the
given off chiefly
carbons which are raised to an extremely high
temperature by the faintly luminous but excessively hot column

of conducting vapor between them.
Under the head of glow lamps
are included the ordinary car-
bon-filament lamp, several varieties of metal-filament lamps, and

the Nernst lamp in which the glower
is
a rod of porcelain-like
made of a mixture of the rare earths.

Under the head of vapor lamps are included the
material
of luminous-arc lamps in which the electric arc

metallic vapor and
is
is
recent types
charged with
highly luminous, the mercury-vapor lamp,
and the Geissler-tube lamp of Macfarlane Moore.

135.
Lamp
efficiency.
In
practice the efficiency of a
always specified by giving the watts consumed

spherical-candle of light flux emitted.
glow lamp of the kind that
is
in the
most widely used con-
The
3.6 watts per spherical-candle.
of a lamp
of course the ratio of the light energy emitted
is
to the total
ciency
is
energy supplied to the lamp.
actual efficiency
The
by the
actual
effi-
the greater the smaller the so-called efficiency in watts
consumed per spherical -candle.

Angstrom * has found that
tion of a
is
Thus the carbon-filament
at present
sumes about
lamp
lamp
lamp per
Hefner lamp which
that part of the horizontal radia-
lies
spectrum represents a flow of
within the limits of the visible
8.1
ergs per second across one
square centimeter at a distance of one meter from the lamp, so

that one spherical-hefner corresponds to a flow of ^.n
ergs per second or 0.102 watt.

for
one spherical-candle.
o.
8.
15 watt
The power value of the sphericalsome extent upon the
hefner (or candle) depends, however, to

* Fhysikalische Zeitschrift, Vol.
x loo^ x
This corresponds to
III., p. 257, 1902.

composition (color) of the
spherical -candle applies
Hefner lamp, and
this
The
light.
to
value of
o.
the orange-colored
327
watt per
from the
light
value can be considered only as an approx-
imation to the power value of one spherical-candle of yellowish

light,
or of pure white light, or of bluish light.
Taking
o.
spherical-candle,
watt as the approximate power value of one

it
follows
the ordinary carbon-filament
that
glow lamp which takes 3.6 watts per spherical-candle (about
mean
watts per
about
horizontal
3.1
candle) has an actual efficiency of
per cent., an ordinary enclosed-arc lamp which takes 2.2
watts per spherical -candle has an actual efficiency of about 5.2
per cent, a luminous-arc lamp which takes 1.2 watts per sphericalcandle has an actual efficiency of about 9.6 per cent., and a mer-
cury-vapor lamp which takes 0.6 watt per spherical-candle has
an actual efficiency of about 19.2 per cent.

The thermodynamics of radiation.
conform
to
to
If the
light-giving element of a
lamp would be a
efficiency of the
definite
and well-known function of the temperaand reaching a maximum of 90
ture * of the element, increasing with the temperature
or 95 per cent, at a temperature of about 4600 C.
than any
lamp were
the laws of radiation which apply to an ideal black body, then the
known
This temperature
is
far greater
solid or liquid substance can stand.
All substances depart more or less from the laws of radiation which apply to an
This
ideal black body.
is
the temperature.
and the
especially the case with gaseous substances,
efficiency of the radiation emitted
by such substances
is
light
not a well defined function of
Indeed, the idea of temperature applies strictly to substances in
thermal equilibrium, only, and the column of luminescent vapor in a mercury-vajpor
lamp, for example, cannot be said to have any temperature at
all,
that
is
to say, the
luminescent state of the vapor could not be reproduced by raising the vapor to any
assignable temperature whatever.
136.
The carbon-arc lamp.
of electric lamp.
an
It consists
electric current
what
is
may
The
mechanism
is
the earliest form
flow from the one to the other forming
for
and a more or
moving one or both
so as to keep the arc fairly steady.
lamp
called an electric arc between them,
elaborate
arc
of two carbon rods arranged so that
The
electric arc consists of
very good resum6 of the thermodynamics of the electric lamp
F. Roeber in the Transactions of the
pp. 243-267, 1905.
less
of the carbon rods
American Electrochemical
is
given by E.
Society, Vol. VIII.,
328
a column of intensely heated vapor which conducts the electric

current across from one carbon rod to the other.
An
is
interior
shown
with
its
view of a typical direct-current enclosed-arc lamp
in Fig. i8o,
and the same lamp
shown in Fig. i8i

This lamp is designed
is
casing and outer globe complete.
to operate across constant-voltage mains,
connected
in
series with the arc,
it
has a resistance
and the arc
is
enclosed
coil
in
Fig. 181.
Fig. 180.
nearly air-tight bulb of thin opal glass into the ends of which the
carbon rods project.
The mechanism
of this lamp
electromagnet with
its
winding
is
in
operated by a plunger-type
series with
the
arc.
plunger of this electromagnet actuates a lever to which

clutch that grips the upper carbon.
When
is
The
fixed a
the lamp switch
is
open the clutch
lies
against a trigger which releases the carbon
and allows
fall
and make contact with the lower carbon.
it
to

When
draws
it,
the lamp switch

in the
is
closed the current which starts to flow
plunger and the clutch catches the carbon and
thus forming the arc.
As
the carbons waste
bustion due to the oxygen of the
air,
away by com-
the arc lengthens slightly,
When
plunger lowers the upper carbon slowly.
downward movement
is
and allows the carbon to

pulls the plunger
lifts
and the consequent movement of the
decreases
the current
329
and
the limit of this
reached the clutch touches the trigger
when
fall
the sudden increase of current
the carbon again as at the
lifts
start,
and
so on.
The
alternating-current arc
lamp
somewhat from the
differs
direct-current lamp, as explained later.
Arc lamps which

direct or alternating,
that which
by a constant current,
have a more complicated mechanism than
are operated in series
The
described above.
is
usually has two windings, one of which
and the other

out
shunted across the
is
arc,
actuating electromagnet
is
in series
with the arc
and a device called a cut-
arranged for automatically establishing a by-pass for the
is
current
when
the carbons are burned out or
when
the lamp gets
out of order.
The operation
The first rush of
through the
rent
is
to
of the series arc lamp
is
briefly as
follows
current through the lamp flows almost wholly
series
magnet-winding and the tendency of
separate the carbons
more and more
this cur-
but, as
the
carbons separate, a larger and larger current flows through the
shunt magnet-winding, which, by opposing the series winding,

sets
limit to the length of the arc.
Then
as the carbons waste
away the current in the shunt winding still further increases,

more and more nearly neutralizing the series winding and allowing the upper carbon to move slowly downwards until finally the
clutch which grips the carbon rod is released by a trigger and
the carbon
There
is
falls
and
is
lifted
again as at the
start,
and so
on.
a variety of series arc lamp mechanisms and the above
description applies to the arc

ential actuating
magnet.
lamp having what
is
called a differ-
330
137. Volt-ampere
electric arc,
whether
of
characteristics
it
the
electric
of carbon impregnated with metallic salts,
always has
this
The
arc*
be between rods of pure carbon, or rods

or rods of metal^
property that the greater the current the less the
voltage across the arc, except
when
the arc
is
Thus
some
very short.
the coordinates of the curves in Figs. 182 and 183 give
idea of the relation between the current that flows in an arc and
the voltage across the arc.
The
exact relation between current
and voltage depends upon the diameter of the carbon
6n
upon
rods,
upon the texture of the
the degree of purity of the carbon,
car-
1
50
^^
V
-- ^^0^^
^.
^5s^---.=
^\^__:^:=^^___
^"^^ ^^
^
V^"^
""
\^
__
..576-in.
^___
0276-in.
25
Fig. 182.
Amperes
Volt-ampere characteristics of an open direct-current arc between cored carbons one
half inch in diameter.
bon, upon the freedom of circulation of the surrounding
air,
and
upon the nature of the current (direct or alternating), but the reThe numbers
lations shown in Figs. 182 and 183 are typical.
attached to the various curves indicate the length of the arc in
inches.
When
is
the current flowing in an arc
to say the conducting
* For a discussion of the physics of the

International Electrical Congress, Vol.
W.
is
increased, the arc, that
column of heated vapor, increases
in sec-
electric arc, see C. P. Steinmetz,
II., pp.
710-730,
St.
Louis, 1904.
Trans.
Also see
R. Whitney, Trans. American Electrochemical Society, Vol. VII., pp. 291-299,
1905.

tional area,
and no doubt
this increase in sectional area
331
has to do
with the decreased voltage required to maintain the arc with increased current.
When
the current becomes very large the arc alters greatly in
emits a loud hissing noise, and constitutes what
character,
The
called a hissing arc.
is
transition from the steady arc to the
hissing arc does not take place at a sharply defined value of the
current
in fact the arc is
very unstable in the region of transi"
90
"
_o
4e-
At
So
W^
MX
êr\\K\
I5^v
A^^^^
70
^4^\^ ^^
^ ^^^s.
\-^\ ^^^^
<.
^
^
^^
^\^^.
^^^^
^ ^>^
S
"^ "^
*^
+""*?"* ~" *-?
"^s^
^v
'"''^
11;
"T~T~r~ ~
"^"^
^^-=^.L5^
~^-^-.^-^S-====-
^^
'
--
^V
"-v:
^^^
--
7---^rf^^^-\
^--v- ^
40
Hissi og Arc3.
.
::
--
V
16
Fig. 183.
20
Amperes
2i
32
Volt-ampere characteristics of an open direct -current arc between solid carbons one
half inch in diameter.
tion,
and when the change
to the hissing variety takes place, the
current has to be greatly reduced in value to change the arc
back to the steady type.
This instability of the arc
of transition from the steady arc to the hissing arc
in the region
is
Fig. 183 by the broken portions of the curves, and
be confused with the kind of

following paragraph.
indicated in
it
must not
instability that is discussed in the
332
The
from
of the
instability
arc
electric
An
constant-voltage mains.
when
the current
supplied
is
arc cannot be maintained be-
tween carbon rods connected to constant-voltage mains unless a

resistance
is
connected in series with the arc.
This
evident
is
from the volt-ampere characteristic of the arc as follows
If
one
could imagine an arc burning steadily between constant-voltage

mains, then a slight decrease of current would produce a contraction of the arc
and an increased voltage would be required
maintain the arc
but
this increased
to
voltage would not be forth-
coming hence the current would continue to decrease and the arc
would go out almost instantly. On the other hand, a slight increase of current
would produce an increase
of the arc, and the constant voltage would be

to maintain the arc,
in the sectional area
more than
sufficient
hence the current would continue to increase,
almost instantly to an excessively large value.
rising
changes are
These
much too rapid to be controlled by the lamp mechanism
which moves the carbon.

If a resistance is
connected
in series
with the arc, a decrease of
current causes a decrease of the voltage-drop,

sistance,
drop, so that,
Ri
will
resistance
if
the resistance
is
the re-
is
sufficiently large the
change of
current,
and the arc
must always be connected
in
will
be
series with
stable.
way
is
called a ballast.
When
an arc lamp
supplied with current from constant-voltage mains.
resistance used in this

is
in
overbalance the change of voltage across the arc due to
any assumed change of

which
Ri,
and an increase of current causes an increase of voltage-
an arc lamp
operated from constant-voltage alternating-current mains, an
inductance, consisting of a coil of wire

core,
may be and
generally
is
wound on a
laminated iron
used as a ballast instead of a
resistance.
When
arc lamps are connected in series and supplied with cur-
rent from a constant-current generator (or, in the case of alter-
nating current, from a constant- current transformer), no ballast
need be used.
The direct-current
arc.
The foregoing
paragraphs apply
in

way
general
There
arcs.
333
and alternating-ourrent
to both direct-current arcs
however, differences between direct-current and
are,
alternating-current arcs which are of considerable practical im-
In a direct-current arc the positive carbon becomes
portance.
slightly
shown
concave and the negative carbon becomes pointed, as
in Fig.
called the crater,
of light.
The
The concave end
84.
it is
excessively hot, and
it
emits very
much
of hot conducting vapor, the arc

result
is
it
point of the negative carbon
the crater so that
The
of the positive carbon
tributed as indicated
by
direct-current arc
the curved line in Fig. 184.

is
carbon so that the greater amount of light
wards where
used
it is
needed.
in search-lights
in Fig. 185.
and the column
emits a pale violet light.
by a
current arc lamps the upper carbon
The
amount
not nearly so hot as
less light,
itself,
that the light emitted
emits a great
is
is
is dis-
In direct-
generally the positive
may be thrown down-
direct-current arc
and projecting lanterns
is
lamp which
is
arranged as shown
334
The
away much
positive carbon wastes
carbon, usually about twice as
faster
This
fast.
than the negative
due largely to the
is
higher temperature of the positive
which
carbon
bumcd morc
Condensing
gen of the
causes
rapidly
air
by
and
the oxyis
it
due to something akin
partly
to electro-
lytic action in the arc, for

is
be
to
it
carbon
carried continuously across the
arc from the
positive
carbon to
the negative carbon.
The
direct-current arc,
when
it
Fig. 185.
operating
is
make very much
properly,
does not
although the pulsations of current due to
noise,
the passage of the successive segments of the commutator under
the
dynamo brushes always produce an
Tke alternating-current
arc.
audible tone.
In an alternating-current arc the
ends of the carbons are heated

nearly to
the
same
extent,
the
upper carbon being perhaps the

hotter of the two, on account of
the
upward
heated
sult
air
movement
and vapor.
that light
is
of
the
The
re-
emitted about
is
equally from the ends of both carbons, and the light

as indicated
in Fig.
On
of
distributed
by the curved
line
86.
account of the great amount
light that is
by an
to
The
thrown upwards
alternating-current
reflector
lamp
is
is
arc
jso
170
usually employed with an
throw the
light
light emitted
160
Fig. 186.
alternating-current
arc
downwards.
by an
lamp
is
not

perfectly continuous, but
it
pulsates with the rise and
fall
of the
Ordinarily these rapid pulsations of the light
alternating current.
are not perceptible unless one looks at a
illuminated
33
moving
object
which
is
by the lamp.
The two carbons
lamp waste away
of an alternating-current arc
at approximately the
same
rate
the upper carbon, however,
is
more rapidly than the lower carbon.

The alternating-current arc makes a loud humming noise on
always consumed a
little
account of the repeated heating and cooling and consequent expansion and contraction of the column of conducting vapor.
The
is
much more
unstable than the
direct-current arc, because the alternating current passes repeat-
edly through zero value and therefore the conducting column of
vapor cools slightly and the next pulse of current encounters at

first
an increased resistance.
ally
used
Cored carbons are therefore gener-
which have a central core of

with metallic
ductors.
to
lamps, that
in alternating-current arc
salts,
The
to say, carbons
is
carbon slightly impregnated
soft
the vapors of which are
good
electrical con-
metallic vapors from cored carbons tend, however,
form a coating on the bulb of enclosed arc lamps, and one
cored and one solid carbon are therefore generally used in enclosed alternating-current arc lamps.
The
instability of the alternating-current arc is
very great at low
frequencies on account of the longer time that the current
small before and after each reversal of current

feasible to operate alternating-current arc
much lower
An
in fact,
lamps
is
very
is
it
not
at frequencies
than about 60 cycles per second.
important result of the increase of the resistance of the
alternating-current arc after each passage of the current through
zero
is
that the
EI^ where
by an
is
power
in watts delivered to the arc is less
the electromotive force across the arc as measured
alternatingr-current voltmeter,
and /
is
ured by an alternating-current ammeter.

equal to pEI^ where /, which
the
than
power factor of the
arc.
is
less
The
the current as meas-
In
fact,
than unity,
value of
is
the
what
power
is
is
called
for the alternating-
336
current arc in open air
about 0.85 when the frequency
is
60
is
cycles per second.

Differences between direct-current
lamps.
The
arc and
of the direct-current
and alternating-cwrent arc
which depend upon the
differences
the
peculiarities
alternating-current
arc
are
described above.
In the alternating-current lamp the electromagnet that operates the lamp mechanism has a laminated core,
and an inductance or reactance coil is used instead of resistance
as a ballast
The
when the lamp
is
of the arc
is,
connected to constant- voltage mains.
lamp
alternating-current
is
inherently noisy.
The
noise
however, quite effectually smothered by the bulb of
The
the enclosed arc lamp.
rattling noises
due to the vibration
of the cores of the electromagnet and of the reactance coil
may
be greatly reduced by clamping the laminations firmly together,
and by suspending the electromagnet on supporting springs
to
prevent the transmission of its vibrations to the metal case.
The slow consumption
of the lower, or negative, carbon in the
direct-current enclosed-arc
lamp causes only a
slight
downward
displacement of the arc as the lamp continues to burn, the lower
carbon being fixed

rates of
in a rigid support.
consumption of the two carbons
The approximately equal

in
an alternating-current
enclosed-arc lamp, on the other hand, causes a very considerable
downward displacement
if
the lower carbon
lamp continues
held in a rigid support.
is
of the arc as the
to burn
Therefore the
lamp must have either a mechanism which
feeds both carbons, or a long enclosing bulb so that after the
lamp
is
freshly
of the arc
is
trimmed a considerable downward displacement
allowable.
138. Enclosed arc
lamps versus open arc lamps.
large item
of expense in the maintenance of old style arc lamps, in which the

arc burns in the open
(after
ing
air, is
the cost of the frequent trimming
about eight hours burning) necessitated by the rapid wast-
away of the
carbons.
This item of expense
is
greatly reduced
by the use of enclosed arc lamps which require trimming

about 150 hours burning.
after

The development
of the enclosed arc lamp was due, however,
an arc lamp which would operate
chiefly to the attempt to devise

efficiently across standard
this case
10- volt mains.
Efficient operation in
depends upon the use of a long arc with a small current
so that the greater part of the supply voltage

in the arc, the ballast
stable.
It is
least draft of
air,
because such an arc
cold air
but when the
nearly air-tight bulb this difficulty
enclosed arc
may be
the arc
is
blown out by the
is
arc
is
enclosed
in
Thus an 80-volt
avoided.
satisfactorily operated across
may be
lo-volt mains
figures are exemplified in
volt circuits
and
operated satisfactorily across 220-volt
a ballast which absorbs about 70 volts.
in series with
usually
be expended
make
with a ballast which absorbs about 30 volts, and a 150-
volt enclosed arc
mains
may
being barely large enough to
impossible however to operate a long low-current
arc in the open
in series
337
commercial enclosed arc lamps
These
for
for 220-volt circuits respectively, iio-volt
take from
usually take from
5J^
6^
to
10-
lamps
amperes and 220-volt lamps
2^ to 3 j^ amperes, according to the adjustment
of the spring which opposes the pull of the electromagnet that

operates the
lamp mechanism.
Another advantage of enclosing the arc of a lamp

noise of the arc
is
thereby muffled.
This
when alternating current is used.

The enclosed-arc lamp is now used
is
rating.
An
arc
new
in all
except those in which the luminous-arc lamp
Arc lamp
is
that the
especially important
is
installations,
employed.
lamp should be rated on the
of voltage, current, and watts.
In fact this
mode
basis
of rating
is
generally used with arc lamps of recent design, such as enclosedarc lamps and luminous-arc lamps, and the manufacturer generally specifies a certain
of light emitted.
Old
consumption of watts per spherical-candle

style
open carbon-arc lamps have however
long been rated in candle power.
which has 47 volts between

through
it
its
Thus
the open carbon-arc lamp
terminals with 9.6 amperes flowing
has an accepted nominal rating of 2,000 candle power,
although,as a matter of fact, its spherical-candle power is about 700.

22
33^
lamp
139. Arc
open arc lamp

from
is
and
globes, shades,
diffusers.
which are
likely to
blow the arc
hot enclosing bulb of an enclosed arc
from gusts of cold
Thus
old style
always provided with a globe to shield the arc
drafts of air
doors.
The
air
Fig. i8i
lamp
is
out,
and the
usually shielded
by an outer globe when it is used out of

shows an enclosed arc lamp with a clear
glass globe for protecting the enclosing bulb.
The
is
intense brilliancy of the electric arc produces a glare that
very unpleasant, even when an arc lamp
is
siderable height overhead out of doors.
an enclosed arc lamp
when an enclosed
arc
is
nearly always
lamp
is
suspended
at a
con-
Therefore the bulb of
made
of opal glass, and
used for inside lighting the enclos-
by an outer opal globe or shade

Thus Fig. 187 shows an
for still further reducing the glare.
enclosed arc lamp arranged for inside lighting with a shade
ing bulb
is
generally surrounded
underneath the enclosing bulb and a large corrugated diffuser

above.
Lamp
globes are used not only to protect the arc and to
eliminate glare, but also to throw the light in a desired direction.*

140. Series grouping of arc
Where
is,
where
several arc lamps are to be operated continuously, that
it is
not desired to turn individual lamps off and on, the
lamps may be
220
lamps across constant-voltage mains.
arranged
volts or more.
in series
Thus
it is
groups
common
if
the supply voltage
is
practice to operate en-
closed arc lamps in series groups of two, across 220-volt mains
groups of
In such cases
and
in series
it is
necessary, because of the constant-voltage supply, to insert
five,
across 550-volt mains.
ballast resistance in circuit to steady the
Art. 137.
circuit
lamps as explained
in
Failure of one. lamp to operate, however, breaks the
and puts the
such a result
is
to
entire
group of lamps out of
service,
and
if
be avoided each lamp must be provided with an
automatic cut-out arranged to establish a by-pass through an

* An exhaustive
paper entitled
liamson and
J.
*'
series of experimental studies of globes
and
reflectors is given in a
Photometric Comparison of Illuminating Globes," by R. B. Wil-
H. Klinck, Journal of the Franklin
Institute^ Vol. 149, p. 66, 1900.

equivalent resistance
when
the lamp
the lamp,
the
is
lamp
as
sometimes mounted
shown
in Fig.
i88.
in
This auto-
to operate.
fails
matic cut-out, together with the resistance which
it
339
substitutes for
a case entirely separated from
When
the circuit in the lamp
is
broken, for example by the failure of the carbons to feed, the cur
rent ceases to flow and the cut-out
magnet
releases
which establishes a by-pass through the substitute
When
cut-out
very
is
many lamps
its
armature
resistance.
are operated in series the automatic
a necessity, inasmuch as the very high voltage that
is
Fi^. 187.
used
in this case
would be
likely to force the current
shunt winding on
its
through an
the lamp
mechanism includes a
electro-magnet, and the lamp would be de-
inoperative lamp, especially
if
stroyed.
141. Constant-current series
many
systems of arc lighting.
arc lamps are to be operated continuously, as in the light-
ing of city streets,
it is
best to connect the lamps in series and
supply them with constant current.

plified
by numerous old
ing plants
series
Where
now
This arrangement
is
exem-
style direct-current open-arc street-light-
in operation,
and by the more recently
installed
systems using enclosed-arc lamps or luminous-arc lamps.
340
The tendency
is
to favor the use of alternating current for
operating street lamps for the reason that a constant current can
be delivered to the arc-lamp
circuit
through a special transformer
from the same generator that supplies a constant-voltage
distrib-
uting system, whereas the use of direct current requires a separate generator.
Fig. 189
is
a view of the General Electric
Com-
pany's constant-current transformer for taking a varying current
from constant-voltage supply mains and delivering a constant cur-
.i-.*fe.
.^cu*^.
^â
Fig. 188.
rent at varying voltage to a receiving circuit.
transformer
is
The
action of this
discussed in the second volume of this text.
general view of the improved * Brush direct-current gene-
rator for supplying constant current to arc
lamps
is
shown
in Fig.
190.
When many arc

*The
multi-circuit
437, September, 1899.
lamps are operated
in series
it
is
necessary
Brush genexaXox, American Electrician, Vol. XI., pp. 436-

to provide each
lamp with an automatic by-pass
341
cut-out, as ex-
plained in Art. 140, but no by-pass or ballast resistances are
Also when many lamps are operated
needed.
in series
by a con-
which operates the mechanism of

each lamp must have a shunt winding connected across the arc
stant current the electromagnet
as well as a series winding in circuit with the arc.

142.
Luminous-arc lamps.*
The
light
from the carbon-arc
lamp comes mostly from the intensely heated
Fig.
and the arc
itself
tips
of the carbons
189
emits only a pale violet light.
carbons strongly impregnated with metallic
salts,
The
use of
or the use of
rods of metal or of metal oxide instead of carbon, gives an arc
which
is
brilliantly
charged with metal vapor.
Such
arcs are as a rule
luminous, and an arc lamp employing such an arc
is
called a luminous-arc lamp.

* See paper by C. P.
II.,
pp.
731-767.
710-730,
St.
Steinraetz,
Louis, T904
Trans. International Electrical Congress^ Vol.
and also paper
by Andr6 Blondel,
ibid., pp.
342
An
is
objection to the luminous-arc
lamp
is
that a dense
smoke
produced by the condensation and oxidation of the metallic
vapors, so that the arc cannot be enclosed and the lamp cannot
be conveniently used indoors.
The
great advantage of the luminous-arc lamp
efficiency.
Such a lamp consumes from 0.8
to
its
is
1.2
high
watt per
spherical-candle of light flux, whereas an ordinary enclosed car-
bon-arc lamp consumes from 2.0 to 2.2 watts per spherical-candle.
U: J
rig. 190.
In the luminous-arc lamp of Bremer the arc
is
formed between
carbon rods which are highly impregnated, chiefly with
This lamp gives a
calcium.
made
brilliant
to approach a pure white
by using
salts
is
of
of other metals.
In the luminous-arc lamp of the General Electric

the arc
salts
yellow light which can be
Company
formed between a negative terminal (cathode) of iron
oxide and a positive terminal (anode) of metal, usually copper.
The
iron oxide
like the
is
is
contained in a thin sheet-iron tube and
carbon rod of the carbon-arc lamp.
a rod which
is
held in a rigid support.
is
fed
The copper anode

The carbon-filament glow lamp.
143.
cent
lamp
343
The ordinary incandes-
consists of a fine filament of carbon
mounted
in
highly exhausted glass bulb through the walls of which platinum

lead-wires are sealed for connecting the carbon filament to the
The
supply mains.
flow of current through the filament heats
to a high temperature
and
it
emits a steady soft light that
is
it
well
adapted to inside illumination.
The
present process of manufacture
cotton fiber
is
briefly as follows
is
dissolved with constant stirring in
Clean
an aqueous
solution of zinc chloride forming a thick syrup-like fluid which

freed from
lumps by
filtering
under reduced pressure.
to the boiling point
" squirted " through a small hole

is
result
in water,
This
fluid is
then
and the small gelatinous rod
received in alcohol which quickly hardens
thoroughly washed
is
and from bubbles by heating nearly
it
so that
wound on a drum and
can be
it
The
dried.
a fairly tough wire or thread of pure cellulose having
is
the appearance of celluloid.
This thread
cut into lengths,
is
bent on formers into the desired shape of the lamp filament,
packed
in charcoal,
and carbonized
ized filaments are then
in a furnace.
The carbon-
mounted on the platinum lead-wires and
heated electrically to a high temperature one at a time in the vapor
The hot
of a hydrocarbon such as gasolene.
decom-
filament
poses the hydrocarbon vapor and causes a deposit of graphitic
carbon on the filament, thus increasing the

slightly
and lowering
This process
is
its
called "flashing."
placed in the glass bulb which
The
size of the filament
resistance to the exact value desired.
is
The
finished filament
is
then
exhausted and sealed.*
resistance of the carbon filament of a
glow lamp
is
about
when it is at its working temperature as it is at

20 C, the exact amount of variation depending upon the amount
half as great
*See an
article
on incandescent-lamp manufacture, by Manning K. Eyre, The
Electrical World, January 5, 1895.
modified process of manufacture has recently been developed by the General
Electric
Company.
at the Ashville
to
See a paper by
Convention of the
J.
Am.
W. Howell,
'*
A New
Carbon Filament," read
Inst, of Electrical Engineers, June, 1905,
be published in volume 24 of the Transactions.
and
344
of graphitic carbon that
is
deposited upon the filament
Near the working temperature the
flashing process.
by
the
resistance
of the filament does not vary greatly with temperature and the
such as
variation,
it is,
may
be an increase or a decrease of
resis-
amount of carbon
tance with rise of temperature according to the
deposited on the filament by the flashing process.

144. Relation
The
glow lamps.
by the manufacturers
specified
is
between voltage, candle-power,
carbon-filament
of
is
and
efficiency
voltage
of
life
lamp
the electromotive force which
as
it
intended should be applied to the terminals of the lamp in
The
service.
on the lamp of increasing or decreasing
effect
electromotive force
Candle-power.
is
considered
Owing
to the difficulty * of measuring the true
spherical-candle-power of a lamp
lamps on
mean
their
candle-power which
the lamp
is
is
indicated
is
customary to
rate
is,
glow
on the
by the Bunsen photometer when
rotated about a vertical axis at a speed of three or
Thus the curve
sents the distribution of light
horizontal candle-power
cal-candle-power
lamp
it
horizontal candle-power, that
four revolutions per second.
mean
this
in this article.
is
3.33.
in Fig.
175 repre-
around a glow lamp of which the

is
The
6 and of which the true spheri-
spherical-candle-power of a glow
usually from 80 to 85 per cent, of the mean-horizontal
is
candle-power.
fied
The
an electric lamp is usually

by giving the watts consumed per candle-power, f
Efficiency.
efficiency of
usual efficiency ratings of carbon-filament
from
3.
to 3.5 watts per
mean
speci-
The
glow lamps range
horizontal candle.
High-efficiency
lamps (low watts per candle) should be used where the cost of
power
power
*It
is
is
is
high, and low-efficiency lamps should be used where
cheap.
not difficult to measure true spherical-candle-power with a Matthews inte-
grating photometer
this
all
manufacturers and
all large users
of glow lamps should use
photometer and base the ratings of their lamps on spherical-candle-power.
f See discussion of lamp efficiency and the thermodynamics of radiation in Art.

135.
The carbon
Life.
vice,
filament of a
on account of what
smaller
its
due
is
falling off of
the fact that as the filament grows
reduced, and
is
The
efficiency decrease.
in part to
power delivered
resistance increases, the
standard voltage
deteriorates in ser-
seems to be a vaporization of the carbon,
and the candle-power and

candle-power
glow lamp
345
to
at the
it
the working temperature
is
lowered so that the light tends to become red instead of a yellowish-white, and it
by the condensation
ciency
due
in part to the
of the carbon vapor.
blackening of the bulb
The
falling off in effi-
due partly to the reduced working temperature of the
is
filament
is
and partly
by the blackened
to the absorption of light
bulb.
glow lamp frequently becomes very dim and
the filament actually breaks, and
a lamp and replace
it
it is
usually advisable to discard
by a new one when the candle-power has
The
fallen to a certain fraction of its initial value.
glow lamp
is
usually reckoned as the
service that the
80 per
lamp
Inefficient before
number
will stand before its
useful
life
of a
of hours of actual
candle-power drops to
cent, of its initial value.
The changes
of candle-power and efficiency of a glow lamp
with the change of voltage between
its
some
terminals depend to
amount of carbon
amount of carbon in the
extent upon the nature of the filament (ratio of

deposited
by the
flashing process to the
filament before flashing)
and the change of
life
with the change
of voltage depends upon the size of the filament (low candle-
power with given
voltage,
and high voltage with given candle-
power, watts per candle being constant, mean a
However, the following table may be used
to estimate the ap-
proximate variation of candle-power,
efficiency,
ordinary carbon-filament glow lamp.
This table
i6-candle-power,
candle,
life
100- to
fine filament).
and
is
of any
life
based on the
125-volt lamp taking 3.1
watts per
and giving 14.7 average candle-power during
its
useful
of 510 hours.
It is to
lamp
is
be noted that the basing of
this table
largely a matter of convenience.
on the
3.1
watt
In fact the table gives
346
the details of behavior of lamps ranging from 4.39 watts per candle
to 2.28 watts per candle.
Variation of Candle-power, Efficiency and Life,* and

Costs.
<*-
u-
s.
21.
C
S
fc
tn
56
60
90
93
72
76
80
85
95
96
97
98
99
ICX)
lOI
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
B of
Ce
830
650
540
430
330
270
225
for
Candle-
in
3.01
81
30.1
III
117
123
390
68
29.0
2.81
57
47
38
32
27
23
20
28.1
4-
""^l
Z3-^
32.0
31.0
watt-per-candle lamp
is
above table
is
30
first
cost of the
Column
in the
the cost per hour of the power for 1,000 candles
life
in
the total cost per hour of i ,000 candles.
power
is
In calculating these costs
reckoned at 10 cents per kilowatt-hour, the
cost of a 16 candle-power
lamp
is
taken as 20 cents, the
General Electric Company, Harrison, N.
mean
by 1,000 and divided by

hours and column C gives
cost multiplied
the product of candle-power and
*From
33-
32.6
32.4
32.5
32.8
33-4
33-9
34.8
35.7
37.2
by a glow lamp includes
of the lamp in hours.
column .Ogives the lamp
in this table are
34.0
33-4
510 hours.
the cost per hour of the electrical power, and the

life
39.1
37-7
36.7
35.7
34.8
5.22
6.45
7.66
9.07
10.64
12.25
14.42
27.3
26.4
35.7
24.8
24.2
23-5
22.8
17
40.6
1.09
1.36
1.66
2.02
2.45
3-03
3.61
2.28
43.1
42.3
.91
3.31
2.73
2.64
2.57
2.48
2.42
44.2
.74
3.20
3- 10
Candle-
in
.45
.57
95
100
105
of
Ce
in
.30
.38
90
nts
I,
Candle-
180
147
120
100
lamp divided by the
Ce
Cost
43-9
42.7
41.9
40.0
38.4
36.8
35-6
34.3
cost per hour of the light supplied
electrical
I,
,000
Total
for
hour
Cost
nts.
,000
Cost
3-56
3.43
Life of 3.
The
Lamp
nts.
1,
^li
3.68
130
136
143
149
156
164
no
10
hour
000
A. of
4.39
4.27
4.19
4.00
P
67
94
T3
ft
^1
91
92
.
hours
Pow
horizontal candle-powers.
J.,
March, 1905.
life
at
Candle-powers

per candle
3.1 watts
is
347
taken as 510 hours, and the falHng off of
the candle-power of a lamp with age

conditions the total cost of the light
of about 2.8 watts per candle with a
is
minimum
life
Under these
ignored.
is
an
for
efficiency
The
of 290 hours.
costs
given in the above table take no account, however, of the trouble
by new
involved in the replacing of old lamps
ones, which
is
sometimes very considerable, and therefore the most satisfactory

efficiency
is
somewhat more than
2.8 watts per candle.
The remarkable property of the carbon-filament glow lamp, as

shown in the above table, is that great changes of candle-power,
efficiency, and life are produced by a slight change of voltage.
Thus a one per cent, increase of voltage steadily maintained causes
a five per cent, increase of candle-power, about three per cent,
decrease in the watts per candle, and about twenty per cent,
shortening of
filament
life.
glow lamp
to avoid great
It is this great sensitiveness of the
to changes of voltage that
changes of voltage
makes
in the operation of
it
carbon-
necessary
such lamps.
In the purchase of glow lamps the purchaser should specify

voltage, candle-power, and efficiency,
style
In meeting these specifications the manufacturer must
of base.
of course be allowed
large
and of course also the
some lee-way
numbers of lamps exactly
alike.
for
it is
It is
impossible to
make
the usual practice for
the manufacturer to submit to a purchaser a package of 200 lamps

rated at the desired voltage, candle-power and efficiency.
purchaser
may
then select at random from this package ten lamps
to be tested at the rated voltage.
If the tests
of the ten lamps gives a candle-power

the rated candle-power, or
lamps
is
The
if
7. 5
show
any one
that
per cent, above or below
the average candle-power of the ten
more than 2.5 per cent, above or below the rated candleif any one of the ten lamps consumes more than 5.5
power, or
per cent, above or below the rated watts, or
sumption of the ten lamps
is
more than
if
the average con-
2.5 per cent, above or
below the rated watts, the whole package of 200 lamps
The
rejected
by the purchaser.
lamps
a lot deviate from rated candle-power and watts
in
may
be
extent to which the individual

is
shown
ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERLNG.
348
by
Fig. 191 in
which the coordinates of the dots represent the
candle-power and watts of the individual lamps.

Metal-filament glow lamps.*
145.
In the
first
make
attempt to
a commercial glow lamp fine platinum wire was used for the
lamp filament but
it
was soon found that the filament was very
short-lived at the temperature necessary to give a fairly high
The next
efficiency.
was
step
-< '
-,H^--
54
.-iy-
--
55
_-
JJ^
H
5"
H h
on
I SU
-_aB.^..^B-^h--
and from
to use a carbon filament
BII
Watts.
-(^
II-
57
II
59
Fig. 191.
about
88 1 to 1900 the carbon-filament lamp was the only
rival
of the arc lamp.

It
has been long known, however, that
many
metals have
higher melting points than platinum, some of them very

higher
but the most refractory metals are extremely
much
brittle at
ordinary temperatures and the difficulty of forming these metals

into fine wires prevented their being
Now, however,
even
lamp
tried as
filaments.
processes have been developed for the formation
* For a description of the osmium-filament glow lamp see
Fritz Blau, Electro-
technische Zeitschrift, Vol. 26, pp. 196-199, February 23, 1905.
For a description
of the tantalum-filament glow lamp see von Bolton and Feuerlein, Electrotechni$c7ie
Zeitschrifty Vol. 26, pp. 105-108,
January 26, 1905.
349
of fine compact filaments of the most refractory and brittle metals,

and there are now on the market tantalum-filament glow lamps
and osmium-filament glow lamps. These lamps are characterized
by the very long and very fine filaments required even for voltages as low as 37 volts, they are not so sensitive to changes of
voltage as the carbon-filament glow lamp on account of the fairly
rapid increase of resistance of the metal filaments with rise of
temperature, and they can be operated satisfactorily at a higher

efficiency
The osmium
than the carbon-filament glow lamp.
lamp, for example, can be operated at 1.6 watts per sphericalcandle with a useful
life
of 1,500 hours or more, and the tanta-
lum lamp can be operated at 1.6 watts per spherical -candle with
a useful
life
By
600 hours.
of 500 or
useful
life
is
time of continuous operation before the candle-power
80 per
146.
meant the
below
falls
cent, of its initial value,
The Nernst lamp.*
the Nernst lamp
The luminous element or glower of
a small rod of porcelain-like material com-
is
posed of a mixture of the oxides of the metals of the yttrium

This rod
group.
ordinary temperatures
good conductor
at a
good an
as
is
insulator as glass or porcelain at
like glass or porcelain
low red heat
rapidly as the temperature
rises.
and
its
becomes a
it
fairly
resistance decreases very
Therefore the glower must be
heated to a low red heat by external means before current starts

to flow
through
series with the
nitely
glower
when once
is
" heater,"
ilar to
and a
it,
ballast resistance
it
which
is
The
starts to flow.
accomplished by a
fine coil
initial
in
indefi-
heating of the
of platinum wire, called the
covered with a protecting paste somewhat sim-
ordinary whitewash, and
through the glower

heater circuit.
must be connected
glower to prevent the current from rising
it
The
when
the current starts to flow
actuates an electromagnet which breaks the

ballast
is
made
of
very
fine
*A
iron
wire
full discussion of the Nernst lamp is given by A. J. Wurts, Transadiofts of

American Institute of Electrical Engineers^ Vol. XVIII. pp. 545-587, 1901.
The process of manufacture of the Nernst lamp is described in The Electrical
World and Engineer^ Vol. XLIII., pp. 981-985, May 21, 1904.
the
350
mounted
in a small glass
bulb which
is
with inert gas to
filled
protect the iron from oxidation.
The Nernst lamp

is
gives a beautiful white light and
its
efficiency
claimed to be greater than that of the carbon-filament glow
lamp.
147.
sists
The mercury- vapor lamp.*
The mercury-vapor lamp con-
of a highly exhausted glass tube into the ends of which are
One
sealed two platinum lead-wires.
of these wires carries a
large electrode (the anode) of iron or graphite, and the other
makes contact with a pool of mercury
Either a
(the cathode).
very high electromotive force or a special starting device

quired to start a current flowing through the tube, but
started a current of several amperes,
is
is
re-
when once
maintained by an electro-
motive force of from 30 volts to 100 volts and the mercury vapor
throughout the tube becomes
brilliantly luminous.
cury-vapor lamp of Cooper-Hewitt

tube, thus causing the
to end,
is
started
by
tilting
The merthe glass
mercury to extend momentarily from end
and the current which
starts to flow
through the
fluid
mercury continues to flow through the mercury vapor when the

thread of mercury breaks.
It is
necessary to use a ballast re-
sistance in series with the lamp.
The mercury-vapor lamp
gives a light which
longer wave-lengths (red) and

tion of color values.
It is,
it
deficient in the
produces an unpleasant distor-
however, the best source of
illumination for photographic purposes and

for lighting machine-shops,
is
it is
artificial
used extensively
ware-houses and drafting rooms.
*See von Recklinghausen, Transactions A.
I.
E. E., Vol. XXII., pp. 71-90
C. P. Steinmetz, Transactions International Electrical Congress, Vol. II., pp. 710730, St.
Louis,
1904
Society^ Vol. VII., pp.
E.
Weintraub,
273-289, 1905.
Transactions American Electrochemical
APPENDIX
MAGNETISM OF
ELECTROMAGNETS.
is
used for the
The
electro-
magnet of a dynamo, con-
field
of a rod of iron surrounded
through which an
the
IRON.
Bunched windings and distributed windings.
1.
magnet, such as
sists
A.
by a winding of insulated
electric current flows.
The
iron rod
is
wire,
called
of the electromagnet, and the electric current which flows
co7'e
through the winding of wire
is
called the exciting current.
The
exciting current tends to produce a magnetic field in the region
occupied by the iron core, and the effect of this magnetizing fields
as
called,
it is
is
to magnetize the core
of magnetic flux to flow through
The
and cause a
certain
amount
it.
iron rod or core usually forms a complete or nearly
plete circuit, called a magnetic circuity
com-
through which the mag-
netic flux flows.
Two
distinct cases
occur in the arrangement of the windings
of wire upon the iron core as follows

[a)
Uniformly distributed
winding. The winding
of wire
may
be distributed uniformly along the entire length of the iron rod

or core.
In this case the
magnetic
tends to produce in the region occupied

sibly the
allel to
field
same value
iron rod
iron core has sen-
and
The magnetizing
is
sensibly par-
action of such a
depends simply upon the intensity of the
Electromagnets having uniformly distributed windings are
seldom used
in practice
except
in
the magnetic testing of iron, for
which purpose the iron to be tested

ring,*
by the
at every point in the rod
the rod at each point.
upon an
field.
which the winding
field
which
* This applies
is
wound uniformly
to the ballistic
In Ewing's method the
test
is
usually
made
into a test
with wire.
method of
piece of iron
is
testing iron,
in the
which
is
due
to
form of a long slim rod.
Rowland.
352
Bunched zvinding.
The winding of wire may be bunched
In this case the magone or more places along the iron core.
(J?)
at
which the winding tends
netic field
to
produce
in the region
occu-
pied by the iron core varies greatly in intensity from point to point
in
the core, and the direction of this field
The magnetizing
at each point.
iron rod
is
discussed in the next
is
not parallel to the rod
action of such a field
upon an
article.
Electromagnets usually have bunched windings.

