ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The Immune System

A second line
immune

of defense is housed within the body: a finely tuned

system that recognizes and destroys foreign
substances and organisms that enter the
body.

The

immune

system

can

distinguish between the body's own

tissues

and

outside

substances

called

antigens. This allows cells of the immune

army to identify and destroy only those
enemy antigens. The ability to identify an
antigen

also permits the immune system to "remember"

antigens

the body has been exposed to in the past; so that

the

can mount a better and faster immune response

the

The

body
next

time any of these antigens appear.

immune system also includes other proteins and

chemicals that assist antibodies and T cells in their work. Among them are
chemicals that alert phagocytes to the site of the infection. The complement
system, a group of proteins that normally float freely in the blood, move toward

infections, where they combine to help destroy microorganisms and foreign

particles.

They do this by changing the surface of bacteria or other

microorganisms, causing them to die.

enzyme (EN-zime) is a protein that helps speed up a chemical reaction In the

body.

antigens (AN-tih-jens) are substances that are recognized as a threat by the

body's immune system, which triggers the formation of specific antibodies

against the substance.

bone marrow is the soft tissue inside bones where blood cells are made.

lymphatic (lim-FAH-tik) system is a system that contains lymph nodes and a

network of channels that carry fluid and cells of the immune system through
the body.

immunity (ih-MYOON-uh-tee) is the condition of being protected against an

infectious disease. Immunity often develops after a germ is introduced to the

body. One type of immunity occurs when the body makes special protein
molecules called antibodies to fight the disease-causing germ. The next time
that germ enters the body, the antibodies quickly attack it, usually preventing
the germ from causing disease.

Primarily, the immune system classifies a substance as:

a. Self-non-foreign they are normally ignored and tolerance and is
exhibited towards these substances. They are not deemed harmful.
b. Non-self termed as an antigen; a specific response is developed to a
specific antigen.

The response is then stored in the immune systems

memory cells for future reference.

Components of the Immune System:
1. Lymphoid Structures
Spleen
- Composed of red and white pulp, acts somewhat like a filter.
- The red pulp is the site where old and injured red blood cells

are destroyed.
- The white pulp contains concentrations of lymphocytes.
Lymph Nodes
- Are distributed throughout the body
- Are connected by lymph channels and capillaries, which remove
foreign

material

from

the

lymph

before

it

enters

the

bloodstream.
2. Immune Cells Lymphocytes
a. B lymphocytes (or B cells) - produce immunoglobulins.
b. T lymphocytes (or T cells) - help control the immune response and
destroy foreign antigens directly.
c. Plasma Cells - are white blood cells that produce large volumes of
antibodies.

3. Tissues The remaining lymphoid tissues, such as the tonsils and

adenoids and other.
Mucoid Lymphatic Tissue contain immune cells that defend the
bodys mucosal surfaces against microorganisms.

Types of Immune Defense:

a. Innate or Nonspecific Immunity
-

Also termed as the persons natural resistance, and are the most
basic and primary of all defenses in the body.

(skin, mucus

membranes, phagocytic activity)

4. Immune Cells Lymphocytes
d. B lymphocytes (or B cells) - produce immunoglobulins.
e. T lymphocytes (or T cells) - help control the immune response and
destroy foreign antigens directly.
f. Plasma Cells - are white blood cells that produce large volumes of
antibodies.
5. Tissues The remaining lymphoid tissues, such as the tonsils and
adenoids and other.
Mucoid Lymphatic Tissue contain immune cells that defend the
bodys mucosal surfaces against microorganisms.
2 Types of Immunity
Active acquired through previous exposure of the disease or through
immunization wherein the body actively participates in formation of
antibodies for future reference.

Passive refers to whole, ready made immunity acquired from another,

the body is just passive in the process of developing antibodies, as it is
already made and given readily.

4 Types of Active Immunity

a. Humoral Immunity
b. Mucosal Immunity
c. Cell-mediated Immunity
d. Delayed HypersensitivityReaction
Antibodies or Immunoglobulins developed from B-cells through the
stimulation of cytokines produced by helper T-cells in the presence of an
antigen. They attach to specific determinant sites on antigens, and carries out
phagocytosis and initiating inflammation.

