DigitalTransmissionPrinciples

AnalogandDigitalCommunication

Baseband
channel
Analog source

Channel
Demodulator (Rx) Analog
destination
Analog transmission using modn and demodn
Analog channel

Analog source

Analog destination

Analog signal and baseband transmission

Digital channel
Digital
Coder
Decoder Digital sink
source
Digital signal transmitted on digital channel

Modulator (Tx)

Digital
Modem
Modem Digital sink
source
Digital signal transmitted by modem

Digital channel
Analog
A/D Decoding &
source conversion
D/A
& coding conversion

Digital sink

Analog signal transmitted digitally

Analog channel
Analog
source

A/D
conversion
& coding

Modem

Modem

Decoding & Digital sink

D/A
conversion

Analog signal digitized

and transmitted by
modem

SpectrumofaModulatingSquareWave
Spectrum contains an infinite number of odd harmonics plus its fundamental
frequency.

Assume a fundamental frequency of the modulating square wave to be 1 kHz

andacarrierfrequencyof1MHz.Whenthesesignalsheterodyne:
1. Two new frequencies will be produced: sum frequency of 1.001 MHz and
differencefrequencyof0.999MHz.
2. The harmonics contained in the square wave heterodynes with the carrier
frequency as well. Hence, the third harmonic of the square wave heterodynes
with the carrier and produces sideband frequencies at 1.003 and 0.997 MHz.
Another set will be produced by the fifth, seventh, ninth, eleventh, thirteenth,
fifteenth,seventeenth,andnineteenthharmonicsofthesquarewave,andsoon
toinfinity.

Spectrumdistributionwhenmodulatingwithasquarewave.

Thefirstsetofsidebandsisdirectlyrelatedtotheamplitudeofthesquarewave.
Thesecondsetofsidebandsisrelatedtothethirdharmoniccontentofthesquarewave
andis1/3theamplitudeofthefirstset.Thethirdsetisrelatedtotheamplitudeofthe
first set of sidebands and is 1/5 the amplitude of the first set. This relationship will
applytoeachadditionalsetofsidebands.
Various squarewave modulation levels with frequencyspectrum carrier and
sidebands.
Observations:(carriermodulatedwithasquarewave)
1. As the amplitude of the modulating square wave is increased, the RF peaks
increases in amplitude during the positive alternation of the square wave and
decreaseduringthenegativehalfofthesquarewave.
2. For the frequency spectrum, the carrier amplitude remains constant, but the
sidebands increase in amplitude in accordance with the amplitude of the
modulatingsquarewave.
3. In view (C) the amplitude of the square wave of voltage is equal to the peak
voltage of the unmodulated carrier wave. This is 100% modulation, just as in
conventionalAM.
4. Inthefrequencyspectrum,thesidebanddistributionisalsothesameasinAM.
Thetotalsidebandpoweris1/2ofthetotalpowerwhenthemodulatorsignalisa
square wave. This is in contrast to 1/3 of the total power with sinewave
modulation.
5. In view (D), the increase of the squarewave modulating voltage is greater in
amplitude than the unmodulated carrier. The sideband distribution does not

change;but,asthesidebandstakeonmoreofthetransmittedpower,sowillthe
carrier.

Inpulsemodulation,thesamegeneralrulesapplyasinAM.
PulseTiming
Somepulsemodulationsystemsmodulateacarrierinthemannerofincreasing
or decreasing the amplitude of the modulating square wave. Others produce no RF
untilpulsed;thatis,RFoccursonlyduringtheactualpulse.Ifweallowoscillationsto

occur for a given period of time only during selected intervals, as in view (B), we are
PULSINGthesystem.

PulseTransmission

Note:Thepulsetransmitterisgatedonandoffinsteadofbeingmodulatedbyasquare
wave.

Varyingpulsemodulatingwaves

Note:Carrierfrequenciesinpulsesystemscanvary.

Thecarrierfrequencyisnottheonlyfrequencywemustconcernourselveswith
inpulsesystems.Wemustalsonotethefrequencythatisassociatedwiththerepetition
rateofgroupsofpulses.
Pulserepetition time (PRT) the total time of one complete pulse cycle of operation
(resttimepluspulsewidth)
Pulserepetitionfrequency(PRF)therate,inpulsespersecond,thatthepulseoccurs

Pulserepetitiontime(prt)andpulserepetitionfrequency(prf)

Figure 2-34.Pulse cycles.