2.
The magnetizing
magnetomotive
of
action of a bunched winding.
force.
The magnetizing
rod of a non-uniform magnetic
field,
upon an
iron
such as the magnetic
field
action
produced by a bunched winding, depends upon

along
the average value,
component of the magnetizing field parallel

The product of this average value, into the length of
the rod, of the
to the rod.
rod
the
Definition
is
That
called the magnetomotive force along the rod.
if=lA
in
which
cF is the
units, / is the
is
(i)
magnetomotive force along a rod
length of the rod in centimeters, and
is
in c. g.
s.
the aver-
age value along the rod, of the component of the magnetizing

field parallel to
the rod.
The rod may be
rod passing through a magnetic
line or
path through the
field,
Proposition.
magnetic field
is
The
equal
field
determines a certain
and we speak of the magnetomotive
force along this path, whether the rod

3.
straight or curved.
is
there or not.
magnetomotive force along a path in a
to the
work done by the magnetic field up07i

is made to travel along the path,
a unit magnet pole while the pole

or
the magnetomotive force along the path
is
equal to
Wlm
work done by the field upon a pole of strength

m, while the pole is made to travel along the path. That is
where
is
the
if=in
which
<îs the
magnetomotive force along a path
(2)
in
a magnetic
MAGNETISM OF
ELECTROMAGNETS.
and
field,
work done by the
the
is
field
IRON.
353
upon a pole of strength
as the pole travels along the path.

Proof.
The product
of the component
with which the
work done on
mA
the average value along the path
is
parallel to the path of the force
on the
field acts
by the
the pole
That
end of the path to the other.
Therefore
pole.
field as
is
(= mB{^
ImA is the
of
the pole travels from one
W^lmA
Dividing both members of this equation by
ing that lA
= cf
according to equation
(i),
;;/,
and remember-
we have
equation
(2).
The following discussion of magnetomotive force is based upon the method of calcuThe usual definition of magnetomotive force along a path is that it is the wo7-k
lus.
per unit pole done by the magnetic

upon a magnet pole which
field
carried along
is
From this definition of magnetoit may be shown that the mag-
the path.
motive force
netomotive force along a path
is
equal to the
of the magnetic field along the

Consider an element A/ of
path, as follows
line integral
a path pp^. Fig.

intensity of the
and
the
magnetic
is
cK and
component of <9if parallel
moved along
A/.
component of
mcfCcos e,
to
A/
A/.
The
upon
force with
mcK, and
mcK cos eÂl
pole as the pole moves along
f.
be
which the
this pole is
force parallel to
this
so that
sThen
<^cos
is
pole of strength
test
field acts
element
field at this
the angle between
Let a magnet
the
Let cK represent the
i.
magnetic
is
That
A/.
Fig. I.
A/
the
is
work A IV done by the
field
on the
A JV= mcfCcos e A/
and the
total
path from
work done by
to
p^
is
the field on the pole while the pole
W= mlelV cos
is
moved along
the
A/
IV
-=:^=:2<9ircose. A/
The sum ScVcos e A/ is called the line integral of the magnetic field along the
The quotient 2<9if cos e A/ -j- / is the average value along the path of
path pp^.
the
component of dV
23
parallel to the path, / being the length of the path.
354
4.
Magnetomotive force
of
coil.
The most important case of
magnetization of an iron rod or core by a bunched winding of

wire
is
the case in which the core
is
in the
which passes through, or Hnks with, the
The magnetomotive
form of an endless rod
shown
coil as
force along the rod
in Fig. 2.
in this case is entirely
ROD
IRON
COIL
|?2^
*<l
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
independent of the
shape and
size
shape and length of the rod and of the
of the
coil.
turns of wire in the coil
// depends only
and upon
upon the number of
the strength of the current in the
wire.
This magnetomotive force along an endless rod which links

with a coil of wire in which an electric current
the magnetomotive force of the
Examples.
ZZ.
The
coils
Fig. 3
field
is
flowing,
is
called
coil.
shows a two-pole dynamo with two
magnet
iron
of this
dynamo
field
together
with the iron of the armature constitute a nearly endless rod or

core of iron which links with both field
tutes
what
Fig.
ZZZZ.
is
is
called the magnetic circuit
a sketch of a four-pole
The
iron
of the field
in this case four distinct
dotted lines.
forced
coils
links.
dynamo with
four field coils
circuits, as indicated
by
the
of these magnetic circuits flux
by the combined magnetomotive
through which the
consti-
magnet and armature presents
magnetic
Through each
and which
of the dynamo.
coils,
force of the
circuit passes, that
is,
two
is
field
with which
it
MAGNETISM OF IRON.
ELECTROMAGNETS.
The
total
magnetomotive force acting on any magnetic
equal to the
is
355
sum
circuit
of the magnetomotive forces of the coils
with which the circuit links.
32-39, Chap.
It is instructive to inspect Figs.
II.,
and note
the manner in which the field coils link with the various
netic circuits.
Thus
mag-
in Fig. 33 each of the four magnetic circuits
Fig. 4.
links with
two
field coils,
and
if,
for
example, 5,000 ampere-turns
are required for each magnetic circuit, then 2,500 ampere-turns
must be furnished by each

spection of Fig. 38 shows
links with but
one
field
On
field coil.
the other hand an in-
that each of the six magnetic circuits
coil,
and
if
5,000 ampere-turns are re-
quired for each magnetic circuit, then 5,000 ampere-turns must
be furnished by each
5.
Proposition.
the equation
field coil.
The magnetomotive force of a
coil is
given by
^= AprZi
which
in
*For proof
II.,
p 122.
is
the
number of turns of
(3^)*
v/ire in
the coil and
/ is
the
of this equation see Nichols and Franklin's Elements of Physics yYo\.
35^
When
strength of the current in the wire in abamperes.

current
is
expressed
amperes we have
in
^=^Z/.
lO
6.
the
Units of magnetomotive force.
(3^)
^
^
The product,
of path in centimeters and intensity of magnetic
of the length
/cT,
gausses,
field in
gives the magnetomotive force along the path (when / and d{ are
parallel, of course) in c.g.s.
The name
units.
gilbe^'t
has been
adopted by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers for

the c.g.s. unit of magnetomotive force.
Ihe ampere-turn.
which
is
links with
called
The
one turn of wire carrying one ampere of current
The magnetomotive
one ampere-turn.
in ampere-turns,
magnetomotive force along a path
is
the coil in amperes multiplied

the
by
number
the
In magnetic calculations
coil.
force of
it
is
which
is
of turns of wire in
netomotive
of
47r/io,
(3^).
length of path gives mag-
field intensity into
force, so that the quotient obtained
netomotive force by length of path
magnetomotive force expressed

length of path
c.g.s. units (gil-
done by multiplying ampere-turns by
The product
we have
in
a magnetic
is field
by
dividing
intensity.
ampere turns
is
field intensity
mag-
When
divided
7.
may
Magnetizing force in
is
the
iron.
When an
iron rod
is
placed in
magnetized thereby, the actual magnetic
along the rod depends upon the cause of the original
and also upon the newly created magnetic poles of the rod
Thus when an
an
by
be.
a magnetic field and

field
expressed in
ampere-turns-per-centimeter^ or in ampere-turns-per-inch, as
case
coil,
usually convenient to
reduce ampere-turns of magnetomotive force to

berts),
any
equal to the product of the current flowing in
iron rod
is
itself.
placed in a coil of wire through which
electric current is flowing, the field
combined action of the
field
coil
along the rod
and the poles of the
rod.
is
due to the
MAGNETISM OF IRON.
ELECTROMAGNETS.
The magnetizing
force
c?f
at a given point in
an iron rod
ated magnetic poles of the rod.
sumed
field,
but also to the newly cre-
The
given point must be as-
to be in air as explained later.
This influence of the poles of a magnetized rod
is
always such
as to reduce the intensity of the original field along the rod,

it is
and
of the nature of a reaction of the magnetized rod upon the
original
field.
When
long
de-
is
due not only to
fined as the resultant field intensity at the point
the external cause of the original
357
its
the iron rod
is
slim
its
poles are weak, and
if
the rod
is
poles are at considerable distances from the middle por-
In this case the poles of the rod do not pro-
tions of the rod.
duce any appreciable weakening of the original
along the
field
middle portions of the rod.
When the
iron rod
is
in the
form of a ring which
is
magnetized
by a winding of wire distributed around the ring, then the rod

has no poles and consequently no demagnetizing action on
That is to say, the magnetic field produced by the winditself
ing of wire
rod.
Example.
is
this case
in
An
iron rod
wholly
effective in
20 centimeters long
magnetizing the
is
netic field which, but for the presence of the rod,
form magnetic
would be a
uni-
60
units intensity, the rod being parallel to
field.
Let us suppose that the rod becomes
of
field
the direction of this
placed in a mag-
magnetized to such a degree that the strengths of the poles at

the ends of the rod are -f 2,700 units and
2,700 units re-
In this case a point near the middle of the rod
spectively.
is
ap-
proximately 10 centimeters distant from each of the poles, and

the actual
as
field, oKy
made up
near the middle of the rod
may
be thought of
of three parts, namely, {a) the original
field
of
60
N pole of the rod,

units intensity which
of 2,700/10^ units intensity due to the N pole of the
the
of
the
rod and directed away from the N pole, and
is
{U)
directed towards the
field
(c)
2,700/10^ units intensity
towards the
vS*
pole.
due
to the
field
5 pole of the rod and directed
Therefore the net result
is
field
of which
358
the intensity near the middle of the rod
is
60-27-27
units,
or
units.
clear idea of the significance of magnetizing force at a point
in iron, as
Figs,
wire.
5,
may
above defined,
be obtained as follows
6 and 7 show an iron rod inside of a long
The magnetizing
field at
the point /, Fig.
5, is
coil of
defined as
Coil
ôr
x'^
Iron rod
Coil
Fig. 5.
the resultant
field
which would be produced
at
N and
field
which would be produced
sented by the arrow c^T', the

by the poles
and 5 alone,
the magnetizing field at
The fundamental
is
at
the resultant of
pole placed at the point, has no
in air.
But
by the dotted
if
a cavity
circle in
is
c^".
magnetic
field
would act upon a
unit
meaning unless
to place the test pole at the point, that
be
and
cH'^
definition of the intensity of a
at a point as the force in dynes which

test
/ by the combined
of the rod.
The
by
the
coil
alone
is
repre/
field which would be produced at /
is represented by the arrow cH''\ and
action of the coil and of the poles
it is
possible
must
shown
to say, the point
is
made around
the point
as
Fig. 6, the walls of this cavity will be
Coil
"%>'
Iron rod
CoU
Fig. 6.
magnet poles as indicated by the
letters
n, s,
tensity in this cavity will not
be that which
combined action of the
and poles
coil
is
N and
and the
field in-
due merely
5.
If,
to the
however,
MAGNETISM OF
ELECTROMAGNETS.
the cavity around
is
IRON.
very long and narrow as shown in Fig.
then the poles n and s at the ends of this cavity are

far
7,
weak and
so that these poles n and s do not produce at
away from /,
any perceptible
359
field,
and therefore the
field intensity in
the nar-
Coil
CoU
Fig. 7.
row
and
longitudinal cavity
c^''
of Fig.
That
5.
tudinal * cavity
shown
is
in Fig. 7 is the resultant of c^T
the field intensity in a narrow longi-
is,
the actual value of the magnetizing field in
iron.
8.
Intensity of magnetization.
Let m
be the strength of the
magnetic pole at the end of a magnetized iron rod of which the

sectional area
is
s square centimeters.
unit sectional area,

ization^ ^, of
namely m/s,
the rod.
That
is
is
The
pole strength per
called the intensity of magnet-
5=^s
9.
Magnetic flux through a magnetized rod.
(4)
Consider a long
slim iron rod, s square centimeters in sectional area, placed in
and
parallel to a
magnetic
field,
which, but for the presence of
the rod, would be a uniform magnetic field of intensity
3{.
Then
the actual intensity of the magnetizing force along the middle portions of the rod
in the
which
is
<?r,
as explained in Art. 7.
neighborhood of each end of the rod

is
The magnetic
field
a composite
field
is
the resultant of two distinct parts, a and b
netic flux
and the mag-
which comes up to one end of the rod, flows through
the rod, and passes out from the other end of the rod, consists of
two
field
distinct parts
corresponding to the two parts, a and
near the ends of the rod.
* Parallel
to the direction of magnetization of the iron.
b^
of the
36o
(â)
The
part a
is
force of this field are
The amount
The
the original uniform field ^.
shown by the
lines of
parallel straight lines in Fig. 8.
of magnetic flux which passes out from the end of
the rod because of this uniform field c^
is
al'{s
lines.
Fig. 8.
(d)
The
The part d
is
the magnetic field due to the pole
lines of force of this field are
lines in Fig. 8.
The amount
shown by the
of magnetic flux which passes out
from the end of the rod because of

in Art. 7,
explained
The
the
total
sum
Chapter
magnetic flux
m of the rod.
radiating straight
this field is
47rm
lines, as
I.
passing through the rod
of the two parts, a and
d,
so that
is
equal to
we have
(5)
or, since
m=
efs
from equation
(4),
we have
^ = 47rifs + d^s
The
part
47r;
(6)
or 47rcls of the flux through an iron rod
due to the magnetized condition of the rod, and the part
cH^s
due to the magnetizing force
is
amount of
the rod
if
flux
directly.
This part,
cJ^s,
is
is
the
which would pass through the region occupied by
the rod were removed.
MAGNETISM OF IRON.
ELECTROMAGNETS.
10.
tional
The magnetic flux per unit secFlux density in iron.*

area of an iron rod, namely '^/s, is called the^fiux density
in the rod.
That
Substituting
eBs
is
for
in equation (6)
B==47z3
The
flux density in an iron rod
magnetic
dent
36
field in
when we
Chap.
I,
and
3{
(8)
equal to the intensity of the
a thin crevasse cut across the rod.
consider
This
is
evi-
in the first place that flux density in air is
as field intensity according to Art. 6,
same thing
identically the
is
we have
second place that a very thin crevasse does not
in the
sensibly disarrange the flux through a rod, so that the flux density
in the crevasse is
the same as in the rod.
If the crevasse
is
not
very narrow, a portion of the flux passes out of the rod, around the
crevasse,
sity,
and back
of the rod which
in the part
11.
is
which
field in
electromagnet,
its
when
The magnetism thus
less
is
magnetism when
it
it
left in
field
ring of annealed
case of an
reduced to zero.
circuit, retains
a greater
bar the poles produce a strong
wrought
iron
may
long slim bar or a closed
retain as
much
as
magnetism, but a very weak demagnetizing
of
is
long slim bar, or a bar which
along the bar.
a slight mechanical shock

all
or, in
is
magnetism than a short thick bar, because of the
demagnetizing
nearly
iron rod
a bar of iron, or in an electromagnet,
fact that in case of a short thick
cent, of its
An
removed from the
has been magnetized,
called residual magnetism.
its
is
the magnetizing current
forms a closed or nearly closed magnetic

portion of
than the flux density
remote from the crevasse.
Permanent magnets.
Residual magnetism.
retains a portion of
magnetic
In this case the flux den-
into the rod again.
or field intensity in the crevasse,
its
is
90 per
field
or
sufficient to cause soft iron to lose
residual magnetism.
Cast iron and hard-drawn
* Frequently called magnetic induction or simply induction.
362
iron wire retain a smaller portion of their magnetism, but with
greater persistence, and hardened steel retains a portion of
magnetism very
even when roughly handled.
persistently,
its
Mag-
netized bars of hardened steel are called permaneît magnets.
The more
sample of iron or
persistently a
steel retains its resid-
ual magnetism, the greater the intensity of the magnetizing force
required to magnetize
Thus hardened
it.
bars of steel are
mag-
by placing them between the poles of a strong electromagnet or by placing them in a coil of wire through which a
netized
strong electric current
On
is
caused to flow.
account of the tendency of iron to retain
quantity
tizing field
<?ir,
tor addition.
netism
and the addition of
and
^ttc)
However, the tendency of iron to
magne-
strictly
a vec-
retain its
mag-
is
usually neglected in practical magnetic calculations
is
To
relating to electromagnets.
retain its
magnetism, the
its
in equation (6) is not in general parallel to the
magnetism,
is
neglect the tendency of iron to
equivalent to assuming that
<^,
3 and
Bi
are always parallel to each other.
The one
netism
is
case in which the tendency of iron to retain
the calculation of energy losses in the iron.
is
discussed in the articles on magnetic hysteresis.
Magnetization curves.
by a magnetizing
When an
iron rod
is
acted upon
force of given intensity, the intensity of
have any value whatever, between certain

the tendency of the iron to retain
its
intensity of magnetization of
for a given value of
d{,
if
this
previous magnetic
an iron rod
\{
mag-
may
on account of
limits,
given value of zK
decrease from a higher value, than
is
This calculation
netization of the rod (and also the flux density in the rod)
Thus the
mag-
considered in practical calculations of electromagnets
in
12.
its
much
is
is
state.
greater
reached by a
this given value of 3{
is
reached by an increase from a lower value.

If,
if
however, an iron rod
the magnetizing field
is
subjected to mechanical shocks, or
pulsates slightly before
it
settles to
steady value, then the rod tends to settle to a state which depends
only on the value of
cîf,
that
is,
to a state
which
is
independent
MAGNETISM OF
ELECTROMAGNETS.
given value of
values of cB and
363
Under these condiby a
of the previous magnetic state of the rod.

tions, therefore, definite
IRON.
are produced
These values are called the normal values
3{.
3 corresponding to the given value of c^. For examdynamo having a given exciting current in its field coils,
of cb and
ple,
tends to settle to a state in which the magnetization of
magnet
is
field
its
its field
the normal value corresponding to the given value of
on account of the mechanical vibrations of the
current,
machine and on account of slight variations of magnetizing

action due to slight changes of field current
current.
The normal 3 and 3{ curve. \

scissas represent values of
The
curve of which the ab-
magnetizing force 3{ and the ordinates
represent the corresponding normal values of
of iron or steel
steel.
Fig. 9
is
and of armature
for a given kind
normal 3 and oK curve of the iron or
called the
shows the normal d and d{ curves
nealed wrought iron and for ordinary cast iron.
for ordinary an-
The
intensity
approaches a definite limiting value
of magnetization,
3,
given kind of iron
when
oK
ing, or saturation, value of
increased indefinitely.
is
is
This
in
limit-
about 1,730 units pole per square
centimeter of sectional area for annealed wrought iron, and about
1,250 units pole per square centimeter sectional area for ordinary
cast iron.
The normal
cB
and
cK curve.
The curve of which the
abscissas
represent values of magnetizing force B{ and the ordinates represent the corresponding normal values of
iron or steel,
steel.
Fig.
wrought
is
called the
normal
Sh
cfh
10 shows the normal cB and
iron
and
for a given kind of
and 3{ curve of the

c?r
for ordinary cast iron.
creases indefinitely in a given sample of iron
iron or
curves for annealed
The value
when c^f is
of qB inincreased
indefinitely.
normal curve of magnetization of
iron.
W.
S.
Franklin and
S.
S.
Clark,
Physical Review, Vol. VIII., pp. 304-309.

f Methods for determining these curves experimentally are explained in Nichols
and Franklin's Elements of Physics, Vol.
II.,
pages 134-7.
364
Maximum
Maximum
uoo
yft^
1200
t_Uon
'
j^^yis^
1
800
400
H
'100
200
400
300
Be.
500
600
9.
B
Asymptote
(B-4n-|m ^t)^L-.. __..
20000
16000
^^
^^^
1^000
^^""^^
-4 Hmax.-tH)
z^
'BOOO
4000
Asyn >ptote (B
{
H
100
200
300
Fig. 10.
400
500
600
ELECTROMAGNETS.
MAGNETISM OF IRON.
The sharp bend in the ^ and d{ curve

The iron is approximately
of the curve.
is
365
called the "
saturated
when
knee
aH!
"
has
been increased beyond the knee of the curve, and any further inThus a magnetcrease of cK produces only slight increase of cB,
izing force of 10 units produces a flux density of 12,400 lines per
square centimeter in a certain sample of annealed wrought iron,
and a magnetizing force of double
this intensity
produces only
14,330 hnes per square cm., or about ten per cent, increase, in
Wrought iron has been subjected to a magnetthe value of cB.
izing field of about
20,000 units by Ewing
responding value of
cB to
be about 40,000
meter, and the corresponding value of
who found
lines
to
the cor-
per square centi-
be 1,730 units pole
per square centimeter.
The accompanying
and d{ for wrought
table gives the corresponding values of cB
iron, for cast iron
and
for soft cast steel.
Table.
Magnetic Properties of Iron and
Wrought Iron (Hopkinson).
M
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Cast Iron (M. E. Thompson) *
(^
d{
1,240.0
716.5
10
20
5033
30
40
50
60
70
5,000
6,600
7,290
7,850
8,360
8,800
9,200
Sh
12,400
14,330
15,100
15,550
15,950
16,280
16,500
388.8
319.0
271.3
235.6
13. Magnetic permeability.
magnetic
field
of intensity
field intensity is
coil.
flux density
q}{
Soft Cast Steel.
f^
500.0
330.0
246.6
10
9,700
13,380
14,500
15,250
15,840
16,300
16,750
20
30
40
50
60
70
1950
169.0
146.6
131.4
long
d{
coil
y-
970
669
483
381
317
272
239
of wire produces a
in its (air-filled) interior,
and
this
of course equal to the magnetic flux per unit
sectional area, that
of the
Steel.
is,
to the flux density, in the air-filled interior
If the region inside of the coil is filled with iron, the

is
many
inspection of the
times as great as
<?/',
as
and oK curves of Fig.
is
10.
evident from an
From
this fact
* Thompson, Knight, and Bacon, Transactions American Institute of Electrical

Engineers^ Vol. IX., 1892.
366
there arises the idea of the multiplying effect of an iron core,

insofar as the production of magnetic flux
we may
formity with this idea
(^
in
which
called the permeability of the iron.
curve would be a straight

density
as
(^,
/i (
is
clearly
qIUqK^
In con-
the ratio of a given value of flux density
/i is
stant for a given kind of iron
and
concerned.
Atc
corresponding value of magnetizing force

is
is
write
(if it
shown
its
Sh
and d{
value varies with the flux
the tabulated values of
in
/i,
course not a con-
were constant the
but
line),
to the
This quantity,
cK.
It is of
(9)
c^T,
^,
given in Art. 12.
y"
800
600
-s^
400
\\
4000
\\
(3
8000
16000
Fig. 11.
Si and
The
curves for wrought iron and cast iron.
ordinates of the curves in Fig.
permeability
/x
permeability of air and of

is
and
the values of the
all
quality,
non-magnetic materials such
unity.
14. Magnetic circuit calculations.

size
show
oB.
as copper, cotton, wooxi, etc.,
form
1 1
of wrought iron and of cast iron for various values
of the flux density
The
fi
When an
iron rod of uni-
which forms a closed magnetic
circuit, is
ELECTROMAGNETS.
MAGNETISM OF
subjected to a uniform magnetizing force d{ along
by multiplying
Or, the uniform value of
may
through the rod

the value of cB
oH!
entire length,
through the rod
total flux
this flux density
its
367
may be found from the B

may be found
the value of the flux density cB in the rod
and cV curve, and the
IRON.
by the
sectional area of the rod.
required to give a specified total flux
be found from the
and 3{ curve
cB
after
has been found by dividing the specified flux by
the sectional area of the rod.
When, however, the iron rod varies in size from point to point,
or when different parts of the rod are of different kinds of iron, or
when there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit, then some kind
of an averaging process must be used to calculate the magneto-
motive force required to produce a specified flux through the rod,

or conversely to calculate the flux produced
by a
specified
mag-
speci-
netomotive force.
This calculation
To find
(a)
fied flux.
is
carried out as follows
the magnetomotive force required to produce
Divide
square centimeters of each part of the

iron, or air, as the case
in
by the
the prescribed flux
may
each part of the magnetic
of the circuit, take from the
circuit,
wrought
Knowing
circuit.*
Sh for
value of qB in each part of the
value of
M for
each part of the
circuit,
quired for each part, and the
ing
it
by
may
sum
of these magnetomotive forces
leakage
it is
to
be remembered that flux density
in air
here assumed that the whole of the magnetic flux passes through each por-
It is
may
This total magneto-
io/47r.
tion of the iron circuit.

flux
in centi-
then be reduced to ampere-turns by multiply-
In this calculation
*
and multiply the
by the length
the total magnetomotive force required.
motive force
for the
produce the
This gives the magnetomotive force re-
meters of that part.
is
circuit
each part
and oK tables or curves
different kinds of iron, the value of d{ required to
known
iron, cast
This gives the flux density
be.
sectional area in
This
stray through the air.
is
is
not always the case, for a portion of the magnetic
This portion
discussed in a subsequent article.
is
called the leakage flux.
Magnetic
368
is
cKy
so that the flux density in the air gap
by the length
in centimeters across the
gap
to be multiplied
is
to give the
magneto-
motive force required for the gap.

(U)
force.
To find
In
problem
the
flux produced by a specified magnetomotive
the case of a rod of uniform size and quality this
(p) is
simply the reverse of problem
When, how-
{a).
ever, the parts of a magnetic circuit are of different sizes or of

different materials, the flux
tive force is best
under
(a),
produced by a
specified
magnetomo-
Calculate, as explained
the magnetomotive force required to produce a series
of arbitrarily
assumed values of
Arrange these
flux.
results in
tabular form, plot them, and trom this plot find the flux corre-
sponding to the prescribed magnetomotive

15.
Analogy between the magnetic
Definition of magnetic reluctance.

1
(a)
ples
and
(U) are
force.
circuit
and the
electric circuit.
The statements given
in Art.
complete statements of the fundamental
and methods of calculation of the magnetic
circuit.
princi-
A slight
modification of the fundamental methods outlined in Art. 14 (a)
and
{p)
may be
used.
This modified method
analogy between the magnetic

It,
circuit
is
based upon an
and the
electric circuit.
however, contains no physical or mathematical principles
addition to those involved in the fundamental
in
method outlined
14 {a) and (b), and its only advantage is that the fundamental equation (9) is rearranged so as to correspond exactly
in form to the equation for Ohm's law.
in Art.
m=iid{
when applied
to an iron rod
be transformed as follows
is
equal to
cBs,
{i)
which forms a magnetic
The magnetic
whence equation
(i)
flux
may be
= iisdi
force ^ along
<l>
circuit,
may
through the rod
written
4>
Now the
where
eH!
/ is
magnetomotive
the length of the rod.
in equation (ii)
we have
(ii)
the rod
is
equal to
dH^l
^//
for
Substituting therefore
MAGNETISM OF IRON.
ELECTROMAGNETS.
This equation
in
which
cfl
may be
rewritten thus
written for
is
369
//^
That
l/s.
is,
^='.-.
fJb
The
quantity
is
(II)
called the reluctance of the magnetic circuit,
and the reciprocal of the permeability of the

its specific
iron,
//x,
is
A portion of a magnetic circuit one centimeter in length

and one square centimeter
in sectional area
a material having a permeability of unity

value of
called
reluctance or reluctivity
for air),
\i
been adopted
(^
(//-
=
=
i ),
i
which
),
is
the
oersted has
by the American
for this unit of reluctance
and made of
The name
has unit reluctance.
(/
Institute
of Electrical Engineers.
Equation (10)
pressing
Ohm's
is
exactly similar in form to the equation ex-
law, namely,
/= E\R
and equation
(i i) is simi-
form to the equation for calculating the resistance of a wire,
lar in
having given
its
length and section and the specific resistance or
resistivity of its material.
and
circuit
for the
This analogy between the magnetic
the electric circuit
is,
however, physically incomplete,
magnetic reluctance of an iron
circuit
and the
reluctivity
of the iron both increase as the flux increases, whereas the resis-
tance of an electric circuit does not vary with the current, unless
changes of temperature occur.
To
fied
find the
magnetic
follows
magnetomotive force required

flux,
produce a speci-
to
using equations (10) and (11), proceed as
Divide the total flux by the sectional area of each
portion of the magnetic circuit thus finding the flux density for
each portion.
Knowing
the flux density
ofb
the circuit take the corresponding values of
24
for
/a
each portion of
from the table
in
370
Art.
Knowing
2.
the value of
area s of each portion of the

luctance
together to get the
<E>
by
quired magnetomotive force
Two
and the
/,
sectional
the magnetic re-
separate reluctances
these
and
total reluctance of the entire circuit
multiply the total flux
16.
the length
Add
of each portion.
cfl
/x,
circuit, calculate
reluctance to get the re-
this total
according to equation (lo).
cF^
typical examples of magnetic circuit calculations, ig-
noring magnetic leakage.
amount of field excitation required for a

magnet^ design of magnet and weight to be lifted being
Calculation of the
(^)
lifting
given.
Fig. 12
sions
is
a sketch of a
lifting
and material of each part
is
magnet of which the dimen-
The
given.
sents the middle line of the magnetic circuit

this
line in
dotted line repre-
and the length of
each part of the circuit
be taken as the mean length
The flux through
CC
the cores
may
of that part.
is
so nearly
uniform that the sectional area of each core
^
j[
is
''^
tional areas of
accurately the
stream of flux
allel
flow of flux through yoke
ture
is
not uniform, but
yoke and armature
to flux stream of course)
sectional area of the air

short, as in Fig. I2,
it is
Y and
arma-
the actual sec-
yoke and armature nearly

of each air gap (par-
pretty definite, but the flux
crosses an air gap and therefore the
it
gap
is
s of the
a and b represent the mean
at
The length
for practical purposes.
spreads out greatly where
is
area
The
sectional areas of the flux stream in
enough
sectional
in that part of the circuit.
is
When
indeterminate.
sufficient to
the area of the
take
smaller face (the ends of the cores in Fig.
the air gap
2) as the sectional
area of the air gap.
Let
be the sectional area of each
the armature
is
air
gap
in Fig.
Then the total force

pulled by one field core is
flux crossing each gap.
in
and
<l>
the
dynes with which
MAGNETISM OF
ELECTROMAGNETS.
IRON.
37
^2
S7r\s J
and the
total pull
due
to both field cores is
F
When
may be
the desired pull
determined from
is
(ii)
47rJ
given in dynes the requisite flux
force required to produce this flux
and the magnetomotive
this equation,
may
then be calculated as
explained in Art. 14 or in Art. 15.

(d)
Calculation of the
dynamo. From
amount of field
excitation required for
the prescribed electromotive force, speed, and
number of armature conductors Z, the necessary amount of magnetic flux
<l>
tion (2\b) of
cuit
Chapter
The
II.
may be
calculated from equa-
various parts of the magnetic cir-
of a dynamo, namely, the yoke, the field cores, the pole
pieces, the air gaps,
and the armature core, do not as a rule have
perfectly definite lengths in the direction of the flux, nor perfectly

definite sectional areas at right
is
usually desirable to
circuit of the
estimate the
angles to the flux.
make an
Therefore,
it
outline sketch of the magnetic
dynamo to scale, as in the above example (^), and

mean length /, and the mean sectional area of each
This done, and the magnetic prop-
part of the magnetic circuit.

erties of the iron of
curves, the required
each part being given by suitable qB and 3i
number of ampere-turns may be found

Dividing the required
explained in Art. 14 or in Art. 15.

excitation expressed in ampere-turns
by
the
as
field
number of turns of
wire in the field windings, gives the required field current in
amperes.
17.
in
Magnetic leakage.
It
most cases magnetic flux
is
has been already pointed out that

forced through a magnetic circuit
by a bunched winding, so that the magnetomotive

concentrated in one part
netic flux in passing
of the
circuit.
through a portion
force
is
largely
Therefore the mag-
of the circuit, which
is
372
remote from the seat of the magnetomotive

out and pass through the surrounding
which
clearly defined path

cially
prominent when, as
is
in
Thus
the armature
the
in
effect is espe-
air
dynamo, the portion B

gap, and also when there
in
the portion
case of the
an opposing magnetomotive force
netic circuit.
This
it.
spread
through the
air as well as
provided for
of the magnetic circuit contains an

is
force, tends to
dynamo
of the
mag-
the demagnetizing action of
an opposing magnetomotive
current constitutes
force.
Let

be the magnetic flux which enters the armature from a
north pole of a
pole of the
tain
This
magnet.
field
amount of
pole of the
magnet and leaves the armature
field
flux
field
passes through the
</>
magnet
net
This
called the leak-
is
</>,
ranges
it
in
the leakage flux

ful flux,
and
</>
some
is in
some
in
accurately
may be
always larger than unity
It is
value from 1.125 to as
cases
it
by experimental
much
as 2.0.
That
is
tests
The coefdynamo may be determined
equal to useful flux.
on the machine,
or, if necessary,
approximately calculated from the known dimensions
of the various parts of the machine.
Experimental determination of magjietic leakage
The armature
ing the
test.
of the
The
to supply mains
dynamo
sired value,
oi
is
and the reversing switch
passes through each
36 and 38, half of ^
-\-
kept stationary dur-
The
to adjust the field excitation to the deis
used for quickly reversing
number of turns
the field magnet structures

<p
is
through a rheostat and a reversing switch.
field excitation.
*Ip
^ -\-
to be tested
coefficient.
terminals of the field winding are connected
object of the rheostat
the
is,
cases as small as 0.125 of the use-
of magnetic leakage of a
ficient
it
cer-
from each north
air
The total flux, 4> -fpasses through the field mag-|cores.*

The ratio (<J>
is called the ccfefficient of
</>)/4>
flux.
magnetic leakage of the dynamo.
and
south
to the adjacent south pole, or poles,
without passing through the armature.
age
at a
called the useful flux.
is
shown
of fine wire are
in Figs. 32, 33, 34,
magnet core
C.
wound
37 and 39, the whole
In the structures shown in Figs. 35,
passes through each magnet core C.
MAGNETISM OF
ELECTROMAGNETS.
around the
total flux
half the
</),
and another winding of the same number (or
number) of turns
is
arranged on the stationary armature
so as to surround the useful flux
nected to a
versed.
These windings are con-
observed when the
is
two throws
ratio of these
Calculation of magnetic leakage.

air, it is
<&.
galvanometer, one at a time, and the throw
ballistic
of the galvanometer
The
373
so as to surround the whole (or half) of the
field coils
<!>
IRON.
is
field
current
re-
is
the leakage coefficient.
Since magnetic leakage
flux passes
through the
evident that the calculation of leakage flux must be based upon the calcula-
tion of the magnetic reluctances of air gaps.
gap between plane iron
faces,
The magnetic
reluctance of a short air
parallel to each other or inclined,
may be
calculated
U-,
s"
Fig. 14.
Fig. 13.
The
with considerable accuracy.
reluctance of a long air gap, that
is
a gap which
long in comparison with the length and width of the iron faces which bound
is
cannot
it,
be accurately calculated by any simple formula.

(a) Afagnetic reluctance of a short air gap betzveen parallel iron faces.
case the sectional area of the
gap
is
equal
to,
the smaller face, and the reluctance of the
or but very
little
In
this
larger than, the area of
gap may be accurately calculated by the
formula
<^=4
in
which /
is
(12)
the length of the gap in centimeters, and s
is its
sectional area in square
centimeters.
In
(^) Magnetic reluctance of a long air gap between parallel faces.
one may use equation (12) with sufficient accuracy for most purposes, using
value
{s^ -\- s^^)l2,
where
s^
and
s^^ are the areas of the respective faces as
this case
for s the
shown
in
Fig. 13(r)
Magnetic reluctance of a short air gap
iron faces inclined at

section of the
two
of the faces as
an angle
faces,
shown
and
6 as
let pj
in Fig. 14.
shown in
and
p^
Then
betzveen similar, rectangular,
Fig. 14.
Let C be the
plane
line of the inter-
be the radial distances from
to the
edges
374
in
which the angle 6
two iron
expressed in radians,
is
the length in centimeters of the
is
faces parallel to the line of intersection C, Fig. 14,
and log pjp^ represents
the Naperian logarithm.
Proof of equation {ij).

their centers at C.
the magnetic flux A<^
A*
of path gives the magnetic
The
gap are
lines of force in the air
which crosses from face
of air path along which
(i).
The
arcs of circles with
Let cFhe the magnetomotive force between the iron

to face in the region
crosses from face to face

field intensity
Ar,
in the region
Ar
sectional area of the region
is
X ^^
The
Dividing cF by
rd.
is
Consider
faces.
Ar.
length
this length
so that
A*=^X^-Ar
or
A* -^
e
Integrating this expression from
'
to
/)j
r=pj, we have
6/
or, since
= ^M
from equation (10),
p^
we have
equation (13) at once.
Magnetic reluctance of a long air gap between inclinedfaces.

Several modifications of equation (13) have been proposed for the approximate calculation of the
{d
reluctance of
along
air
The
no value.
ever, of
gap between inclined
These modifications
faces.
best approximate calculations
may be made
If the adjacent edges of the inclined faces are near together, always
equal
flat
are,
as follows
how-
assume two
rectangular faces which represent the actual faces as nearly as one can judge,
and use equation (13).

If the adjacent edges of the inclined faces are not very near together, take the
sectional area of the
mean
the
two
faces for the
mean
sectional area s of the
length / of the gap as the length of a smoothly curved line starting from the
middle of one face
at right angles to the face,
and leading to the middle of the other
and use equation (12}.

Note that the angle Q between the two faces i and
face
and
same
is
at right angles to
true of the faces 2
it,
and
2,
and of the
faces 3
{a)
Two typical examples of magnetic

When magnetic leakage is due to an
an opposing magnetomotive force.
dynamo armature when

dynamo calculations the
the
of Fig
and
18.
to
mean
gap space, estimate
15
is
180 or
The
tt.
3.
leakage calculations.
air
gap
only^
and
not
Magnetic leakage around a
armature current
actual useful flux
<l>
is zero.
In most
MAGNETISM OF IRON.
ELECTROMAGNETS.
is
The
given.
consists of
flux from a north pole piece to a south pole piece
two parts
(i)
The
a north pole face across an
and across a second

leakage flux
</>,
375
gap
air
^, which passes from
useful flux
through the armature core,
air gap,
and
into a south pole face,
which passes out from
(2)
The
portions of the surface
all
of a north pole piece, other than the pole face, into the similar
portions of the surface of a south pole piece.
To
calculate
proceed as follows
cj)
Knowing

find the flux
density in the armature core, then take from tables (or curves)
the corresponding value of
fi
for the ar-
mature core, and calculate the magnetic
Next
reluctance of the armature.
^^'^v^
P'^^^^/^î
cal-
culate the magnetic reluctance of each
gap space between pole faces and arma-
Add
ture core.
these three reluctances
together and multiply by
to get the
magnetomotive force from pole piece to

pole piece. Let this be represented by ^.
The leakage
the surfaces
flux
i,
<^
is
the
sum
of the fluxes flowing between
between the surfaces 2 2
(at
both ends of the
machine), and between the surfaces 3 3, as shown in Fig. 15.

Calculate the magnetic reluctance of each one of these elementary
leakage paths with the help of equations (12) and (13).
^ by the
Divide
reluctance of each path to find the leakage flux through
each path.
Finally,
add these various leakage fluxes together
to
get(/>.
(3)
When magnetic leakage
is
due
ing magnetomotive force combined.
dynamo armature when

<3>
the
to
an air gap and an oppos-
Magnetic leakage around a
armature current
be the flux through the armature,
magnetomotive force between the pole
</>
is
not zero.
the leakage flux,
pieces,
and
if'
Let
^the
the oppos-
ing magnetomotive force due to the current in the armature.
The
flux
To
is
supposed to be given.
calculate
<^
proceed as follows
Find the magnetic
re-
luctance of the armature core and of the gap spaces exactly as
3/6
Add
sum by
^. This gives the magnetomotive force which is required to overcome the reluctance through which <l> flows. Add to this the magnetomotive force cF' and we have the total magnetomotive force ^
under
(a).
between the pole
these reluctances and multiply their
Then
pieces.
calculate
</>
Magnetic reluctances in series and in
19.
magnetic
tions of a
are said to be
circuit
parallel.
(a).
Two por-
through which the same flux flows
The combined
series.
exactly as under
portions of a magnetic circuit
is
reluctance of two such
equal to the
sum
of their indi-
vidual reluctances.
When
two or more portions of a magnetic
related that the total magnetic flux
circuit are
through the
so
circuit di-
vides and flows in part through each portion, the portions are
be
said to
in parallel.
The combined
points,
is
number
reluctance of a
branches of a magnetic circuit which terminate

equal to the reciprocal of the
sum
in
of
the same branch
of the reciprocals of
the individual reluctances.
The
total
flux
4>
up among a number of
The
up among a number of
divides
branches in exactly the same
way
parallel
parallel
that an electric current divides
branches of an electric
circuit.
various leakage paths and the path of the useful flux
(across
gap spaces and armature core) are
all in parallel
between
the pole pieces of a dynamo.