IgG

75%

Crosses placental barrier; present in circulation and

tissue spaces; antiviral, antitoxic and anti-bacterial

IgA

Ig
M
IgE

IgD

15%

properties; activates complement

Found in body secretions and breast milk; protects

10%

mucous membranes from microorganisms

Forms natural ABO antibodies; present in early immune

.2%

responses; activates complement

Hypersensitivity reaction mediator; Involved in parasitic

.004%

infectious
Necessary for maturation of B lymphocytes

Hematologic System
Two types of blood vessels carry blood throughout our bodies:

1. Arteries carry oxygenated blood (blood that has received oxygen from the
lungs) from the heart to the rest of the body.

2. Blood then travels through veins back to the heart and lungs, where it
receives more oxygen.

The blood that flows through this network of veins and arteries is whole blood,
which contains three types of blood cells:

1. Red blood cells (RBCs)

- (also called erythrocytes) are shaped like
slightly indented, flattened disks. RBCs
contain the iron-rich protein hemoglobin.
Blood gets its bright red color when hemoglobin picks up oxygen in the
lungs. As the blood travels through the body, the hemoglobin releases
oxygen to the tissues.

The body contains more RBCs than any other type of cell, and each has a
life span of about 4 months. Each day, the body produces new RBCs to
replace those that die or are lost from the body.

2. White blood cells (WBCs)

- (also called leukocytes) are a key part of the
system for defending itself against infection.

body's
They

can move in and out of the bloodstream to

reach affected tissues. Blood contains far fewer

WBCs

than red blood cells, although the body can increase WBC production to
fight infection. There are several types of WBCs, and their life spans vary
from a few days to months. New cells are constantly being formed in the
bone marrow.

Certain types of WBCs produce antibodies, special proteins that

recognize foreign materials and help the body destroy or neutralize them.
The white cell count (the number of cells in a given amount of blood) in
someone with an infection often is higher than usual because more
WBCs are being produced or are entering the bloodstream to battle the
infection.

3. Platelets
- (also called thrombocytes) are tiny ovalshaped cells made in the bone marrow.

They

help in the clotting process. When a blood

vessel

breaks, platelets gather in the area and help

seal

off the leak. Platelets survive only about 9 days in the bloodstream and
are constantly being replaced by new cells.

Platelets and clotting factors work together to form solid lumps to seal
leaks, wounds, cuts, and scratches and to prevent bleeding inside and on
the surfaces of our bodies. The process of clotting is like a puzzle with
interlocking parts. When the last part is in place, the clot happens but
if even one piece is missing, the final pieces can't come together.

BLOOD

Blood is considered the essence of life because the uncontrolled loss of it

can result to death. Blood is a type of connective tissue, consisting of cells and
cell fragments surrounded by a liquid matrix which circulates through the
heart and blood vessels. The cells and cell fragments are formed elements and
the liquid is plasma. Blood makes about 8% of total weight of the body.

Functions of Blood:
>transports gases, nutrients, waste products, and hormones
>involve in regulation of homeostasis and the maintenance of PH, body
temperature, fluid balance, and electrolyte levels

>protects against diseases and blood loss

PLASMA

Plasma is a pale yellow fluid that accounts for over half of the total blood
volume. It consists of 92% water and 8% suspended or dissolved substances
such as proteins, ions, nutrients, gases, waste products, and regulatory
substances.

Plasma volume remains relatively constant. Normally, water intake

through the GIT closely matches water loss through the kidneys, lungs, GIT
and skin. The suspended and dissolved substances come from the liver,
kidneys, intestines, endocrine glands, and immune tissues as spleen.