PulsewidththedurationoftimeRFfrequencyistransmitted
Resttimethetimethetransmitterisresting(nottransmitting)
.

Pulsewidthandresttime

ThepulsewidthisthetimethatthetransmitterproducesRFoscillations andis
theactualpulsetransmissiontime.Duringthenonpulsetime,thetransmitterproduces
nooscillationsandtheoscillatoriscutoff.
PowerinaPulseSystem
Peakpowerthemaximumvalueofthetransmittedpulse
Averagepowerpeakpowervalueaveragedoverthepulserepetitiontime.

Peakpowerisveryeasytoseeinapulsesystem.

Duty Cycle ratio of actual transmitting time to transmitting time plus rest time. To
establish the duty cycle, divide the pulse width by the pulse repetition time of the
system.

Digitaltransmissiontransmissionofdigitalsignalsbetweentwoormorepointsina
communicationsystem
AdvantagesofDigitalTransmission
1. Noise immunity, since it is not necessary to evaluate the precise amplitude,
frequencyorphasetoascertainlogiccondition.Asimpledeterminationismade
whetherthepulseisaboveorbelowaprescribedlevel.
2. Digital signals are better suited than analog signals for processing and
multiplexing.Itiseasiertostoredigitalsignalsandthetransmissionratecanbe
varied to adapt different environments and to interface with different types of
equipment.
3. More resistant to analog systems to additive noise because they use signal
regenerationratherthansignalamplification.
4. Simplertomeasureandevaluatethananalogsignals

AdvantagesofDigitalTransmission
1. Transmission of digitally encoded analog signals requires significantly more
bandwidththansimplytransmittingtheoriginalanalogsignal.
2. Analog signals must be converted to digital pulses prior to transmission and
convertedbacktoanalogformatthereceiver,thusrequiringadditionalencoding
anddecodingcircuitry
3. Requiresprecisetimesynchronizationbetweentheclocksinthetransmittersand
receivers
4. Some digital transmission systems are incompatible with older analog
transmissionsystems.
CommunicationsPulseModulators
Totransmitintelligenceusingpulsemodulation,onemustprovideamethodto
vary some characteristic of the pulse train in accordance with the modulating signal.
Thecharacteristicsofthesepulsesthatcanbevariedareamplitude,pulsewidth,pulse
repetitiontime,andthepulsepositionascomparedtoareference.Inadditiontothese
three characteristics, pulses may be transmitted according to a code to represent the
differentlevelsofthemodulatingsignal.

PulseAmplitudeModulation

Pulseamplitude modulation (PAM) in which the amplitude of each pulse is

controlledbytheinstantaneousamplitudeofthemodulatingsignalatthetimeofeach
pulse.

Thesimplestformofpulsemodulation.
Generatedinmuchthesamemannerasanalogamplitudemodulation.
Thetimingpulsesareappliedtoapulseamplifierinwhichthegainiscontrolled
bythemodulatingwaveform.
Since these variations in amplitude actually represent the signal, this type of
modulation is basically a form of AM. The only difference is that the signal is
nowintheformofpulses.
HavethesamebuiltinweaknessesasanyotherAMsignalhighsusceptibility
tonoiseandinterference.
Thereasonforsusceptibilitytonoiseisthatanyinterferenceinthetransmission
pathwilleitheraddtoorsubtractfromanyvoltagealreadyinthecircuit(signal
voltage).Thus,theamplitudeofthesignalwillbechanged.Sincetheamplitude
of the voltage represents the signal, any unwanted change to the signal is
considered a SIGNAL DISTORTION. For this reason, PAM is not often used.
When PAM is used, the pulse train is used to frequency modulate a carrier for
transmission.

DemodulatingPAM:PeakdetectionusestheamplitudeofaPAMsignalortheduration
ofaPWMsignaltochargeaholdingcapacitorandrestoretheoriginalwaveform.This
demodulatedwaveformwillcontainsomedistortionbecausetheoutputwaveisnota
pure sine wave. However, this distortion is not serious enough to prevent the use of
peakdetection.