20.
Work
required to magnetize iron.
magnetized by sending an
When an
electric current
through a
iron rod
coil of
surrounding the rod, an opposing electromotive force

in the coil
done
by the growing magnetism of the
in forcing the current against this
rod,
is
is
wire
induced
and the work
opposing electromotive
work expended in magnetizing the rod.

The work W, in ergs, which is done in magnetizing
force, is the
centimeters of iron from a given

final flux
density
cId" , is
initial
flux density
]:=.--
3{-dSB.
cfh'
V cubic
to a given
(14)
MAGNETISM OF
ELECTROMAGNETS.
Proof of equation
IRON.
37/
In order to avoid the complications which arise on
{14).
account of the perceptible demagnetizing action of the ends of a short iron rod,
consider a very long slim rod, / centimeters in length, and
Suppose
sectional area.
rod to be placed in a long
this
per centimeter of length, or
Iz
When
total turns.
having
coil
the coil of wire
rises in
value during the time that the rod
which the
flux
the given instant

at
which work
is
Iz
X d<^ldi
in value.
i
Let d^Jdi
this
time
be the rate
at
be the value of the current at
the induced electromotive force in the coil which at
is
opposing the current
/,
so that
X d^jdt X
is
the rate,
dW
dlVldt,
That
being done at the given instant in magnetizing the rod.
is
connected
being magnetized, and during
increasing at a given instant, and let
is
Then
this instant.
is
growing
is
turns of wire
is first
beginning at zero,
to the battery or other source of current, the current in the coil,
the magnetic flux through the rod
us
let
square centimeters in
is
d
(9), Chapter
I.,
or d^:=^s-dSh
from equation (7), and
so that the equation () becomes
dW^^
/s=
or, since
V,
is
increasing
i.
2/ =^0^/477
from equation
3{- dsa
we have
dIV=iH:-d3
47r
or
^=
r^'W- d^
In magnetizing a short iron rod, more work
is
done than
is
accounted for by equation (14).

The additional work goes to
estabHsh the magnetic field in the neighborhood of the magnetic
poles of the rod.
Equation (14) expresses the work which
is
spent within the iron.
work done
be drawn so
21. Graphical representation of
Let
the curve
opp'
Fig. 16,
in magnetizing iron.
that the coordinates
represent corresponding values of oB and 3{ for a given sample of

iron.
The branch op
the iron
is
represents the values of qB and c^Twhen
magnetized for the
zero and increasing until

abscissa
ap ;
it
first
time, d{ beginning at the value
reaches the value represented
and the branch //'
by the
represents the values of
clh
378
and
cH!
when,
after the iron
/, the value of oK
is
has been magnetized up to the point
slowly reduced to zero.
and
M for
The curve of
decreasing values of oK
does not coincide with the curve for

increasing values of
oK.
Further-
more, the total area opa represents

the
work done upon the iron in magit up to the point /, and
netizing
the area pp' a represents the work
which
when
regained from the iron
is
the magnetizing field
The work regained
slowly to zero.
is
less
than the work required
magnetize the
which
Fig.
drops
is
to
The work
iron.
lost is represented
by the
6.
shaded area
The scale to which area in Fig. i6

number of ergs represented by each
in Fig.
i6.
represents work, that

unit of area,
may be
is,
the
deter-
mined as follows
Abscissas represent values of B( to scale, so that
we may write
d(âx
{i)
Ordinates represent values of IB to scale, so that
we may
write
()
or
-b'dy
Substituting these values of ;?/'and
dofh
in equation (14)
we
have
-"-Û.dy
W'-
in
which a
abscissa,
is
the
and b
is
(15)
number of units of oK represented by one unit of

the number of units of oB represented by one
unit of ordinate in Fig.
6.
Now ^x
dy
is
the area between
MAGNETISM OF
ELECTROMAGNETS.
any portion
of the cB
and d{ curve and the
IRON.
379
Therefore,
j/-axis.
number of ergs of work represented by each

of area between the SB and cH' curve and the j/-axis.
ab V/47r
is
the
The magnetic
Magnetic hysteresis.
22.
gence of the
and
cH'
cB
and
cH"
curve for decreasing values of 3^
teresis ; or, rather,
which
netic state
is
cycle.
The
curve for increasing values of
unit
diver-
from the
cH!
called magnetic hys-
is
mag-
the tendency of iron to retain a previous

the cause of this divergence
is
called magnetic
One effect of magnetic hysteresis is that the work

when iron is demagnetized is less than the work which
hysteresis.
regained
must be spent
to magnetize the iron, as pointed out in Art. 2
The magnetization of a given

dynamo is repeatedly reversed
a certain positive value of

equal negative value of
coming back again
portion of the armature core of a

as the armature rotates, reaching
for
for
cJi
one position of the armature, an
another position of the armature,
to the original positive value of
Such a magnetic double-reversal
much
When
op
is
and
is
same
precisely the
magnetized along the
is
on.
end of the double reversal.
at the
a mass of iron
^, and so
called a magnetic cycle, inas-
as the magnetic condition of the iron
at the beginning
cB
and 3{ curve
of Fig. 16, and then partially demagnetized along the curve
//', a portion of the
stage
heat,
op
is
work done upon the
regained during the stage pp'
and a portion remains
in
iron during the

,
a portion
is
first
lost as
the iron as energy of magnetization.
When, however, a mass of iron is carried through a magnetic

sum of the work spent upon the iron during
the cycle, that is to say, all of the work spent upon the iron during
cycle, the algebraic
the cycle
is
is
lost as heat,
inasmuch as the magnetic energy in the iron
exactly the same at the beginning and at the end of the cycle.
Fig. 17
shows the
plete magnetic cycle.
by the value
between
relation
The
and d{ during a com-
work spent on the
total
of the integral
abV r
.
x.ay
iron
is
given
38o
extended over the whole cycle

over the whole cycle
is
Cx- dy extended
but the value of
by the
the area enclosed
Therefore,
the
energy, in
total
ergs, lost in
and d{ curve.
i8
cubic centimeters
of iron per magnetic cycle
abVl\ir
to
area of qB and
This energy loss
curve.
equal
is
the hysteresis loss and
is
d{
called
it is all
con-
verted into heat.
The
hysteresis
per cycle
loss
increases with the range of flux
density during
the
cycle.
energy loss per cycle

pressed with
for
most
sufficient
to
ex-
accuracy
purposes (from
practical
^ = 2,000
This
may be
(jB
12,000)
by the empirical equation
W=7iVSh^'
Fig. 17.
which
is
energy
due to Steinmetz.
in
ergs per cycle,
centimeters,
and
7;
is
dt o3
is
In this equation
is
is
(16)
the loss of
the volume of the iron in cubic
the range of flux density during the cycle,
a constant coefficient, the value of which depends upon
the chemical and physical qualities of the iron.

table gives the values of
t)
for different
The
following
kinds of iron and
steel.
Table.
Values of hysteretic. coefficient
rj.
Best quality of sheet iron for transformer cores, annealed
Sheet iron for armature cores, annealed
Ordinary sheet
iron,
annealed
Soft annealed cast iron

Soft
machine
steel...
0.003
0.004
0.008
0.0095
0.12
Cast steel
0.16
Cast iron
Hardened
0.OO15
steel
0.25
MAGNETISM OF
ELECTROMAGNETS.
IRON.
38 1
power in iron due
to hysteresis and
The product of the energy loss
Hysteresis loss.
eddy currents.
per cycle and the number of cycles per second gives the energy
23. Calculation of loss of
lost per second, or, in other
words, the power lost in the iron.
Therefore from equation (16)
we have
p^
= rtfV^'-'x
10-^
(17)
which P^ is the loss of power in watts in F cubic centimeters

of iron which is subjected to / magnetic cycles per second
through the range of the flux density =b B. Values of 7; are
in
given in the table above.
When
a mass of iron
of magnetization
stationary
found
is
from that
different
for
is
rotated in a magnetic field the direction
repeatedly reversed, but in a manner very

in
which the magnetization
mass of iron by
reversed in a
is
reversals of the magnetic
field.
high flux densities a smaller hysteresis loss
mass than
in a stationary
mass of iron
for a given
Baily *
in a rotating
maximum
flux
when the flux density is very large. Later

experiments by Dinaf show a smaller difference than that found
by Baily, and both Baily and Dina find the difference to be negdensity, especially
ligibly small for flux densities
timeter.
Eddy
current
loss.
The
up
to 16,000 lines per square cen-
loss of
energy by eddy currents has
no essential connection with the magnetic properties of the iron,

but the loss of power by eddy currents
is
usually considered in
The loss of power

by eddy currents is proportional to the volume of the iron, to the
square of the number of magnetic cycles per second, to the square
conjunction with loss of power
by
hysteresis.
of the thickness of the laminations, and to the square of the
maximum
flux density.
Therefore
P^=:eVfH''^^
in
which
is
the eddy current loss in watts,
* Philosophical Transactions, clxxxvii,
(i8)t
V is
the volume
p. 715, 1896.
t Elek. Tech. Zeitschrift, 1902, p. 41.

X For a full discussion of this equation see Steinmetz, Allernating Current Phe-
nomena,
third edition, pp. 129 to 149.
382
of the iron in cubic centimeters,

cycles per second, /
meters,
the
is
value of
X io~"
number
flux density, and e
of magnetic
is
constant
conductivity of the iron.
electrical
The
about 1.6 x io~^\ The value 2.5

used
for e so as to allow for incomfrequently
more
sheet iron
for
is
the
is
the thickness of the laminations in centi-
is
maximum
depending upon the
is
plete electrical insulation between the laminations.
The
Armature core loss.

is due partly to
core
power
total loss of
hysteresis
and partly
to
an armature
in
eddy
currents.
Neither of these parts can be accurately calculated, because the

flux density in the core of a toothed armature
This
form.
is
when
especially true
by the armature
calculated by equation (18),
the
greatly distorted
current.
loss, as
is all
is
far
from uni-
armature flux
The eddy
is
current
more uncertain be-
the
cause of the indeterminate character of the insulation between the

sheet iron laminations, especially
are burred
If
it
is
by
filing
if
the edges of the laminations
or other machining.
desired to predetermine the armature core loss of a
newly designed dynamo, it is less satisfactory to calculate the

loss by equations (17) and (18) than it is to estimate it from experimentally determined values of the armature core loss of other
machines.
The
following table gives the average results of ex-
These
perimentally determined core losses in toothed armatures.
values are tabulated for various values of f^^^^ the product of

the number of magnetic cycles per second and the flux density
The
in the
armature core below -the
slots.
where
number
magnet
is
the
of field
value
poles,
of/
and n
is
is
pn\2
the speed
of the armature in revolutions per second.
Table.
Armature
fâ
io-
Watts per Cubic Centimeter

of Laminated Iron.
0.0
0.0
0.5
I.O
0.0094
0.019
0.029
0.038
2.0
core losses.
fâ X
3-5
4.0
io-
Watts per Cubic Centimeter

of Laminated Iron.
0.048
0.060
0.072
0.087
APPENDIX
B.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES.
24.
Definition of the characteristic curve of a generator
a motor.
generator
{a)
it is
Of a
When a dynamo
generator.
is
and of
used as a
usually driven at a definite constant speed, and the
may
current output of the machine
be large or small, according
to the resistance of the receiving circuit.
When
the current out-
put of a generator varies, the electromotive force between
its
ter-
minals generally changes, and the curve showing the relation
between terminal voltage of the generator as ordinates and current output as abscissas,
Sometimes
it
is
is
called
its
(external) characteristic curve.
desirable to plot the curve
showing the
relation
between current output of generator as ordinates and resistance

This curve
of receiving circuit as abscissas.
is
sometimes called
the ampere-ohm characteristic of the generator to distinguish
it
from the volt-ampere characteristic above described.

(U)
Of a
motor.
When
dynamo
is
used as a motor
it
is
usually supplied with current from constant voltage mains, and
may be
large or small according to the
amount of power required to drive the machinery to which the

motor is connected. When the load on the motor varies, its
speed, its current intake, and the torque which it develops, all
change in a definite way, and a curve showing the relation
between any two of these elements may be called a characteristic
Thus the characteristic curve of a motor
curve of the motor.
may show
(i) the relation
between speed as ordinates and torque
as abscissas, (2) the relation
between speed as ordinates and cur-
rent intake as abscissas, (3) the relation between torque (or, in
case of a street car motor, tractive effort) as ordinates
intake as abscissas.
383
and current
384
motor may be supplied with constant current
in
which case
the speed and terminal voltage of the motor vary in a definite
way
with the motor load, and the characteristic curve
case
show
(i)
The
between terminal voltage and speed
relation
between terminal voltage and torque.

driving, however,
of a
(3)
The
in this
(2)
The
relation
Constant current motor
seldom or never occurs
The magnetization curve
25.
may
between speed and torque
relation
in practice.
dynamo.
clear under-
dynamo when used
standing of the characteristic curves of a
as
a generator or as a motor depends upon precise knowledge of the
between the
relation
current and the flux
field
armature from a north pole of the

motive
is
force,
induced
^Z'fiy
in the
field
sufficient to
it is
,
electromotive
shows
this
know
^Z'71 and the
relation
is
<l>
which enters the
or, since
the electro-
armature when the armature
driven at a prescribed constant speed,
flux
is
proportional to the
the relation between the induced
field
current.
The curve which
the 'magnetization
called
curve of the
dynamo.
The magnetization curve
of a
dynamo may be determined by
driving the machine at the prescribed speed, and observing the
its
values of current sent through

side source.
of a
Figs. 18
dynamo which
is
brushes * for different observed
its field
windings from some out-
and 19 are typical magnetization curves

rated as a 30-kilowatt generator; Fig. 18
shows the magnetization curve of the machine when its field is

wound with many turns of fine wire (shunt dynamo), and Fig. 1
shows the magnetization curve of the same machine when its field
is
wound
with few turns of coarse wire (series dynamo).
When the magDependence of magnetization curve on speed.

dynamo has been determined for a given
netization curve of a
speed
*
n,
When
the curve for any other speed ;/

the current in the armature
the brushes of a
dynamo
induced in the armature.
is
is
may
be found by multi-
very small, the electromotive force between
very nearly equal to the total electromotive force
^Z^n
plying the ordinates of the given curve
when we
consider that the flux
value of
field current,
by
38S
This
n' jn.
is
evident
has a definite value for a given
so that the induced electromotive force,
^Z'Uy corresponding to a given value of the
field
current
is
pro-
portional to the speed.

Effect of residual
a dynamo.
When
armature flux
<l>,
magnetism upon
the magnetizatiofi curve of
dynamo
the field current of a
is
zero, the
and the induced electromotive force ^Z' n^ are
usually not zero, on account of residual magnetism.
This
eflect
Volts
Volts
^
y
80
60
60
40
40
Ampe res
3
80
Ampe res
I,
00
is
shown
200
300
Fig. 19.
Fig. 18.
in Figs. 18
and
In both of these figures the curves
19.
intersect the axis of ordinates at that distance
above the origin
which represents the value of the induced electromotive force due

to the residual magneti'sm.
Effect of magnetic hysteresis
dynamo.
<l>
upon the magnetization curve of a

hysteresis, the armature flux
On account of magnetic
and the induced electromotive force <^Z'n which correspond
when the field
current
field
current
is
decreasing.
There-
fore the magnetization curve of a
dynamo
is
slightly different for
to a given value of field current are smaller
when
is
increasing than
25
the
386
increasing field current
and
This
effect of
ization curve of a
dynamo
in Fig. 20.
for decreasing field current, as
shown
magnetic hysteresis upon the magnetusually ignored in discussing the
is
relation of the
magnetization curve to
the characteristic curve of the

as generator or as motor.
effect
of hysteresis
is
nearly zero under
practical operating conditions,
as
the
dynamo
In fact the
inasmuch
mechanical vibrations
of
the
dynamo and
the slight pulsations of ar-
mature and
field
mature flux
4> to settle to the
currents cause the ar-
value, as explained in Art.
2,
normal
Appen-
dix A.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF GENERATORS.

26. Characteristics of the series gener-
Fig. 20.
ator.
series generator
may be
The
characteristic
curve of a
determined experimentally by driving
the machine at constant speed
and observing corresponding val-
ues of current output and terminal voltage for different resist-
ances of the receiving
circuit.
External characteristic.
OA^
Fig. 21,
showing the
current output,
guish
it
is
Internal characteristic.
relation
The
often called the external characteristic to distin-
from the curve
OC^ showing the
relation
between
induced electromotive force E^ and armature current.

series generator the
current output.)
teristic,
istic
armature current
This curve,
is
difference
tive force
is
is
of course equal to the
When
the external character-
OC may
between E^ and E^
RI^ which
total
(In the
called the internal charac-
given, the internal or total characteristic
be plotted as follows
The
OC^
or the total characteristic.
OA
curve
between terminal volts E^ and
is
is
equal to the electromo-
used to overcome the combined resistance,
R, of the armature and
Chapter
field
windings, as explained in Art. 46,
so that
III.,
E.^'E^
RI
Let the values of

plotted points will
is
387
lie
it)
be plotted for various values of
on the straight
Plot the curve
a constant.
+ RI
line
OB,
Fig. 2
/.
1
These
since
OC,
of which the ordinate at each point
exceeds the ordinate of the given

curve OA, by the amount RI.
The curve OCis the required internal characteristic.
The
magnet-
effect of residual
ism upon the characteristic curve

of a series generator
is
to cause
the curve to intersect the axis of

volts
above the
shown
origin, as
in Fig. 21.
zation curve
and
If
it
internal or
the
total characteristic of
erator.
magneti-
between the
Relation
were not
series
gen-
for the de-
magnetizing action on the
field,
^'^* ^^*
of
the current in the armature, the internal or total characteristic of a

series
dynamo would be
However, the
current
is
identical* with the magnetization curve.
effect of the
demagnetizing action of the armature
either to reduce the armature flux and therefore the
induced electromotive force which corresponds to a given
an increased
field
total
cur-
field
current to give the pre-
scribed total induced electromotive force.
Let <^be the number of
rent, or to necessitate
demagnetizing turnsf of wire on the armature (per magnetic

* Except
for a slight loss of electromotive force
due
ments of the armature winding.

j-
It is evident
from equation (35) that
d~^
circuit)
to the inductance of the ele-
388
through each of which the whole of the armature current may

be considered to flow, and
let
TV be the number of turns of wire
Then
number of
ampere-turns, net, acting on each magnetic circuit is I\N
d)
when the current output of the generator is I' amperes. Now, a
current / flowing in the field winding alone gives a total induced
in the field
winding per magnetic
and
electromotive force
E^,
tromotive force E^
may be
ing
/'
amperes as a
ing must be equal to
That
to
ator
order that the same induced elec-
obtained
when
the machine
series generator, the net
NI.
the
That
is,
is
deliver-
ampere -turns
act-
we must have
{N d)
the current must be increased in the ratio of
is,
N.
in
circuit.
Therefore the total characteristic curve of a series gener-
may be
derived from the magnetization curve of the machine
by multiplying the
N/(^N
d).
abscissas
This result
is
curve by
of the magnetization
deduced on the assumption that the
demagnetizing action of the armature
proportional to
is strictly
the armature current.
Dependence of the characteristic of a series dynamo on speed.

flux ^ has a definite value for a given value of current
The
output of a series generator independently of speed.

quently the total induced electromotive force
tional to the
^Z'n
Conse-
is
propor-
speed of the generator for a given value of current
Therefore the external characteristic corresponding to
output.
speed n'
may be
derived from the given external characteristic
corresponding to speed n as follows
Add RI
to each ordinate of the given characteristic, thus find-
ing the internal or total characteristic for the same speed

tiply the ordinates of this total characteristic
ngthe
total characteristic for
speed
n'
by
the required external characteristic for speed n'
Mul-
n^ jn,
thus find-
R[
from each
Subtract
ordinate of this total characteristic for speed
n.
n' ^
thus finding
389
It
The droopmg of the characteristic of the series generator.
useful flux ^ through the armature of
would seem as though the
a series generator should increase more and more with the current
output of the machine, but
around the armature
when the
current output
magnetic leakage
in fact the effect of
to cause
is
to actually decrease in value
excessive, especially
is
the
if
field iron
becomes saturated before the armature iron. This decrease of ^

means an actual decrease of E^ and of course E^ falls off more
than
on account of the armature drop RI.
Fig. 22
shows the external
characteristic (full
the total characteristic (dotted
curve) of a
line curve),
Wood
and
arc lighting
governing device disconnected.
series generator, with its
Volts
"-
^''
-^^
^"
.,
/
/
/
/
/
2000
^^\
If
11
1
1
1300
^c
^^^
/
/
Y\
1/
\E:c
1000
B^
Jr^
500
^^--^
Ami}eres
/?--"
4
[I
6
Fig. 22.
Explanation of drooping of
series characteristic.
a large coefficient of magnetic leakage, and
when
When
a series generator has
the field yoke and cores are nearly
saturated magnetically, the armature core being far below saturation, then the total
electromotive force induced in the armature decreases with increase of current.
This
390
depends upon the demagnetizing action of the armature current and
effect
best explained
by a simple numerical example
considerable positive brush lead, which

total
pose that the actual armature flux
2,500,000
age
is
= 2).
Under
volts.
2,500,000
may be
it
Given a generator, with
lines,
these initial conditions sup-
that the leakage flux
also
is
5,000,000 lines (coefficient of magnetic leak-
lines, so that the field flux is
Let the resistance of the receiving
output of the generator
delivering a current of lo amperes with a
is
induced electromotive force of 2,500
as follows
circuit
be decreased so that the current
increased from 10 to ii amperes, or by 10 per cent.
is
produces a 10 per cent, increase of ampere-turns on the
and a 10 per
field
This
cent, in-
crease of the demagnetizing ampere-turns on the armature, the brushes being fixed in
The
position.
field iron
being highly saturated, the 10 per cent, increase of
ampere-turns produces, say,
per cent, increase of
Now,
equal to 5,050,000 lines.
field flux
making the
field
field flux
the armature core being far below saturation, a very
large part of the opposition to the passage of magnetic flux through the armature
due
to the
demagnetizing ampere-turns of the armature, and a small part only
to the reluctance of the air gaps

city, that all
and the armature
core.
Let us suppose,
is
is
due
for simpli-
of the opposition to the passage of the flux through the armature
is
due
to the demagnetizing action of the armature current, or in other words, let us suppose
and armature core
that the magnetic reluctance of air gaps

cent, increase of
is
Then
zero.
a lo-per
armature current would increase the demagnetizing ampere-turns 10
per cent., the magnetomotive force (ampere-turns), between the pole pieces will be
increased 10 per cent, and the leakage flux will be increased 10 per cent, since the
magnetic reluctance of the leakage paths
comes
l.oi
5>o<^>ooo ^= Sj^S'^jO^'O
2,500,000 =r 2,750,000
which
duced
in the ratio of
Therefore the
constant.
and the leakage
flux
The
total
induced electromotive force
2,500,000 to 2,300,000 or
in the ratio
l.loX
2,750,000)
is
therefore re-
This
of i.oo to 0.92.
shows that under the assumed conditions an actual decrease of 8 per
be-
field flux
becomes
so that the armature flux becomes (5,050,000
equal to 2,300,000.
is
is
cent, in the total
induced electromotive force has resulted from a lo-per cent, increase of current.
Problem
The combined
fact nearly constant, since the
reluctance of the armature core and the air gaps
armature core
is
not highly saturated.
half of the opposition to the passage of flux through the armature and air gaps
to this reluctance,
calculate
(<2)
and half
is
due
The percentage
to the
is
Assuming
in
that
is
due
demagnetizing ampere-turns on the armature,
decrease in total induced electromotive force under the
above conditions when the current
is
increased 10 per cent., and
of magnetic leakage with increased current.
Answer
[b')
The
coefficient
() 5 per cent.; {b) 2.15.
For
27. The ampere-ohm characteristic of the series generator.
some purposes it is convenient to represent the current output of
a series generator as a function of the resistance of the receiving
circuit,
by
plotting the values of current output as ordinates,
and
the corresponding values of resistance of the receiving circuit as

abscissas.
Fig. 23
shows such an ampere-ohm
characteristic of
the
Wood
391
arc lighting generator of which the volt-ampere char-
shown in Fig. 22.

The ampere-ohm characteristic is derived from the volt-ampere
Lay off the abscissa of each point / of
characteristic as follows
acteristic is
Amperes
^ -^
Y'
Fig. 23.
Ohms
the volt-ampere characteristic, Fig. 22, as the ordinate of the
corresponding point /' of the ampere-ohm

lay off in each case the ratio
EJI,
characteristic
and
see Fig. 22, as the abscissa
of/.
28.
of
Examples showing
series generator.
the use of what

is
is
applications of the external characteristic
The examples
to be given
depend upon
This
called the receiving circuit characteristic.
a curve showing the relation between the electromotive force
acting on the receiving circuit and the current produced in the

receiving circuit
When
by
this electromotive force.
the receiving circuit consists simply of a resistance R^^
the electromotive force required to produce a current
RJ, and the receiving

AB, as shown in Fig. 24.
to
circuit characteristic
is
is
equal
a straight
line,
392
When
which
is
the receiving circuit consists, say, of a storage battery

to
be charged by the generator, then the terminal elec-
tromotive force
RJ
E^ of the generator
equal to the
is
and the counter electromotive force
e of the battery
the resistance of the battery and connecting wires.
is
the receiving circuit characteristic
this case
AB^ shown
is
In
the straight line
in Fig. 25.
receiving circuit containing motors has no definite charac-
teristic in
the sense in which the term
is
here defined, inasmuch
as with a given applied voltage the current
variety of values depending
Now,
is
of
where
Fig. 25.
Fig. 24.
R^
sum
;
upon the motor
may have
a great
load.
evidently, the terminal electromotive force of a generator
identical with the electromotive force applied to the receiving
circuit,
erator
circuit.
including the Hne wires, and the current output of a genis
identical with the current flowing
Therefore a generator supplying a given receiving circuit
operates at that point of
its
circuit characteristic intersects
The
through the receiving
point
in Fig.
characteristic
where the receiving
it.
26 shows the operating conditions of a
given series generator running at given speed and supplying cur-
With
rent to a receiving circuit of given resistance.
the resistance of the

steeper, that
is,
receiving circuit, the
the angle
line
^, Fig. 26, increases,
increase of
OP
becomes
inasmuch as the
tangent of 6
R^ has so
resistance
is
equal to R/jI, which
is
393
When
equal to R^.
is
the
far increased that the point of intersection
near the knee of the curve at K, then either a very slight addi-
tional increase of R^y or a
momentary slowing down of the gen-
erator (which reduces the ordinates of the characteristic curve)

will lead to a state of affairs in
and the receiving
The
resistance
which the generator characteristic
circuit characteristic
do not
intersect at
all.
corresponding to the point K, Fig. 26,
R^^,
is
called the critical resistance of the series generator for the given
speed, inasmuch as the generator
cannot build up, or
when
/b
Volts
driven at the given speed
already built up,
if it is
it
cannot maintain
_P>^
Volts
K/^ 7
/
its
\y
1
1
Kl,p-
Î
\/
'
J
1
Amperes
Fig. 26.
field
than
magnetism,
R^.
The
if
critical
is
Amperes
Fig. 27.
critical resistance is
which the generator

the point K,
\dl\r'
is
driven.
The
is
greater
proportional to the speed at

current
/^,
corresponding to
called the critical current of the generator.
The
current does not vary perceptibly with the speed of the
generator, but has a definite value for a given generator.
The
points
P and P
Fig. 27, represent the
two presumably
possible operating conditions of a given series generator, running

at a given speed,
and supplying current
to charge a storage bat-
tery of which the counter-electromotive force
is e.
In fact the
394
point
represents a possible running condition, but
explained below, while the point
Suppose that the generator

and that a
slight
in fact
is
momentary
The
its
normal speed,
but at the point
cient to
produce
P^
P\
increase in the speed of the gener-
it
momen-
the generator comes
if
will continue to operate for
very short interval of time at a point
as
as follows
operating at the point
and also the current and then, even
quickly back to
instability of the
may be shown
This increases the generator voltage
ator takes place.

tarily
by the point
difficult
represents an unstable and
therefore impossible condition of running.
conditions represented
it is
by the point
to bring about the state of affairs represented
P'
a short distance above
the generator voltage
the current /'' (greater than
more than
is
e \-
suffi-
RJ")y and the
excess of voltage will cause the current to go on increasing until

the generator reaches the point P,
On
momentary drop in the speed of the genmomentary decrease of current and, even if
the generator comes quickly back to its normal speed, it will
the other hand a
erator will cause a
continue to operate for a very short interval of time at a point
P"
3.
short distance below
voltage
to
is
off
fall
less
than
[e
-\-
but at the point
RJ'" }
more and more.
P"
the generator
so that the current will continue
In this latter case (with the storage
battery in circuit) the current does not merely drop to zero, but a
reversed current
is
started
by
This current causes
the battery.
the generator to build up in the opposite direction, and then both
generator and battery
work together
to
produce current, the
The
battery being of course thereby discharged.

28,
shows the operating conditions
The
point P^^y Fig.
in this case.
difficulty in getting a series generator
to operate at the
point P, Fig. 28, and so charge a storage battery,

fact that
when
the circuit
is
first
is
due to the
closed (current then equal to
zero) the generator begins operating at the point 0, Fig. 28,
the effect of the battery
up
in
is
and
to cause the generator always to build
such a direction as to carry the operating point to P^^, thus
discharging the battery instead of charging
it.
Under these con-
ditions the battery
395
and the generator work together
produce
to
an excessive current, and the power dehvered by the battery and
by the generator
When
is all
a street car
is
used
in heating the circuit.
coasting
dynamos, which are geared to
down
its
may
hill it
charge the
these
line,
dynamos
as
it
to build
up
in the
if
The
nections between field and armature are reversed.

in getting
drive the series
axles, as generators,
the con-
difficulty
proper direction to
were, thus returning power to the system,
is
Fig. 28.
precisely the
same
as that
age, between trolley and

to build
result.
up
in the
The
action
which
rail,
wrong
is
described above.
The
line volt-
always causes the series machines
direction to accomplish the desired
which does take place
machines build up as generators
is
that the
in the direction
two
series
such as to help
the trolley voltage force an excessive current through the circuit

including the machines and the rheostats.
The
curious see-saw action of a series generator which supplies
current to a motor of which the field magnet

is
is
separately excited,
closely related to the above described behavior of a series gen-
erator connected to a storage battery.
Let a
series generator
39^
driven at constant speed, supply current to the armature of an

auxiliary
The
dynamo, of which the field magnet
characteristic of this auxiliary
sidered as a receiving circuit,

Fig. 28
is
separately excited.
machine at a given
would be the
speed, con-
PF P^^,
straight line
but the counter-electromotive force
e of the
auxiliary
machine increases and decreases with the speed of that machine,

so that the line
machine
rises
ppp^^ moves up and down as the speed of the

falls.
When the circuit is first closed the speed
and
of the auxiliary machine
is
zero
and the
e is zero,
series gener-
Fig. 29.
ator builds up to the point Q', Fig. 29, sending current through
the armature of the auxihary machine.

auxiliary machine to speed
This current causes the
up as a motor, thus increasing
action continues until the straight line
pp'p^^
rises
e.
This
above the
point Q, Fig. 29, and does not intersect the positive portion of
the characteristic of the series generator.

erator immediately loses
its field
continues to run because of the
becoming a generator,
its
reversed current through
Then the
series
gen-
magnetism, the auxiliary machine
momentum
of
its
electromotive force e
armature, and,
now
starts
the circuit, thus causing the series gen-
up
erator to build
auxiliary machine
acting as a generator, so that
to rest as the kinetic energy of
generator,
The
direction as a motor.
ppp^^
until the line
now
is
exhausted,
in
the
to another reversal as before,
reverse
auxiliary machine then speeds up
the series generator again loses
29. Characteristics of the
is
below the point Q" Fig.
falls
time the
this
quickly comes
maintained by the reversed
the auxiliary machine
starts
it
rotating armature
its
and the reversed current, which

series
During
in the reverse direction.

is
397
its field
29,
when
magnetism, which leads
and so on.
shunt generator.
The experimental
determination of the characteristic curve of the shunt generator

is
accomplished
in essentially the
same manner
as in the case of
the series generator.
The
curve, Fig. 30,
full line
of a shunt generator
is
a typical external characteristic
the abscissas represent values of current
delivered to the receiving circuit,
and the ordinates repre-
Volts
I
sent the corresponding values
1-
of the electromotive force be-
tween
the
minals.
cc
is
generator
ter-
A.
4-.....-
The
upper portion
the part of the charac-
teristic
on which the machine
\c
,iy
usually operates in practice.
The
internal or total char-
acteristic is the
the
total current
ture,
curve of which
abscissas represent
in the
Amperes
the
Fig. 30.
arma-
and of which the ordinates represent the corresponding
values of induced electromotive force
Consider a point
E^ (=
on the external
O Zhi).
responding point P' on the total characteristic

ing the abscissa
by
/,
increasing the ordinate
The coris found by increas-
characteristic.
the value of the shunt field current, and
by RJ^^ which
is
398
lost in
/^,
overcoming the resistance of the armature.
corresponding to different values of E^,
The
values of
are proportional to
and may be represented by the abscissas of the
E^{= IR^,
straight line
0C\
the value
of R^T^y for various values of
/ may be
,
represented by the
ordinates of the straight line
OB] and
istic
the total character-
may be
constructed from
by
the external characteristic

first
increasing the
abscissa
of each point P, Fig. 30, by
an amount equal to the corresponding

line
abscissa
of the
OC, and then increasing
Fig. 31.
the ordinate of the point
P"
by an amount equal to the corresponding ordinate of

OB, thus reaching the point P' on the total charac-
so reached
the line
teristic curve.
The
effect of residual
of a shunt generator
is
magnetism upon the
characteristic curve
to cause the external characteristic to
intersect the ampere-axis to the right of the origin, as
shown
in
Fig. 3130.
The ampere-ohm
some purposes
it is
characteristic of the shunt generator.
For
convenient to represent the current output of
a shunt generator as a function of the resistance of the receiving

circuit
by
plotting the values of current output as ordinates,
and
the corresponding values of resistance of the receiving circuit as
32 shows a typical ampere-ohm characteristic

This curve may be derived from the voltof a shunt generator.
abscissas.
ampere
Fig.
characteristic, Fig. 30, exactly as in the case of the series
generator, as explained in Art. 27.

31.
The voltage-speed
zero load.
The
relation
characteristic of the shunt generator at
between voltage and speed of a shunt
generator
is
more complicated than
in
399
the case of the series gen-
erator (with given current output), inasmuch as the increase of
speed of a shunt generator involves an increase of
The curve showing
field excitation.
the voltage of a shunt generator as a function
Fig. 32.
of speed, at zero current output,
this derivation
the speed n and the shunt
changed
in the
same
field
ratio,
it is
p.^

ratio,
this
EJR^
will
leave the shunt field current
will
be unaltered, and "(= ^Z'n)
will
n.
Let the curve
OA,
Fig. 33, be the magnetization curve of the

n.
Draw
OB^
the straight line
of which the abscissas represent values of the shunt
field
current
and the ordinates represent values of electromotive
force,
required to produce the corresponding values of /.
The
RT^y
coordinates of the point of intersection of
then represent the values of

/^,
E^ at
-"(=
inasmuch as
shunt machine for a given speed
7^,
both
if
and R^
unchanged, so that
vary as
to be noted that
resistance R^ are imagined to be
zero load) will also be changed in that
change of
mag-
derived from the
machine as follows
netization curve of the
For the purpose of
may be
when
the machine
is
^(= E^
OA
and
OB
at zero current output)
driven at the given speed
n.
will
and
400
Lay
on the
off a scale of values of R^
33, taking the actual given value of
CD,
vertical line
R^ as
Fig.
unity.
The
finding of the value
of ^ for a speed
ent from n,
differ-
;/',
may
easily explained
be most
by taking a
numerical example.
Thus,
be required to find the
let it
value of ^ for a speed n'
As
equal to n/i.2.
first
step imagine the value of R^

to
0.6
be increased to
1.2 with-
out change of speed. Under

these
0.4
conditions the ordi-
nate Q^P', Fig. 33,
be the value of
â
second step imagine
would
As
this in-
creased value of R^ and the

original speed n to be both
decreased
in
This would bring
to i.o.
R^ back to
and
it
1.2
to
would reduce the value of

1.0.
E^,
the ratio 1.2
its
actual value,
namely Q'P^,
in the ratio
Therefore the required value of E^ at speed n'
is
1/1.2 times Q'P^.
Fig.
34 shows a typical voltage-speed
shunt generator at zero current output.

effect
If
characteristic of a
it
were not
for the
of the residual magnetism this voltage-speed characteristic
would cut the speed
axis at 5, Fig. 34.
ing to the abscissa of
vS is
When
shunt generator.
The speed correspond-
called the critical speed of the given
driven at a speed less than this critical
speed the shunt generator cannot build up at
The
straight line
curve (speed n)
0B\
OA,
which
is
all.
tangent to the magnetization
Fig. 33, at the origin, intersects the line
CD
at a
speed
number which
(critical
nln" where
equal to
is
401
7t" is
the lowest
speed) at which the given shunt machine can build
up as a generator.
Fig. 34.
Relation betweeu the magnetization curve of a shunt
32.
and
as a generator.
its total characteristic
(a)
On
that the demagnetizing action of the armature current
OA^
In Fig. 35 the magnetization curve
the given speed
OA
ordinates of
plotted to the
field
left
is negligible.
of the machine for
of the origin of coordinates
of course represent values of E^, and abscis-
OAy measured
sas of
shunt
is
dynamo
the assumption
current
to the left
The
/.
from 0^ represent values of
OB
represent values of RI^.
Consider any given point

ordinate
SP
that the point
P,
lies
the total
P'
resent (/
P on
line
drawn through
or the total armature current
ordinates represent the values of

total
induced electromotive force,
* The values of
26
P.
Draw
la
E^^
so
the straight
of which the abscissas measured to the right from
/ ),
The
the magnetization curve.
induced electromotive force
of the total characteristic which corresponds to
on a horizontal
SC
line
is
RJ^.
QS
is
rep-
/ and of which the

,
Now, when
the value of
PS
is
the
EJ^=R/)y
are exaggerated in Fig. 35 for the sake of clearness.
402
PQ
and
the value of i?
is
the abscissa of P'
The
RI
Therefore
known, and
is
determined by the condition that the cor-
is
responding ordinate oi
in the figure.
SC
shall
position of
be equal to RÎ^,
as indicated
P' thus determined may be most
Volts
Amperes
*S
Fig. 35.
easily found
by drawing a
line will intersect the
(6)
parallel to
horizontal line through
SC;
at the desired
to be
the demagnetizing action of the
proportional
to the
armature current
is
The curve
armature current.
considered
OA^
The
origin O, as in Fig. 35.
values of Ex{^J^s^s)
on the
OB^
left
is
of the
Fig. 36, represent
as in Fig. 35.
Consider any given point

current
and
Fig. 36,
the magnetization curve of the machine for the given speed, plotted to the
field
this
located in a similar manner.
When
assumed
through
Additional points on the total characteristic curve
point P'.
may be
line
on
and the ordinate
total characteristic
OB,
SP
is
Fig.
The
36.
Ex.
It is
abscissa
OS
is
the shunt
required to find the point
P^
corresponding to P.
Let iVbe the number of turns of wîre in the shunt field winding, and let dhe the
number of demagnetizing turns on the armature through each of which the entire
armature current may be considered to flow.
Then the net field excitation is
{NIs
dia)
ampere-turns,
which may be written
the actual net field excitation and the actual value of
duced by a
the distance
field
current equal to
QP,^^
Fig.
36,
is
{Ig
ladjN)
equal to
on the magnetization curve corresponding
is
ladjN).
that
Therefore
which would be pro-
acting alone; or, in other words,
ladj N,
to P.
N{T8
Ea
P'^
being the unknown point
Furthermore, the ordinate of P'^
is
of course Ea,
is
la,
as yet
the direction of PP'^
once
2ad
for
IN
PJ^^y
all
for
QP
so that the distance
unknown, but
independent of
is
determined by laying off
any arbitrary value of
and the point P^^
is
and QP^'
E^
or to
= IadlN
Rg, /.
it is
In fact the direction of PP^^
PM
equal to
line
PN
MN
may be
equal to
then fixes the direction of
PN
found as the intersection of
and
Paâ
Now
evident that
/.
The
/.
Ea
equal to
is
PQ=^RaIa
since
403
and OA^ as shown
in
the figure.
Having thus determined the point P^\ the point P^ on the total characteristic
to the chosen point P, lies in a horizontal line drawn through P^^,
which corresponds
and the abscissa of P^
is
determined by the condition that the corresponding ordi-
Amperes
j^
Fig. 36.
SC
nate of
shall
PQ{^ Paâ)'
be equal to
most easily located by drawing a
line
intersect the horizontal line through
The
value of
is
equal to
of the brushes in degrees,
Z is
through
The
point
parallel to
at the desired point
P'^
P^
thus determined
SC.
Such a
is
line will
P^.
20/360 -Zlp^, where a is the angle of forward lead

the number of armature inductors and /'' is the num-
ber of paths in parallel between the brushes.
33.
tics of
Examples showing applications

a shunt generator.
which a shunt generator operates

erator characteristic
teristic,
is
of the external characteris-
The point of a
intersected
is
characteristic curve at
the point at which the gen-
by the
receiving circuit charac-
exactly as in the case of the series generator.
The curve OA,
Fig.
given shunt generator,
37,
OB
is
is
the external characteristic of a
the characteristic of a given receiv-
404
ing circuit containing resistance only, and the point

the operating conditions of the generator
to the given receiving circuit.
When
represents
when supplying
current
R^
of the
the resistance
receiving circuit
is
increased
the angle Q increases, becoming 90 for an infinite value of