FORMED ELEMENTS

Cell Type
Erythrocytes (RBC)

Description
Biconcave disk, no

Function
Transport oxygen and

nucleus, 7-8

carbon dioxide

micrometers in diameter
Leukocytes (WBC):

Neutrophil

Spherical cell, nucleus

Phagocytizes

with two or more lobes

microorganism

connected by thin
filaments, cytoplasmic
granules stain a light
pink or reddish purple,
12-15 micrometers in
Basophil

diameter
Releases histamine,

Eosinophil

Lymphocyte

Spherical cell, nucleus,

which promotes

with two indistinct lobes,

inflammation, and

cytoplasmic granules

heparin which prevents

stain blue-purple, 10-12

clot formation

micrometers in diameter

Spherical cell, nucleus

Releases chemical that

often bilobed,

reduce inflammation,

cytoplasmic granules

attacks certain worm

satin orange-red or

parasites

bright red, 10-12

micrometers in diameter
Produces antibodies and
Spherical cell with round other chemicals

Monocyte

nucleus, cytoplasm

responsible for

forms a thin ring around

destroying

the nucleus, 6-8

microorganisms,

micrometers in diameter

responsible for allergic

reactions, graft rejection,
tumor control, and
regulation of the
immune system

Spherical or irregular
cell, nucleus round or

Phagocytic cell in the

kidney or horse-shoe

blood leaves the

shaped, contain more

circulatory system and

cytoplasm than

becomes a macrophage

lymphocyte, 10-15

which phagocytises

micrometers in diameter

bacteria, dead cells, cell

fragments, and debris

Platelet

Cell fragments

within tissues
Forms platelet plugs,

surrounded by a cell

release chemicals

membrane and

necessary for blood

containing granules, 2-5

clotting

micrometers in diameter

PREVENTING BLOOD LOSS

When a blood vessel is damaged, blood can leak into other tissues and
interfere with the normal tissue function or blood can be lost from the body.
Small amounts of blood from the body can be tolerated but new blood must be
produced to replace the loss blood. If large amounts of blood are lost, death can
occur.

BLOOD CLOTTING

Platelet plugs alone are not sufficient to close large tears or cults in blood
vessels. When a blood vessel is severely damaged, blood clotting or coagulation
results in the formation of a clot. A clot is a network of threadlike protein fibers
called fibrin, which traps blood cells, platelets and fluids.

The formation of a blood clot depends on a number of proteins found

within plasma called clotting factors. Normally the clotting factors are inactive
and do not cause clotting. Following injury however, the clotting factors are
activated to produce a clot. This is a complex process involving chemical
reactions, but it can be summarized in 3 main stages; the chemical reactions
can be stated in two ways: just as with platelets, the contact of inactive clotting
factors with exposed connective tissue can result in their activation. Chemicals
released from injured tissues can also cause activation of clotting factors. After
the initial clotting factors are activated, they in turn activate other clotting
factors. A series of reactions results in which each clotting factor activates the
next clotting factor in the series until the clotting factor prothrombin activator
is formed. Prothrombin activator acts on an inactive clotting factor called
prothrombin. Prothrombin is converted to its active form called thrombin.
Thrombin converts the inactive clotting factor fibrinogen into its active form,
fibrin. The fibrin threads form a network which traps blood cells and platelets
and forms the clots.

CONTROL OF CLOT FORMATION

Without control, clotting would spread from the point of its initiation
throughout the entire circulatory system. To prevent unwanted clotting, the
blood contains several anticoagulants which prevent clotting factors from
forming clots. Normally there are enough anticoagulants in the blood to prevent
clot formation. At the injury site, however, the stimulation for activating clotting
factors is very strong. So many clotting factors are activated that the
anticoagulants no longer can prevent a clot from forming.

CLOT RETRACTION AND DISSOLUTION

After a clot has formed, it begins to condense into a denser compact

structure by a process known as clot retraction. Serum, which is plasma
without its clotting factors, is squeezed out of the clot during clot retraction.
Consolidation of the clot pulls the edges of the damaged vessels together,
helping the stop of the flow of blood, reducing the probability of infection and
enhancing healing. The damaged vessel is repaired by the movement of
fibroblasts into damaged area and the formation of the new connective tissue.
In addition, epithelial cells around the wound divide and fill in the torn area.

The clot is dissolved by a process called fibrinolysis. An inactive plasma

protein called plasminogen is converted to its active form, which is called

plasmin. Thrombin and other clotting factors activated during clot formation,
or tissue plasminogen activator released from surrounding tissues, stimulate
the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin. Over a period of a few days the
plasmin slowly breaks down the fibrin.