PulseTimeModulation
Time characteristics of pulses may also be modulated with intelligence
information.Twotimecharacteristicsmaybeaffected:
1. thetimedurationofthepulses,referredtoaspulsedurationmodulation
(PDM)orpulsewidthmodulation(PWM)
2. the time of occurrence of the pulses, referred to as pulseposition
modulation(PPM)
A special type of pulsetime modulation (PTM) referred to as pulsefrequency
modulation(PFM)mayalsobeemployed.

Pulsetimemodulation(PTM)PDM.

Pulsetimemodulation(PTM)PPM

Pulsetimemodulation(PTM)PPM

Pulsedurationmodulation(pulsewidthmodulation)
The width of each pulse in a train is made proportional to the instantaneous
value of the modulating signal at the instant of the pulse. Either the leading
edges, the trailing edges, or both edges of the pulses may be modulated to
producethevariationinpulsewidth.
PWM is often used because it is of a constant amplitude and is, therefore, less
susceptibletonoise.

Generating PWM: Add the modulating signal to a repetitive sawtooth waveform. The
resulting waveform is then applied to a oneshot multivibrator circuit which changes
state when the input signal exceeds a specific threshold level. The action produces
pulseswithwidthsthataredeterminedbythelengthoftimethattheinputwaveform
exceedsthethresholdlevel.
Demodulating PWM: The peak detector circuit may also be used for PWM. To detect
PWM,modifythepeakdetectorsothatthetimeconstantforchargingC1throughCR1
isatleast10timesthemaximumreceivedpulsewidth.Thismaybedonebyaddinga
resistorinserieswiththecathodeoranodecircuitofCR1.Theamplitudeofthevoltage
to which C1 charges, before being discharged by the negative pulse, will be directly
proportional to the input pulse width. A longer pulse width allows C1 to charge to a
higher potential than a short pulse. This charge is held, because of the long time
constantofR1andC1,untilthedischargepulseisappliedtodiodesCR2andCR3just
priortothenextincomingpulse.ThesechargesacrossC1resultinawaveshapesimilar
totheoutputshownforPAMdetection.

ComparingPWMwithPPM

Disadvantage: Varying pulse, width and therefore, of varying power content. This
means that the transmitter must be powerful enough to handle the maximumwidth
pulses,althoughtheaveragepowertransmittedismuchlessthanpeakpower.
Advantage: PWM will still work if the synchronization between the transmitter and
receiverfails;inPPMitwillnot,

Pulsepositionmodulation
Theamplitudeandwidthofthepulseiskeptconstantinthesystem.Thepositionof
each pulse, in relation to the position of a recurrent reference pulse, is varied by each
instantaneoussampledvalueofthemodulatingwave.

GeneratingPPM:ApplyPWMpulsestoadifferentiatingcircuit.Thisprovidespositive
and negativepolarity pulses that correspond to the leading and trailing edges of the
PWMpulses.Thepositionoftheleadingedgeisfixed,whereasthetrailingedgeisnot.
Afterdifferentiation,thenegativepulsesarepositionmodulatedinaccordancewiththe
modulating waveform. Both the negative and positive pulses are then applied to a
rectificationcircuit.Thisapplicationeliminatesthepositive,nonmodulatedpulsesand
developsaPPMpulsetrain
Demodulating PPM: PPM, PFM and PCM are most easily demodulated by first
convertingthemtoeitherPWMorPAM.Thetriggerpulsesmustbesynchronizedwith
the unmodulated position of the PPM pulses, but with a fixed time delay from these
pulses.Asthepositionmodulatedpulseisappliedtotheflipflop,theoutputisdriven
positive.Afteraperiodoftime,thetriggerpulseisagaingeneratedanddrivestheflip
flopoutputnegativeandthepulseends.BecausethePPMpulsesareconstantlyvarying
in position with reference to the unmodulated pulses, the output of the flip flop also
varies in duration or width. This PWM signal can now be applied to either a peak
detectororlowpasfilterfordemodulation.

ComparingPPMwithPWM
Advantage: requires constant transmitter power since the pulses are of constant
amplitudeandduration
Disadvantage:dependsontransmitterreceiversynchronization
Pulsefrequencymodulation(PFM)
PFM is a method of pulse modulation in which the modulating wave is
used to frequency modulate a pulsegenerating circuit. For example, the
pulseratemaybe8,000pulsespersecond(pps)whenthesignalvoltageis
0. The pulse rate may step up to 9,000 pps for maximum positive signal
voltage,anddownto7,000ppsformaximumnegativesignalvoltage.