R^,
that
is,
ing circuit
is
is
when
the receiv-
open.
When R^
decreased more and more
the current at
first
increases to
an excessive value and the

terminal voltage
falls
off be-
cause of armature drop RJ^y
because of the decreased
field
excitation which accompanies
the decrease of terminal voltage,
and because of the demagnetizing action of the current in the
When
armature.
the field excitation has been reduced consider-
ably, the excessive demagnetizing action of the armature current
begins to overpower
and
it
the terminal voltage and current both
When
fall in
R^
is
when
the
shunt
generator
value.
zero, that
brushes
is
of the
con-
are
nected by a short thick wire,

then the voltage between the
brushes
is
rent
zero,
VoUi
zero, the field cur-
*^^^*C
")
1
y}
!"
is
and the only
current flowing through the
armature and the short
o-^'^'T'^
Amperes
cirFig. 38.
cuit
between the brushes
the current which
is
is
due to the residual magnetism of the
magnet of the machine.
field
The curve OA,
Fig. 38,
circuit consisting of
motive force
is
is
the external characteristic of a given
BC
shunt generator, the Hne
the characteristic of a receiving
is
a storage battery of which the counter electro-
e volts,
and
P is the point which represents the con-
ditions of operation of the generator
Before the battery circuit

erator
is
when charging
When
acteristic.
connected to the generator, the gen-
the battery
is
quickly increases, the terminal voltage
No
difficulty is
encountered
by means of a shunt generator.
Two shunt generators
falls off slightly,
in
its
The curve
is
P are
The curves
in parallel.
OB
char-
two
plotted to the
current output measured
and the
quickly estab-
charging a storage battery
Fig. 39, are the external characteristics of
generators.
its
connected the current output
running conditions represented by the point
with
the battery.
allowed to build up and reach the point P' of
is
lished.
405
OA
and OB^
different
left
shunt
of the origin
to the left for convenience.
Fig. 39.
These two generators are connected

circuit.
same
for
Under these
in parallel to
conditions the terminal voltage
both generators.
Therefore,
if
the two machines to-
gether deliver a specified current, this current

the machines in such a
way
as to
make
a receiving
must be the
is
divided between
their terminal voltages
4o6
equal.
Suppose, for example, that the combined current output
of the two machines
is
oo amperes, then the points
P and
F at
which the two machines operate are determined by the two conditions
{a) their ordinates
must be the same, and
PP
must represent lOO amperes.
may
always deliver half of the
be equal to 0'
that
is
total
{U)
the distance
In order that each machine

current,
0'
must always
the two characteristics must be exactly
39 shows the characteristics of two shunt generators of which the terminal voltages are equal at no load.
Fig.
alike.
Fig.
40 shows the
characteristics of
two shunt generators of which the
Fig. 40.
terminal voltages are unequal at no load.
The
dotted extension
of each characteristic corresponds to motor action, that

tive current output, or, in other
the machine in opposition to

this case the
connected
machine
P"C
to nega-
its
force.
In
two machines operate at the point P" when they are

and give a combmed current output of zero
in parallel
and
is
words, to current flowing through
acts as a generator giving out a current equal
to
backwards through machine
this
which of course
current flows
acts as a motor.
When
the combined current output of
amperes, then the two operating points

ordinates and the distance
34. Characteristic of the
dynamo has been
407
and
and
say,
50
have equal
is,
PP' represents 50 amperes.
The compound
compound generator.
heretofore treated, both as a generator and as a
dynamo and there is no

discuss the compound generator
motor, as a modification of the shunt
need
in the present instance to
Fig. 41
minutely.
shows a
typical external characteristic of an
Ampere-turns
on Geld
(Voltage constant)
Ampores output
Fig. 42.
Fig. 41.
over-compounded generator of which the terminal voltage

with increase of current
The
rapid
curve
is
fall
up
to
and beyond
full
rises
rated load.
of terminal voltage in the dotted portion of the
due to the great demagnetizing action of the current
the armature, to internal drop R^
+ R/^y
that part of the field excitation which
is
and
due
in
to the decrease of
to the shunt field
winding.
Armature
field turns
Calculation of the
characteristic.
for compounding,
number of
(a) Flat-compounding.
series
Consider
a given shunt generator driven at constant speed and having a

terminal voltage equal to
no volts
when the
current output
is
Under these
conditions the field excitation in ampere-turns
has a definite value.
Let the current output of the generator be
zero.
increased
more and more
let
the field rheostat be manipulated so
408
as to keep the terminal voltage of the machine constant
and
corresponding values of armature current /^ and of shunt

current
/ be
The
observed.
particular value of
field excitation
corresponding to any-
NI^ ampere-turns, where iVis the number
is
of turns of wire in the shunt
field
A curve may now be
winding.
plotted using observed values of /^ as abscissas
values of iV/
let
field
as ordinates as
shown
and corresponding
This curve
in Fig. 42.
is
called the armature characteristic of the given generator.
From
this
armature characteristic the number of turns of wire
required in the series field winding for flat-compounding
by
represented
ac
required.
IS
Consider the
Of
total
this
winding supplies the amount
age of the generator
is
field
bc^
constant.
number of
excitation
the shunt
Therefore the series
series field turns
be
total field excitation

field
inasmuch as the terminal
ing must supply the portion ab of the

required
may
load armature current
which a
Fig. 42, for
Oc^
full
wind-
field
field excitation,
may
volt-
and the
be found by dividing
by ab by the current represented

the long-shunt compound generator).
the ampere- turns represented
by Oc
(for
Over -compounding.
(U)
The following numerical example
trates sufficiently the calculation of over-compounding.

field
illus-
The shunt
winding of a certain 12.1 kw. bipolar generator supplies the
4,000 ampere-turns of
field excitation
required to give a terminal
10 volts at zero current output.
electromotive force of
the current output
100 amperes, a
ampere turns
is
is
field excitation
When
of 5,800
required to give 121 volts between generator
terminals (10 per cent, over-compounding).
On
account of the
increase of terminal voltage from no-load to full load, the shunt

field
winding supplies ^f X 4,000

4,400 ampere turns at full
Therefore the series field winding must supply 1,400 am-J-
load.
pere-turns,
and the
series
winding must consist of 14 turns of
wire.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF MOTORS.

35.
of
Experimental determination
a motor.
The
of
speed-torque characteristic
characteristic curve of a generator is definite
409
only when certain of the mechanical conditions of driving are

constant.
Thus we might have a
characteristic relation
between
the current output and electromotive force of a generator driven
by an
speed.
that
is
invariable torque, or of a generator driven at invariable
The
latter condition
nearly always occurs in practice
to say, electric generators are usually driven at
an approx-
imately constant speed. Therefore, the only important type of generator characteristic
On
is
that which corresponds to constant speed.
the other hand, the relation between the speed of a motor
and the torque developed by
it
is
only when certain
definite
of
Thus we may
the electrical conditions of driving are constant.
have a characteristic relation between the speed and torque of a
motor which
is
supplied either with an invariable current, or with
current from constant voltage mains.
approximation to
it,
The
most important type of motor
characteristic
sponds to constant impressed electromotive
The speed-torque
latter condition, or
an
usually occurs in practice, and, therefore, the
characteristic of a
experimentally as follows
Provision
is
that
which corre-
force.
motor may be determined

is
made for supplying the

The motor is loaded
motor current from constant voltage mains.
by means of a Prony brake. The load is varied through a wide

range by adjusting the brake, and corresponding values of speed
and torque are observed.
The observed speeds
are then plotted
as ordinates, and the corresponding values of the observed torques

plotted as abscissas.
An
interesting characteristic curve of a
current curve at stand-still.
This curve
motor
may
is
the torque-
be determined ex-
perimentally by fixing a lever to the motor pulley and observing,
by means of a spring dynamometer, the
pull at the
end of
this
The product of
arm gives the value
lever for various values of armature current.

this
observed pull into the length of the lever
of the torque and these values are to be plotted as ordinates and

the corresponding currents as abscissas.
This stationary torque
exceeds the running torque, for a given value of
field excitation
and given value of the armature current, by the amount of torque
410
required to overcome friction and windage, and to supply the
eddy current and hysteresis

36. Typical examples
of
losses in the armature core.
motor characteristics.
series
Series motor supplied with current from cojistant voltage mains.
shows a
Fig. 43
typical speed-torque characteristic of a series
When
motor supplied with current from constant voltage mains.

the speed
(a)
zero the counter electromotive force of the motor
is
Speed
X
Torque
Fig. 44.
Fig. 43.
is
zero
the current through the motor
is
then very large, and
since this current flows through the field winding of the series
motor, the
field excitation is large.
Therefore the flux
<l>
is
and, according to equation (25) Chapter IV., the torque
As
large.
the motor speeds up
increases, the current decreases
the motor
is
unloaded
its
drops to the value which

friction,
power
The
and windage, and,
lost in the
its
is
very
counter electromotive force
and the torque decreases.
When
speed becomes excessive, and the torque

is
necessary and sufficient to overcome
in addition, to
supply to the armature the
armature core by hysteresis and eddy currents.
portion cd of the characteristic
practice,
large,
is
the only portion used in
inasmuch as the excessive current which flows through
the motor at low speeds would produce destructive heating, and

the excessive speeds at light loads are dangerous.
(^)
Series
shows a
motor supplied with constant current.
typical
Fig.
44
speed-torque characteristic of a series motor
In this case the torque
supplied with constant current.

stant irrespective of the speed
Hne
and the characteristic
parallel to the axis of speed.
evident
when we
stancy of
of flux
is
con-
a straight
is
This constancy of torque
is
consider that constancy of current implies con-
field excitation in
<l>,
411
a series motor, and therefore constancy
so that the torque
is
constant according to equation
(25), Chapter IV.

(c) Series motor supplied with constant current at low speeds
and
connected to constant voltage mains
These
are
the
conditions which obtain in a
rail-
certain value.
way
motor.
started a
series
When
the car
large resistance
is
when
the speed reaches
is
in
with the motor, and as the
car speeds up this resistance
is
current approximately
\,.,- > Running curve

[constant applied voltagfi)
(consfa
slowly cut out so as to keep the

constant
at the greatest value that is con-
sidered permissible without over-
When
heating the motor.
-* Starting
curve
{constant current)
Torque
this
Fie. 45.
resistance
is all
rent begins to
cut out, the cur-
fall
off
inasmuch as the approximately constant
voltage between trolley wire and
rail is
opposed by an increasing
counter electromotive force in the motor.

acteristic of a railway
bination of the curves
shown
example of a speed-torque
shown
Two
two
The speed-torque
motor, under the above conditions,

in Figs.
43 and 44.
is
characteristic of a railway
char-
a comtypical
motor
is
in Fig. 45.
rigidly coupled series motors connected in series.
similar series
motors are connected
in series to
When
supply mains
same current flows through both, and therefore they

always develop nearly the same torque whether their speeds are
precisely the
alike or not.
If the
two motors, so connected, are coupled to-
gether mechanically, they run at the same speed, and they share
4l2
This state of
a given total load very nearly equally.
when
tains
connected
the two
similar series
motors of an
motorman
If the
in series at starting.
cuts out the
starting resistance too rapidly a large current flows
two motors, and one of the motors

of
its
The speed
truck slipping.
greatly,
is
ob-
affairs
electric car are
through the
likely to start the wheels
of this motor then increases
counter electromotive force increases, and the current
its
through both motors decreases, thus reducing not only the torque
of the slipping motor but the torque of the other motor as well.
The
result
man
quickly throws in more resistance so as to reduce the cur-
rent
and torque
is
that the speed of the car falls off unless the motor-
adhere to the
starting resistance
Two
two
sufficiently
to enable the slipping wheels to
The
rails again.
may be
car will then speed up and the
slowly cut out.
rigidly coupled series motors connected in parallel.
series
When
motors which are coupled together mechanically are
connected in parallel to supply mains, they share the total load

with approximate equality unless the machines are very dissimilar.
Any
example
slight increase of current
through one motor, due,
for
to a slight deficiency in the counter electromotive force
of that motor, causes an increased field excitation, and an in-
creased counter electromotive force which tends to prevent the

increase of current.
It is
instructive to contrast with this the
behavior of mechanically coupled shunt motors connected in

parallel, as described in the
37. Typical
examples
of
next
article.
shunt motor characteristics.
motor supplied with current from constant voltage

is
the condition under which shunt
in practice,
(a)
maiits.
Shunt
This
motors are always used
except that certain modifications are introduced by
the use of a rheostat in series with the armature at starting.
These modifications are described under (b).

out in Chapter IV. that the shunt motor
It
has been pointed
when supplied with
rent from constant voltage mains, runs at a speed

slightly with increasing load.
which
cur-
falls off
A typical speed-torque character-
istic
of a shunt motor
curve
and
is
shown
in Fig. 46.
may be obtained by eliminating
(25),
equation
Chapter IV.;
is
413
The equation
4>
the equation to a straight
The
line.
demagnetizing action of the armature current
speed to
fall
to this
between equations (23^)

being assumed constant, the resulting
/^
effect of the
is
to cause the
off less with increasing torque than
would other-
wise be the case, as explained in Art. 60, Chapter IV.

(^b)
Shunt motor started by a starting
in Art. 59,
As explained
rheostat.
Chapter IV., the shunt motor (supplied with cur-
rent from constant voltage mains)
is
started
by
first
connecting
Running curva
Speed
*^Startxttg
curve
T
Torque
Fig. 47.
Fig. 46.
its
winding direct to the mains, and then connecting
field
its
armature to the mains through an auxiliary resistance which

slowly cut out as the motor speeds up.
The
is
ideally correct
manipulation of the starting rheostat would be that which keeps

the armature current constant until
full
speed
is
This
reached.
would produce a constant torque from the beginning to the end

of the starting process, inasmuch as the field excitation of the
motor
is
invariable.
The
vertical straight line in Fig.
sents the ideal starting characteristic of a shunt motor.
ing and accelerating torque
Two
T may
47 repre-
The
start-
be made large or small at
rigidly coupled shunt motors in series.
Two
motors coupled together mechanically operate
will.
similar shunt
satisfactorily
and
divide a load equally when their armatures are connected
in
414
series,
provided the shunt
field
winding of each machine
nected directly to the supply mains.
shunt
If the
field
is
con-
windings
are designed for the voltage of the supply mains they should of
course be connected in parallel to the mains
if
they are designed
for half of the supply voltage they should be connected in series.
Of course
would be
the speed of the motors will be only half of what
if
the
full
it
supply voltage were to be applied to the arma-
ture terminals of each machine.
Two
rigidly coupled shunt
motors in parallel.
When
two
shunt motors which are coupled together mechanically, are connected in parallel to the supply mains (that
is
when the arma-
tures are connected in parallel, the field windings being connected

directly to the mains), a very slight dissimilarity
machines causes a great inequality

load between them.
This
is
between the two
the distribution of the total
in
due to the
fact that a slight increase
of current through one armature causes a decrease of the counter
electromotive force in this armature
and
by
its
demagnetizing action,
this tends to further increase the current
Torque of
through
this
arma-
Torque of A
Fig. 48.
ture.
At
the same time the decrease of current through the
other armature causes
its
counter electromotive force to increase
thus tending to reduce the current
still
more.
That
is,
any
between the two shunt motors
slight dissimilarity
aggerated in
upon the
its effect
two machines by these

It is instructive
4^5
is
distribution of load
greatly ex-
between the
internal electromagnetic actions.
to show,
by means of the speed-torque curves
how a given load will be distributed between

and BB, Fig. 48, are the speed-torque curves
of two shunt motors,
AA
Thus
them.
BB
of two shunt motors, the curve
The
the origin.
When
to generator action.
mechanically their speed
is
P'P
is
given total torque

(^P'
C=
being drawn to the
AA
dotted portions of
torque of B, and
and
BB
left
of
correspond
the two motors are coupled together
Under these
the same.
conditions a
shared unequally by the two motors
PC = torque
of
A)
unless the
two mo-
tors are exactly alike.
Series motor characteristics as used in electric railway engi-
38.
neering.
The
characteristics of a motor, supplied, for example,
from constant voltage mains,
may be
of speed and torque, but also,

current, or in terms of torque
expressed not only in terms
desired, in terms of speed
if
and
current,
inasmuch as a
and
definite
value of current always corresponds to a given torque or to a

given speed.
Fig.
49 shows the
characteristic of a single railway
motor
expressed in terms of speed of car in miles per hour and current
The speed
taken by the motor.
second
hour
this
of the motor in revolutions per
bears a definite ratio to the

ratio is
known when
speed of the car
in miles
per
the gear ratio and size of car
wheels are known.

Fig. 50
shows the
characteristic of a single railway
pressed in terms of tractive effort and current taken
The
tractive effort bears a definite relation to the
this relation is
motor
The
series
known when
friction are
motor ex-
by the motor.
motor torque
the gear ratio, size of car wheels, and
known.
speed-current and tractive effort-current characteristics of
motors are of great importance
ing, since
by
their
means the
in electric
details of
railway engineer-
performance and power
4l6

40
tÔOO
1
c
5
"C
2500
1
8000
"1
1500
1000
500
^
^
/
Amperes
40
60
Fig. 50.
80
consumption of an
may
of motors
electric car or train, with a
be predetermined
417
given equipment
or conversely, with given
schedule and road-bed, a proper selection of motors for the given

service conditions,
may be made.
The following example

motor
the application of series
illustrates
characteristics to the calculation of the
delivered to the car wheels

efficiency obtained
Example,
amount of power
by a given motor equipment, and the
under specified conditions.
fifteen
ton car
is
equipped with two similar
series
motors of which the characteristic curves, with 500 volt supply

(no starting resistance in
circuit),
With the motors connected

form speed of
fifteen miles
shown
are
in Figs.
49 and
in parallel the car travels at
50.
a uni-
per hour up a 6.25 per cent, grade.
by each motor, the total

tractive effort developed by both motors, the total power delivered
to b6th motors, the net power represented by the total tractive
It is
required to find the current taken
effort at the given speed,
and the
efficiency of the car
equipment
under the specified conditions.

Solution.
From the curve
motor corresponding to
fifteen
in Fig.
49 we
find the current per
miles per hour to be 80 amperes,
so that the total current delivered to the car
is
500 volts represents a power input of
160 amperes,
which
at
From
the curve in Fig. 50
effort
per motor to be 1,125 pounds, so that the total tractive
effort is
2,250 pounds.
this tractive effort at the
by the two motors
given speed
to the car wheels,
kilowatts.
in kilowatts represented
is
550
1,000
-^ X
is
by
the total power delivered
and
746
The efficiency is 67.14/80, which
27
'ô
find the corresponding tractive
The power
X 15 X 5,280
2,250
-^-^
3,600
we
is
found to be
= 67.14^ kilowatts
'
0.8393 or 83.93 percent.
APPENDIX
C.
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
39. Classification of
armature windings.
Armatures may be
with respect to the position and arrangement of the
classified
drum
windings on the armature core, as (i) ring armatures, (2)
These names were
armatures, and (3) disk armatures.
origi-
nally applied in view of differences in the external appearance of
the armatures, but the distinction here intended refers to essential
on the armature
differences of the windings of wire
many modern dynamos of large size

diameter many times as great as its length
and the armature
and
parallel to the shaft,
but whether the armature
be classed as a ring armature or a drum armature
ring armature
is
one
in
determined
which a ring-shaped core of
laminated iron has the windings placed upon

helix as
shown
The
II.
is
is
by the arrangement of the windings.
solely
1.
arma-
to a certain extent the finished
has the appearance of a ring
ture,
to
core,
Thus,
core.
the armature has a
in
in
helical
Fig. 17, Chapter
II.,
form of the winding
and
it
in the
form of a
in Fig. 41,
Chapter
show
Fig. 41 does not
in
clearly for the reason that the windings are grouped together in
coils,
but these coils are connected to each other so as to con-
stitute
a continuous helix.
connection with a two-pole
with a multipolar
ring winding
2.
one
in
wound
field
A
field
ring armature
magnet
magnet as shown
as
may be
shown
used
in
in Fig. 17,
or
in Fig. 22.
simple
sometimes called the helical * winding.
is
drum
which a
armature, as used for a bipolar
field
magnet,
is
cylindrical core of laminated iron has the wire
lengthwise (parallel to the shaft) on the outside surface of
the core, and diametrically (nearly) across the ends.
*The
The
term "spiral," frequently used to designate
nomer.
418
this type
In a
of winding,
is
drum
a mis-
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
armature for a multipolar
419
magnet, the wire
field
is
wound length-
wise on the outside surface of the core and across the ends along
chords of nearly 90 for a 4-pole
magnet, along chords of
field
nearly 60 for a 6-pole field magnet, along chords of nearly 45
an 8 -pole
for
field
The
magnet, and so on.
essential difference
between the drum armature and the ring armature
drum
the core
is
that in the
but each conductor on the outside surface of the core
connected to a return conductor which
surface and nearly 360// from the
the
is
armature there are no return conductors in the interior of
number of
poles
field
outside conductor
first
is
also
on the outside
conductor, where
is
whereas, in the ring armature each
connected to a return conductor on the
is
inside of the ring.
The characteristic feature of the disk armature is that the

(3) Disk armatures.
These conductors
conductors are arranged in a plane like the spokes of a wheel.
move between two
or
more
pairs of opposite
magnet poles which

These
opposite sides or faces of the disk-like armature.

at their inner
face each other
on
radial wires are connected
ends in the same manner as are the ends of the conductors of a drum
armature at the commutator end of the armature, and the outer ends of the radial
wires are connected to each other in the same
ductors of a
drum armature
Disk arn atures are seldom used nowadays
The drum winding
in
which pass through the
shown
40.
in Figs.
slip
coil
practice.
most used.
The
great
having no conductors
armature core,
into place
48 and 49, Chapter
Open and closed
as are the ends of the con-
on forming spools,
coils
them
is
that,
is
interior of the
wind the armature
and bake them, and
American
the type which
is
advantage of the drum winding
ble to
manner
end of the armature opposite to the commutator.
at the
it
is
possi-
tape, varnish,
on the armature core as
II.
armatures.
In
most
direct current
armatures the winding constitutes a closed circuit of wire as

the simple ring winding
shown
armatures are called closed
coil
in
Fig. 17, Chapter II.
armatures.
rent armatures, for example, the
In
some
in
Such
direct cur-
armatures of the Brush, the
Thomson-Houston, and the Westinghouse arc light generators,

and in the armatures of most alternators, the windings do not con-
420
Such armatures
stitute a closed circuit of wire.

coil
The simplest form of open coil armature for a

dynamo is represented in Fig. 21, Chapter II.,
armatures.
direct current
which shows a single turn of wire with

segments of a two part commutator.
Closed
ends connected to the
its
armatures always give a
coil
than open
are called open
much
steadier current
armatures, and they have a smaller tendency to
coil
cause sparking at the brushes.

41. Inductors.
That portion
winding which actually cuts the

rotates,
and
wires which
which
lie
lie
is
induced,
is
armature
called an
the inductors on a ring armature consist of the
on the outside surface of the
on the
interior of the ring cut
therefore not inductors
In the
electric current.
straight wires lying
The end
shaft.
lines of force as the
which electromotive force
in
Thus
inductor.
of the element of an armature
no
ring.
The
lines of force,
wires
and are
they serve only as return paths for the
drum armature
the inductors are the
on the surface of the core
parallel to the
connections between inductors, including those
portions of the straight wires projecting
beyond the armature
core and pole faces (as in the case of barrel
wound drums)
are
not inductors.
Armature inductors have been
called armature conductors in
the previous chapters of this text, but in discussing armature
windings
it is
convenient to employ a term which cannot lead to
confusion.
42.
Armature coil.
Element
of a winding.
That
part of an ar-
mature winding which terminates at two commutator bars or segments
is
called a
winding element or a wifiding
element consists usually of a single armature
be two or more
coil
coils in a
winding element.
unit.
and winding element are used synonymously
In so
far as
A winding
may
The terms armature
coil,
but there
hereafter.
winding connections are concerned, the number of
turns of wire in an armature coil

therefore each armature coil
may
is
a matter of indifference, and
be treated as if
it
had one turn
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
of wire only^ and each side of a
thought of as a single inductor.

lap
and wave windings
armature
43.
is
coil consists of
Possible
number
coil (for
421
drum winding) may be
The subsequent
discussion of
based upon the assumption that an
two inductors only.

commutator bars or segments.
of
It is
evident from the discussion of the simple ring winding given in

Arts. 28 and 29, Chapter
ing
may
be a
II.,
commutator
that each inductor
bar, or
on a ring wind-
be connected to a commu-
Flg. 51.
tator bar.
Or, as stated in Art. 28, Chapter
II.,
every second
inductor, or every third inductor, or every fourth inductor, etc.,
may
be connected to commutator bars.
That
is
to say, the
num-
422
may be
ber of commutator bars for a simple ring winding
be
where
Zjin,
equal
number of inductors Z, or the number of bars may-
to the total
in is
any integer which
is
a factor of Z.
The necessary relation between the number of inductors and

the number of commutator bars in the case of a drum armature
may be shown as follows The drum armature may be looked
:
upon as a ring armature modified by

turn wire,
a, Fig. 51, to
transferring each inside re-
the opposite side * of the armature at
b^
the wire c being extended across one end of the armature, and
d across
the wire
Now,
the other end.
both b and the adjacent
if
inductor are commutator bars, or are connected to adjacent com-
mutator bars,
d will
tive
it
will
be seen from Fig.
that both wires c
and
connect across directly from the positive brush to the nega-
brush and the dynamo armature
Therefore a
nected to commutator segments.
drum winding corresponds
be short-circuited.
will
drum armature cannot have
adjacent inductors con-
Every
alternate inductor of a
to an inside return conductor of a ring
winding, and, at most, every alternate inductor of a
drum winding
can be a commutator bar, or be connected to a commutator bar.
number of commutator bars

drum winding is Z/2, where Z is the number of
inductors.
The number of commutator bars may of course be
less than this.
In fact the number of commutator bars in case
of a drum winding may be Z\2m where m is any integer, and
That
is
to say, the greatest possible
in case of
2m
is
44.
a factor of Z.
Lap and wave windings.
There
are two different schemes
of connecting the ends of the inductors of a
form a symmetrical closed

is
called the lap
There
is
no
coil
winding and the other
essential
case of a bipolar
difference
dynamo
but
One
winding.
is
drum armature
called the
wave winding.
between these two schemes

in
case of a multipolar
the (simplex) lap winding always gives as
to
of these schemes
many
in
dynamo
paths between
the brushes as there are field poles, while the (simplex) wave
* For a two pole drum armature.
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
423
winding always gives two paths between the brushes whatever the
number of field poles may be.

The simple ring winding when used with a multipolar field
magnet offers a number of paths between the brushes equal to
the number of field poles as explained in Art. 29, Chapter II.,
and the simple ring winding corresponds
in this respect to the
wound drum.
The windings of a ring armature, when used with a multipolar
field magnet, may be grouped in coils, and these coils may be
interconnected in such a way as to give a symmetrical closed
lap
coil
winding which presents two paths between the brushes what-
ever the
number of
poles may be.

wound drum.
field
corresponds to the wave
Such a
ring winding
The following discussion of lap and wave windings is limited

to drum armatures.
From the fundamental equation of thp dynamo, equation (21)
Chapter II., it is evident that a multipolar dynamo with a wave
wound armature (/' = 2) gives a greater electromotive force for
a given number of armature inductors, than the same dynamo
with a lap wound armature
High voltage dynamos
(/' =/)
(especially those of small current output) are usually therefore
wound armatures, and low voltage dynamos

usually have lap wound armatures.
The lap wound armature must have as many brush sets as field
poles if every current path in the armature is to be utilized.
The
wave wound armature needs only two brush sets to bring into
provided with wave
service every armature inductor, as pointed out in Art. 50.

45.
Lap winding.
in Figs.
52 and 53,
ductor No.
I,
if
Starting at
commutator segment No.
we proceed by
front
then along inductor No.
end connection to
i,
in-
towards the back (or
pulley end) of the armature, then across the back (by dotted line
in
Fig.
52) to inductor No.
6,
thence along inductor No. 6
towards the front (or commutator end), then by front end connection to commutator segment No.
2,
we
shall
have completed
424
-8S-
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
an element of the winding.
If
we now
segment No. 2 along inductor No.
tator
ductor No.
425
continue from
3,
and thence along inductor No. 8
8,
commu-
across the back to into
commutator
we shall have completed the second element

The rest of "the winding is merely a repetition
segment No.
3,
the winding.
of
of
evident from Figs.
52 and 53,
that each winding element consists of an almost closed loop or
the steps just described.
coil,
It is
and that the second element laps over the
the heavy lines in Figs. 52 and 53.
It is
lapping of the elements that this winding

In Figs. 52 and 53
it
first,
as
on account of
is
shown by
this over-
called the lap winding.
can be seen that inductor No.
is
con-
nected at the back to inductor No. 6, inductor No. 3 to No. 8

inductor No.
interval
is
5 in Figs.
fifth
is,
52 and 53.
i
starts
from segment No.
segment No.
i,
and
it is
equal to
can be seen that
it
i,
This
back end of the
at the
In this same figure
also connected to
each odd num-
following inductor.
called the back pitch of the winding
inductor No.
is
No. 10; and so on, that
connected to the
is
between inductors connected
armature
No. 4
to
bered inductor
and that inductor
and
in
a similar
man-
ner inductors Nos. 3 and 6 are both connected on the front end
to
segment No.
2,
and so
on.
This interval between inductors
connected together at the front end

winding, and
it is
is
called
^^ front pitch
of the
equal to 3 in Figs. 52 and 53.
In tracing through the winding in Figs. 52 and 53, one progresses in one direction at the back, and in the opposite direction
at the front of the armature,
back
and therefore one
pitch, is considered positive
pitch,
and the other pitch
is
say the
consid-
ered negative.
In Figs. 52 and 53 the terminals of an element of the winding
are connected to adjacent
ing
is
commutator segments, and the wind-
called a simplex or single lap winding.
In what
is
called a duplex or double lap winding the terminals
of an element of the winding are connected, not to adjacent
mutator segments, but to every other segment.
In what
is
comcalled
a triplex or triple lap winding the terminals of an element of the
426
winding are connected to every third commutator segment, and
The
so on.
interval
between the terminals of a winding element,
expressed in terms of the number of commutator segments,

called the
commutator
mutator pitch
us say,
let
is,
commutator pitch
is
is
resultant pitch,
and the back
j/, is
Thus
pitch.
and
in Figs. 5 2
5 3 the
is
com-
In a duplex winding the
i.*
plus or minus, in a triplex lap winding
2,
the commutator pitch
The
Thus
pitch.
3,
and so on.
the algebraic
in Figs.
sum
of the front pitch
52 and 53 the resultant pitch
\&
y=yi,-^yf=
The average pitch
and the back
is
pitch.
+ (-3) = +
half the anthmetical
Thus
in Figs. 5 2
and
sum
53
of the front pitch
the average pitch
is
A.= (5 +
46.
Wave
winding.
3)/2
Starting at
=4
54 and 55, if we proceed by front end connection to inductor No. I, then along inductor No. i towards the back (or
in Figs.
pulley end) of the armature, then across the back (by dotted line
in Fig. 54) to inductor
the front (or
No.
6,
then along inductor No. 6 towards
commutator end), then by
front
end connection to
6, we shall have completed one element

The next element of the winding is connected

of the winding.
similarly from
segment No. 6 through inductors No.
1 1
and No.
16 to segment No. 2 as shown by the heavy lines in Figs. 54

and 55. The rest of the winding is merely a repetition of the
steps just described for the
It is
first
two elements of the winding.
evident from Figs. 54 and 55 that two consecutive wind-
ing elements have the appearance of two successive waves or

zig-zags.
This
is
shown with
especial distinctness in Fig. 55.
* If front and back pitches are interchanged, the commutator pitch

sign, that
is
segment No.
reversed in
element of the winding (in Figs. 52 and 53) would terminate at

and segment No. 9.
the
i
is
It
first
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
427
428
is
on account of
In Figs. 54 and 55
that the front pitch
also
appearance that
this wave-like
winding
this
is
wave winding.
called the
The
5.
may be seen that the back pitch

+5, and that the commutator
it
is
resultant pitch
and the average pitch
+5,
is
pitch
is
is
is
A.
5 )/2
show a /<:7/^r-pole winding, and it may be seen

that starting from commutator segment No. i we come to the
next commutator segment No. 2, after passing through two consecutive elements of the winding.
Any wave winding which
Figs. 54
and
5 5
brings one from a given commutator segment to an adjacent seg-
ment
through //2 winding elements, where / is the

magnet poles for which the winding is made, is
after passing
number of
field
called a simplex or single
wave winding.
wave winding, //2 winding

elements lead from a given commutator segment to the next segment but one in what is called a triplex or triple wave winding,
//2 winding elements lead from a given commutator segment
In what
is
called a duplex or double
to the third following segment,
Reentrancy.
47.
and so on.
A winding which
a closed (or complete) electrical
winding
it is
and because such a closed
ters,
coil
is
on
itself,
i.
e.,
forms
called a closed coil
winding reenters
itself,
called a reentrant winding.
Armature windings may be

eral,
closes
circuit,
multiply reentrant.
is
winding
traces
called
is
one
singly, doubly, triply, or in gen-
The number
of times a winding reen-
the degree of reentrancy.

in
which
if
one
starts
through the successive inductors
singly reentrant
at inductor
in
No.
and
the order of winding,
the whole winding has to be traced through before conductor
No.
is
reached or reentered.
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
doubly reentrant winding
inductor No.
one
is
429
which
in
if
one
starts at
and traces through the successive inductors
in the
order of winding, only one-half of the whole winding has to be

traced through before inductor No.
the other half being exactly like this
first
reached or reentered
is
half
manner,
triply reentrant winding, in a similar
is
a winding
which on being traced through from conductor No. i and back

to the starting point still leaves two thirds of the total inductors
to
be traced through.
In tracing through the successive inductors of the winding,
one
may
pass around the armature once, twice, or any
The number of times
of times before reaching the starting point.
one passes around the armature

set of inductors has
For example,
trancy.
winding, one
five
or
48.
no
more
may
number
in tracing
through a reentrant
essential relation to the degree of reen-
in tracing
through a singly reentrant drum
pass around the armature as
many
as twenty-
times.
Consider two
Simplex and multiplex windings.
drum simplex lap windings Hke Figs. 52 and
53.
windings with their commutators be designated as
Imagine the winding
B to
the inductors of winding
have
its
and B.
inductors sandwiched between
on the same
commutator segments of winding
similar
Let these
core,
and imagine the
be likewise sandwiched
to
between the commutator segments of winding A. We now have

an armature core upon which there are 36 inductors and a commutator having 1 8 segments odd numbered segments belong;
ing to winding
and even numbered segments to winding B.
If the original brushes in
enough
Figs.
to touch always at least
commutator, then windings

the brushes, and the
number
armature winding between

doubled.
52
and
and
it is
are
made
this
thick
doubled
are in parallel between
of paths in parallel through the

positive
and negative brushes
The winding here described
winding and
53
two segments of
doubly reentrant.
is
is
called a duplex lap
430
triplex winding consists, in the simplest cases,
together on one core and put in parallel

thick brushes to insure contact with
of three
commutators, sandwiched
similar simplex windings with their
by using
sufficiently-
three windings at each
all
brush.
Any number of simplex wave

may be sandwiched
windings with their commutators
together as above described, giving a multi-
plex wave winding.
Any
winding not a simplex winding
is
in
general called a
multiplex winding, although the above description of a multiplex
winding as built up of independent and complete simplex windings
sandwiched together,
The advantage
not entirely general.
is
of multiplex over simplex windings
sparking at the brushes
that
reduced by the use of multiplex
In a simplex winding one winding element
windings.
circuited
is
is
when a brush touches two
short-
is
adjacent commutator bars as
explained in Art. 78, Chapter VI., and a brush must at certain

instants
touch two adjacent commutator bars.
winding no portion of the winding
is
In a duplex
short-circuited
touches two adjacent commutator bars
when
a brush
short-circuit only occurs
when
a brush touches three adjacent bars, and, although a brush
must
at certain instants
winding,
still
touch three adjacent bars
in a
duplex
the short-circuit includes a greater length of path
in the material of the
brush than in case of a simplex winding,
and the resistance of the brush material
is
more
effective in the
prevention of sparking.
49.
series.
Number
In
of
paths in parallel.
Number
the simplex lap winding there are
of inductors
paths in parallel
between the positive and the negative brushes, where
number of
series in
field poles.
Therefore there are
in
Z\p
is
the
inductors in
each path.
In a simplex wave winding there are two paths in parallel be-
tween the positive and the negative brushes irrespective of the
number
of poles and of the
number
of brush sets.
Therefore
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
there are Z\2
43
inductors in series between the positive and the
negative brushes, in the wave winding.
number of induc-
In a multipolar machine, with a given total
many more paths
tors Zy the lap winding gives
in parallel
between
brushes, and fewer inductors in series in each path, than the
Therefore the use of lap winding
winding
parallel grouping of the inductors,

is
sometimes called
is
wave
sometimes called
and the use of wave winding
grouping of the inductors.
series
Furthermore, on account of the fact that the simplex lap winding has
paths in parallel between brushes, this winding
is
some-
times called a multiple -circuit windings and on account of the fact
wave winding has only two paths in parallel between brushes (independently of the number of poles) this windthat the simplex
ing
is
sometimes called a
tivo-circuit
Combining simplex windings
ways
multiplies the
number
winding.
to give a multiplex
winding
al-
of paths in parallel between brushes.
triplex winding multiplies the
number of paths by 2, a
number of paths by 3 and so on.
Combining simplex windings
to give a multiplex winding does
Thus a duplex winding
multiplies the
not alter the number of inductors in series between brushes, and
hence does not
alter the electromotive force of
one of the com-
ponent simplex windings namely the electromotive force between

the brushes.
The number of inductors
in series
between brushes (and hence
the electromotive force of the machine)
using a coil of
many
turns, instead of
Thus
an element of the winding.
ment terminating
as follows
in
segments
Then
armature core.
may wind
a wire up slot No.
in Figs.
and down
turns constituting one winding element
in
forming
52 and 53, the eleinto a coil
in the figure represent
starting
from segment No.

slot
of times before connecting to segment No.
of the armature winding.
be multiplied by
and 2 may be made
Let each inductor shown
slot in the
may
two inductors,
is
we
No. 6 any number

2.
This group of
called a coil or section
432
The
use of
many
turns of wire in a winding element increases
the tendency to spark at the brushes.
The conductor of an armature winding is frequently composed

of a number of small wires in parallel, instead of one large solid
wire, in
order that the conductor
wound.
Such a conductor
stranded conductor
counted as such
in
is
is
Number
whatever, there are
brush sets
Lap
1.
brush
sets
may be
lVi7tding.
used
in
In the
must be used
any
In
two brush
a positive
may be
sets
is
to
be
sets,
In any closed
coil
winding
case.
to permit the delivery of the greatest
the
sary and sufficient, but any
and
lap winding, simplex or multiplex,
Wave Winding.
2.
easily
neutral points around the commutator, and
current output with the least /"^R
plex,
and
applying the formula for calculating the elec-
brushes required.
of
flexible
be a stranded conductor.
electrically a single inductor
tromotive force of a machine.