Thismethodofmodulationisnotusedextensivelybecauseofcomplicated
PFM generation methods. It requires a stable oscillator that is frequency
modulated to drive a pulse generator. Since the other forms of PTM are
easiertoachieve,theyarecommonlyused.

PulseCodeModulation
InventedbyAlecReevesin1937
Mostcommonlyuseddigitalcommunicationstechnique
Formofpulsemodulationwheresamplesoftheanaloginputare
convertedtobinarycodedpulses

BlockDiagramofaPCMTransmissionSystem

Bandpassfilterlimitsthefrequencyoftheanalogsignaltothevoicebandfrequency
range
Sampleandholdcircuitperiodicallysamplestheanaloginputsignalandconvertsthe
samplestomultilevelPAMsignal
ADCconvertsthePAMsamplestoparallelPCMcodes
ParalleltoserialconverterconvertstheparallelPCMcodestoserialdigitalpulses

FormsofSampling
Naturalsamplingtopsofthesamplepulsesretaintheiroriginalshapeduringthe
sampleinterval

Flattopsamplingsamplingofananalogsignalusingasampleandholdcircuit,such
thatthesamplehasthesameamplitudeforitswholeduration

Thesamplingprocessaltersthefrequencyspectrumandintroducesaperture
error,whichiswhentheamplitudeofthesampledsignalchangesduringthesample
time.

SamplingTheorem

Forananalogreceivertobefullyreconstructedatthereceiversoutput,therate
atwhichananaloginputsignalshouldbesampledmustatleastbetwicethehighest
audiofrequencycomponentpresent.
fs2fa
Aliasing or foldover distortion results when the signal is undersampled; distortion
created by using too low a sampling rate when coding an analog signal for digital
transmission
falias=fsfa

Quantizationprocessofconvertingsamplesoftheanaloginputasanumberof
discretevalues.

Quantizationintervalorquantummagnitudedifferencebetweenadjacentsteps

Overload distortion or peak limiting occurs if the magnitude of the sample exceeds
thehighestquantizationinterval
Resolution magnitude of a quantum; also equal to the voltage of the minimum step
size
Quantizationrange(+)or()onehalftheresolution
Quantization noise or quantization error results when the sampled analog signal is
roundedofftotheclosestavailablecode.
MaxQe=Resolution

Dynamic Range ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest possible
magnitudethatcandedecodedbytheDACatthereceiver.
V
V
DR = max = max = 2 n 1
Vmin Resn

ExpressingDRindB:
DR (dB) = 20 log

Vmax
V
= 20 log max = 20 log ( 2 n 1) 6.02n
Vmin
Resn

CodingEfficiencyanumericalindicationofhowefficientlyaPCMcodeisutilized.
min. no. of bits (inc. sign bit)
* 100
CodingEff =
actualno.ofbits(inc.signbit)

SignaltoQuantizationNoiseRatioforLinearPCMcodes(orSNR)
v2 / R
SQR(dB)=10log 2
(q / 12) / R
where:R=resistance(ohms)

v=rmssignalvoltage(volts)

q=quantizationinterval(volts)

Assumingequalresistances:

v2/R=ave.signalpower(watts)
(q2/12)/R=ave.quant.noisepower(watts)

v
v2
= 10.8 + 20log
SQR(dB)=10log 2
q
(q / 12)

Alternatively:

SNRpk=3M2
M=numberofsymbolsorlevels
n

NotingthatM=2 (n=numberofbits),SNRpkindBisalso:

SNRpk(dB)=4.77+6.02n

Iftheratioofthepeaktomeansignalpowerv2peak/v2avebedenotedby,thenthe
averageSNRis

SNR=3(22n)(1/)

ExpressingindB:

SNR(dB)=4.77+6.02ndB
Note:Forsinusoidalsignals,=2(or3dB),forGaussianrandomsignals,=16

(or12dB),andforspeech,=16(or12dB)
PCMBitRate=nfs

Note:CDsystemsuseastandardsamplingrateof44.1KHz.

IdlechannelnoiserandomthermalnoisequantizedbytheADCwheninputtedatthe
PCMsampler.

NonlinearPCM

With voice transmission, lowamplitude signals are more likely to occur than
largeamplitude signals. As a result, there would be fewer codes available for higher
amplitudes, thereby increasing quantization error for largeramplitude signals. This
techniqueiscallednonlinearencoding.

CompandingTechniques(compressingthenexpanding)

With companded systems, higheramplitude signals are compressed (amplified

less than the loweramplitude signals prior to transmission) and then expanded
(amplifiedmorethanloweramplitudesignals)inthereceiver.

AnalogCompanding
I.lawcompandingNorthAmericanstandardforvoicecompression
V
ln (1 + in )
Vmax

Vout = Vmax
ln (1 + )

where:
Vmax=max.uncompressedanaloginputamplitude(V)

Vin=amplitudeoftheinputsignalataparticularinstantoftime(V)

=parameterusedtodefinetheamountofcompression

Vout=compressedoutputamplitude
Indicators:Thehigherthevalue,thehigherthecompression.For=0,thecurveis
linear(nocompression).MostrecentPCMsystemsusean8bitcodewith=255.

II.Alawcompanding
AVin /Vmax
V
1
Vout = Vmax
0 in
1 + lnA
Vmax
A

1 +ln(AVin /Vmax ) 1
Vin
=

1
1 + lnA
A Vmax

ITU Recommendation G.711 recognizes Alaw and law as the international toll
qualitystandardfordigitalcodingofvoicefrequencysignals;usesasamplingrateof8
kHzand8encodinglawof8binarydigitspersample.

BandwidthReductionTechniques
1. Differential Pulse Code Modulation the difference in the amplitude between
two successive samples is transmitted rather than the actual samples. The
adjacentsamplesderivedfrommostnaturallygeneratedinformationsignalsare
notusuallyindependentbutcorrelated.
2. AdaptiveDifferentialPulseCodeModulationamoresophisticatedversionof
DPCM; adopted by the ITU as the reduced bit rate standard. The ADPCM
encodertakesa64kbpscompandedPCMsignal(G.711)andconvertsittoa32
kbps ADPCM signal (G.721). Other specifications are defined by the ITUT,
G.726andG.727forADPCMwithtransmissionratesof16kbpsto40kbps.
3. DeltaModulationusesasinglebitPCMcodetoachievedigitaltransmissionof
analog signals. (Algorithm: If the current sample is smaller than the previous
sample,alogic0istransmitted.Ifthecurrentsampleislargerthantheprevious
sample,alogic1istransmitted)
ProblemsEncounteredonDeltaModulation
Slope overload The slope of the analog signal is greater than what the
delta modulator can maintain. To reduce slope overload, increase the
magnitudeoftheminimumstepsize.
Granular noise The reconstructed signal has variations that were not
present in the original signal. It can be reduced by decreasing the step
size.
4. AdaptiveDeltaModulationInconventionalDM,theproblemofkeepingboth
quantizationnoiseandslopeoverloadacceptablylowissolvedbyoversampling
(keeping the DM size and sampling many times the Nyquist rate). The penalty
incurred is loss of some bandwidth savings, which is expected of DM. An
alternative strategy is to make the DM size variable, making it larger during
periods when slope overload would otherwise dominate and smaller when
granularnoisemightdominate.SuchsystemsarecalledadaptiveDMsystems.

Digitalcompanding

TheanalogsignalisfirstsampledandconvertedtolinearPCMcode,afterwhich
the code will be digitally compressed. In the receiver, the compressed PCM code is
expanded,thendecoded(backtoanalog).MostrecentPCMsystemsusea12bitlinear
PCMcodeandan8bitcompressedPCMcode.

Problems:

1. Forasamplerateof20kHz,determinethemaximumanaloginputfrequency.
2. Determine the alias frequency for a 14kHz sample rate and an analog input
frequencyof8kHz.
3. FindtheNyquistintervalforasignaldefinedas5cos1000tcos4000t
4. Determinethedynamicrangefora12bitsignmagnitudePCMcode
5. DeterminetheminimumnumberofbitsrequiredinaPCMcodeforadynamic
rangeof80dB.Whatisthecodingefficiency?
6. Foraresolutionof0.04V,determinethevoltagesforthefollowinglinearseven
bitmagnitudePCMcodes:(a)0110101;(b)1000001
7. Determinetherangeofan8bitsignmagnitudePCMcodegivenas10111000if
itsresolutionis0.1V.
8. Determine the resolution and quantization error for an 8bit linear sign
magnitudePCMcodeforamaximumdecodedvoltageof1.27V.
9. DeterminetheSQRfora2Vrmssignalandaquantizationintervalof0.2V.
10. Adigitalcommunicationssystemistocarryasinglevoicesignalusinglinearly
quantizedPCM.Whatbitratewillberequiredifanidealantialiasingfilterwith
acutofffrequencyof3.4kHzisusedatthetransmitterattheSNRistobekept
above50dB?
11. Given=255,Vmax=1VandVin=0.75V,determinethecompressorgain.
12. A12bitlinearsignmagnitudePCMcodeisdigitallycompressedinto8bits.For
aresolutionof0.016V,determinethefollowingquantitiesforaninputvoltageof
6.592V(a)12bitlinearPCMcode;(b)8bitcompressedPCMcode;(c)decoded
12bitcode;(d)decodedvoltage;(e)percentageerror