50.
may be
said to
loss in the
armature windings.
wave winding, simplex or multiset and a negative set, are neces-
number of
sets
up
and including
to
used.
The fact that two brush sets are sufficient for the wave winding is shown in Figs. 54 and 55, and is evident from the following considerations
Suppose
that there are four brush sets,
first
The commutator segments
one at each neutral point.
under the two positive brushes are

the two
The
inductors Nos.
figure
shows
that
and
electrically connected
6,
and
their
and
end connections.
these two inductors are
situated be-
tween the pole pieces and have no electromotive forces

duced
in
them, hence they
may be
Nos.
and
10.
in-
considered simply as cross
connections between the two positive neutral points.

tive neutral points are similarly
6,
through
The nega-
connected by the idle inductors
In consequence of these cross connections the
only function of the second pair of brush sets

set in collecting current
is
to aid the first
from and delivering current to the com-
mutator segments by the increased contact surfaces of brushes

with commutator
but the distribution of current
in the
windings
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
in
is
433
no way altered by the addition or removal of the second

brush sets.
pair of
When, however, two brushes only are used for a /-pole wavewound armature then pJ2 winding elements, all in series, are
short-circuited under a brush when the brush touches two commutator bars (in a simplex winding). Therefore the wave winding using two brushes has a greater tendency to spark at the
brushes than the lap winding with
wave winding
tage of the
obviated by using
is
This disadvan-
brushes.
brushes instead
of two. *
by a closed coil drum

No drum winding can
Lap and wave windings.
winding.
Both front and back pitches
have an odd number of inductors.
51. Conditions
must be odd
which must be
satisfied
in
a simplex winding.
This
due to the
is
fact that
odd numbered inductors are to be thought of as returns

the even numbered inductors, and therefore even numbered
for
in-
ductors must be connected at both ends to odd numbered induc-
This requires an odd pitch at both ends.
tors.
Both
Z\p
in
front
and back pitches must be approximately equal to
order that the two inductors which constitute a winding
may move
element
simultaneously under
field
poles of opposite
Under these conditions electromotive forces induced

polarity.
The smallest value of
in the two inductors will be additive.
front or
back pitch which meets
this
requirement
and the
stretches completely across a pole face,

front or
back pitch which meets
this
requirement
is
a pitch which
largest value of
is
a pitch which
barely stretches across from a given pole tip to the nearest pole
tip
of like polarity.
Z\p
ably from
The advantage
ture current
is
When
front
the winding
is
of the chord winding
and back pitches
is
that the demagnetizing action of the arma-
to a great extent eliminated thereby,
a very narrow neutral zone on the commutator.

action
is
due
to the fact that the
and
The
its
disadvantage
is
that
it
gives
elimination of the demagnetizing
armature current flows in opposite directions in
nate inductors in each of the two bands of inductors
shown
* See Hobart's Electric Motors, page 48, Whitaker
28
consider-
differ
called a chord winding.
&
in Fig. loi,
alter-
Chapter VI.
Co., London, 1904.
434
may be shown
This
clearly
by making a diagram of a chord winding and indicating
by arrows the direction of the current in each inductor. The neutral zone on the
commutator includes those commutator bars in which terminate all of the winding
elements which do not include inductors under the pole faces
tator bars the electromotive force
is
back pitches are very nearly equal to Z// the neutral zone
angular space between adjacent pole
tips,
because,
inductor which, for a given position of the armature,
if
when
between such communearly as wide as the
is
the pitch were
lies
connected front and back to other inductors which also

other hand,
In a winding of which front and
nearly zero.
between pole
lie
between pole
the pitch, front or back, differs considerably from
only a narrow band of inductors, between a given pair of pole
tips,
Zjp,
tips
every
would be
tips.
Z//,
On
the
there
is
which connect
to
other inductors not under the pole faces, for a given position of the armature.
For a given number of inductors the front and back pitches

to comply with the following requirements
{a) All the winding elements must be similar mechanically
and electrically and they must be placed symmetrically on the
must be chosen
armature core.*
(b)
In tracing through a simplex winding every inductor must
be passed over once and once only, and the winding must close
on
itself
{c)
or be reentrant.
In a multiplex winding which consists of a combination of
complete and independent simplex windings, each simplex winding must satisfy condition
{b).
(d) A multiplex winding which does not consist of complete

and independent simplex windings must as a whole satisfy condi-
Such a multiplex winding
tion (d).
is
called a singly reentrant
multiplex winding.
(e)
per
In a two layer winding (in slotted armatures, two inductors
slot)
the inductors in the lower layer should be considered
even numbered, and those
Lap
windings.
{a)
in the
upper layer odd numbered.
Front and back pitches are opposite
in
sign.
{b)
Front and back pitches cannot be equal.
* In some cases armature core stampings already
in stock are
Equality of
used
for the
armature
of a newly designed machine, even though a suitable arrangement of the windings

necessitates the leaving out of
two
two
by the winding, are
slots
which aie half
"dummy"
coil.
filled
half-coils in
two of the
filled
slots.
In such a case the
up with the two halves of a
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
435
and back pitches would connect both terminals of a wind-
front
ing element to the same commutator segment.

In simplex lap windings front and back pitches differ
(c)
so that the average pitch

pitch
1.
is
(d) In a multiplex lap
2m where
in is the
The
total
winding front and back pitches
Z may be
armature cores,
must be a multiple of the number of
may
any even numin
which case
(The number of
slots.
be even or odd.)
Wave windi7igs.
Front and back pitches are alike
(a)
Front and back pitches
{b)
by
m,
is
number of inductors
ber, except in case of slotted
slots
differ
number of component simplex windings, and

{e)
is
by 2,
an even number, and the commutator
may
be equal or they
in sign.
may
differ
by any multiple of 2. When one pitch, the front pitch for example, is made considerably greater than Zjp then the other
pitch must be made considerably smaller than Zfp.
The average
pitch of a wave winding is always very nearly equal to Zjp
according to
{c)
to
in
^2.
/x
average pitch must be equal
Therefore
which y^^
{cC)
in
(c).
In simplex wave windings
is
the average pitch.
In multiplex wave windings
which
is
the
number of component simplex windings.
In the following table
/ = number
of field magnet poles.
Z = number of armature inductors.

y = average pitch of winding.
K = number of commutator segments.
For
detailed treatment of armature windings see E. Arnold's
Die GleicJtstrominaschine Vol.
Julius Springer, Berlin,
1902
and Parshall and Hobart's Armature Windings D. Van Nostrand
Co., New York, 1895.
^
I.,
436
Table.
Summary for Drum
Lap
No. of Paths
lel
Windings.
Wave
or Parallel Grouping.
Simplex.
Duplex.
Triplex.
2/
3/
Z\p
Z/2/
Z\ZP
or Series Grouping.
Simplex
Duplex.
Triplex.
Z/2
Min. 2
Z/4
Min. 2
Z/6
Min. 2
Max.
Max.
Max.
in Paral-
(/=: number
poles)
No. of Inductors
Series per Path
No. of Brush Sets
of
in
Angular Distance between Brush Sets.
3ÎP
360//
360//
360//
360//
or an odd multiple thereof.
360//
No. of Inductors Pos-
Any
sible
Reentrancy
Single.
py^2 py^\
even number.
Single
/^6
irisodd.
A73 is not
Single if
y is odd.
Double
an
Double
if
if
is
Single
inte-
Single
if
is
not
y\l
an
if
^ is even.
ger.
Triple
even.
Single.
if
Triple
if it
is.
52. Typical
figures,
examples
of
inte-
ger.
if it
is.
drum windings.
The
following
namely, Figs. 56, 57, 58, 59 and 60, show typical ex-
amples of drum windings.
numbered
In these figures the short radial
lines represent the inductors, the crossed lines outside
of the circle of inductors represent the connections at the back
end of the armature, and the crossed
between the
lines
circle of
inductors and the commutator at the center represent the connections at the front
end of the armature.
In these figures a small
chosen
given
for the
number
number of armature inductors
sake of simplicity, and
it is
to
be noted that
for
is
of armature inductors, Z, several different com-
binations of front and back pitches are permissible for a given
type of winding, especially

usually
is
in actual
when
a.
large
number
as
it
Z opens
up a greatly increased choice of
pitches for a given type of winding.

in Figs.
cases chosen from
is
Furthermore a change of a few
units in the value of
windings shown
machines.
Therefore the examples of
56-60 should be looked upon as
among
special
a great number of possible cases.
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
Fig. 56
shows a
six pole
and a commutator pitch of
Six-pole
-j- 9,
drum simplex
commutator pitch
drum simplex
back pitch of
inductors, having a
lap winding.
I,
lap winding with
a front pitch of
-f 9,
i.
437
60
ii,
This winding presents six
Z=6o,
number of paths
front
pitch
II,
back pitch
6.
Fig. 56.
paths in parallel
between the brushes with one sixth of the
inductors in series in each path, and

as
shown
in Fig. 56.
This winding
it
is
must have
six
brush
singly reentrant.
sets
438
Fig. 57
shows a
six pole
drum simplex wave winding
inductors, having a back pitch of
an average pitch of
Six-pole
\-
9,
10,
with 62
a front pitch of
+11,
and a commutator pitch of +10.
This
drum simplex wave winding.
average pitch 10, commutator pitch
-f 9,
Z^=62,
-|-
lo>
front pitch
= -f H, back
number of paths =:
pitch
2.
Fig. 57.
winding presents two paths in parallel between the brushes with
one half of the inductors
in series in
each path, and
it
needs only
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
two brush
sets as
shown
in
Fig. 57.
439
This winding
is
singly
reentrant.
shows a
Fig. 58
The
inductors.
Six-pole
six pole
drum duplex
lap winding having
60
dotted lines and shaded commutator segments
Z=
60, front
drum duplex lap winding, doubly reentrant.
12.
-j- 7, commutator pitch
2, number of paths
back pitch =
pitch
1 1,
Fig. 58.
represent a complete simplex lap winding having 30 inductors,
and the
full
lines
and blank commutator segments represent
440
These two simplex
another identically similar simplex winding.
windings
shown
ing
is
when sandwiched
in Fig. 58,
together on one armature core, as
form a duplex lap winding.
This duplex wind-
of course doubly reentrant according to Art. 47, inasmuch
Six-pole
back pitch
drum duplex wave winding, doubly reentrant.
=+
l^>
Z= 64, front pitch =

=
average pitch 10, commutator pitch 10, number of paths
-|-
9,
4.
Fig. 59.
as each of the constituent simplex windings reenters

this
winding the back pitch
is
-f 7, the front pitch
is
itself.
11,
In
and
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
for
is
and
winding presents 12 paths
of the conditions necessary
all
duplex lap windings as given
44
in Art. 5
paths through each constituent simplex winding, and
6 brush
least
sets,
it
requires
each brush being thick enough to always touch at
two adjacent commutator segments.
Fig. 59
64
This
are satisfied.
between the brushes, 6
in parallel
shows a
drum duplex wave winding having
six pole
The dotted
inductors.
and shaded commutator seg-
lines
ments represent a complete simplex wave winding having 32 inductors, and the full lines and blank commutator segments represent another identically similar simplex
wave winding.
These
two simplex windings when sandwiched together, as shown

Fig. 59, form a duplex
wave winding.
in
This duplex winding
is
of course doubly reentrant according to Art. 47, inasmuch as
each of the constituent simplex windings reenters
itself
winding the back pitch
age pitch
is
o,
is
-|-
11, the front pitch
and the commutator pitch
conditions necessary for duplex

5
is
wave windings
is
i
In this
the aver-
and
all
the
as given in Art.
This winding presents four paths
are satisfied.
9,
in parallel be-
tween the brushes, two paths through each constituent simplex
shown in Fig. 59.

drum duplex wave winding which
winding, and two brush sets are sufficient as
60 shows a
Fig.
is
as
singly reentrant.
six-pole
This duplex winding cannot be looked upon
two simplex windings sandwiched together.
the back pitch

is 4-
II
4- 11, the front pitch is
is
and the commutator pitch
-f-
is -f 11.
In this winding
11, the
This winding pre-
sents four paths in parallel between the brushes,
way from each
average pitch
of the two broad brushes, as
two paths each
may be
seen by
tracing through the windings from brush to brush in Fig. 60.
Two brush
It will
shown
sets are sufficient for this
in Figs.
56 and 57 are grouped
very close together.
The same
windings in Figs. 58 and 59.
mon
winding as shown
in Fig. 60.
be noticed that the inductors of the simplex windings
arrangement
in slotted
is
in pairs
which are drawn
true of the constituent simplex
show the comarmatures where the even numbered

This
is
intended to
442
inductors
lie in
the bottoms of the slots, and the odd
inductors
lie in
the tops of the slots, as
drum duplex wave winding,
Six-pole
-{- 1 1>
of paths
back pitch
-|- 1 1,
average pitch
shown
singly reentrant.
1 1,
numbered
in Fig. 6i.
Z =: 62,
commutator pitch
front
-j- ' i
In
pitch
number
4.
Fig. 60.
this case the front or
back pitch
secutive inductors exactly as
if
is
reckoned by counting con-
they were arranged in one layer.
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
a winding element consists of a
If
443
of n turns of wire instead
coil
of two inductors, as explained in Art. 42, then
it is
convenient to
assign
numbers
that
to the consecutive half-coils^ instead of assigning
is,
to the consecutive bundles of n inductors each,
to the individual inductors.
numbers
In this case the pitches, front and
back, are reckoned by counting consecutive bundles or half-coils.
In the case of slotted armatures
Six-pole
of
Z in
drum simplex wave winding.
the theory of the winding)
mutator pitch
= 4-7, throw of
= 44,
=
coils
3,
wound with formed
Number of half-coils (which

front pitch
-j- 7,
coils
it
is
takes the place
back pitch
-|- 7,
com-
number of paths =: 2.
Fig. 61.
number
by the coil, one side of the coil always being
in the top of one slot, and the other side being in the bottom of the
n\ki following slot, where n is the slot pitch.
The number of slots
convenient to express the back pitch in terms of the
of slots spanned
spanned by the
coils.
When
coils is called the slot pitch
the throw of the coils
is
or the throw of the
given, the only additional
444
information needed for properly connecting the coils (of a simplex
winding)
is
the numbers of the commutator segments to which
the terminals of any given coil are to be connected.
The
matters above mentioned are illustrated in Fig. 6i, which
drum simplex wave winding having 22 coils

number of turns each, the half-coils being numThe back pitch is 7,
to 44 as shown in the figure.
represents a six pole
of any given
bered from
inasmuch as
is
No. 39
half-coil
shown by the dotted
connected across the back, as
is
line, to half-coil
No.
2,
and
also 7,
inasmuch as
to half-coil
No.
commutator pitch
The
is
shown by the
Any one
is
connected at the front end

full
line
and so
on.
The
inasmuch as the terminals of the com-
also 7,
throw of the
slot pitch or
No.
front pitch
1-8 are connected to commutator bars No.
plete coil
8.
is
No. 2
half-coil
9, as
half-coil
The
connected at the back to No. 8 and so on.
pair of brushes
A,
The
and No.
coils is 3.
is
sufficient for the
wave wind-
ing
shown
tive
brushes A^, A^ and A^ and three negative brushes B^^ B^
and
in Fig. 61.
figure,
however, shows three posi-
B^.
53.
Further comparison of lap and wave windings.
tential connections.
never
is
In
practice
exactly centered in the
the
field,
armature of a dynamo
but
it
is
one pole or poles than to others, especially

have become worn.
more
Equipo-
usually nearer to
after the bearings
Inaccurate centering of the armature causes
flux to enter or leave the armature at certain poles than at
others, so that greater electromotive forces are induced in the in-
ductors under certain poles than in the inductors under other

poles.
These
inequalities of electromotive force exactly balance
each other insofar as the closed circuit of the whole winding

concerned, but
if
there are two or
two or more negative brush
more
positive brush sets
and
sets these inequalities of electromotive
force produce local currents
through certain paths of the wind-
ing,
and through the wires which connect the
tive)
brush
sets together.
is
These
positive (or nega-
local currents increase the heat-
ing of the armature and they tend also to increase the sparking.
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
Now
the various inductors which constitute a given current
path through a wave
wound armature
are distributed under all
of the field magnet poles, so that, in the

electromotive forces are induced in
there
445
no perceptible tendency
is
for the production of local cur-
rents through certain armature paths,
which connect the brush
sets.
wave winding, equal
of the armature paths and
all
On
and through the wires
the other hand the various
inductors which constitute a current path through a lap
armature
lie
under two adjacent
magnet poles and,
field
an inaccurrate centering of the armature
fore,
may
wound
there-
lead to the
production of veiy considerable local currents through the current paths and brush connections
of a
multipolar
lap-wound
armature.
These
local currents
may be prevented from
flowing out through
the brushes and across the brush connections,
by making perma-
nent low resistance cross-connections in the commutator (or in

the armature winding) between each given commutator bar, and
every other bar which passes at the same time under a positive
These cross-connections are called equipotential connec-
brush.
tions for the reason that

will
if
be
at the
every set of commutator bars so connected
same potential (no electromotive
the magnetic field
is
symmetrical.
force
between them)
Equipotential connections
obviate the increased tendency to sparking due to the local currents,
but at the expense of a slightly increased heating of the
armature.
54. Modified multiplex
wave winding
The above mentioned
advantage of the wave winding over the lap winding, namely, that
the electromotive forces induced in the various paths of a wave
winding are always balanced and do not tend to produce local

currents, applies to multiplex
wave windings.
wave winding,
wave windings
Now, one advantage

for
as well as to simplex
of the lap winding over the
low electromotive force machines,
is
that a
number of
winding.
multi-path
wave
The
followcommutator bars like the
ing modification of the singly reentrant ;;^-plex multipolar wave
multi-path lap winding does not require an excessive
446
2m balanced paths and having

many commutator bars as the original ;;^-plex
winding gives a winding having

only
i/?^th
as
winding.
;;/-plex multipolar wave winding
60 shows a singly reentrant duplex six-pole wave winding).
In such a winding a commutator segment is of course inserted at
Consider a singly reentrant
(Fig.
the terminus of each winding element.

starting
Suppose, however,
from a given commutator segment,
elements are
wound
that,
of these winding
as one extended winding element before a
Fig. 62.
ARMATURE WINDINGS.
commutator segment
is
44/
inserted, then another
group of
ments are wound as another extended element, and so on.
;;/
ele-
The
result will
be a modified type of singly reentrant wave winding
having as
many
paths as the original m-p\ex winding, namely
2m paths, but having only
each segment being made
7n
/mth as many commutator segments,

times as broad as before.
In the original ;;^-plex winding two brushes each broad enough

to touch at least
commutator segments are
sufficient.
In the
modified winding the brushes touch one segment (or at most two)
at a time,
Fig.
and two brushes are not
sufficient.
62 shows one of these modified six-pole wave windings
with 16 commutator bars.
This winding
may
be thought of as
derived from a singly reentrant triplex wave winding with a front

pitch of 17,
and a back pitch of
to use all six of the
17.
narrow brushes
paths in the armature.
In this case
in order
it is
necessary
to utilize the six
APPENDIX
D.
PROBLEMS.
Chapter
1.
Define the following terms and state the unit
which each
(c)
Elementary Electricity and Magnetism.
I.
expressed
is
in the c.g.s.
system
potential energy, (d) kinetic energy,

2.
Define the watt.
ber of watts
foot
3.
(a)
(^)
Find the num-
=980
pound
= 453.6
one
grams, acceleration
centimeters per second per second.
Find the number of kilogram-meters per second

(6)
number of watts
work,
one horse-power using the following data
in
horse-power.
4.
terms of
power.
Define the horse-power.
30.48 centimeters, one
of gravity
and
in
{a) force, (p)
in
one
Find the number of ergs per second and the
one kilogram-meter per second.
in
pulley 10 inches in diameter runs at a speed of 1,000
revolutions per minute and dehvers 10 horse-power.
Find
(a)
the torque acting on the pulley in pound-inches, and (d) the tan-
Ans.
gential pull at the rim of the pulley in pounds.
pound-inches;
6.
(d)
(a) Electrical
watt-hour, what
is
(â)
63
i.i
126.22 pounds.
energy for lighting costs

the cost per
month (30 days)
cents per kilo-
of operating a
16 candle-power lamp which takes 3.1 watts per candle, the lamp
being in service three hours each day ?

supplied at
motor.
The
(d) Electrical
energy
is
cents per kilowatt-hour for driving a 10 horse-power

efficiency of the
motor
at full load
is
85 per cent.
Find the cost per horse-power-hour of the mechanical output of

the motor.
6.
Two
Ans.
(a)
steel bars
6y cents
(d)
4.38 cents.
each 50 cm. long, 2 cm. wide and 2 cm.
thick are magnetized to an intensity of
centimeter of sectional area,

pole,
(d)
800
units pole per square
(a) Calculate the strength of
each
Calculate the force in dynes, and in pounds, with which

448
PROBLEMS.
449
the north pole of one rod attracts the south poJe of the other
rod when the poles are at an approximate distance of 50 centi-
Ans.
meters from each other.
3,200 units pole;
{a)
(d)
4,096
dynes, 0.00924 pounds.

Note.
A slim rod of the best
manent magnetization of about 800
One
7.
of the magnets of problem 6
how
Find
center of gravity.
at its
quality of hardened
magnet
steel retains
a per-
units pole per square centimeter sectional area.
supported horizontally
is
from the center a ten-
far
gram weight must be placed to balance the tilting action of the

vertical component of the earth's field, the value of which is 0.52
gauss
the acceleration of gravity
Calculate the direction and intensity of the magnetic field
8.
due
980 centimeters per second
is
Ans. 8.49 centimeters.
per second.
to both poles of
at a point
which
is
one of the magnets specified in problem 6
40 centimeters from one pole and 30
centi-
Ans. Intensity 4.079 gausses makes

an angle of 23 27' with axis of magnet.
meters from the other pole.
The
9.
earth's magnetic field at a certain place dips
the horizon and
its
intensity
meters high stands with

netic meridian,
its
ceiling
(a)
its
is
0.58 gauss.
two
3x6
across
its
room
meter walls
63 below
5x6x3
in the
mag-
Find the magnetic flux into the room across
and out of the room across
magnetic flux into the room across
room
north wall.
Ans.
its
(a)
its floor.
(^)
Find the
south wall and out of the
155,040 maxwells,
(^) 39,-
495 maxwells.
10.
One
of the pole faces of a
dynamo
has an area of 20
cm. X 30 cm. and 1,800,000 Hnes (maxwells) of flux pass from

the pole face into the smooth core of the armature.
intensity of the magnetic field in the air
face
and the armature core?
11.
What
is
the
gap between the pole
Ans. 3,000 gausses.
Calculate the magnetic flux which passes out from a north
pole of one of the magnets specified in problem 6.
Ans. 40,210
maxwells.
12.
The armature
face, of
29
dynamo has
The magnetic
of a
30 centimeters.
a length, under the pole

field intensity in
the gap
450
space
is
wires parallel to
its
covered with straight
Each of these wires
axis.
Ans. 675,000 dynes or
pounds.
A horizontal
13.
75 am-
carries
horizontal
wire 10 meters long, stretched due magnetic
component of the
of 3,000 dynes.
What
is
pushed upwards by the
earth's magnetic field with a force
the direction and strength of the cur-
is
component of the
rent in the wire, the horizontal
earth's field
Ans. 150 amperes flowing towards the
being 0.2 gauss?
pounds.
1.5 18
and west, and carrying a current,
14.
is
Calculate the side push on each wire in dynes and in
peres.
east
The armature
3,000 gausses.
east.
horizontal electric light wire, stretched due magnetic
north and south, carries a current of 1,000 amperes flowing
towards the north.
The
wire
of the earth's magnetic field

is
is
250 meters long, the intensity

0.58 gauss, and the magnetic dip
is
Find the value of the force with which the earth's mag-
63.
netic field
pushes on the wire and specify
its
Ans.
direction.
2.906 pounds, pushing towards the west.
15.
circular coil of wire of
How much
wire.
current
netic field intensity of
is
20 cm. radius has
turns of
required in the coil to give a
one gauss
magAns.
at the center of the coil ?
2.122 amperes.
16.
wire and
tensity
circular coil of wire of

it
carries
20 amperes.
20 cm, radius has 15 turns of

Calculate the magnetic field in-
(a) at the center of the coil, (d) at a point in the axis of
the coil and distant 100 cm. from the plane of the
at
a point in the axis of the
plane of the
coil.
Ans.
(a)
coil
and
9.42;
distant
(d)
coil,
and
(c)
200 cm. from the
0.07109;
(c)
0.00929
gauss.
17.
A solenoid
late the
magnetic
five feet
long has 1,600 turns of wire, calcu-
field intensity inside
current of 10 amperes in the wire.

18.
of the solenoid due to a
Ans. 13 1.8 gausses.
long iron rod two inches in diameter has one of
projecting into the solenoid specified in problem 17.

that the rod
is
its
ends
Assuming
magnetized to an intensity of 1,500 units pole per
square cm. section, calculate the force tending to draw the rod
PROBLEMS.
into the solenoid
when a
45
current of 20 amperes flows in the wire.
Ans. 8.014 X 10^ dynes.

Note.
One pole of the rod
in the intense field inside of the solenoid
is
pulled with a force of tnofi dynes.
upon
solenoid and the force acting
19.
it
The other pole of

may be neglected.
the rod
is
current of 0.5 ampere flowing through a glow lamp
generates 150 calories of heat in 10 seconds,
lamp
resistance of the
lamp
in the
and
remote from the
is
Express
ohms,
in
in watts
(a) Required the
What power
{b^
and
expended
is
Ans.
in horse-power.
(a)
252 ohms; (^) 63 watts or 0.0844 horse-power.

20.
grams of
vessel containing 2,000

is
0.60.
The
is
0.95.
A current of
How
wire.
The
long will
coil
field
(specific heat 0.094),
temperature of the
of which the specific heat
oil
200 grams and its specific heat

amperes is passed through the coil of
1.5
take to raise the temperature of the
it
temperature of the
from the
coil
per second
22.
cial
is
Note.
coil
begin to
coil
When
[b)
(a)
rise
How
long would
to rise 20 C.
Ans.
radiation ?
59 minutes,
is
(a)
if
it
take for the
no heat were given
is
in
The
off
0.0056 centigrade degrees
seconds.
diameter?
a thousandth of an inch.
in diameter.
length of wire
oil
seconds.
1 1
the resistance at 25 C. of one mile of
One mil
one mil
9.
At what rate does the

when a current of 0.5 am-
100 ohms,
is
copper wire 200 mils
circle
ical
What
by
(/^)
Ans.
dynamo contains 25 pounds of copper

weight of cotton insulation negligible.
The
started in the coil
is
coiled in a
of a
resistance of the coil
pere
is
vessel itself weighs
and the vessel one centigrade degree

21.
ohms
wire having a resistance of 250
area of a circle
commer-
Ans. 1.426 ohms.

One
circular mil
d mils in
diameter
is
the area of a
is d'^
circular mils.
expressed in feet and sectional area in circular mils the numer-
value of k in equation (12), Chapter
I., for
commercial copper
at
25 C.
is
about
10.8 ohms.
23.
given spool
wound
diameter has a resistance of

is
wound
sistance?
full
full
.
of copper wire 102 mils in
ohms.
An
exactly similar spool
of copper wire 204 mils in diameter, what
Ans. 0.0938 ohm.
is its
re-
452
Find the resistance
24.
50
at 25 C. of a rectangular
4 inches wide, and
feet long,
copper bus bar
Ans. 0.000212
J^ inch thick.
ohm.
Note.
25.
Square inches X i,ocx),ooo X 4/^ gives
What
circular mils.
the resistance at 25 C. of a steel
is
One
weighing 600 lbs?
30
rail
the specific resistance of the steel
is
long
feet
cubic inch of steel weighs 0.28
and
lb.
8 times that of copper.
Ans.
0.000342 ohm.
What
26.
the resistance at 25 C. of a 20 foot length of
is
wrought
iron pipe,
diameter
A transmission
total resistance of
One
line
0.40
2,000
ohm
inches outside
is
7 times that of
long (each wire)
feet
the above copper wire (bare)

cents per
Ans.
lb.
(rt)
and
328.6 mils
given weight of copper
is
to have a
Find diameter of wire
{a)
cubic inch of copper weighs 0.32
28.
wrought iron
Ans. 0.001695 ohm.
copper.
27.
inch inside diameter and
Specific resistance of
is
lb.;
{c)
{b) find
in mils.
the weight of
find its total cost at
(b) 1,303
lbs.;
{c)
;Î95.45.
manufactured into 1,000
feet
of wire 128 mils in diameter having a resistance of 0.629 ohm.
The same amount

its
length
and
of copper
its
(p)
is
made
resistance.
into 32 mil wire
Ans.
{a)
find
6,000
feet
{a)
(b)
161.02 ohms.
29.
The weight
resistance of
20 C.
Ans.
in lbs.
in
R = 0.00003 133
and the
at
diameter
same temperature.
resistance) of the
tivity of
is
found by
test to
100 mils
is its
in
Ans. 95.42 per
copper transmission
What
have the same resistance

in
diameter at the
Find the conductivity (reciprocal of
sample expressed
pure copper.
F.
L^ j W.
of commercial copper wire three feet long and
as 26.2 inches of pure copper wire
31.
lb.
an inch cube of copper between opposite faces
A sample
20 mils
20
0.32
0.00000068 ohm. Derive a formula giving the resist20 C. of copper wire in terms of its length in feet and
weight
30.
is
is
ance at
its
of a cubic inch of copper
cent.
line has a resistance of 5
resistance at
specific
per cent, of the conduc-
90 F.?
ohms
at
Ans. 6.236 ohms.
PROBLEMS.
32.
of 30
453
The field coil of a dynamo (copper wire) has a

ohms after it has been standing for a long time
at a temperature of
68 F.
35 ohms, what
An
33.
is
What
I500C.
resistance
6-candle-power iio-volt glow lamp has a
400 ohms
resistance of
say,
field coil is
Ans. 149 F.
the temperature of the coil?
ordinary
room
After the machine has been running
loaded for several hours the resistance of the
fully
resistance
in a
at 0 C.
and 220 ohms
at a white heat,
the average temperature coefficient of
is
C?
between 0 C. and 1500
0.0003
Ans.
its
P^^ ^^^"
tigrade degree.
34.
The
units at
copper wire
find
from
Ans.
sectional area.
it
(a) the
(a) 9.63
ohms
1,600
c.g.s.
0 C. of a
and
(d)
the re-
a current of 150 amperes
it
that the increased
is
giving out no current
When
it.
in
0.00000063 ohm.
(d)
a certain electric generator
Assuming
is
resistance at
one inch long and one square inch
takes 1,75 horse-power to drive
livers
it.
When
this
mil in diameter and one foot long
sistance of a copper bar
35.
commercial copper
specific resistance of
0 C,
the generator de-
takes 25 ho
power
is all
e-power to drive
used in the main-
tenance of the 150 amperes of current, find the electromotive
Ans. 11 5.7
force of the generator.

36.
An
volts.
incandescent lamp takes 0.6 ampere
motive force between
its
lamp
delivered to the
terminals
in watts
is
and
10
volts.
when
the electro-
Find the power
in horse-power.
Ans. 66
watts or 0.0884 horse-power.

37.
A so-called
2,000 candle-power arc lamp has a current of
9,6 amperes flowing through

volts
between
its
terminals,
it,
(a)
and an electromotive force of 47

Find how many kilowatt-hours
and how many horse-power-hours of work are delivered
lamp during a run of eleven hours,

eleven hours
hour.
Ans.
is
(a)
27
cents, find the
(d) If
to the
the charge for a run of
price of
power per kilowatt-
4.96 kilowatt-hours or 6.66 horse-power-hours
(d) 5.43 cents.
38.
A storage battery
consisting of 54 cells connected in series
has a resistance of 0.0002
ohm
per
cell,
and an electromotive
454
force per cell
which ranges from 2 volts
The
end of the discharge.
volts at the
battery supplies current
glow lamps (each having 220 ohms resistance) connected
to 100
between copper wires 0.325 inch
in parallel
between the terminals of the group of lamps
at the beginning
end of the discharge of the storage battery.
at the
and 97.5
The
39.
wire,
and
Ans. 105.6
volts.
electromotive force of a battery
The
of course on open circuit).
by a
diameter at a dis-
in
Find the electromotive force
tance of 200 feet from the battery.
volts
beginning to 1.85
at the
when
it
is
is
15 volts
(measured
battery terminals are connected
observed that a current of
1.5
amperes
is
produced and the electromotive force between the battery terminals
is
Find the resistance of the wire and the apparent
volts.
Ans. 6 ohms and 4 ohms.
resistance of the battery,
When a
Note.
the cell falls
what
is
off,
voltaic cell
is
upon
called
to give current, the terminal voltage of
not only on account of the ri drop in the
called polarization.
This problem
is to
whole of the decrease
in terminal voltage is
sistance as calculated
on
this
assumption
cell,
but also on account of
be solved on the assumption that the
due
to ri drop,
and the value of the
re-
greater than the true resistance of the
is
battery.
Find the
40.
total electromotive force that
dynamo armature
must be induced
to send a charging current of
in
100 amperes
through a storage battery consisting of 54 cells connected in

series.
Each cell has an average counter electromotive force of
2.3 volts, the resistance of each cell
of the
leads
41.
dynamo armature
is
0.03 ohm.
tween
its
lamps
is
0.0004 ohm, the resistance
0.02 ohm, and the resistance of the
is
Ans. 131.36
dynamo having an
terminals delivers
volts.
electromotive force of 115 volts be-
200 amperes
to a
,000 feet distant from the generator.
group of glow
Find
[a) the size
of copper wire for the mains in order that 95 per cent, of the
power output of the generator may be delivered to the lamps
the electromotive force between the mains at the lamps.
{b)
(a)
752,000
42.
no
What
Ans.
circular mils; (b) 109.25 volts.

size of
copper wire
volts to a lo-horse-power
is
required to deliver current at
motor of 85 per
cent,
efficiency,
PROBLEMS.
455
the motor being 2,000 feet from the generator, and the electro-
motive force between the generator terminals being 125 volts.
Ans. 230,000 circular
A motor receiving
43.
of
mils.
100 kilowatts of power
The Hne
are to be used.
erator output.
Find:
generator; and
{c)
amperes;
Note.
(b)
is
at a distance
Line wires 200 mils
miles from the generator.
loss is to
in
diameter
be 10 per cent, of the genthe voltage at the
{a) the current; (b)
Ans.
the voltage at the motor.
16.12
{a)
6,894 volts; (c) 6,204 volts.
High voltage
direct current
power transmission
is
not used in American
practice.
Six
44.
open
as
of battery each having an electromotive force (on
cells
circuit) of 2.
shown
in
and a resistance of
The
Fig. 44P.
Locate the point
galvanometer G.
tact /*
volts
resistance oi ab
ohms
is
are connected
150 ohms,
so that no current will be indicated
(b)
(a)
by the
The con-
being 'at the middle point
of ab and the total resistance of
MGP
the path
find:
path
ohms
current in each
(i) the
a,
being 25
and G, and
(2) the
'ô
electromotive force between the
ohms
Fig. 44/^.
terminals of the left-hand cell
and the voltage between J/ and

0.042 ampere
in a^
Ans.
A^.
0.0924 ampere
in
b,
1.89 volts between terminals of left-hand
between
45.
A one-ohm
{a)
resistance of
coil is tested
What
0.0504 ampere
cell,
ohm ?
measuring
{b)
in 6^;
and 8.19 volts
(b)
German
silver wire
ohms per meter must be connected

coil to give
Suppose that an error of
off the required length of the
meters
(J?)
about
-f^
having a
in parallel
a combined resistance of
per cent,
German
be the percentage error of the corrected one-ohm
{a) 16.73
and found to have a resistance of
length of
between the terminals of the
will
a\b=^ 0.2
M and N.
1.004 ohm.
(a)
of one per cent.
is
made
silver
coil ?
in
what
Ans.
456
46.
The
resistances in the various branches of a
network are indicated
The
in Fig. 4.6P.
motive force of 6 volts
in
Wheatstone
battery has an electro-
the direction of the arrow.
Find
the current in the galvanometer

So
on-ma
branch cd and specify

Ans.
tion.
direc-
its
0.0001024 ampere
d towards c.
47. The
network shown
from
in
Fig. 4.6P has a one-volt voltaic

cell
of negligible resistance con-
nected
in the
branch db tending
to force current
from d towards
Find the current
cd and
specify
towards
d.
48.
its
The instrument
is
Ans. 0.000735 ampere from c
direction.
direct-reading
ammeter has a
What
is
10 times the ammeter
is
Wheatstone' s bridge, and connect
how
it
Would
shunt?
practicable to construct such a shunt, measure
If not,
ohm.
resistance of 0.05
provided with a shunt so that the total current
passing through the instrument and shunt

reading.
b.
branch
in the
to the
it
resistance
its
be
by a
ammeter terminals
could such a shunt be accurately adjusted?
Ans.
0.00556 ohm.
49.
sions,
The
scale of a direct-reading millivoltmeter has 100 divi-
each division corresponding to one millivolt between the
This instrument
terminals of the instrument.
is
connected to the
terminals of a low resistance shunt and each division of the scale
corresponds to 0.25 ampere

of the shunt?
50.
resistance
in
the shunt.
What
is
the resistance
Ans. 0.004 ohm.
What
millivoltmeter has a resistance of 15.4 ohms.
must be connected
that the scale reading
may
in
series with the
instrument so
give volts instead of millivolts
Ans.
15,384.6 ohms.
51.
direct-reading voltmeter V, Fig.
ohms resistance,
is
connected from main
p. 51,
having
16,000
A to earth. The voltmeter
PROBLEMS.
gives a reading of 2.6 volts
the mains
main
no volts.
is
457
and the electromotive force between
Find the insulation resistance between
and the earth on the
resistance of
infinite
(J?)
is\ (â)
same as
the
B\
of main
main
mala
assumption that the insulation
that
{c) one-tenth
of
main
that
main
of
660,900 ohms
ohms
52.
B.
Ans.
644,900
ohms.
500,900
The armature D, Fig. 52
(b)
(c)
earth
Fig. 5
Py of a
(a)
dynamo
supply mains
is
1 -P.
connected to
in series
with an ammeter
A and a
R, and the ammeter reads 50 amperes.

of a low reading voltmeter
The
suitable rheostat
terminal leads
are connected to the two

tator segments b
Supply main
and
the voltmeter reads
The
leads
//
//
commuc
and
4. 2 volts.
are then con-
nected to brush lead a and
segment b and the voltmeter

reads
reading
volts
is
same
the
obtained
when
the
leads are connected to seg-
ment
Find
c
:
and brush lead
(i) the
d.
resistance of
the armature between com-
mutator segments b and c

(2)
the
resistance
of each
brush, including contact resistance
between brush and
commutator
total
Fig- 52/^.
ohm;
53.
(2)
0.022
ohm;
and
(3)
resistance
d.
Ans.
and
(3)
the
between a
( i )
0.084
0.128 ohm.
straight horizontal metal bar 3 meters long falls parallel
458
to itself at a uniform velocity of i,ooo centimeters per second.
The bar
points magnetic east and west and the horizontal
nent of the earth's magnetic

electromotive force
in c.g.s. units
and
is
How much
gauss.
field is 0.2
induced in the bar
compo-
Express the result
Ans. 60,000 abvolts or 0.0006
in volts.
volt.
54. The straight metal spoke of a wheel is 40 centimeters long.

The plane of the wheel is vertical and magnetic east and west.
The horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field is 0.2
gauss,
How many lines of force does the spoke cut in one

(p) How much electromotive force is induced in the
(a)
revolution
spoke when the wheel makes 25 revolutions per second?

{a) 1,005.3 maxwells;
(b)
0.000251
The wheel
55.
a metal
What
is
of problem 54
80 centimeters
disk
replaced
is
speed
0.000251
56.
AB,
the electromotive force between the
is
25 revolutions per second?
wire
CD
second.
The
bent to form a rectangle
is
which
Fig. 56P,
at a
is
horizontal
much magnetic
plane
is
rotated about the ver-
speed of 25 revolutions per
earth's magnetic field
much
is
component of the
magnetic east and west
{c)
age value of the electromotive force which
AB
maxwells
57.
during
;
{b)
this
zero
AB
flux passes through

?
What
is
quarter of a revolution
{c)
0.00048
{a)
How
AB
when
(b)
How
0.2 gauss,
flux passes through
of a revolution later
wire
when
Ans
volt.
tical axis
its
by
diameter.
in
center and the circumference of the disk

its
Ans.
volt.
one quarter
is
the aver-
induced in the
Ans.
{a)
480
volt.
conductor A, Fig. 57P, perpendicular to the plane of
the paper,
is
caused to move
in the direction of
one of the arrows.
Specify the direction of the induced electromotive force in each
of the four cases.

58.
The
pole face of a
dynamo
is
30 centimeters long, parallel
PROBLEMS.
and the
to the axis of the armature,
459
field intensity in
between the pole face and the armature core
The
wires on the armature are
Find the electromotive force
izn
^ZZ]
t WZZl
6,000 gausses.
2 centimeters from the axis of the
armature, and the speed of the armature

minute.
is
the air gap
1,800 revolutions per
is
in volts
induced
in
each
sweeps across the pole
face.
en]
\Eii
EZ3
\En
\rj
Fig. 57/*.
armature wire (30 cm. long) as
Ans. 4.072
59.
when
The
volts.
core of an induction coil carries 100,000 lines of flux
current
primary
it
is
flowing through the primary
10,000 lines
in
coil.
When
the
broken the flux through the core drops to
circuit is
0.002 second.
How many
turns of wire are re-
quired in the secondary coil in order that an average electromotive force of
second ?
5,000 volts
may be
Chapter
60.
coil
ture like that
When
induced
of wire
shown
the tooth
is
II.
field
it
during the 0.002
The Dynamo.
wound on one
in Fig. 16,
tooth of an alternator arma-
Chapter
II.,
has 80 turns of wire.
squarely under a north pole of the
net the magnetic flux through the coil
The
in
Ans. 11,110 turns.
is
field
magnet has ten poles and the armature makes
lutions per second.
2 5 revo-
Find the average value of the electromotive
force induced in the armature coil while the tooth
wound moves from
on which
it is
a position squarely under a north pole to a
position squarely under a south pole of the field magnet.
1,000 volts.
mag-
2,500,000 maxwells.
Ans.
460
61.
The ring armature of
260 turns of wire upon
it,
dynamo has
a bipolar direct-current
the armature
is
driven at a speed of
1,200 revolutions per minute, and the magnetic flux from one
pole face into the armature core
The armature specified

copper wire wound upon
62.
mil
in
63.
The armature
field
resistance of the armature
sets?
The
(J?)
600,000
Calculate
lines.
Ans. 182
is
volts.
feet of
320
is
Ans. 0.01055
o^m
at
25 C.
is
used with
problems 61 and 62
six sets of brushes,
What
(a)
the
is
between positive and negative brush
flux per pole of this six-pole field
What
lines.
in volts.
What
it.
specified in
magnet with
3,500,000
problem 61 has 400
armature from brush to brush?
a six-pole
is
dynamo
the electromotive force of the
magnet
is
the electromotive force of this six-pole
dynamo? Ans. {a) 0.00117 ohm at 25 C. {b) 31.2 volts.