MotionPicturesExpertsGroup(MPEG)CompressionStandards
MPEG1 a lossy compression system, which is capable of achieving transparent,
perceptuallylosslesscompressionofstereophonicaudiosignalsathighsamplingrates.
Subjective listening tests performed by the MPEG Audio Committee, under very
difficultlisteningconditions,haveshownthatevenwitha6to1compressionratio,the
coded and original audio signals are perceptually identical. The MPEG1 coding
standardexploitstwopsychoacousticcharacteristicoftheauditorysystems:

CriticalBands
Humanearrespondstoincomingacousticalwaves.Ithasthreemainparts:
Outerearaidsinsoundcollection
Middleearprovidesanacousticalimpedancematchbetweentheairandthecochlea
fluids, thereby conveying the vibrations of the tympanic membrane (eardrum) due to
incomingsoundstotheinnerearinanefficientmanner
Inner ear converts the mechanical vibrations from the middle ear to an
electrochemicalorneuralsignalfortransmissiontothebrainforprocessing


The inner ear represents the power spectra of incoming signals on a nonlinear
scale in the form of limited frequency bands called the critical bands. The audible
frequency band, extending up to 20 kHz, is covered by 25 critical bands, whose
individualbandwidthsincreasewithfrequency.Theauditorysystemmaybeviewedas
abandpassfilterbank,consistingof25overlappingbandpassfilterswithbandwidths
less than 100 Hz for the lowest audible frequencies and up to 5 kHz for the highest
audiblefrequencies.

AuditoryMasking(noisemasking)frequencydomainphenomenonthatariseswhen
a lowlevel signal (the maskee) and a highlevel signal (masker) occur simultaneously
and are close enough to each other in frequency. If the lowlevel signal lies below a
maskingthreshold,itismadeinaudible(masked)bythestrongersignal.Theauditory
masking is most pronounced when both signals lie in the same critical band, and less
effectivewhentheylieinneighboringbands.

MPEGAudioCodingSystem

Transmitter

Digital (PCM)
audio signal

Time-tofrequency
mapping
network

Quantizer
and coder

Encoded bit stream

Frame-packing
unit

Psychoacoustic
model
Encoded bit stream
Frame
Unpacking unit

Freq-sample
reconstruction
network

Frequency-totime mapping
network

Digital (PCM)
audio signal

Receiver

EncoderFunctions
Timetofrequencymappingnetworkdecomposetheaudioinputsignalintomultiple
subbandsforcoding

The mapping is performed in three layers, labeled I, II and III, which are of
increasingcomplexity,delayandsubjectiveperceptualperformance.
AlgorithminLayerIusesabandpassfilterbankthatdividestheaudiosignalinto32
constantwidthsubbands;thisfilterbankisalsofoundinlayersIIandIII.Thedesignof
this filter bank is a compromise between computational efficiency and perceptual
performance.
AlgorithminLayerIIasimpleenhancementofLayerI;itimprovesthecompression
performancebycodingthedatainlargergroups.
Algorithm in Layer III much more refined and is designed to achieve frequency
resolutionsclosertothepartitionsbetweenthecriticalbands.
Psychoacoustic model analyzes the spectral content of the audio input signal and
computesthesignaltomaskratioforeachsubbandineachofthethreelayers.

The information is, in turn, used by the quantizercoder to decide how to

apportiontheavailablenumberofbitsforthequantizationofthesubbandsignals.This
dynamic allocation of bits is performed so as to minimize the audibility of the
quantizationnoise.
Frame packing unit assembles the quantized audio samples into a decodable bit
stream.