64. The field winding of a shunt generator has a resistance of
40 ohms and the electromotive force between its brushes is 1 10
;
volts,
{a)
What
is
amount
of
power
is
the value of the
expended
current
field
in field excitation ?
(b)
{c)
The
load current output of the generator being 50 amperes

volts),
What
power consumed
in field excitation
per cent, of the full-load power output of the generator.
{a)
no
express the field current in per cent, of the full-load cur-
rent output, and express the

in
full-
(at
2.75 amperes;
(b)
302.5 watts;
{c)
Ans.
5.5 per cent., 5.5 per
cent.
65.
o.
The
amperes
What
(b)
winding of a
field
121 ohm.
at
The
no
volts
power
Express the volts
has a resistance of
is
is
between the generator terminals,
electromotive force
How much
series generator
full-load current output of the generator
is
lost in the field
consumed
lost in the field
winding
50
{a)
at full-load ?
in field excitation at full-load ?
winding
in
per cent, of the
full-
load terminal voltage of the machine, and express the power con-
sumed
in field excitation in
of the generator.
Ans.
terms of the full-load power output
(a) 6.05 volts or 5.5 percent.
{b)
302.5
watts or 5.5 per cent.

66.
The motor
of a motor-generator set takes 100 amperes at
PROBLEMS.
volts from supply mains and
1 1 o
power intake to the generator which
its
turn delivers 84 per cent, of
circuit at
20
461
delivers 8 5
per cent, of
its
drives.
This generator
in
it
power intake
its
to a receiving
Find the current delivered by the generator.
volts.
Ans. 392.7 amperes.
A homopolar dynamo like
67.
Chapter
Fig. 62,
a speed of 3,000 revolutions per minute.
through the cylindrical armature
AA
is
11. , is
The
driven at
flux passing
What is
million lines.
the electromotive force between positive and negative brushes
Ans. 2.5
Chapter
68.
The Dynamo
III.
no
volts
minute with a
when run
is
speed of 1,200 revolutions per
56 ohms
in its
shunt
field circuit.
driven at a speed of 1,500 revolutions per
minute what must be the
machine
total resistance in the
to generate
shunt
field circuit
an electromotive force of 137.5
Ans. 70 ohms.
The
69.
at a
total resistance of
machine
to cause the
volts
as a Generator.
given shunt generator gives an induced electromotive
force of
If this
volts.
electromotive force of a shunt generator decreases
10 volts to 93 volts when the speed is reduced from 1,000

The armature flux at the higher
to 900 revolutions per minute.
from
speed
1,000,000
is
lower speed?
{b)
{a) What
What would the
lines,
generator be at the lower speed
70.
The
in
71.
is
{c)
{a)
is
0.14 ohm.
the armature
is
20
What
939,390
The
volts.
tromotive force between the brushes
armature
armature flux were kept

causes the flux
lines
(b)
99
volts.
resistance of a generator armature, including brushes
and brush contacts,

induced
Ans.
electromotive force of the
if its
constant at a value of 1,000,000 lines

to decrease with the speed
the armature flux at the
is
70 amperes.
Ans. 110.2
total electromotive force
Find the value of the elec-
when the
current in the
volts.
battery consisting of ten Daniell cells has an electromo-
tive force of 10.8 volts
(measured on open
circuit)
and an
internal
462
resistance of
battery
when
4 ohms.
Find
(a) the terminal voltage
delivering a current of 1.2 amperes
it is
Ans.
sistance of the external circuit.
The
72.
no
volts at full-load to
Ans. 18.2 per
The
What is
(I?)
ohms.
130 volts when the receiving
circuit is
the precentage regulation of the machine
cent.
electromotive force of a shunt generator driven at
constant speed decreases from

in the neutral axis to
ward
6 volts
electromotive force of a shunt generator rises from
disconnected.
73.
(a)
of the
(^) the re-
When the
lead.
90
volts
field
1 1
volts
when
the brushes have 20 for-
when
of this generator
the electromotive force decreases from
1 1
when
are in the neutral axis to 100 volts
the brushes are
separately excited
is
volts
when
the brushes
the brushes have 20
One million lines of armature flux are required to

give 1 1 5 volts when the brushes are in the neutral axis.
What
is the value of the armature flux when the machine is giving,
forward lead.
an electromotive force of 90 volts with 20 forward
self-excited,
brush lead
The armature
74.
current in
auxiliary brush 15 from
if
is
it
this
assumed
electromotive
generator and an
in the direction of rotation
is
8 volts.
would the electromotive force between the main brushes be
they were given a forward lead of 15?
assumed
75.
The
5 volts.
betwen one of the main brushes of
What
is
separately excited generator with brushes in the neutral
axis gives an electromotive force of

force
the above
all
Ans. 900,000 maxwells.
to be negligibly small.
to be negligible.
Ans. 99
The armature
certain bipolar shunt generator like Fig. 35,
rated to give
its
full-load current of
To
voltage of 100 volts.

excitation of 8, 100
current
volts.
page 52,
is
50 amperes at a terminal
give 100 volts at zero-load a field
ampere -turns
is
excitation of 10,500 ampere-turns
required.
is
At
required.
of turns required in the series field coil to give
full-load a field
Find the number

flat
compounding.
Ans. 48 turns.
Mote.
in
The ampere-turn
Appendix A.
is
a unit of magnetomotive force and
it is
fully explained
PROBLEMS.
463
76. Given a two-pole dynamo having a ring armature 20 centimeters long and 34 centimeters outside diameter with 250 turns
{=Z), and 50 commutator bars which are connected

by radial connectors. The resistance
of wire
the armature windings
the armature between brushes

is
made by
tying two light copper strips to the sides of a stick
of which the thickness
and these two copper
dynamo
is
of
A double pilot brush
0.4 ohm.
is
to
is
equal to the width of a commutator bar,
connected to a voltmeter.
strips are
The
driven as a generator at a speed of 1,200 revolutions
per minute at zero-load, and the voltmeter reads 8.1 volts

the double pilot brush
is
Find
within the limits of a pole face.
the magnetic
when
held against the commutator anywhere

:
(a)
the
mean
intensity of
the air gap between the pole face and the
field in
armature core.
The dynamo, driven as a

before, now delivers a current
and the voltmeter
when
the double pilot brush
Find
piece.
tip,
and
gausses;
(d)
Note.
(^)
40 amperes from
of
the
(c) ditto
is
and the
tip
the air gap, under a leading
under a traihng pole

(c)
77.
ohm.
is
armature,
1.56 volts
held against the commutator
field intensity in
1,456 gausses
trailing tip respectively of a pole
tip.
Ans.
(^)
3,791
5,711 gausses.
The voltmeter reading (6) or (c)
is
the induced electromotive force minus
the rt drop in a section of the armature winding.
which
its
observed to read 2.47 volts and
is
under the leading

pole
generator at the same speed as
This problem
illustrates a point
discussed in Art. 77.
series generator
When
tions per
has a total internal resistance of 0.2
the generator
minute
current output of
it
is
driven at a speed of 1,000 revolu-
gives a terminal voltage of
amperes.
99
volts with a
Increasing the current output to
10 amperes increases the useful flux,
,
by 50 per
cent.
Find
the terminal voltage of the generator when, driven at a speed of
1,200 revolutions per minute,
Ans. 178
volts.
it
delivers a current of lo amperes.
464
Chapter IV.
78.
shunt motor, connected to
2.6 amperes through
motor
is
unloaded,
it
its
shunt
lo-volt supply mains, takes
field
load armature current of this motor
0.
eddy
current,
armature and
its
The
rated full-
50 amperes, and the
is
armature including brushes and brush contacts
its
At what speed would
ohm.
1 1
when the
winding, and,
takes 3.0 amperes through
runs at a speed of 997 revolutions per minute.

resistance of
as a Motor.
and hysteresis
this
motor run
if
losses in the armature
is
the friction,
were zero
Ans. 1,000 revolutions per minute.

Note.
speed
due
at
This speed
is
called the ideal zero-load speed of the motor.
which the motor would run
to friction,
eddy currents, and
current at zero-load
would be
From
no torque were required
hysteresis.
zero, the ri
the induced electromotive force
79.
if
If these losses
drop
would be equal
in the
to
were
It is the
supply the losses
zero, the armature
armature would be zero, and
to Eg.
the data given in problem 78 find
(a) the counter
electromotive force of the motor at full-load, and (^) the full-load
speed of the motor (assuming

volts
80.
(d)
^ to
Ans.
be constant).
(a) 104.5
945.5 revolutions per minute.

actual full-load speed of the motor of problem 78
The
is
observed to be 980 revolutions per minute instead of the speed

as calculated in problem 79.
where
<!>'
is

is
ratio <l>/4>'
the actual value of the armature flux at full-load due to the
combined action of
81.
Find the value of the
the armature flux due to the field winding alone, and
(a)
field
and armature currents.
Ans. 1.036.
Calculate the resistance that must be connected in
series with the
armature of the motor of problem 78 to give a
500 revolutions per minute under
speed
of.
in the
armature)
(^) find
full-load (50
amperes
the speed of the motor when, with this
resistance in the armature circuit, the load
is
reduced to one half
(25 amperes in the armature) and to one quarter (12.5 amperes

in
the armature) respectively.
In this problem assume that
remains the same as at zero-load.
Ans.
(a)
and 875 revolutions per minute.

82. (a) Find the value of the induction
0.99
ohm
factor,
(d)
<l>
750
OZ', of the
PROBLEMS.
motor
specified in
problem 78
and
465
calculate the torque in
{b)
pound-inches developed by the motor when
its
armature current
50 amperes, assuming <l> to have the same value at zero-load

and at full-load. Ans. (a) 6.6 (J?) 465.3 pound-inches.
is
83.
four-pole motor has a four-path armature 30 cm. in
diameter and 35 cm. long, that
to say, the armature core
is
pole faces are 35 cm. long in a direction parallel to the shaft

of the periphery of the armature
is
under the four pole
and
;
faces,
The
there are 250 conductors on the surface of the armature.
mean
intensity
of the magnetic field in the air gap
is
0.7
and
4,500
gausses, and the total current flowing through the armature
100 amperes,
{a)
each wire under the pole

torque
(b)
in
from
faces,
calculate the total
and the value of Z' from the above
and then calculate the torque
(25).
this
dyne-centimeters and reduce the result to pound-inches.
Calculate the value of
data,
is
Calculate the side push in dynes acting on
Ans.
(a)
pound-inches by equation
in
393,750 dynes and 915 pound-inches;
(b)
915
pound-inches.
84.
Find the current which would flow through the armature
of the motor specified in problem
connected directly to the
'jS if
the armature were to be
lo-volt supply mains at starting.
Ans.
1,000 amperes.
85.
The
cified in
resistance of the field circuit of the shunt
problem 78
is
doubled by adjusting a
actual zero-load speed of the
motor
is
motor spe-
field rheostat,
observed to
rise to
the
1,500
revolutions per minute, and the armature current to 3.3 amperes.
In what ratio has the armature flux
doubling of the resistance of the

86.
One
<l>
been changed by the
field circuit ?
terminal of a voltmeter
is
Ans.
0.664.
connected by a lead to the
positive brush (which
is in the neutral axis) of the motor speciproblem 78, the other voltmeter lead is touched to the
commutator at an angular distance of 15 ahead of the positive
fied in
brush, and the voltmeter indicates 9.2 volts.

the ideal zero-load speed of the motor
given a forward lead of

30
5 ?
if its
What would be
main brushes were
Ans. 1,200.9 revolutions per minute.
466
Note.
Imagine the machine
volts applied to
its
to
be running at
its
brushes which are in the neutral
Under
these conditions the
induced electromotive force (counter electromotive force) between the brushes

volts,
no
ideal zero-load speed with
axis.
no
is
and the induced electromotive force between two auxiliary brushes 15 ahead
of the neutral axis
is
(no 2e).
If the
main brushes are now
shifted 15 forwards,
taking the place of the two auxiliary brushes, then the speed must increase sufficiently
to
make
the induced etectromotive force equal to the applied voltage.
and the one
that follows the armature current
to be noted that the speed equation {2^b),
assumed
is
page 98,
is
to
In
this
problem
be negligibly small.
true only
when
It is
the brushes are
in the neutral axis.
The
87.
speed of the motor specified
ideal zero-load
prob-
in
lem 78 increases to 1,700 revolutions per minute when the brushes

are shifted 25 from the neutral axis.
Find the electromotive
[a) an auxiliary pair of brushes in the neutral
force between
:
axis
{b)
one of the main brushes and an auxiliary brush
neutral axis.
Ans.
armature, calculate
series
187 volts;
{a)
38.5 volts or 148.5 volts.
{b)
Ignoring the demagnetizing action of the current
88.
in the
(a) the resistance that
with the armature of the motor specified in problem
reduce
speed to 800 revolutions per minute when
its
the
in
must be connected
such as to make the armature intake 50 amperes
its
{b)
in
y2>
to
load
is
the watts
lost in this resistance
expressed in per cent, of the total power
intake of the motor.
Ans.
(^) 0.33
ohm;
(b)
833 watts or 14.4
per cent.
89.
The
field
current of the motor described in problem 78
increased to 4.8 amperes
by
This reduces the full-load speed of the motor to 800
rheostat.
Calculate the increase of power deliv-
revolutions per minute.
ered to the
field circuit
due
to the increase of field current
2.6 to 4.8 amperes, and express

in the
is
cutting out a portion of the field
armature rheostat
in
it
in
problem
from
per cent, of the power lost
Ans. 242 watts or 29.1
^^.
per cent.
90.
The motor
nected to
its
Calculate
its
its
speed
is
field
permanently con-
reduced to 200 revolu-
at full-load (50 amperes in the armature) by

armature connected to low voltage supply mains.
minute
tions per
having
of problem 78 has
lO-volt mains and
(a) the electromotive force of the
low voltage mains,
PROBLEMS.
467
the full-load speed on the iio-volt mains being
per minute
{p) the horse-power developed
980 revolutions
by the armature at
reduced speed expressed as a fraction of the horse-power
this
developed by the armature when running under full-load on

volt
mains
26.8 volts
The
91.
980
at a speed of
Ans.
is
(J?)
actual full-load speed of the
rheostat
field
current (2.6 amperes).
motor of problem 78
when
the machine
{c)
Find
is
980 revolutions
adjusted to give the same
(a) the terminal voltage of the
is
is
50 amperes
the total
{b)
when
operated as a motor and as a generator respec-
the resistance which has been cut out of the
Ans.
rheostat.
is
This
resistance of the field circuit (field coils plus field rheostat)
tively
{a)
driven as a generator at a speed of
per minute, and the
generator
10-
20.4 per cent.
revolutions per minute (armature current 50 amperes).
machine
field
980 revolutions per minute.
{a)
99 volts;
(^)
ohms;
42.3 and 38.1
field
{c)
4.2
ohms.
Note.
assumed
It is
in this
problem that the armature
value whether the machine operates as motor or generator.
ward lead of
the brushes for the motor
is
flux
This
is
the
4> is
same
in
true if the back-
equal to the forward lead of the brushes for
the generator, armature current being the same in each case.
92.
given shunt generator
between
volts
its
terminals
lutions per minute.
40 ohms
(hot).
load
(hot)
Find
and
(b)
The
when
is
rated at 10 kilowatts at 100
driven at a speed of 1,200 revo-
resistance of the shunt field winding
and the resistance of the armature

(a) the
is
0.08
armature current of the generator at
the speed of the machine
when
is
ohm
full
driven as a motor
from lOO-volt mains with a load such that the armature current
is
equal to that found under
{a).
Ans.
(a) 102.5
amperes;
{b)
1,018 revolutions per minute.

93.
Find the speed of a railway motor
minute corresponding to a car speed of
in
revolutions per
fifteen miles
per hour,
the gear ratio between the motor and the axle being 14
the diameter of the car wheels being 33 inches.
lutions per minute.
68, and
Ans. 742 revo-
468
94.
Find the armature torque
in
pound-inches corresponding
pounds developed by a street railway

between the motor armature and the axle
to a tractive effort of 2,000
motor, the gear ratio
being 14 68, and the diameter of the car wheels being 33 inches.
Ignore motor, gear, and axle friction in this calculation. Ans.
:
6,794 pound-inches.
Chapter V.
Find
(a)
95.
specified in
Power Losses and
field loss
problem yS.
when operated
Efficiency.
and the stray power
loss of the
Find the efficiency of
(b)
this
motor
machine
as a generator with an armature current of 50
no
amperes and an electromotive force of

brushes, assuming the stray
power
loss to
volts
between
be that found under
its
{a),
Find the stray power loss and efficiency of the generator under
(c)
the conditions specified in
(b)
making a
correction for the difference
of induced voltage in the armature.
329 watts
85.4 per cent.
{b)
{c)
Ans.
{a)
286 watts, and
347 watts, 85.42 per
cent.
Note.
The difference between the uncorrected and corrected values of the stray
power loss, amounting to only i8 watts, is negligible in its effect upon the calculated
efficiency of the
stray
power
machine.
In the following problems the uncorrected value of the
loss is used.
Find the efficiency of conversion and the
96.
ciency of the generator specified in problem 95,

ture current
is
50 amperes and
its
electrical effi-
when
terminal voltage
is
its
arma-
no
volts.
Ans. 94.6 and 90.3 per cent.

97. Find the true efficiency, the efficiency of conversion, and
the electrical efficiency of the generator specified in problem 95,
when
10 amperes and the terminal volt-
is
no volts. Ans. 56.5, 77.2, 73.1

Note. In
problem neglect the change of
age
is
field loss
this
the field rheostat which must be
The
stray
power
this difference
also
and
made
to
is
due
to the adjustment of
keep the terminal voltage constant.
loss of a generator at light loads
is
in fact less than at full-load
depends not only upon the change of induced electromotive
upon the change of distribution of
action.
per cent.
The change
flux in the
force,
armature core due to armature
but
re-
of stray-power loss due to armature reaction cannot be calculated
generally ignored in efficiency calculations.
PROBLEMS.
98.
(^) Calculate the efficiency of the
lem 78, driven

10, 15,
5,
(b)
25, 35 and 50 amperes,
Ans.
{a) 26.1,
74.8 amperes
99.
The motor
day as follows
(r)
maximum
54
66
8,
specified in prob-
supply mains, when the
{b)
(c)
For what armature cur-
maximum
Calculate the
and 84 6 per cent
9, 77.5, 82.0
85.6 per cent.
referred to in
hour with
motor
armature has each of the following values
its
the efficiency a
is
value.
no- volt
from
as stated
current intake of
rent
469
problem 98 is run ten hours each

amperes armature intake, 2 hours
with 15 amperes armature intake, 2 hours with 25 amperes armature intake,
4 hours with 35 amperes armature
hour with 50 amperes armature
What
intake.
intake,
and
mean
the
is
all-
day efficiency of the motor under these conditions of service
Ans. 78.4 per cent.
The
Note.
all
day
dynamo
efficiency of a
is
the total output in watt-hours
divided by the total input in watt- hours during the day.
Thus
in this
problem
find
the total input in watt-hours and the total output in watt-hours during the lo-hour run
and divide the output by the

Evidently a high
input.
all -day efficiency,
when
a motor
is
run for a large portion of the
time at light load, depends upon high efficiency at light loads, and
pends upon small constant losses
What
100.
is
efficiency of the
take
is
Ans.
power
this in turn de-
loss).
the efficiency of conversion and the mechanical
above motor
amperes
amperes.
(field loss plus stray
and
(a)
{b)
when
{a)
when
its
its
armature current
armature current intake
83.9 and 79.8 percent;
{b)
in-
50
and
90.3
93.7
is
per cent.
101.
From
the results of problem 98 calculate the output of
the motor in horse-power corresponding to each value of current

intake of the armature, and plot a curve showing efficiencies as
ordinates and outputs of
102
certain
power
horse-power as abscissas.
in
shunt motor
is
used as a dynamometer to
measure the power absorbed by a printing
power
loss
corresponding to
E^
525 volts
is
press.
The
stray
found by previous
be 450 watts, and the armature resistance is 0.53 ohm

including resistance of brushes and of brush contacts. During
test to
the test the current delivered to the armature of the motor
is
20.2
470
amperes, and the voltage across the brushes
is 5 1
Find
2 volts.
power delivered to the press. Ans. Stray power during test 430
watts power to drive press 9,696 watts.
103. A certain shunt motor when connected to lOO-volt supply;
mains takes an armature current of 4 amperes and runs at a

speed of 1,063 revolutions per minute at zero load. The armature
resistance
o.
is
ohm.
Find the stray power
rotation
overcome by
is
torque?
this
and
loss in watts
What
the corresponding torque in pound-inches.
opposition to
Ans. 398.4 watts; 31.7
pound-inches.
An
104.
motor (rated
efficiency test of a shunt
power, 220
at
horse-
1,200 revolutions per minute) by the stray
volts,
power method gave the following
results
220, and
armature
current delivered
to
Volts between brushes

2.0
The
amperes.
machine was then shut down, a current of 10 amperes was

passed through the armature, and a voltmeter across brushes
Find
read 5.0 volts.
efficiency at full load
power
(a) stray
current in the armature
and
loss in watts
438 watts
cent.; (e)
Note.
is
in
(d)
19.85 amperes
(d) true
is
733 ohms.
The
4,433 watts
(c)
Ans.
(d) 84.1 per
y6.y per cent.
For a given power output,
P, in watts, the armature current of the motor
determined by the quadratic equation
which
(d) full-load
true efficiency at half load.
(e)
resistance (hot) of the shunt field winding

(a)
power intake
full-load
(c)
F{= Ex/s)
is
the shunt field loss and
S is
the stray
power
loss,
both of which
are assumed to be independent of load.
105.
A shunt dynamo when
800 revolutions per minute

voltage of
10 volts, with a
field
sistance of the armature (hot)

is
run as a generator
delivers
is
1 1
current of 2 amperes.
horse-power at
motive force of the motor

factor,
OZ'
of the motor
its
;
pulley.
(^)
When
0.05 ohm.
run as a motor taking 102 amperes from
livers 12.8
at a
speed of
kilowatts at a terminal
Find
this
The
lo-volt mains,
(a)
re-
machine
de-
it
counter electro-
speed of the motor
(c)
induction
(d) stray power loss in the motor
(e)
PROBLEMS.
471
and (/)
full-load torque developed in the generator;
Ans.
torque developed in the motor.

revolutions per minute;
(d) 950 watts;
8.63;
(c)
full-load
105 volts ;-(^)
{a)
729
1,240
(e)
pound-inches; 1,218 pound-inches.
The
Note.
armature current
so nearly the
is
same
the specifications of this problem that the armature flux
motor and generator
for
may be assumed
to
in
be the
See note to problem 91.
same.
A certain 6.
106.
tween
its
5 -kilowatt
shunt generator, giving
1 1
terminals, has an armature resistance of 0.29
resistance of 57.5
ohms, and a stray power
loss of
the armature current for which the efficiency

find the value of this
maximum
is
volts be-
watts.
495
a
ohm, a
field
Find
maximum, and
Ans. 50 amperes,
efficiency.
79.2 per cent.
This
Note.
107.
maximum
problem and the next are based on the condition that
when
efficiency occurs
certain
the variable loss
is
equal to the constant
horse-power
pendent of load.
loss of
250
resistance
of
field loss
assumed
watts, both
The armature
motor with a
lO-volt shunt
speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute has a
and a stray power
loss.
is
10 watts
to be inde-
0.4 ohm.
Find the
value of the armature current intake for which the efficiency of

the motor
is
108.
maximum, and
Ans. 30 amperes
efficiency.
find the value of this
lo-kilowatt 100- volt long-shunt flat-compound gener-
ator has a stray
power
loss of
600
watts, the resistance of
armature including brushes and brush contacts

resistance of
of
shunt
its
its
series field
field
winding
winding
is
is
is
its
0.04 ohm, the
0.0 1 ohm, and the resistance
25 ohms,
armature winding and series
lost in
maximum
78.9 per cent.
(a)
Calculate the watts
field coil for
various armature
currents up to 104 amperes and plot a curve showing these losses

as ordinates and the corresponding external currents as abscissas.
What
curve
is
the equation to this curve

(d)
What
scissas.
the
name
of this
Plot a curve showing total losses as ordinates and
and (c) plot a curve

and external currents as ab-
values of external current /. as abscissas
showing
is
efficiencies as ordinates
472
109.
certain short-shunt
kilowatts of power
The
compound generator
delivers lo
lOO volts
at full-load.
at a terminal voltage of
and shunt field coils

ohm, 0.03 ohm and 20 ohms respectively and the stray
power loss is found by test to be 430 watts. Find at full-load
resistance of armature, series field coils
are 0.04
voltage between brushes
{a)
armature current
{b)
electromotive power induced in the armature windings
power developed
electrical
ciency
(y) commercial efficiency.
105.15 amperes;
per cent.
110.
the armature
in
107.21
{c)
volts;
{a)
(d) total
electrical effi-
(e)
volts;
103
(^) 11,300 watts;
(b)
88.5
{e)
(/) 85.4 per cent.

certain shunt
motor
tested for efficiency at full-load
is
by the Prony brake method and

obtained
Ans.
total
(c)
the following observations are
speed, 1,200 revolutions per minute
reading of spring
balance, 18.75 pounds; perpendicular distance from center of
pulley to the center line of the spring balance, 28 inches
tromotive force applied,

peres.
in
Find
{a)
pound-feet
gential pull in
output
{c)
pounds
horse-power and
at the rim of the
Ans.
43.75 pound-feet;
111.
in
total current intake,
efficiency (true) of the
inches in diameter.
{b)
10 volts
{c)
{a)
in
watts
motor
elec-
83.6
(b)
and
am-
torque
{d) tan-
motor pulley which
is
10
9.98 horse-power or 7,455 watts;
81.1 per cent.
{d) 105 pounds.
certain 6-pole, 250-kilowatt, 550-volt generator runs
at a speed of
The commutator
37.4 inches in diameter.
The machine has
is
six sets of carbon
brushes, each set has four brushes, each brush has 1.09 square
inches of contact surface with the commutator, the brush pres-
sure
is
1.25
pounds per square
inch,
and the
coefficient of friction
of the carbon brushes upon the copper commutator

{a) the watts lost in
resistance
brush
friction
{b)
is
0.3.
between the brushes and the commutator at
neglecting the shunt current.
Ans.
Find
the watts lost in contact
(a)
695 watts;
full load,
{b)
911
watts.
Note.
Under
ordinary conditions as to peripheral velocity and brush pressure
the contact resistance of carbon brushes in
ohms per square
inch of contact surface
is
PROBLEMS.
473
approximately equal to the reciprocal of the current density in amperes per square
An
inch of contact surface.
elaborate discussion of brush contact resistance in
its
de-
pendence upon peripheral velocity of commutator, brush pressure, quality of carbon,

and current density is to be found in E. Arnold's Die GleichstrommaschinCy Vol. I.,
pp. 478-484.
The generator
112.
rately excited
Assuming
problem 106 has
specified in
so as to give
sepa-
its field
rated voltage at zero-load.
full
its
that this constant field excitation leads to the produc-
tion of a constant total induced electromotive force, E^, at all loads,

find
{a) the
value of the resistance of the external circuit for
which the power output of

the greatest possible
the value of this
(<:)
(p)
this separately excited generator is
the corresponding value of the current
maximum power
output
ing terminal voltage of the generator
and
Ans.
electrical efficiency of the generator.
198.3 amperes
Note.
The
it
1,400 watts
is
In
{d) the correspond-
the corresponding
{a) 0.29
(d) 57.5 volts
maximum
[e)
ohm;
50 per
(b)
cent.
possible output of a
greatly in excess of the greatest permissible armature current
would cause excessive sparking
armature windings.
the problem.
armature current corresponding to
generator (or motor)
and
(c)
{i)
The assumption
fact the
armature
at the brushes
and excessive overheating of the
of constant armature flux
flux falls off greatly
4> is
made
to simplify
with such excessive armature
currents.
113.
fied in
Assuming
problem
that the armature flux, ^, of the
j'^ is
constant at
all loads, find
motor
(a) the
speci-
value of
the counter electromotive force and speed of the motor for which
its
power output has the
this greatest possible
of the motor at
its
power delivered
to
greatest possible value
output; and
its field
revolutions per minute; {p)

Note. See note
114. A certain
to
second-hand,
is
{c)
greatest possible
12.3
(B)
the value of
the efficiency of conversion
power output, ignoring the
Ans. (a) 55 volts and 500

27,171 watts {c) 50 per cent.
winding.
problem
1 1
belted
compound-wound machine, purchased
2.
rated as a 250-kilowatt
speed of 320 revolutions per minute.

ture
50- volt generator, at a
The diameter
of the arma-
46 inches and the gross length of the armature core is

Calculate the rating of this machine according to
inches.
is
474
Art. 73, page 148, in order to check the above rating as claimed
by the
Ans. 265 kilowatts.
dealer.
115.
motor
certain enclosed
The diameter
tions per minute.
is
116.
I
the manufacturers
speed of 600 revolu-
is
is
inches and
Calculate
3 inches.
its
page 148.
dynamo
certain four-pole
at a
of the armature
the gross length of the armature core

rating according to Art. 73,
by
rated
motor
as a 220-volt, 27. 5 -horse-power
is
Ans. 34 horse-power.
rated as a 5 -horse-power
lo-volt motor to run at a speed of 600 revolutions per minute.
This motor
connected to 220-volt mains and the armature flux
is
4> is increased
25 per cent, by the 100 per cent, increase of
field
At what speed would this motor run under these

conditions ?
(b) The resistance of the shunt field winding is 100
ohms, how much resistance must be connected in series with the
current,
field
(a)
winding to increase the motor speed to 1,200 revolutions per
minute on 220-volt mains

this
motor be
Would
{c)
What would
be permissible to drive
it
the
power
this
motor
rating of
minute
at this speed of 1,200 revolutions per
{d)
at a speed of 1,200
revolutions per minute from 220-volt mains, the diameter of the
armature being 10 inches and the number of commutator seg-
ments being 60?
ohms
{c)
960 revolutions per minute

10 horse-power {d) the machine would in
Ans.
{a)
{b)
all
100
prob-
ability operate satisfactorily.
Note.
20
In dynamos of medium current rating an average

commutator segment
volts per
By average
sparking.
is
the greatest that can be used without danger of

is meant Eju where E is the
n is equal to Kjp, where IC is the total
number of field magnet poles.
electromotive force per segment
electromotive force between the brushes and
number of commutator bars and /
is
the
well constructed armature can be expected to withstand a speed which corre-
sponds to a peripheral velocity of from 3,000 to 4,000
117.
ductors
A
;
full-load
certain
its
bipolar
feet
pole faces have an angular breadth of 120
armature current
is
200 amperes.
of armature periphery covered
by poles
magnetizing ampere-turns on the armature

the brushes
per minute.
drum-wound armature has 384 con-
is
30
{c)
the
Find
{b)
if
the
and
its
(a) per cent,
number
of de-
the angle of lead of
cross-magnetizing
ampere -turns.
PROBLEMS.
Ans.
(ci)
67 per cent
{b)
475
6,400 ampere-turns per magnetic
circuit
12,800 ampere-turns per pole.
{c)
118.
certain 6-pole, 250-kilowatt, 5 5 o-volt railway generator
The
has a six-path armature winding with 1,200 conductors.
commutator has 600 segments, and

Find
segments.
and
at full load the
brushes are
through an angle represented by 8 commutator
shifted forwards
{a) the angle of lead of the brushes in degrees
the armature demagnetizing ampere-turns per magnetic
(J?)
Ans.
shunt current.
circuit at full-load, neglecting the
{a)
4.8
2,424 ampere-turns.
(J?)
The
119.
pole faces of the generator specified in problem
18
cover 70 per cent, of the periphery of the armature, and the radial
length of the air gap between the pole faces and the armature
core
0.527 inch.
is
Find:
cross-magnetizing ampere-
{a) the
turns per pole on the armature at full-load

the magnetic
alone
and
{c)
field
under the pole
tips
the intensity of the magnetic
trailing pole tips
armature, the
Note.
(b)
The
the intensity of
(b)
armature current
to the
under the leading
field
due to the combined action of field
field intensity in
Ans.
(^d)
and
10,640 ampere -turns
5,000 gausses \{c) 1,500 gausses and

radial length of the air
coils
the air gap due to field coils alone
being 6,500 gausses at full-load.

per pole
due
gap
in this
dynamo
1,500 gausses.
in fact
is
0.313 inch, but
the effect of the high degree of magnetic saturation of the teeth of this armature core
is
equivalent to a greatly increased radial length of air gap.
A bipolar generator
120.
ductors and each pole face

tance across the gap space
in the
gap space due
What
is
drum armature with 420 conThe dissubtends an angle of 120.
is
has a
0.6 centimeter and the field intensity
to the field winding alone
is
8,000 gausses.
the greatest permissible current in the armature of the
generator
if
it
is
assumed that sparkless running requires the
resultant field intensity under the leading pole tips to be at least

2 5 per cent, of the field intensity
due to the
field
winding alone
Ans. 81.8 amperes.

121.
The drum armature
specified in
problem
20
is
arranged so
as to be suitable for a four-pole field magnet, the pole faces cover-
4/6
ing the same percentage of the armature periphery as before, the
length of the
air
gap being the same, and the
field intensity in
the gap space due to the field winding alone being 8,000 gausses.
What
the greatest permissible current in the armature of the
is
machine
if
assumed that sparkless running requires the

under the leading pole tips to be at least
is
it
resultant field intensity
25 per cent, of the
positive
and negative brushes.
The
122.
field intensity
due to the
winding alone?
field
drum armature winding has two paths between
This four-pole
Ans. 163.6 amperes.
pole faces of the generator specified in problem 121
are widened so as to cover 7 5 per cent, of the armature periphery
and the gap space
is
increased
Find the
to 0.7 centimeter.
greatest permissible current output of the machine
if it is
assumed
that sparkless running requires the field intensity under the lead-
ing pole tips to be at least 25 per cent, of the field intensity of
8,000 gausses which
is
due to the
field
Ans. 178
winding alone.
amperes.
123. Find the armature demagnetizing ampere-turns per
netic circuit
and the number of turns required
balance the same, in a four-pole
coil to
in
each series
magfield
500-volt
00-kilowatt,
generator, having a four-path armature winding with 500 con-
ductors
forward lead of the brushes
armature current flows through the series
ampere -turns and 4
The
124.
field
10, and 0.868 of the
is
Ans. 1,389
field coils.
turns.
dynamo
of a
coil
rises
46 centigrade degrees
above a room temperature of 35 C, what would be

temperature above a room temperature of 25 C.
its
of
rise
Ans. 44.39
centigrade degrees.
Note.
Let
above 35 C.
its
resistance,
R\
of the winding
rates at
tional to
be the temperature
if
In the
is
\%
first
Rq\\
35
which heat
R^ and R^^
-\-
-j-/^''
is
rise
above 25 C. and
t^'
the temperature rise
case the actual temperature of the winding

^{2.^
and
-\-
its
t'y\.
is
25
-J-
1'
and
In the second case the actual temperature
resistance,
R'^,
is
Rf^\\
-}-
/5(35
-\-
i'^yi-
The
generated by the given current in the two cases are propor-
respectively, and, since the rise of temperature
(very nearly) to the rates of generation of heat, therefore
is
proportional
The A.I.E.E.,
rule, see
PROBLEMS.
page 165, Art. 28, applied to
The
43. 7 instead of the correct value 44.39.

all practical
477
rule
is,
this
problem would give
however, nearly enough exact for
Indeed tenths of degrees are wholly meaningless
purposes.
tion with such uncertain quantities as rises of temperature of
in connec-
dynamo machines,
A.I.E.E. rule and the rigorous formula give the same
to the nearest degree the
The armature
so that
result.
dynamo has a resistance between commutator bars b and c (see problem 52) of 0.0678 ohm at room
temperature of 10 C.
After the dynamo has been run for a long
time at full load it is shut down and the resistance of the arma125.
of a
commutator bars is found to be 0.0806 ohm. {a)

Find the difference between room temperature and the running
ture between
(U) what would this temperature

room temperature were 25 C? Ans. {a) 49
temperature of the armature

difference be
if
the
centigrade degrees
126.
The armature and all
5 00- volt
and a
53 centigrade degrees.
(<^)
field
windings
ol
a given 500-kilowatt
generator are connected together (machine not running)
made from one main
circuit is
of a 500-volt supply, through
a direct reading voltmeter to one brush of the given generator,
whence a very small current passes through the armature and

field insulation
to the iron frame of the
machine which
nected to the other main of the 500-volt supply.

indicates 6.2 volts
and
its
resistance
is
con-
is
The voltmeter
55,000 ohms.
Find the
insulation resistance of the given generator as connected.
Ans.
4.38 megohms.
Note.
The voltmeter, arranged as
meter, and the current flowing through
specified in this problem,
it is
equal to
its
is
used as an am-
reading in volts divided by
its
resistance in ohms.
The Practical Operation of Dynamos.
Chapter VII.
127.
The
voltage of an over-compounded generator rises from
115 volts at zero-load to 125 volts at full-load.

series field coil is
ator and
its
at full-load.
When
the
not used the machine becomes a shunt gener-
voltage
falls
from
What would
were operated alone
1 1
volts at zero-load to
90
volts
the voltage of this generator be
if it
at full-load, with its series field coil in par-
478
allel
is
with the series
Note.
The
winding of
and
it
this
Ans. 107.5
effect, direct
generator
is
and
indirect, of the full-load current in the series field
from 90 volts to 125 volts
that one half of the full-load current in the series field
raise the full-load voltage half as
128.
volts.
to raise its voltage at full-load
may be roughly assumed
winding will
of another similar generator which
field coil
not in operation?
current of 200 amperes
much.
to be delivered at
is
450
to an extension of an electric railway at a "feeding point"

is five
for
miles from the
accomplishing
power
this
Two
station.
namely:
result,
plans are considered
(i)
To
ground and
feeder circuit (the resistance of the
very uncertain, a return feeder wire
volts
which
a copper
install
return being
rail
here assumed for the sake
is
of definiteness) which will deliver the prescribed current with a
drop of 100
volts,
and
(2) to install
a feeder circuit of smaller
wire which will deliver the current with a drop of 300 volts, and
a 40-kilowatt booster for raising the station voltage of 550 volts
up to 750
The
which
volts,
required
by plan
additional copper
is
is
feeder required
required
by plan
(2) at the rate

;
by
this small feeder.
more than the

of 17^^ cents per pound
(i) costs
accessories including the

set,
motor
to drive
depreciation of the feeders
is
and taxes on invested
Find the
it is
maximum number
is
per cent, per
6 per
Note.
The
by plan
(i).
75 per cent .;
annum the
;
annum
cent, per
and the
annum.
of hours per day that the full-load
current of 200 amperes can be transmitted

actual cost than
its
is
8 per cent, per
capital is
and
^2,200 the efficiency
motor and generator combined,
the depreciation of the booster
interest
for the
the cost of electrical energy at the switchboard
1.75 cents per kilowatt-hour; the cost of the booster
of the booster
feeder
by plan
(2) at a lower
Ans. 5.97 hours.
weight of bare copper wire in pounds
is
equal
to
0.00000303
X length in feet X section in circular mils.

The
cost of large sizes of weather-proof insulated wire
of the bare copper.

is
Thus
may be based on
the high price of 1^)4 cents per
pound
the weight
for the bare
copper
intended to include the cost of the insulation.
129.
Given a direct reading ammeter (or voltmeter) of the
direct-current type of
which the
scale divisions are of equal length
PROBLEMS.
so that an observer can read, say, to
on
reading
when
reading
is
130.
the reading
is
to, say,
The
(^)
percent.
Siemens instrument)
position of the pointer can be
anywhere on the
)^ of a division
scale,
Find
{a)
times as great the error in amperes, due to the given
error in the reading,

divisions than
find the
is
when
when the reading
of the pointer
the reading of the pointer
is
250
25
is
divisions;
percentage error in each case and the ratio of these
Ans.
percentage errors.
ratio
(a
when the
find ditto
(/;)
lo per cent.;
(a)
An electrodynamometer-ammeter
how many
(d)
ampere
Ans.
lo amperes.
has a scale of equal parts.

read
^L of an ampere anywhere
Find the percentage error due to the error of
(a)
the scale,
479
(a) 3.16
{l>)
per cent, yL per cent.
10:1.
131.
Given a direct-reading ammeter (or voltmeter) of the
alter-
nating current type of which the actual length of any scale division
under the pointer
is
scale division being
proportional to the reading of the pointer
supposed to correspond
The
over the entire scale.
to, say, o.
ampere
position of the pointer can be read to
a certain fraction of a degree of angle, so that the error in
peres due to an error of reading
am-
inversely proportional to the
is
length of the scale division under the pointer, that

proportional to the reading of the pointer,
(â)
Find
is,
inversely
how many
times as great the error in amperes due to an error in reading
when the instrument
reads
indicates 10 amperes,
centage error
is
Note.
Ammeters
(d)
than
times as great the per-
in the
second case.
Ans.
100 times as great.
and voltmeters which are
only, always give a deflection

voltage.
how many
in the first case
(a) 10 times as great;
is
ampere than when the instrument
Find
(d)
which
is
suitable for direct-current circuits
approximately proportional to the current or
Therefore the scales of direct-reading instruments of this type are scales of
approximately equal parts.
Ammeters and voltmeters which
are suitable for both alternating and direct-cur-
rent circuits always give a deflection
current or voltage.
equal parts or, say in
which
is
nearly proportional to the square of the
be the deflection of such an instrument read on a scale of

degrees, let dy be one of the divisions of this scale, and let x be
Let
the current or voltage corresponding to the deflection y.
y = J^x^
and
dy
= "ikxclx
Then
48o
where
>^
is
Now,
a constant.
in a direct-reading
instrument each scale division corre-
may be
sponds to a certain constant fractional part of an ampere or volt which
Then
sented by dx.
expressed in degrees
equation
is
repre-
the length of a scale division of such a direct-reading instrument
given by the value of
is
proportional to x, which
is
dy.,
which according
to the
above
the reading in amperes or volts of the direct-
reading instrument.
Problems 129, 130, and 131 touch upon a matter of very great practical impor-
may be worth
tance and two simple examples covering the entire ground
while.
standardized direct current ammeter (or voltmeter) which indicates 100 amperes (or
volts) with a certain degree of precision will indicate
50 amperes (or
same actual error or with twice the percentage
A standardized alternating
rent
ammeter (or voltmeter) which
error.
volts) with the
cur-
indicates loo amperes (or volts) with a certain
degree of precision will indicate 50 amperes (or volts) with twice as large an actual
error or with four times as large a percentage error.
132.
VII.
wattmeter
The
is
connected as shown
resistance of the coil
indicates 55 watts
when used
to
is
in Fig.
ohms.
133.
VII.
wattmeter
The
is
resistance
The wattmeter
measure the power delivered to
What
a lamp which takes one ampere of current.
power delivered to the lamp
121, Chapter
the true
is
Ans. 50 watts.
connected as shown
of the circuit
AR
in Fig.
122, Chapter
1,200 ohms.
is
The
wattmeter indicates 60 watts when used to measure the power
What
delivered to a no-volt glow lamp.
is
the true power
Ans. 49.92 watts.

delivered to the lamp?
134.
Thomson watt-hour meter without a starting
coil starts
on a 7 5 -watt load. The meter is adjusted to give a true watthour record when run on a 500-watt load. What will the instrument indicate after running for 4 hours on a constant load of 200
assumed
watts, running friction being
ing
friction.
135.
The watt-hour meter
with a starting
coil
power delivered
so as to
136.
start,
problem 134 is provided

on no-volt mains, when the
5 5 -volt
mains
is
40
watts.
At what
See note to problem
Ans. 66.25 watts.
The watt-hour meter
a 500-watt load correctly on

it
Ans. 702.8 watt-hours.
specified in
to the receiving circuit
load will the meter start on

136.
to be equal to half of start-
See note to problem 136.
of problem 135
i
lo-volt mains.
record correctly on 55-volt main?
is
adjusted to record
At what
load will
Ans. 5,750 watts.
PROBLEMS.
Note.
The driving torque, not counting
that
481
due
to the starting coil,
and
tional to the watrs delivered to the receiving circuit,
it
may be
is
propor
conveniently ex-
The driving torque due to the starting coil (with given voltage
pressed in "watts."
between the supply mains) may be expressed as the difference between the starting
The running
watts with and without the starting coil.
the meter
may be
conveniently expressed in
may be exThe speed of
friction (a torque)
pressed as one half the starting load in watts without the starting
coil.
watt-hours recorded per hour."
**
Subtracting from the total driving torque (including the torque due to the starting
coil
the running friction, gives the net torque used to overcome the retarding action
damping magnets, and the speed of the meter is proportional to this

The torque produced by the starting coil is proportional to the square of
of the
net torque.
the voltage
between the mains.
137.
The
operation
costs
of a
40 5 -kilowatt
including the distributing system are
lighting
plant
an invariable charge of
;^22,ooo per year, which includes interest, depreciation, repairs,
and one quarter
insurance, taxes, one half of the cost of wages,
and a variable charge of 2.05

Find the proper net
cents per kilowatt-hour of station output.
of the cost of fuel and supplies
prices to be charged per kilowatt-hour for
domestic lighting
(a)
which comes wholly within the daily period of two hours of

station-load
the daily period of
full
and
station-load,
motive power no
(c)
portion of which comes during the period of
Allow
Ans.
for a profit equal to

(a)
1 1. 1
cents, (d) 5.33 cents,
and a variable part dP, which
imately correct.
The
is
station-load.
full
per cent, of the gross income.
Note. The separating of the operation
and
(c)
2.41 cents.
costs of a station into
an invariable part
proportional to the station-load P,
total actual cost
full
which one third comes during
(d) store lighting of
is
only approx-
of operating the station at various loads
may
be determined from actual station tests. From these data a curve may be plotted showA straight line may now
ing the costs as ordinates and the station-loads as abscissas.
be drawn so as to represent
this curve as nearly as
of this straight line on the ^-axis, and d

line
and the
The
is
may
be.
Then
is
the intercept
the tangent of the angle between this straight
;i:-axis.
cost price per kilowatt-hour during the
divided by 405
X X
2
two hours of
3^5, to which must be added 2.05 cents
per kilowatt-hour during the remainder of the day
is
full
load
is J{l22,ooo
whereas the cost price
2.05 cents.
138. Find the proper prices to be charged per kilowatt-hour

for the three classes of service specified in
period of
cents
31
(d)
full
station-load
4.36 cents;
{c)
problem 137, the daily

Ans. (a) 8.25
being three hours.
2.41 cents.
482
Chapter VIIL
139.
Storage Batteries.
A primary battery which
is
grams of zinc consumed.

Note.
from local action gives a
free
current of 1.5 amperes for 50 hours.
Calculate the
number
of
Ans. 91 grams.
The electrochemical equivalent of zinc
is
0.000337 gram per ampere per
second.
140.
Grenet
consumes 12.5 grams of
cell
time that the current from the

in
an electrolytic
cell is
cell containing
portion of the zinc
a solution of silver nitrate.
consumed by
is
zinc during the
depositing 8 grams of silver
local action?
What
Ans. 80.7 per
cent.
The electrochemical equivalent of
Note.
silver is
0.001118 gram per ampere per
See Note to problem 139.
second.
The charge and
discharge curves, shown in Fig. 143,

Chapter VIIL, apply to the case in which an 80 ampere-hour cell
141.
is
charged for 8 hours and
minutes by a steady current of 10
amperes, and discharged for 8 hours by a steady current of 10
amperes.
the
discharging
cell in
{a)
Calculate
{J?)
The
142.
total
(c)
is
grids,
PbSO^
when
is
PbSO^ on
tive grids
is
(b)
One
I,
16,
ampere
of this
from electrochemical data
converted into Pb on the

{U)
Ans.
1.49 pounds of
What part of the so{a)
1.49 pounds of
PbSO^ on
the nega-
22.4 per cent.
The weight
O=
is
charged.
is
of
in
one hour liberates 37.4 milligrams of hydrogen from

calculated from the weight of the hydrogen
PbSO^ may be
by the ordinary methods of chemical arithmetic.
H=
Ans.
85.3 per cent.
converted into PbOg on the positive
really active?
the positive grids

;
cell.
by the
the grids of a 120 ampere-hour
{a) Calculate
that
ic)
40 pounds, and one-third
is
the cell
called active material
Note.
all
and the weight of PbSO^ that
negative grids
HgSO^.
59-4 watt -hours
weight of
active material,
the weight of
watt-hours delivered to
find the efficiency of the
(^)
storage cell (discharged)
weight
in
the energy in watt-hours delivered
and
185.7 watt-hours
energy
(a) the
charging,
cell in
= 32,
and Pb
= 207.
The atomic
weights are as follows
PROBLEMS.
How many grams of SO3 are
143.
during the discharge of a
359 grams, half of which
is
removed from the
20 ampere-hour storage
electrolyte
cell ?
Ans.
absorbed by each electrode.
The
144.
2.05 volts
to
483
electromotive force of a storage cell is observed to be

on open-circuit and the electromotive force is observed
suddenly to 1.95 volts when a current of 50 amperes
fall
taken from the
What
cell.
the resistance of the cell
is
is
Ans.
0.002 ohm.
145.
A storage
resistance of 0.03
amperes
What
The
ohm.
no volts
at
in Fig. 146,
are suddenly turned off?
146.
when
no
the resistance of
Chapter VIII.,
the voltage between the mains
is
in the rheostat,
back to
battery delivers a current of 100
to lighting mains
shown
the rheostat, R,
(a)
battery consisting of 61 cells has an internal
when
0.12 ohm.
is
half of the lamps
Calculate the resistance required
{b)
R, to bring the voltage across the lighting mains
volts.
Ans.
The lamps
in Fig.
ohm.
11 7. 5 volts; {b) 0.27
{a)
VIIL, require a constant
150, Chapter
no volts
and the current demanded by

the elevator motor varies from zero to 150 amperes with an
average. value of 25 amperes.
The
the two opposing field windings,
S and S'
M^
booster,
is
provided with
(The winding,
5',
may
be assumed to be connected to the constant-voltage mains in

parallel with the
field excitation
citation
amperes
due
;
to
wS is 3/2
where
to produce
lamps
(1.9 volts per cell)

volts per cell).
when the
current flowing through
cells with a
minimum
The minimum
50 amperes, and the
(a)
when
field
.S is
ex-
25
required
The storage
is
when
taking
its
volts (2.4
the battery
maximum
maximum occurs when the battery
Find the current delivered through
motor and battery
constant
voltage of 96.9 volts
occurs, of course,
nearly charged and the elevator motor
all.
and a maximum voltage of 122.4
nearly discharged and the elevator motor
current of
is
The
equal to 3, and the opposing
10 volts between the brushes of M.
battery consists of
is
is
the ampere-turns on the field of
is
;/
sake of simplicity.)
for the
due to S'
the battery
is
taking no current at
Mand S to
is
the elevator
nearly discharged and
484
the elevator motor

peres,
and
motor
is
(b)
when
taking
is
its
the battery
is
taking no current at
maximum
current of
50 am-
nearly charged and the elevator
Ans.
all.
amperes;
(a) 35.9
{b)
14.7 amperes.
Note.
Assume
that the voltage of the booster
tation, 10 volts for each
The
may
student
in this case are
147.
its
net field exci-
is
the voltage between the terminals of S^

:
[a) 32.9 amperes
is
no
and {b) 17.5 amperes.
Five hundred glow lamps each taking one-half an am-
no
volts are supplied with current
from a 115.5-volt
generator at a distance of 1,000 feet from the lamps.
The
size of
and
{c)
{a)
and {b)
connected as shown in Fig. 150, 3 being
Electric Distribution and Wiring.
Chapter IX.
pere at
S\
when
the field excitation due to S'
The answers
proportional to
calculate the values of the current corresponding to ()
on the supposition that the winding,
volts.
is
n ampere-turns.
copper wire required,
Find
{a)
the total weight of the wire,
{b)
Ans.
the total cost of the wire at 16 cents per pound.
982,000 circular mils (J?) 5,950 pounds (r) 953 dollars.

Five hundred glow lamps each taking one-half an am;
148.
pere at
no
volts are supplied with current
erator at a distance of
three-wire system
(a)
The
size of
is
from a 231 -volt gen-
balanced.
is
all
and
cost of the three mains at 16 cents per pound.
500 circular mils
(J?)
three mains, the middle main having one-
half the sectional area of either outside main
The
Find
copper wire required for the outside mains
the total weight of
149.
The Edison
,000 feet from the lamps.
used and the system
{b)
three-wire
1,860 pounds
(c)
298
system of problem
(c)
Ans.
the total
{a) 245,-
dollars.
148
supplies
300
lamps (150 amperes) on one side and 200 lamps (100 amperes)
on the other side, all at a distance of 1,000 feet from a 231 -volt
generator.
A balancer is
used
in the station to take care of the
current in the middle main and to keep the voltage between the
middle main and each outside main equal to 115.5

(a)
The
voltage across the set of 300 lamps
across the set of

volts.
200 lamps.
Ans.
and
{a) 104.5
volts.
{b)
Find
the voltage
volts; (b) 115.5
PROBLEMS.
If the lamps above specified are
Note.
lamp of the 300
rent in each
200
set.
size
and type take a
it is
evident that the cur-
in wîring calculations to consider that
amount of current
definite
exactly alike
cannot be the same as the current in each lamp of the
set
however,
It is usual,
all
485
lamps of a given
irrespective of the slight variations of
voltage.
The three-wire system of problem 148 suppHes 300 lamps

amperes)
on one side and 100 lamps (50 amperes) on the
(150
150.
other side, and the total voltage of 231 volts at the generator
is
equally divided by the balancer as explained in problem 149.
Find
The
(a)
voltage across the set of 300 lamps
the voltage across the set of 100 lamps.

(b)
22.
151.
gauge,
span, 150 feet long, of hard-drawn copper wire, No. 8
to
be strung
is
{a)
(a) 100.
20
The sag
Ans. {a) 0.86 foot
(b)
volts;
Brown and Sharpe
at a
temperature of 75 F. at a place where the winter tempera-
F.
The maximum
at
A group
152.
and
volts.
ture sinks to
Find
Ans.
20
F.;
(<J)
{b) 2.86 feet
tension of the wire
the sag at 75 F.,
and
is
to
be 164 pounds.
{c) the tension at 75 F.
49 pounds.
(^)
of ten lamps, each taking one- half an ampere,
ten feet distant from
1 1
-volt mains,
required in order to give a drop of
{a)
Find the
volts,
{b)
is
size
of wire
What
size of
wire (rubber insulation) would be required according to the table
Ans.
116, Chap. IX.?
Brown and Sharpe gauge
of safe carrying capacity given in Art.

14.7 mils diameter; (U) No. 16
{a)
(51 mils diameter).

Note.
It is
by a current of
evident that a wire 14.7 mils in diameter would be excessively heated
5 amperes.
Usually the size of wire
generator or center of distribution
The
153.
Brown and Sharpe gauge
for
Code
from the
station,
volts
and
(U)
{a)
from a central station

at a distance of
40 amperes
to a third
The
size,
consumer
station voltage
and the voltage at the distant end of mains
The
200
75 amperes to a second consumer at a distance
a distance of 600 feet from the station.

1
forbid the use of wire smaller
amperes of current to a consumer
of 350 feet from the station, and
supplying lamps near to the
house wiring.
pair of street mains leading out
delivers 50
Find
for
determined by the table of safe carrying capacity.
insurance rules of the National Electrical
than No. 14
feet
is
is
at
is
11 o volts.
weight, and cost of mains of uniform size
the size of each section of the mains, and their total weight
486
and
cost,
when the
reduced
size is
specified voltage-drop with a
cost of copper
is
so as to give the
in steps
minimum amount
of copper.
to be taken at i6 cents per pound.
The
Ans.
(a)
260,300 circular mils, 946.5 pounds, 1 5 1.2 dollars, {b) first

section 3 19,700 circular mils, second section 267,000 circular mils,
868 pounds, 139
third section 157,400 circular mils,
In estimating the
Note.
in the
above problem, one
An
154.
distance,
may
Z, of the
' *
center of gravity
feet,
'
dollars.
of the consumers
use one ampere as the unit instead of one lamp.
electric railway
33,300
feet in
length
three sections of which the lengths, 9,000
13,500
'
feet,
is
divided into
10,800 feet and
are proportional to the schedule speeds of cars
on
the respective sections so that a car running from end to end of

the line traverses each section in
always on the
first
Four
10 minutes.
cars are
section five minutes apart going each way,
two
cars are always on the second section ten minutes apart going
each way, and a single car
is
always on the third section making
Owing
the round trip in 20 minutes.

first
to frequent stops
section the cars take an average current of 125
on the second section the stops are
less frequent
on the
amperes each,
and each car
takes an average of 105 amperes, and on the third section the stops
are least frequent and the car that
is
always on
this section takes
an average of 95 amperes.
The
the
''
first
center of gravity " of the four cars that are always on

section
gravity " of the

at the
is
at the
two cars
*'
center of
that are always on the second section
is
middle of that section, and the most unfavorable position
of the single car that

at the
middle of the section, the
is
always on the third section
extreme end of the
line.
Assume,
amperes are delivered continuously
at
is
when
it is
therefore, that
500
the middle of the
first
section (4,500 feet from the city end), that
210 amperes are de-
livered continuously at the middle of the second section (14,400

feet
from the city end), and that 95 amperes are delivered conline.
If the power house is
tinuously at the extreme end of the

located at the city end of the
line, find
{a)
The
size
of each
section of the feeder to give a total drop of 75 volts at the ex-
PROBLEMS.
treme end of the
minimum amount
with a
line
487
of copper
{a)
First
4,500
feet of feeder
9,900
feet of feeder
The
Note.
of
feet
feeder
1,980,000 circular mils, next
bonded
resistance of the
16,400 dollars.
{b)
track,
which
is
used as a return feeder,
is
here to be assumed equal to zero for the sake of simplicity.
it is
155. {a) Find the position in
placed on the railway specified

feeder copper
Ans.
1,219,000 circular mils, and remaining 18,900
680,000 circular mils
very uncertain and
and
the total cost of feeder copper at 16 cents per pound.
(^)
may
which the power house should be

in problem 1 54 in order that the
be reduced to a minimum
the size of
(b) find
each section of the feeder on the assumption that the two cars on
the middle section are in the most unfavorable positions, namely,
two ends of the
at the
on the third section
and on the assumption that the car
section,
at the
is
extreme end of the section

copper
find the total cost of the feeder
at
Total drop to each end of the line to be 75 volts.
10,480
feet
from the
end of the railway
city
mils, city
485,200 circular
mils,
mils
536,700
;
Note.
tem
9
1
The
power house should be placed
electric
first
{a)
section
circular
dollars.
which
this
term
is
at the
lamps are
to
'
" of a
center of gravity
sys"
defined in Art. 119, Chap. IX., in order that
amount of feeder copper may be a minimum.
the
from which
(b)
Ans.
and third section 369,900
circular mils,
(r) 7, 1
in the sense in
{c)
end of second section (1,480 feet)

suburban end of second section (9,320
441,000 circular
feet)
and
16 cents per pound.
be supplied by
Similarly, a center of distribution,
street mains,
should be located at the
"center of gravity" of the consumers, each consumer being "weighted"
in
propor-
tion to the current delivered to him.
The
feeder on city section of 9,000 feet
000
circular mils throughout, but
city
end of
156.
this section
it
of the feeder
is
assumed
to
would be advisable
much
be of uniform section of 441,in fact to
make
the extreme
smaller than 441,000 circular mils.
nearly reentrant row of 100 lamps, each taking one-
half an ampere,
is
to be wired in accordance with the return loop
scheme, using wire of uniform
one end of the row

other end of the row
50
is
is
60
tage at the service point
feet
feet
is
size.
The row
is
from the service
200
point,
from the service point.
115
volts.
Find the
feet long,
and the
The
vol-
size of wire to
488
105 volts at the middle lamp of the row.
give
Ans. 14,040
circular mils sectional area.

Note.
Such problems
and problem 157 are most
as this
sumption that the given group of lamps
with ideal uniformity over the whole length of 200
Find the voltage
157.
problem 156.
on the
as-
feet.
each end lamp
at
easily solved
equivalent to a 50-ampere load distributed
is
row
the
in
specified in
Ans. 108.85 volts at one end and 109.23 volts
at
the other end.

Note.
which
is
The
drop along ab (or
pX\s
equal to }ipXI, where
Fig. 164^,
cd').
row
Compare
Art.
in (5o-[-
Chap. IX.
19,
115 volts minus the drop in (60
is
the service wire, and the voltage at the other end of the
drop
(^
-yj
x)(/x,
the resistance of ab (or cd) and /is the total
current delivered to the group of lamps.

the voltage at one end of the
equal to
is
-1) feet of the service wire
with
row
-\-
Therefore
-|fi) feet of
115 volts minus the
is
current of 50 amperes in each
full
case.
158. All the lamps except the middle
problem
fied in
56 are turned
Ans.
the middle lamp.
Find the
159.
lamps
From
problem
the row speci-
in
of voltage at
rise
105 volts to 114.88 volts.
size of wire required to
specified in
lamp
Find the
off.
supply the row of 100
56 by the simple parallel scheme,
both service wires being led from the service point to the nearer
end of the row
(a)
when
and the most remote lamp
the drop between the service point

is
10 volts
most remote lamp exceeds the drop
amount (109.23
remote lamp is
area
{b)
Note.
105) volts
5 volts.
In
case ()
we have
Ans.
;
(b)
when
the drop to the
to the nearest
when
the drop to the most
and
(c)
[a)
16,200 circular mils sectional
(c)
32,400 circular
scheme as
specified in
middle lamp
to a
is
a range of 6.67 volts
problem 156 the voltage
maximum
is
at the
of 109.23 volts, that
the wire in the return loop scheme
is,
11.67 volts at the
whereas with the return loop
lamps ranges from 105
at the
a range of only 4.23 volts, and
the smaller.
In case {b) the voltage at the lamps has the same range as
lamps therefore would operate equally well as

in
mils.
the same total drop as in problem 156, but the
voltage at the lamps ranges from 105 volts at the remote end to
near end of the row, that
lamp by the
in the return
in
problem 156 and the
loop scheme as specified
problem 156, provided the lamps are all in use or all out of use, but the wire in
This shows in a striking way
\s nearly twice as heavy as in problem 156.
case {b)
the saving of copper by the return loop scheme, for the
same range of voltage among
PROBLEMS.
when
the lamps,
the group of lamps forms a nearly reentrant
are always either all on or all
On
489
row and when the lamps
off.
the other hand, the result of problem 158 shows that the return loop as speci-
problem I56,is not
fied in
group are turned
lamp
the remaining
160.
off,
at all suited to the case in
which part of the lamps
in the
the effect being to cause a very considerable rise of voltage at
(or lamps).
group of 50 lamps each taking i.o ampere is to be

church at a distance of one mile from a lighting
installed in a
station.
use
It is
understood that whenever any of the lamps are in
are in use, so that the drop in the feeders which supply
all
may
the lamps
have any value that economy demands.
The
lamps are to be operated
for
power
at the station
cents per kilowatt-hour, the cost of cop-
per
16 cents per pound, the annual charge on the cost of the
is
wire
is
is 3. 5
300 hours each
The
year.
10 per cent, (interest 6 per cent, depreciation
and taxes i per cent.), and the

Find (a) The size of the feeders
station voltage
to give a balance
per cent.,
is
cost of
125 volts.
between
loss
of power and cost of copper, and (d) the voltage at the lamps.
Ans.
(a)
JVbie I.
The only objection
50.45 volts.
(d)
to the application of the
economic principle of the
balance between loss of power and cost of copper to a case like the one here considered
is
that the voltage at the
lamps may be very
different
from the voltage which
management
prevails in the other parts of the lighting system, so that the station
would have
to
evident that
for,
it
be careful to supply special lamps suited to the special voltage.

is
expensive at best to supply the
under the conditions of problem 160,
loss of ;^39.
it
fifty
lamps
It is
at a distance of a mile,
requires ^391.40 worth of copper with a
14 worth of power each year, and to transmit the required power, 2.522
kilowatts (or 22.93 amperes with
no
volts at the lamps), with 15 volts
drop would
take $892 worth of copper with a loss of #3.61 worth of power each year.
JVoê 2.
It is instructive to solve
problem 160 graphically as follows
say, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000, 80,000, 90,000,
sectional areas as abscissas of
two curves,
and 100,000 circular
and
B;
mils.
Assume,
Use
the ordinates of curve
these
repre-
senting the values in dollars of the power lost each year, and the ordinates of curve
By representing the annual charge in dollars on the total cost of the copper. Then
plot a third curve, C, of which each ordinate is the sum of the corresponding ordinates of curves A and B^ and the abscissa corresponding to the minimum ordinate of
this curve, C, is the required sectional area.
consumer pays 10 cents per kilowatt-hour not only for

the energy he uses in his lamps but also for the energy that is
161.
lost in the wires that lead
from the watt-hour meter to
his lamps.
490
If the
customer uses his lamps 2 hours per day the year round,
find the size of wires
he should use
house, in circular mils
in his
per ampere, for greatest economy, the cost of copper being 16
and depreciation being 8 per
cents per pound, and the interest
Ans. 4,507 circular mils per ampere.
cent.
162.
station
The
is
power
cost of
at the switch-board in
The
2 cents per kilowatt-hour.
an arc-lighting
plant supplies a current
of 6.6 amperes to a circuit of 50 arc lamps which are operated
on a moonlight schedule
of copper
cost of the wire
The
its
is
1 1
1.5
depreciation
is
price of 2
cents per
in the wire
and
insulation.
Find the
of
The
cost
falling of
very substantial.
smaller than No. 6
pound
is
is
insulated.
on the net weight of copper
is
intended to cover the cost of the
size of wire to give a
balance between loss
Ans. 17,040 circular
an arc light wire into the

Therefore,
It is usually
cost of the wire
large because the wire
this price is
account of the high voltage.
The
per cent).
power and cost of copper.

JVoê.
The
per cent, (interest 6 per cent., depreciation
and taxes
3.5 per cent,
high and
2,160 hours each year.
for
21 cents per pound, and the annual charge on the
is
it
is
street
mils.
would be very dangerous on
important that an arc-lamp circuit be
not considered allowable for this reason, to use wire
Brown and Sharpe gauge (26,000
circular mils) for
an arc-lamp
circuit.
163.
Find the cost to the
power delivered
for 1,200
special line to a single

station, the wire
loss of
owners of 16.5 kilowatts of
station
hours each year at 220 volts over a
customer at a distance of one mile from the
being of such size as to give a balance between
power and cost of copper.
Determine the
size of wire
on
the basis of a 6 per cent annual charge on the cost of the copper at
16 cents per pound, the cost of power at the switch -board being
2.5 cents per kilowatt- hour.
Reckon the
total cost of the line
at 2.25 times the cost of the copper,
and reckon the
total
annual
cost of interest, depreciation, taxes,
and maintenance of
line at
15 per cent, of the total cost of the
line.
Ans.
;^ 1,1 76.80 per
year, or about 6 cents per kilowatt-hour delivered.

164. Given ten
groups of lamps, each group taking 10 amperes,
PROBLEMS.
The lamps
the groups being 10 feet apart.
current from
shown
in Fig. 168,
and No.
The end group,
Chap. IX.
Make
out.
is
70
Brown and Sharpe gauge copper
are suppHed with
115-volt mains according to the wiring
10 feet from the mains, the point, pp,
is
491
a drawing Hke Fig.
from the mains,
feet
wire
scheme
bb (see figure),
is
used through-
i^jb, Chap. IX., showing the
voltage at every group of lamps.
Sample answer: 1.964
drop to the group of lamps which
is
50
feet
volts
from the service
point.
Note.
It
would be permissible
for practical purposes to calculate
drops to the
various lamps in this problem on the assumption that the lamps constitute a load
which
is
distributed with ideal uniformity.
It is
here intended, however, that the
drops be calculated as they actually are and so represented

165.
The
core of an insulated cable
eter, the lead
sheath
and the sheath
is
is filled
i|^
inches inside diameter, and the space between the core
with rubber of which the electrical strength
rubber insulation can sustain.
An
drawing.
is,
say,
120,000
Find the greatest voltage between sheath and core that the
volts per centimeter.
166.
in the
a cylindrical rod of copper | inch in diam-
is
Ans. 79,130
volts.
electromotive force of 104,800 volts
parallel wires 6 mils in diameter
applied very suddenly to two
is
and 6 inches apart center
to center.
What
is
the
diameter of ^he cylindrical region about each wire throughout which the electrical
stress
exceeds the electrical strength of the
namely, 26,000 volts per centimeter?
air,
Ans. One-half an inch in diameter.

Note.
After the voltage
has been applied and the air inside of the region one-
half an inch in diameter has broken

at a distance of \ inch
which pass outwards from

layer
field
down
from the wire
is
electrically, a thin cylindrical layer of air
electrically charged,
being
this thin layer of air
and the
in tension pull
and cause convection currents which very quickly
alter the distribution of electric
between the wires.
167.
J/ and
The accompanying
M'
distances are
all
all
shows two motors,
figure, Fig. 167/^,
two groups of glow lamps,
arc lamps, A,
supplied from the
5
1
and
L\ and
so small that the sizes of
takes 35 amperes, the motor,
M'
a group o^
-volt service point, P.

all
The
wires are to be de-
termined from the table of safe carrying capacities.
M,
lines of force
outwards on the
The motor,
takes 18 amperes, the group,
Z, contains 7 half-ampere lamps, the group, Z', contains 3 half-
ampere lamps, and each arc lamp takes

{a)
Make
amperes.
a sketch of Fig. 167/* and indicate the values of the
current at the points a,
b, c, d^ e
and /;
(p)
indicate the size of
492
each wire assuming rubber insulated wire to be used

the location and
mark
and branch block required by the National

a
show
A
00^<^<^N^
J
^
(c)
Electrical Code.
the current rating of every fusible cut-out
-e
L'
iJ
(^M
f
e-.
mm
L
'
s.
0^'
Fie. 167P.
Photometry and Electric Lighting.
Chapter X.
168.
The intensity
a i6-candle lamp
type,
(a)
is
of illumination at a distance of four feet from

sufficient for
easy reading of ordinary book
Find the distance from a 20-candle lamp
lamp gives the same
intensity of illumination
(<^)
at
which the
express this in-
on each
tensity of illumination in spherical-candles of light falling
square foot of illuminated surface

of illumination in luxes.
Ans.
candles per square foot;
(c)
JVote.
One lux
is
(a)
and
4.47
(r)
feet
express this intensity

{^)
0.0796 spherical-
12.21 luxes.
the intensity of illumination produced by a Hefner
lamp
at a
distance of one meter.
169.
The glow lamp which
used as a standard
is
photometer has a candle power of 16.8 candles

towards the photometer screen.
other end of the photometer bar
to
Another lamp, B,
;
in
the direction
is
placed at the
and when the screen
equality of illumination on both sides,
it
is
a Bunsen
in
is
adjusted
2.61 meters from
the lamp, B, and 1.80 meters from the standard lamp.
What
is
PROBLEMS.
the candle power of
in the direction
493
towards the screen
Ans.
35.3 candle power.
The lamp, B^
170.
of problem 169
is
placed at a distance of 0.70
meter from the center of a large mirror which
from
B along the photometer bar
and when the screen

on both
sides,
towards the mirror
The lamp, B^
in this
case the
same
face that
was presented
when measured by
the apparent candle power of any lamp,
from the above mirror, must be multiplied

Ans.
to correct for the loss of light at the mirror.
presents
Find the factor by which
towards the screen in problem 169.
171.
lamp and 1.82
1.85 meters from the standard
it is
beam of
again adjusted to equahty of illumination
is
meters from the center of the mirror.
light reflected
reflects the light
towards the photometer screen
1.
in
the
order
3.
light consisting of parallel rays has a sectional
300 luxes. Find the conical intensity of the beam

passes through a lens of which the focal length is 50
intensity of
after
it
Ans. 75 hefners.
centimeters.
The sectional
Note.
intensity of the conical
as the sectional intensity of the given
beam
of light at the lens
beam, namely, 300 luxes, that
is
same
the
300 times as
is
great as the sectional intensity of the light at a distance of lOO centimeters from a
Hefner lamp, or 75 times as great as the sectional intensity

meters from a Hefner lamp.
is
at a distance of
50
centi-
Therefore the conical intensity of the convergent beam
75 hefners.
It is
perhaps more intelligible to state the solution as follows
amoun. of
unit of light flux the

intensity
sectional
is
light in
one lux.
Let us take as the
one square centimeter of a beam of which the
This unit of light
is
The cone
square centimeter of the surface of the lens.
one lux-cm. 2
the periphery of this portion of the lens to the focus has a solid angle of
by (50 cm.
)2
which
is
equal to ^y^^.
conical intensity of the
which
equal to 750,000 lux-cm. 2, and
To
this
and the
beam
conical
solid angle
The amount
drawn from
cm. 2 divided
is
300
lux-cm. 2 divided by
at a distance of
of light passing through this area
subtended by the area
^yg^j-
only remains to reduce this to hefners
it
end consider one square centimeter of area
from a Hefner lamp.
This cone contains 300 lux-cm.^ of light so
that the
is
Consider one
defined by lines
is
100 centimeters
is
one lux-cm.'
xoô^, so that one hefner
is
equal to
10,000 lux-cm2.
Solid angle
is
therefore light flux
measured by a pure
and conical
and both may be expressed
ratio,
area divided by radius squared
intensity of light
in lux-cm. 2
and
have the same physical dimensions,
494
172.
An
open -arc lamp
is
placed at a distance of
a converging lens and an image of the arc
is
five feet
formed
from
at a distance
The light from the lamp has a

2,500 candles. Assuming that the luminous
of one foot beyond the lens.

conical intensity of
lamp is negligibly small, and ignoring loss of light

by reflection and absorption, find the conical intensity
Ans. 100 candles.
of the beam beyond the image.
surface of the
at the lens
Note.
Consider the cone A formed by
of the lens, the cone

lens,
formed by
and the cone a formed by
lines drawn from the

drawn from the image to
drawn from the center of
lines
lines
The
iphery of the luminous surface of the lamp.
lamp
is
negligibly small
when
size
arc to the periphery
the periphery of the

the lens to the per-
of the luminous area of the
the solid angle of the cone a
is
negligible in compari-
son with the solid angle of the cone B.
All of the light in cone
is
in
cone
conical intensities of the light in cones
B after passes through the lens, so that the

and B are inversely as the solid angles of
it
these cones, and these solid angles are inversely proportional to the squares of the
distances of the lens from the
lamp and from the image,
respectively.
Calculate the spherical-candle-power of a bare
173.
from the data given
in Fig. 175,
glow lamp
Ans. 13.33 spherical-
Chap. X.
candles.
174. Calculate
from the data given
in
Fig. 176, Chap. X.,
the spherical-candle-power of the glow lamp of problem 173

when it is provided with an aluminum cone shade, and express
the
amount of
light
absorbed by the shade as a percentage of
the spherical -candle power of the bare lamp.

ical
candles
175.
[a)
38
per cent, of the light
How many
(b)
is lost.
16 candle-power lamps are required to
illuminate a lecture hall

ceiling?
Ans. 8.26 spher-
How many
50 x 75 feet with a moderately high

16 candle-power lamps would be re-
quired to give exactly the same average intensity of illumination
room twice as long, twice as wide and twice as high with the
same kind of walls and ceiling and the same kind of furniture ?
in a
Why?
ic)
The mean coefficient of absorption of walls,

in the room specified under a is 40 per cent.
and furniture
many i6-candle-power lamps would be

illumination in a
room of the same
How
required to give the same
size in
ient of absorption of walls, ceiling
ceiling
which the mean
and furniture
is 5 5
coeffic-
per cent
PROBLEMS.
Ans.
47 lamps
(a)
four times as many, because the area of
(^)
495
room
the light-absorbing surfaces in the larger
room
great as in the smaller

JVbê.
To
many per
65 lamps.
(^)
number of lamps required
specify the
square foot of floor area,
is
to
four times as
is
for illuminating a
assume that the wall area
room
as so
proportional to
is
the floor area, absorption coefficient being fixed in value.
176.
direct-current arc
lamp gives the following
distribution
of light
Angle from
20
10
vertical,
Candle-power,
290 440
60
70
80
670 1080 1220 1080 795
580
30
40
50
Calculate the intensities of illumination at points along a level
open
street distant^ tan 10,
lamp
horizontally from the
above the
street is
lamp above the

Express the
in
feet,
1 5
street
is
50
k tan 20, k tan 30, k tan 40,
when the height, k, of

and (d) when the height,
(a)
etc.,
the lamp
k,
of the
feet.
intensities of illumination in "candle-feet," that is
terms of the intensity of illumination produced by the beam
from a standard candle
upon a screen
falling perpendicularly
at a
distance of one foot from the candle.
Plot two curves showing horizontal distances from the
lamp as
Sample
abscissas
and
answer.
Intensity of illumination of the surface of the street at a
intensities of illumination as ordinates.
distance of 26 feet horizontally from the
feet"
when
Note.
equal to
the lamp
The distance,
V
Ji^
is
d^ in feet of
is
one of the points on the
one of the angles given
any one of the beams above
equal to the candle-power of the
pressed in
**
candle-feet."
given point on the street
is
lamp
0.600 ''candle-
is
15 feet above the ground.
\- h^ tan^ 6 where d
sectional intensity of
lamp
is
beam
street
specified, at distance
divided by
o^^,
Furthermore, one unit sectional area of
Draw
"
of the given
from the
being ex-
beam
at the
beam
at distance
is
cos B times the sec-
d feet from
the lamp.
a tangent to one of the volt-ampere arc character-
Fig. 182, Chap. X.,
the volt-axis and

this tangent.
this
is
The
spread over i/cos(9 units of area of ground, so that the in-
tional intensity (in "candle-feet
177.
d feet
this result
tensity of illumination of the surface of the street at the given point
istics in
from the lamp
the problem.
in
Let
and
let e volts
be the intercept on
amperes the intercept on the ampere-axis, of
E volts
and / amperes be the coordinates of the
40

Show
point of tangency.
will
the least resistance which
is
cause the arc to be stable with a current of
E volts
an electromotive force of
Plot
,Noie.
eji in
that eji
series,
the combined volt- ampere characteristic of the arc and the resistance
by adding
to each ordinate of the given volt- ampere
a decreasing total voltage with increasing current (unstable)
be horizontal
/, it will
corresponding to
at the point
creasing total voltage with increasing current
When
178.
hour, what
is
characteristic e\i
This combined volt-ampere characteristic
times the corresponding abscissa.
than
/ amperes and
across the arc.
stable
when
the cost of electric power
when
and
/,
will
it
the current
is
show
will
the current
less
is
show an
in-
greater than /.
lo cents per kilowatt-
is
the total cost of i,ooo candle-hours delivered
by a
carbon-filament glow lamp costing i8 cents, giving an average

of 15 candles during
its
average of 54 watts
Ans. 38
of
life
600 hours, and consuming an
cents.
At what price could an osmium-filament glow lamp be

make the total cost of light o per cent, less than by the
179.
sold to
use of the carbon- filament lamp specified in problem 178, the
osmium lamp
1
giving an average of
An
180.
The
is
i^
trimmed and cleaned

dollars.
candle-hours, the cost of
Ans. 22.9
Note.
is
on
Find the
life
$4..
of
35
used 3,500
The
its cost.
year at a cost
thirty-five times per
The lamp consumes 500
spherical-candles of light.
Ans.
depreciation of the lamp
say, 3 yi dollars per year, including interest
lamp
of
j^ candles during a
enclosed arc lamp costing 15 dollars
hours each year for street lighting.

is,
500 hours, and consuming an average of 24 watts
watts and delivers 225
total cost of
1,000 spherical-
power being 10 cents per kilowatt-hour.
cents.
Power for street arc lighting should
be reckoned
at a cost very
much
less
than 10 cents per kilowatt-hour on account of the fact that the lights are operated
steadily for a long time each day.
specified in order that the result of
spherical-candle-hours.
cost of 10 cents per kilowatt-hour
is
here
intelligently with
It is to
be noted furthermore that 1,000 candle-hours
at present
1,000 mean-horizontal candle-hours, not 1,000
the result of problem 178.
from a glow lamp means
The
problem 180 may be compared
The
latter is
about 15 per cent, less than the former, so that
the result of problem 178 should be divided by 0.85 to
make
it
strictly
comparable
with the result of problem 180.
Even though
the cost per spherical-candle-hour be considerably less
by the use of
may be
really cheaper
an enclosed arc lamp than by the use of a glow lamp, the
latter
PROBLEMS.
on account of the
lighted by a
fact that
number of
181.
street is to
along
street has trees
a portion of a street, for example,
distributed
glow lamps aggregate much
497
may be much
better
glow lamps than by one arc lamp even though the
less spherical-candle
power than the arc lamp.
The
be lighted for 3,600 hours each year.

it
so that satisfactory illumination requires,
{a)
one
22 5 -candle-power 364-watt enclosed arc lamp
every 250
feet,
costing $^.2^ per year for interest, depreciation,
either,
cleaning and trimming, or (b) three 3 2 -candle-power 112-watt
glow lamps every 250
feet,
each lasting 600 hours, and costing
25 cents, including the cost of replacing

price paid for
total
power
is
when burned
The
out.
What is
street: (a) By
3 cents per kilowatt-hour.
annual cost of lighting 250 feet of the
closed arc lamps, and (b)
by glow lamps.
Ans.
{a) ;^44.56
the
en{b)
$40.79Note
I.
The arc
lamp consumes
less
power here than
is
specified in
problem
180 inasmuch as street arcs are usually connected in series and operated by a constantcurrent generator (or transformer) so that there
Note
2.
must be used
It is
no ballast resistance
is
in the lamps.
very important to consider that a special generator (or transformer)
to supply series- connected arc lamps,
whereas glow lamps can be oper-
ated from the same generator that supplies current for glow lamps for house lighting.
Therefore, the cost of operating series-connected arcs
is
rather
more than ^44.56 each
per year, as compared with ;$40.79 for three 32-candle-power glow lamps, on account
of the interest on the cost and the depreciation of the special generator (or transformer)
required in the former case.
Appendix A.
The
182.
intensity of the magnetic field in the air
the pole face
and the
The
Magnetism of Iron.
and the armature core of a dynamo
field is at right
is
gap between
3,500 gausses
angles to pole face and armature surface.
distance across the air
gap
is
inch.
Find the magneto-
motive force across the air gap in gilberts and in ampere-turns.
Ans. 3,333.5 gilberts, or 2,650 ampere-turns.

183. Find the magnetomotive force in gilberts and
in
ampere-
turns along a vertical line 10 meters long at a place where the

intensity of the earth's magnetic field
is
0.56 gauss and
Ans. 533 gilberts or 424 ampere-turns.
72.
32
its
dip
is
49^
A slim rod
184.
25 centimeters long
is
made
into a link
which
passes through a coil of 50 turns of wire in which a current of
amperes
flowing.
is
component
parallel to the rod of the magnetic field
Reduce a
185.
field
in gausses.
Ans. 12.37 gausses.
gausses.
Show by
186.
due to the
Ans. 37.7 gausses.

intensity of 25 ampere-turns per inch to
Express the result
coil.
Find the average value along the rod of the
dotted lines the various magnetic circuits in
39 of Chap.
Figs. 32 to
Let <F represent the magnetomo-
II.
tive force of a single field coil in
each
figure.
What
is
netomotive force acting on each magnetic circuit?
the
mag-
Ans. 2<în
2irin Fig. 33
în Fig. 34; în Fig. 35 2<rin Fig.
36; 2(în Fig. 37; (în Fig. 38 and 2în Fig. 39.
187. An iron rod 2x2 centimeters square and 20 centimeters
Fig. 32
long
magnetized to an intensity of
is
centimeter section
when
it is
action of the poles of the rod,
and of an
to the rod
,000 units pole per square
placed in a region which, but for the
would be a uniform
intensity of 102 gausses.
poles of the rod to be concentrated at
magnetizing
field at
Find the
188.
its
Assuming the
ends calculate the net
Ans. 22 gausses.
the center of the rod.
total
field parallel
magnetic flux through the middle part of
the iron rod specified in problem 187.
Ans. 50,353.6 maxwells
or Hnes.
Note.
One
part of the flux
is
\Km and
the other part
is 3is,
where <^
is
the
net magnetizing field at the middle of the rod.
A bar
189.
magnet of hard
steel is 2
2 centimeters square
and 20 centimeters long, and the strength of each pole of the
magnet
is
2,000
The magnet
units.
is
placed in a region which,
but for the presence of the magnet, would not be a magnetic

field.
Find the
Note.
In
demagnetizing
190.
total
magnetic flux through the middle part of
Ans. 24,972.8 maxwells.
the magnet.
this case the net
force,
and the
magnetizing force, (^ at the middle of the bar
flux
due
to
A transformer has a sheet iron core of which
sectional area
is
is
di is subtracted from ^Tzm.
120 square centimeters.
the uniform
The mean length
of
PROBLEMS.
the magnetic circuit formed
much
499
by the core
is
How
loo centimeters.
current must be passed through a winding of 500 turns of
wire to produce a magnetic flux of 1,767,000 Hnes through the
Ans. 3.88 amperes.
core.
Note.
cast iron,
The student should plot carefully the ^ and

and
wrought
<9f curves for
iron,
from the tables given in Art, 12, Appendix A, and use these
soft steel
curves in finding corresponding values of cJh and 3{ in this and the following problems.
191.
How much
flux will be
produced through the wrought
problem 190 by a current of 8.2 amperes
iron core specified in
through the 500 turns of wire? Ans. 1,920,000 lines.

192. The magnetic circuit of a dynamo consists of wrought
iron (in armature core
and
and pole
air gap.
pieces),
and
centimeters long and

cast iron portion
meters
in
The wrought
20 square centimeters
iron portion
and the
long and 300 square centimeters
portion
air
magnetic leakage?
this circuit, ignoring
is
50
centi-
2.5 centimeters
How many
in sectional area.
ampere-turns are required to force 1,600,000
is
in sectional area, the
40 centimeters long and 220 square
is
sectional area,
yoke
in field cores), cast iron (in field
through
lines of flux
Ans. 12,100 ampere-
turns.
Note.
On account of magnetic leakage the magnetic
cores and pole pieces
flows across the air gaps
magnetomotive force
is
larger,
is
and through the armature
by
tests
is
core.
flux
through
field
yoke, field
larger, than the flux
which
Therefore a slightly greater
required to overcome the magnetic reluctance of field yoke, field
cores and pole pieces than
Magnetic leakage
sometimes very much
would be required
never really negligible, but
if
it
the magnetic leakage were zero.
can be satisfactorily determined only
on a finished machine.
193.
How much
magnetic flux would be forced through the
problem 192 by a magnetomotive

Ans. 1,723,000 lines.
force of 13,500 ampere- turns.
magnetic
Note.
circuit specified in
This problem
is
to
be solved by calculating a
turns for various assigned values of flux.
corresponding to 13,500 ampere-turns
194.
straight
inches long
is
wrought
may
These
series of values of
results are to
be plotted.
ampere-
The
flux
then be taken from this curve.
iron rod 2 inches in diameter
wound with 1,000
turns of wire.
proximately the current required to force 203,100
through the rod and back through the
air.
Ans.
and 24
Calculate aplines of flux
10.
amperes.
SOO
The
Note
magnetic reluctance of the
between two similar iron spheres, r
air
centimeters -in radius and ^centimeters apart, center to center,
when îs
large
compared with
and we have
as negligible
r.
In
this case
i/27rr as the
equal to {d
is
r)/27r^r,
r may be dropped from the numerator
air
between two iron
spheres, each r centimeters in radius.
In the above problem the poles of the iron rod may be taken to be two iron spheres
2 inches in diameter at a distance apart which

oersted
in this
=:
The magnetic
i/27rr).
problem
air return
path
it
larger reluctance of the air part of the circuit
The magnetic
195.
bipolar generator
ture core
is
through the
is
compared with 2
is
entirely negligible,
is
reluctance of the two air gaps of a large
0.0006 oersted, the reluctance of the arma-
0.00005 oersted, the reluctance of the leakage paths
from pole-piece to pole-piece
air
(a) the
ampere-turns
(B)
magnetomotive
the
;
(c)
is
0.0022 oersted,
6,000,000 maxwells.
flux
force
in
in
ampere-turns
the magnetomotive force in ampere-
turns across the armature core

field
is
magnetomotive force between the pole-pieces
across the two air gaps
total
inasmuch as the
calculated by an approximate formula.
and the useful flux through the armature

Find
The
inches.
reluctance of the iron part of the magnetic circuit
about 0.002 oersted and
is
large
is
therefore approximately equal to 0.0627
is
(d) the leakage flux
(/) the magnetic leakage
{e)
the
coefficient of the
and {g) the total magnetic reluctance from pole-piece

Ans. {a) 3,110 ampere-turns; (^) 2,870.8 amto pole-piece.
machine
pere-turns
(e)
(c)
239.2 ampere-turns
7,773,000 maxwells; (/) 1.295

6-pole generator with a
196.
watts at 550 volts has a simplex
1,773,000 maxwells
(<^)
{)
full
0.000502 oersted.
load rating of 275 kilo-
wave armature winding
(2 paths
through the armature); the armature has 1,200 conductors and

the commutator has 300 segments.
At
full
load the brushes
have a forward lead of four commutator segments.
number
of series turns required on each field core
windings are arranged like Fig. 33, Chap.

act the demagnetizing action of the armature at
field
Find the
C (when
II.) to
the
counter-
full load.
Ans.
8 turns.
Note.
balance
The number of ampere-turns required on the
field
per magnetic circuit to
D demagnetizing ampere-turns on the armature per magnetic circuit

field
-(
reluctance
leakage reluctance /
is
equal to
PROBLEMS.
where
reluctance
field
means the
total
pole-pieces and leakage reluctance
between two adjacent pole-pieces.
501
magnetic reluctance of yoke, magnet cores, and
means the total magnetic reluctance of the air paths
The
field reluctance is
the leakage reluctance so that the ratio of the
generally a small fraction of
two may be neglected
in
the above
expression.
work in ergs and in foot-pounds spent in

magnetizing a wrought iron bar 3 inches x 3 inches x 20 inches
(a) Find the
197.
long from a neutral condition to
^ = 16,000 lines per square

^ and given in Art. 12,
centimeter, using the tabular values of
Appendix A.
(^)
Find the work
c^T
in ergs
and
in
foot-pounds re-
quired to magnetize a cast-iron rod of the same size from a
neutral condition to <^

(a) 32.6
9,000
lines per
Ans.
square centimeter.
10^ ergs or 2.406 foot-pounds;
(<5)
33.9
10^ ergs
or 2.50 foot-pounds.
JVoê.
Plot the 3
parallelograms.
198.
quality
and 3^ curves from the tabular values given
in Art. 12,
Ap-
Divide the areas between the curves and the cB axis into a number of
pendix A.
Calculate the area of each parallelogram and thus find the total area.
transformer core contains 96 cubic inches of the best
of
transformer iron
and
the
which are
laminations,
thoroughly insulated from each other, are 0.014 inch thick.
The core,
is
tween the
limits cB
current.
Find the hysteresis loss and the eddy current loss
carried through 133 magnetic cycles per second be-
z 3,500 gausses,
the core both in watts.
by means of an
alternating
in
Ans. Hysteresis loss 14.7 watts; Eddy
current loss 6.9 watts.

199.
The
hysteresis loop (Fig. 17,
Appendix A), of a sample
of iron for a magnetic cycle having the limits (^
2,500
lines
per square centimeter, has an area of 9.52 square inches.
In
plotting the loop each inch of ordinate represents 2,000 units of

oB
and each inch of abscissa represents
energy
units of
cf{.
Find the
lost in 25 cubic centimeters of the iron during the
netic cycle.
mag-
Ans. 189,400 ergs.
The electromagnet shown in Fig. 1 2, Appendix A, has

following dimensions.
The cylindrical cores, CC, are of
200.
the
annealed wrought iron 2 inches
in diameter, 8 inches long,
and
The yoke, VV, and
the
7 inches apart from center to center.
502
armature,
A A, are
also of
wrought
2X2
iion,
inches square, and
the air gap between the armature and the ends of the cores
Find the
inch.
^^
give a pull of 934
total
number of ampere -turns required
pounds on the armature.
is
to
Ans. 6,175 ampere-
turns.
JVbU,
Neglect magnetic
leakage and reluctance of joints between cores and
Assume length of magnetic path
yoke.
in
yoke and
armature each equal to 9
in
inches.
Appendix
B.
Characteristic Curves.
Given the following data, specifying the external char-
201.
a series generator
acteristic of
B^
65.1
121 o
138.0
150.0
158.3
163.5
164.3
volts
12
24
30
36
42
48
54
amp
The combined
ohm.
resistance of armature
and
field
derive
and plot the
of one point E^
202.
055
The speed
Ans.
54.5 volts, I^
Coordinates
30.0 amperes.
of the above generator

characteristic,
is
doubled
derive
and the altered
Ans. Coordinates of one point,
characteristic.
demagnetiz-
total characteristic, ignoring the
plot the altered external
is
Plot the external characteristic from the above data, and
ing action of the current in the armature.
/a;
winding
and
total
292.5 volts,
30.0 amperes.
203.
wound
The
field
with 0.8 as
of the series generator of problem
many
201
is
turns of wire as in problem 201, the
wire being smaller in size so as to have the same resistance.
Derive the data for the external characteristic of the new machine
from the data of problem 201, ignoring the demagnetizing action

of the current
volts, /.
204.
istic
in
the
Ans.
characteristic.
armature,
Coordinates
and plot the new external

of
one
point,
E^
133.87
37.5 amperes.
Derive the data for the external ampere-ohm character-
of the series generator of problem 20 1 and plot the external

,
ampere-ohm
characteristic of the machine.
of one point,
30 amperes,
-^^
= 4.6
ohms.
Ans. Coordinates
PROBLEMS.
503
205. Given the following data specifying the external
a shunt generator
acteristic of
E^
216
207
197
The
char-
187
175
161
146
volts.
16
20
24
amp.
12
resistance of the armature
is
0.4
ohm and
the resistance of
acteristic
Plot the external char116.7 ohms.

from the above data, and derive and plot the total char-
acteristic,
ignoring the demagnetizing action of the current in the
the shunt field winding
Ans.
armature.
/^=
is
Coordinates
one point,
of
182 volts,
17.5 amperes.
206. Derive the data for the external

istic
-^
ampere-ohm
character-
of the shunt generator of problem 205 and plot the external
ampere-ohm
characteristic of
of one point,
207.
Ans. Coordinates
machine.
the
16 amperes, R^
10.94 ohms.
Given the following data for the magnetization curve of a
shunt generator at a speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute
185.0 209.5
13^-0
ô 7^-5
0.6
221
2.4
1.8
1.2
232.5 242.0 250.5
258.0
4.2
5.4
3.6
3.0
Plot this magnetization curve and derive from

characteristic of the
shunt
field
machine
it
4.8
the voltage-speed
at zero load, the resistance of the
winding being 80 ohms.
Armature
Ans. Coordinates of one point, 430 volts
at
resistance ignored.
2,000 revolutions
per minute.
208. Derive the total characteristic of the shunt generator of
problem 207 from

armature being
o.
its
magnetization curve, the resistance of the
ohm
Ignore the demagnetizing action of
the current in the armature.
E^ 209.2
209. {a)
volts,
at full
load.
assuming
it
to
its
is
14.7 amperes.
short-shunt
kilowatt machine,
gives between
compound
generator, rated as a
10 per cent, overcompounded.
That
terminals 500 volts at zero load and
10-
is, it
5 50 volts
Plot the external characteristic of the machine,
be a straight
line
between zero load and
full load.
504
Derive and plot the
(J?)
characteristic of the machine, the
total
resistances of armature, shunt field
winding and
wind-
series field
ohm, 100 ohms, and 0.04 ohm, respectively. Ans.

Coordinate of one point, E^ = 5/6.5 volts, /^ = 205.58 amperes.
ing being 0.09
210.
Given the following data specifying the armature charac-
teristic
of a shunt generator, the voltage between the brushes being
kept at 220 volts.
/
/
2.7
20
2.7
2.84
(a) Plot this
40
60
3.05
3.28
80
100
120 amp.
3.9
4.26
3.57
curve and also plot the curve between /. and /.
The shunt field winding of the machine has 2,000 turns, {b) Find
the number of turns of wire required in a series field winding (shortshunt connection) to bring the voltage between the brushes to
220
volts
when
/. is
100 amperes,
{c)
What
fraction of the
amperes would have to be shunted round the
series
when
/ would have
give exactly 220 volts between the brushes
peres
{d)
round the
brushes
cent.
211.
What
series
fractional part of
100
winding to
/. is
100 am-
to be shunted
winding to give exactly 2 20 volts between the
when /is 50 amperes?
Ans.
(J?)
26 turns
{c) 2.3
per
(d) 22.9 per cent.
The generator
specified in
problem 209 requires a
total
of 6, 500 ampere- turns to give 500 volts at zero load, and a total of
9,750 ampere-turns to give 550 volts
How many
peres).
winding?
212.
at full load (/.
= 200 am-
turns of wire are there in the series field
Ans. 13 turns.
The curve
in Fig. 49,
Appendix B,
gives the relation be-
tween speed-of-car and amperes-per-motor when the two motors
on the car are connected
in parallel
between the 500-volt trolley
wire and the track with rheostat resistance

this
all
Derive from
cut out.
curve the speed-ampere curve of the two motors
when they
are connected in series to the 500-volt supply, the resistance of
each motor being 0.50 ohm.
speed 6.85 miles per hour, current 80 amperes.

Note.
For
and the î drop
any given current

in the
i in
motor the Ri drop
two motors connected
in series
is
in the
motor
2Xo.5X^'
is
0.5
Xh
Therefore
PROBLEMS.
505
Appendix B,
the counter electromotive force of one motor in Fig. 49,
minus 0.5
^^^ the counter electromotive
connected in series
is
X 0.5 X
500 minus 2
the counter electromotive force per motor
and
in parallel
volts
(500
Hence
^-
500
is
2 X 0-5 X
speeds corresponding to the given current
volts
when
500
is
volts
two motors when they are
force of the
for given current i in
0.5 X
when
each motor
the motors are
the motors are in series
and the
are to each other as these counter electro-
motive forces.
213.
The curve
tween the
tractive efifort
Derive the curve showing the relation
current in the motor.
between the
Appendix B, gives the relation bedeveloped by a single motor and the
in Fig. 50,
total tractive efifort
the trolley wire for two motors
connected
and the
(a)
total current
connected
Ans. Coordinates of one point
in series.
2,250 pounds, current 160 amperes;

current 80 amperes.
pounds,
2,250
efifort
JVoê.
To make these transformations
tain current in a
The curves
214.
it is
motor means so much tractive
motors connected
taken from
in parallel,
(/^)
and
(d)
(a) tractive
tractive
efifort
only necessary to remember that a cereffort.
derived in problems 212 and 213 for two
in series
apply to the two motors on a
ton car, with 500 volts between trolley and
rail,
fifteen-
and with no
re-
Under these conditions the

car travels at a speed of 6.85 miles per hour up a 6.25 per cent,
Find (a) The current taken from the trolley (d) the
grade.
(c) the total power delivered to
total tractive efifort developed
the car {d) the net power represented by the total tractive efsistance in series with the motors.
fort at the given
speed
and
(e)
the efficiency of the car equip-
ment under the specified conditions.

2,250 pounds;
(c)
40 kilowatts;
Ans.
(a)
80 amperes
(d)
(d) 30.65 kilowatts; (e) 76.6
per cent.
TVb/.?.
215.
See explanation of example

The magnet core
in Art.
38 of Appendix B.
of a 4-pole shunt
dynamo has a diame-
ter of 8 inches, including thickness of brass
bobbin plus inside
The bobbin is wound with wire to a depth of i }4

The terminal voltage of the machine is no volts, of
insulation.
inches.
which 20 per
cent,
is
to be absorbed in the field rheostat.
Two
thousand ampere-turns are to be provided by each of the four
5o6
spools,
which are to be connected
perature of the winding
60 C.
in service is
Find the
size of
The ampere-turns
in a shunt field
winding are equal to the quotient of the
voltage between the terminals of the winding divided by the resistance of a
Of course,
turn of the wire.
would have
a commercial size of wire
216.
different
The
mean
be used in wind-
to
ing the above coils and the portion of the voltage absorbed in the field rheostat
be slightly
wire
Ans. 2,710 circular mils.
required.
Note.
The tem-
in series as usual.
would
from 20 per cent.
length of winding space on each of the bobbins of
problem 215
3 inches.
is
Find:
at6oC. of the
{a) Resistance
when wound with No. 16 Brown and Sharp
four bobbins in series
gauge double cotton-covered copper wire (outside diameter of

wire 0.063 inch
assume no bedding of the
layers)
(U)
watts dissipated in each bobbin using resistance at 60 C.
approximate
calculate the
above the
rise
Ans.
air.
and
(<r)
temperature of the bobbins
rise of
(a) 51.6
find
ohms
(U)
40.6 watts
3i.4C.
(c)
of temperature.
Note.
Dynamo designers estimate the
rise in
temperature of a
winding by
field
the formula
in
which
/ is
the estimated rise of temperature of the winding above the air in centi-
grade degrees,
is
the
power
in watts dissipated in the
winding, and
This formula
square inches of the cylindrical surface of the winding.
approximate, and
it is
to
be applied only to medium-sized
field spools
A
is
the area in
is
only roughly
with a depth of
winding of from 0.75 inch to 2 inches.
217.
has
its
certain 200-volt, 50-kilowatt, 4-pole shunt generator
four field spools connected in series and
run at speed of 500 revolutions per minute.
be driven
at a
field
What change is
winding ? {b) What
{a)
the machine at the reduced speed
field
spools are arranged two in series

;
(^)
is
to
necessary in the arrangeis
(r)
the current capacity of
What
ing of the machine at the reduced speed
amperes
designed to
This machine
speed of 250 revolutions per minute and to de-
velop 100 volts,
ment of the
it is
25 kilowatts.
by two
is
the power rat-
Ans.
{a)
in parallel
The
four
(b)
250
PROBLEMS.
Appendix C. Armature Windings.

a 2-pole drum armature winding having 18 inducpitch 7, back pitch 9, showing connections to com-
Draw
218.
tors
507
front
Make
the armature circle
4 inches in diameter.
by dotted lines and front connections
lines, as shown in Fig. 54, Appendix C.
Draw a simplex lap winding for a 4-pole drum armature
mutator bars.
Indicate back connections
by
full
219.
having 18 inductors
front pitch
5,
back pitch
Show
3.
connec-
commutator bars and indicate positions of poles and

Make the drawing same size and style as Fig. 56,
tions to
brushes.
Appendix
C.
Draw
220.
a simplex wave winding for a 4-pole
ture having 18 inductors; front pitch
5,
drum arma-
back pitch
3.
Show
connections to commutator bars and indicate positions of poles
Make
and brushes.
Appendix
the drawing
same
size
and
style as Fig. 57,
C.
221. Draw a doubly reentrant duplex lap winding for a 4-pole

drum armature having 36 inductors front pitch 10, back pitch 6.
Show connections to commutator bars and indicate positions of
Make the drawing same size and style as
poles and brushes.
;
Fig. 58,
Note.
even,
Appendix
A duplex
when
all
C.
lap or
wave winding must have both
inductors belong to the other of the
222.
Draw
odd numbered
a doubly reentrant duplex wave winding for a 4-pole
Show
tions of poles
and back pitches

all
two constituent simplex windings.
drum armature having 36

pitch 6.
front
even numbered inductors belong to the one and
inductors
front pitch 10
and back
connections to commutator bars and indicate posi-
Make
and brushes.
style as Fig. 59,
Appendix
the drawing same size and
C.
223. Draw a singly reentrant duplex lap winding for a 4-pole

drum armature having 34 inductors front pitch 7 and back
pitch 1 1
Show connections to commutator bars and indicate
positions of poles and brushes.
Make drawing same size and
;
style as Fig. 60,
Appendix
C.
5o8
Note.
pitches
In a singly reentrant duplex
winding, lap or wave, both front and back
must be odd.
224.
Draw
a singly reentrant duplex
drum armature having 32
Show
pitch 9.
inductors
wave winding for a 4-pole

front pitch
9 and back
connections to commutator bars and
positions of poles
and brushes.
Appendix
style as Fig. 60,
indicate
Make the drawing same
size
and
C.
drum armature which is to be wound with

Can it be wound with a lap winding? {b)
Can it be wound with a wave winding ? (c) State what windings
are possible when the number of inductors is taken as 22 and
225. Given a 4-pole
20 inductors,
{a)
24
and give
respectively,
226.
front
and back pitches
ranged as a duplex wave winding.

pitches and
227.
what
is
What
Given a 6-pole drum armature having
commutator
pitches,
and give
and degree of reentrancy
52 inductors.
back and
front,
in
each case.
Given a 6-pole drum armature having
State the possible varieties
commutator
229
each case.
are the front and back
the degree of reentrancy
State the possible varieties of winding,
228.
for
Given a 6-pole drum armature having 40 inductors ar-
tors, the
pitches,
50 inductors.
of winding, and give front, back, and
and degree of reentrancy
in
each case.
drum armature is to have from 46 to 50 inducexact number being chosen so that they may be ar4-pole
ranged as a singly reentrant duplex wave winding having one-
many commutator bars as inductors. What number

inductors is necessary ?
Make a drawing somewhat similar
of
fourth as
Fig. 62,
Appendix
C,
positions of the poles

230.
(i)
4.8
showing the winding and showing the
and brushes.
drum armature
driven at a speed of
The number
X 10
lines.
is
to
have 500 inductors and

is 6 and the useful
of poles
Find electromotive force generated:
the inductors are arranged as a duplex

volts
{b)
it is
360
volts.
to be
flux per pole
the inductors are arranged as a simplex lap winding
240
to
wave winding.
(a)
(b)
is
when
when
Ans.
{a)
PROBLEMS.
509
The number of poles is 8 and the useful flux per pole is

X lo^ Find the electromotive force generated: () when
inductors are arranged as a simplex lap winding (b) when
(2)
3.6
the
the inductors are arranged as a duplex lap winding.

1
80
volts
90
{b)
Ans.
(a)
volts.
231. In order to generate the desired electromotive force in a
6-pole
drum armature
it is
decided to use about 670 inductors
and arrange them as a singly reentrant

{a)
What
triplex wave winding.

number of inductors required and {b)
the exact
is
what are the front and back pitches

232.
of one
'*
drum winding has
4-pole simplex lap
The diameter
of the bare wire
is
0.08
inch,
is
Find the resistance (cold) of the wind-
6 inches.
Ans. 0.0395 ohm.
ing from positive to negative brushes.
An
8-pole
drum armature has a

Find
1,258 inductors.
(b)
degree of reentrancy
brushes.
234.
Is the
{a) front, back,

;
and
duplex, lap winding with
and commutator pitches
Why ?
1
4-pole 1,000 kilowatt
wound drum armature with
{a) front, back,
number of paths between the
Siemens and Halske
generator has a quintuple wave
Find
(c)
winding symmetrical
certain
inductors.
(^)
and the mean length
armature turn " (consisting of two inductors and two end
connectors)
233.
'^j6 inductors.
and commutator pitches
1,
;
144
and
degree of reentrancy.
235.
An
8-pole duplex wave -wound
drum armature
is
to be
driven at a speed of 100 revolutions per minute, and the useful

flux per pole
to generate
is
8.3
150 volts
10^ lines.
?
How many inductors are needed
Ans. 542 inductors.
INDEX,
Ab-ampdre,
definition of the, i6
Armature winding, the drum, 418

element of, 420
Ab-ohrn, definition of the, 20
Absorption of
on
light, influence of,
the helical, 418
illu-
mination, 324
lap,
Abvolt, definition of the, 24

All-day efficiency, definition
469
of,
multi-circuit,
and
wire, weights
reentrancy
resistances
Ampere,
table of conditions,
the,
series
356
loop).
Arc, the electric, characteristics

alternating-current,
direct-current,
of,
Axis of commutation, 93
neutral, of armature, 93
332
^
rating,
337
Arc lamps on constant- voltage mains, 336
grouping
of,
tem, 339
Armature, closed-coil and open-coil, 40
of,
cross-magnetizing action
definition of, 36,
382
of,
faults, testing for,
the voltaic or primary, 239
Bipolar versus multipolar dynamos, 65
the negative, 259
of,
with carbon rheostat control, 261
151
182
Boosters, automatic, 258
Brush arc-lighting generator,
and motors, 129
contact resistance,
compensation
the,
472-473
holders, 63
93
lead, 91
reaction, 151
winding,
storage bat-
the shunt, 257
420
loss in generators
of,
(see
the differential, 261

151
38
demagnetizing action
the storage
tery).
Booster, the compound, 261
or section, 420
core loss, calculation
Balancer, the motor-generator, 274

the three-wire, 273
Battery,
338
lighting, constant-current series sys-
neutral axis
wave, 426
Armature windings, 418
examples of, 436
Armatures, smooth and slotted, 67
330
334
lamp, the, 327
inductors,
436
simplex and multiplex, 429

grouping of, see wave.
definition of the, 16
Angle of lead of brushes, 94

Anti-parallel wiring scheme (see return
coil
428
two-circuit, 431
479
series
of,
the ring, 418
307
Ammeters, 200
Ampere-turn,
419
parallel grouping of, see lap.
of,
errors of,
431
open-coil and closed-coil,
Alternating- current arc, the, 334

Alternator, the, 36
Aluminum
423
modified multiplex, 445
of,
dependence
160
of
Brushes, 63
brushes
upon, 432
number of on a dynamo, 432

Building-up of a generator, 80
Bunsen photometer,
the disk, 419
51
the,
313
342
INDEX.
512
Candle, the spherical-, 311
310
the standard,
Cumulative compound motor,
the,
Current, electric, strength
15
of,
17
Candle-foot, the, definition
of, 312
Candle-power of carbon-filament glow
lamps, 344
Carrying capacity, safe, of wires, 284
Cast iron, magnetic properties
Differential booster, the, 261
365
Characteristic curves of a compound generator,
of,
compound motor,
Diffusers, lamp,
the,
dynamo, 38
and wiring, 266
of generators, 75
of motors, 408-417
Distribution
constant- current, 74
of series generators, 386-397
constant-voltage, 74
of shunt generators, 397-407

of motors, 123
electric, size
of the electric arc, 330
parallel system of,
of railway motors, 415
series
Circuit breakers
and
fuses,
Circular mil, definition
of,
Collecting rings, definition
Commutator
number
bars,
definition of,
details of,
Edison three-wire system
268
275
266
266
Drum
of,
of,
armature, the, 418

Dynamo, fundamental equation
37
421
of,
43
169
ratings,
speeds, 145
39
field
of,
Dobrowolsky's three-wire generator, 273
the,
of,
35
the alternating-current, 36
93
the direct-current, 38
the homopolar, 7
the, I
Compound
of,
for,
205
the phenomena, 161
Compensating
system
of wires
45
63
Commutation, axis
116
338
Direct-current arc, 332
407
of dynamos, 383
Compass,
Density of wires, 283
Dettmar's three- wire generator, 272
winding, 160
generator, the, 47,
adjustment
connections
of,
the multipolar direct-current, 41
86
Dynamometer, use of motor

Dynamos, diseases of, 1 75
90
of,
heating
79
motor, the, 116
of,
as a, 143
148
insulation of, 167
Constant-current distribution, 74
transformer, the, 341
-voltage distribution, 74
Control of voltage of generators, 88

of speed of motors, 109
management
of,
operation
172
of,
172
sparking
of,
151
sparking
of,
conditions of, 161
special designs of,
Dynamotor,
Controller, the series-parallel, 121
the,
69
70
Cooper-Hewitt lamp, see mercury vapor
Eddy
lamp.
Cost of electrical power, 223

of steam power, 221
Costs, installation
tions, 220,
and operation of
49
Edison three-wire system of distribution,

sta-
230
268
Efficiencies of generators
Coulomb's law, 3
and motors, 127
dynamo, 469
of carbon-filament glow lamps, 344
Efficiency, all-day, of a
Counter-electromotive- force cells, use
256
definition of,
current loss in iron, 381
currents,
97
of,
of conversion of a generator, 135

of a motor, 141
INDEX.
Efficiency, electrical, of a generator, 135
of a generator, calculation
of,
132
of generator, variation of with out-
"Floating battery,"
of a motor, calculation
of,
138
of,
Fuses and
Galvanized wire, weight
275
Generator, the, 35
the compound, 47, 86
adjustment of, 90
lamp, the, 325
308
connections
strength of air between parallel wires,
302
of,
205
283
of,
79
the double- current, 273

efficiency, calculation of,
of cable insulation, 301
electromotive force
of insulation, dependence of size
Electrical efficiency of a generator, 135

of,
resistance, see resistance.
81
separately excited, the, 85

of,
22
induced, 30
238
Electrolyte, definition of,
127
the over-compound, 86
systems of selling, 232
Electromotive force, definition
of,
127
efficiencies,
losses,
output
223
132
82
of,
the flat-compound, 86
and motor
of wires upon, 299
Electrolysis,
circuit breakers,
330
current, see current,

distribution, size of wires for,
of,
of light required for illumination, 324

Foucault currents (see eddy currents).
Siemens' law, 99
variation of, with output, 141
Electric arc, the, characteristics
258
the,
in iron, 361
magnetic, definition
of lamps, 326
mechanical, of a motor, 141
power, cost
219
risks,
Flat-compounding of a generator, 86
Flux density
put, 136
lighting,
Fire
513
238
Electromagnets, 351
Enclosed-arc lamp, the, 336
the series, 46
series, connections of,
78
the shunt, 45
shunt, connections
79
of,
the split-pole, 272
Generators, characteristic curves
End-cell control, 256
of,
Edison three- wire system, 271
Equalizing arrangement, the, 184
for
Expansion, coefficients of linear, 283
field excitation of, 44,
Exciter dynamo, the, 38
and motors, diseases
External characteristic of series generator,
386
management
87
of,
175
172
of,
starting of, 174
of shunt generator, 397
operation
of, in parallel,
184
rating of, 82
Faults in armatures, testing
for,
182
Feeder control, 195

Field excitation of generators, 44, 87
88
of,
voltage control
Gilbert, the definition of,
88
356
Glare of a lamp, definition
separate,
Globes, lamp, 338
44
and motors, 127
magnet, definition
of,
^6, 38
rheostat, the,
Glow lamp,
88
switch, non-sparking, 188
of,
322
the carbon- filament, 343
metal-filament, 348
Grounds and ground
magnetic, 4
33
of,
voltage regulation
of motors, 48
loss in generators
75
characteristic curves of, 386-4.07
detectors,
Guarantees and ratings, 145

standard, 164
209
SH
INDF.X.
Heating
Lap
dynamos, 148
of
Heat, radiant, definition
of,
windings, 423
Lead, angle
308
of,
94
of brushes, 91
run, the, 149
Hefner, the, 311
backward, 94
the spherical-, 311
lamp, the, 310

Homopolar dynamo,
forward, 94
Leakage, magnetic, 371
Lenz's law, 30
the, 71
Hysteretic coefficients, table
of,
380
Hysteresis loss in iron, 380
Life of carbon-filament glow lamps, 344

Light, amount of required for illumina-
magnetic, 379
tion,
324
conical intensity of, 311
Illumination, the problem

intensity of,
of,
321
definition,
312
Impressed electromotive
force, definition
Induced electromotive
force,
around a lamp, 314

of, 316
measurement
flux
luminous intensity
of, 97
Incandescent lamp, see glow lamp.
Inductors, armature,
308
distribution of,
physical intensity
30
of,
of,
309
308
sectional intensity of, 311
Lighting, electric, 308
420
Insulation of dynamos, 167
of pole lines, 304
of streets, 325
Lightning and lightning arresters, 21
strength of, 299
Linear expansion, coefficients
of underground, station, and house
Lines, mechanical stresses in, 276
283
Load-factor of a station, definition
wires, 305
Internal characteristic of series generator,
of,
226
Local action and voltaic action, 240

Loss, armature, in generators and motors,
386
of shunt generator, 398
Iron and
of,
steel
sistances of,
wire,
129
weights and re-
field, in
stray
307
generators and motors, 127
power,
generators
in
and
motors, 129, 130

Joule's law.
Losses in generators and motors, 127
20
Lumen,
Lux,
Kelvin's law of economy, 295

limitations of,
definition of the,
299
Magnetic
Lamination of dynamo iron, 49
Lamp, the
arc,
efficiency,
366
circuit, the,
field, direction of,
due
327
homogeneous and non-homogeneous, 5
the Hefner, 310

globes, shadfes
and
diffusers,
338
intensity of,
the mercury-vapor, 350
figures, 7
metal-filament glow, 348
flux, definition of,
the Nernst, 349
in iron,
the osmium, 348
hysteresis,
the tantalum,
leakage, 37
standard,
310
to a wire, 13
in a long solenoid, 19
326
the electric, 325
Lamps, dim versus
312
the, definition of, 311
348
bright,
323
359
379
coefficient
of a dynamo, 372
p? meability, 365
INDEX.
Magnetic properties of iron and
steel,
515
Motors and generators, management
365
reluctance, 368
Magnetism of
residual,
starting of, 174
iron,
speed
35
control
comparison
of,
of
methods, 109
361
Magnetization curve of a dynamo, 384
Multiplex armature winding, 429

Multipolar versus bipolar dynamos, 65
362
curves,
of,
172
table,
intensity of,
Multivoltage speed control of motors, 108
359
of iron, 12
National Electrical Code, the, 220
Magnetizing force in iron, 356
Magnetomotive force of a
definition of,
units of,
Magnet,
the,
coil,
354
352
Nernst lamp, the, 349
Network of conductors,
solution of,
Oersted, the, 369
pole, sign of, 3
windings, bunched and distributed,
351
Magnets, mutual action
of,
Maximum demand
Mechanical
318
the,
of the, 20
Output of a generator, 81
meter, the, 235
Over-compounding of a generator, 86
efficiency of a motor, 14I
Mercury-vapor lamp, 350

Meter, the
Ohm, definition
Ohm's law, 23
Open-arc lamp, the, 336

Operation test of a station, 199
Osmium lamp, the, 267, 348
permanent, 361
Matthews photometer,
Parallel connections, 24
maximum demand, 235
grouping of glow lamps on arc
the two-rate, 235
cuits,
Mil, definition of the, 451
Motor and generator

losses,
operation of generators,
efficiencies,
127
127
1 84
system of distribution, 266
Performance
test
of a station, 199
Permanent magnets, 361
efficiency, calculation of,
Permeability magnetic, 365
Siemens' law
of,
99
fundamental equation
of,
shunt, starting
138
Photometer, the Bunsen, 313
97
112
of,
the integrating, 318

the Matthews, 318
35
Photometry, 308, 309
the compound, 116
simple, 309
the "multi speed," 106
Pole-line construction (reference), 305
the series, 118
lines, insulation of,
304
the shunt, loi
mechanical stresses
in,
speed control
of,
regulation
105
of,
magnet, sign
104
torque, 98
the,
and
strength of
the,
274
70
generators,
curves
diseases
of a magnet,
Power,
of,
of,
123,
characteristic
408-417
of,
electrical,
cost of, 221,
276
a,
Poles, distributed
Motor generator balancer,

Motors
cir-
267
direction of running of, 95
the,
27
Neutral axis of armature, 93
356
and concentrated, 2
I
systems of selling, 232
223
rating of generators, 82
175
field excitation of,
48
Radiant heat, definition
of,
308
INDEX.
5i6
Railway motors, characteristics
of,
415
Size of wires for electric distribution, 275
Solenoid, definition of, 19

Sparking of dynamos, 15
Rating of arc lamps, 337

of generators, 82
Ratings and guarantees, 145
conditions
estimation
from speed and dimen-
of,
resistance, 21
Spectro-photometry, 309
Speed control of motors, comparison of
sions, 148, 165
of dynamos,
69
methods, 109
Reaction, armature, 15
Reentrancy of an armature winding, 428

Regulation, voltage, as a factor in wiring,
of shunt motor, 105

regulation of shunt motor, 104
Speeds of dynamos, 145

Standard lamps, 310
285
of generators, 88
Reluctance, magnetic, 368
Reluctivity,
and guarantees, 164
ratings
Starting a generator or motor,
369
Residual magnetism, definition

Resistance, definition
of,
of,
361
174
of shunt motor,
temperature coefficient
of,
21
Resistances and weights of copper wire,
Steam power,
and
Steel
cost of, 221
iron wire, weights
tances
Return-loop wiring scheme, 292
of,
magnetic properties
of,
the,
365
250
242-247
costs,
battery, action of,

grids,
24
generator and motor compared, 96

connections
of,
254
weights and
Series connections,
resis-
250
of,
use
418
Safety, personal, rules for, 133
and
307
Storage batteries, management and care
Rheostat, starting, the, 112

the,
12
rheostat, the, 112
306
Resistivity, see specific resistance.
method
of,
20
of brush contacts, 472-473
Ring armature,
161
of,
Specific gravity (see density).
standard, 164
of,
78
the,
cell, the,
Stray
46
grouping of glow lamps, 266
power
247
242
242
loss
in
generators
and
motors, 129, 130

Street lighting, 325
motor, the, 118

parallel controller, 121
system of distribution, 266

Shades, lamp, 338
Shunt booster,
436
the,
257
generator and motor compared, 95
connections
the,
motor,
of,
79
candle-power and efficiency of glow

lamps, 344
carrying capacities, 284
costs of installation,
45
230
of operation, 231
01
speed control
of,
105
regulation of, 104

starting,
Table of armature-winding conditions,
12
Siemens' law of efficiency of a motor, 99

Sign, algebraic, of magnet pole, 3
Simplex armature winding, 429
density of wires, 283

hysteretic coefficients,
380
magnetic
of
properties
iron
and
365
resistances and weights of copper
steel,
wires,
306
INDEX.
Table of tensile strengths of wood, 278
Ward Leonard method

Watt-hour meter,
the,
204
Wattmeter, the, 202
the,
348
Tensile strength of wood,
of speed control
of motors, 108
of wires, 283
units, 34
Tantalum lamp,
517
table,
278
strengths of wires, table, 283
Wattmeters, errors
Wave
of,
480
windings, 426
Weight of galvanized wire, 283

Weights and resistances of copper
Three-wire balancers, 273

generators, 271
system, the Edison, 268
Torque of a motor, 98
Total characteristics of generators (see
of wires, 283
Windings, armature, see armature.
Wire, weights
internal characteristics).
Transformer, the constant-current, 341

Two-rate meter, the, 235
of,
283
weights and resistances
Wires for
of,
306
electric distribution, size of,
heating
Underwriter's rules, 219
wire,
306
of,
275
284
information concerning (reference),
Unipolar dynamo, the, 7

Units, table of,
34
Voltaic action and local action, 240

battery, the,
cell, the,
Voltmeter multiplying
276
286
coils,
based on power
296
288
loss,
distributed loads,
in constant-voltage systems,
Volt, definition of the, 24
202
Voltmeters, 201
479
Volts-per-commutator-segment of a dy-
namo, 474
283
Wiring calculations for concentrated loads,
239
regulation of generators, 88
of,
in,
testile strengths of,
239
Voltage control of generators, SS
errors
305
mechanical stresses
for return-loop
charts,
286
scheme, 294
287
and inside (reference), 305

Wood, tensile strength of, table, 278
Wrought iron, magnetic properties of, 365
outside
4^
><^
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CARDS OR
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FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCE.

DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES

ELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION AND LIGHTING

WILLIAM SUDDARDS FRANKLIN

DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

franklin and WILLIAM ESTY

Edition, January, 1906.

Regular Edition, September

Second Edition, October,

Third Edition, August, 1907,

The new Era Printing Companv

concise treatment of the elements of the subject illustrated

examples and problems.

In almost every branch of engineering a simple working knowl-

the generation, distri-

other than electrical, arc limited

as to the time to be devoted to electrotechnology, while students

taking a course in electrical engineering are not so restricted.

The problem which

the authors undertook to solve in the

book might be advantageously used

introductory course, not only for electrical engineering students,

but also for students specializing

problem has been solved by treating

by placing the more elaborate developments

other branches of engineering.

essential parts of the subject consecutively in a series

This arrangement makes

a student to easily cover the fundamental portions of the text

one semester, by omitting the more highly specialized matter

given partly in fine print and partly in Appendices A,

important feature of the book

chosen problems given as a

lems are arranged

an order following closely the development

of the subject matter of the text.

checked with extreme

They have been designed not

but to supplement the information

whole seems to be comparatively

and errors which the authors hope to eliminate

from those who use the book

PROPERTY OF ELECTRICAL LABORATORY,

Elementary Electricity and Magnetism

Losses in Generators and Motors.

Ratings and Guarantees

Electric Distribution and Wiring

Photometry and Electric Lighting

Character is'iic Curves

A direct current a unidirectional current.

a current of equal half-waves in suc-

cessively opposite directions.

a current alternating in direction, and

CoMMUTATiNG MACHINES, which Comprise a constant magand a multi-segmental com-

netic field, a closed coil armature,

mutator connected thereto.

be classed the following

closed-coil arc machines.

a machine inserted in series in a circuit to change

and may be driven