Guide to Inspecting Corrosion of Steel Piled Maritime Structures

Design and Maintenance Guide 29
Corrosion inspection of steel

piled maritime structures
DEFENCE ESTATES
MINISTRY OF DEFENCE
Draft May 2002
1
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Corrosion Inspection of Steel
Piled Maritime Structures
Foreword
Draft May 2002
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Acknowledgements
Draft May 2002
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Abbreviations
ALWC
Accelerated Low Water Corrosion
CDM Regulations
Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994
CP
Cathodic Protection
HSE
Health and Safety Executive
LAT
Lowest Astronomical Tide
MHWS
Mean High Water Springs
MIC
Microbiologically Induced Corrosion
MLWS
Mean Low Water Springs
MoD
Ministry of Defence
NDT
Non Destructive Testing
SCUBA
Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
SRB
Sulphate Reducing Bacteria
UCVI
Underwater Close Visual Inspection
UGVI
Underwater General Visual Inspection
UT meter
Ultrasonic Thickness meter
Draft May 2002
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Contents
FOREWORD
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABBREVIATIONS
CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Section 1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Background
1.3 Scope
1.4 Layout of the Document
Section 2 Corrosion of Steel Maritime Structures
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Introduction
Normal Corrosion
Microbiologically Induced Corrosion
Corrosion Design of Steel Maritime Structures
Section 3 Overall Approach

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Introduction
Initial Engineering Review
Appraisal of Results of the Survey
Summary of Overall Approach
Section 4 Competence of Inspection Personnel

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Introduction
Professional Team Leader
Senior Inspector
Inspector
Diving Engineer
Diving Inspector
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Section 5 Diving Operations

5.1
Diving Operations
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Section 6 Frequency of Surveys

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Regular Visual Surveys

Standard Surveys
Detailed Surveys
Cathodic Protection
Section 7 Methods of Visual Inspection

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
Introduction
General Visual Inspection
Close Visual Inspection
Underwater General Visual Inspection
Underwater Close Visual Inspection
Photography
Section 8 Requirements for Non Destructive Testing

8.1
8.2
8.3
Ultrasonic Thickness Measurements

Marine Growth Measurements
Protective Coating Thickness Measurements
Section 9 Extent of Inspection and NDT

9.1
9.2
9.3

Standard Surveys
Detailed Surveys
Section 10 Checks on Cathodic Protection System

10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
General
Checks on Impressed Current Systems
Checks on Sacrificial Anode Systems
Cathodic Potential Measurements
Section 11 Reporting Requirements

11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
General
Regular Visual Survey
Standard Survey
Detailed Survey
Section 12 Generic Review of Possible Remedial Measures

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
General
Measures to Prevent Further Corrosion
Measures to Replace Lost Steel
Discussions of Options
Construction Methods
Section 13 References
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Appendix Sample Inspection Forms
Draft May 2002
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Executive Summary
ES.1 INTRODUCTION
ES.1.1
Steel in maritime structures is in a particularly hostile

environment. Methodical and regular inspections are essential to
the controlled programming, budgeting and economic execution
of maintenance work, and to ensure that the structures are safe.
ES.1.2
This Specification is intended to:

1)
2)
ES.1.3
provide a guide to the corrosion of steel maritime structures

for facility managers, who may not necessarily be engineers;
provide guidance to the engineers and other technical staff
who are responsible for carrying out the inspections.
This Specification applies only to steel components of maritime

structures. These will generally be steel bearing piles supporting
structures or structures having steel sheet piling. It does not
apply to dock gates or caissons, link spans or floating structures,
though the same considerations will apply.
ES.2 CORROSION OF STEEL MARITIME STRUCTURES

ES.2.1
Corrosion of steel in maritime structures can be divided into two

types, namely normal corrosion and bio-corrosion.
ES.2.2
Normal corrosion refers to the normal rusting of steel as the

result of a chemical reaction, which occurs wherever unprotected
steel is in the presence of water and oxygen. It is reasonably
well understood and predictable.
ES.2.3
Bio-corrosion is a similar process to normal corrosion except that

the corrosion of the metal is influenced by micro organisms.
Different mechanisms are known, but for maritime structures,
that due to sulphate reducing bacteria is important. This is
commonly referred to as Accelerated Low Water Corrosion
(ALWC) or Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC). The latter
term is used in this Guide.
ES.2.4
MIC causes only localised corrosion, but the rate of corrosion is

much higher than for normal corrosion. Steel sections can be
perforated in only a few years.
ES.2.5
MIC usually occurs in a zone approximately 1m high, centred

between mean low water and Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT),
hence it is often referred to as ALWC. However it can occur down
to sea bed level, and has also been found above LAT, where the
sea bed rises above LAT.
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ES.2.6
MIC in maritime structures has been known about since the

1980s but has only been identified as a significant problem since
the 1990s. Latest figures for the UK indicate that as many as 9
out of 10 harbour and port facilities are affected.
ES.2.7
Why and where MIC occurs is not fully understood, so it is not

possible to predict accurately whether it is likely to affect a steel
structure.
ES.2.8
MIC is caused by two different bacteria. It is recognised as

follows. There is a layer of orange-brown poorly adhered paste,
comprising aerobic bacteria and corrosion products. When this is
removed, a layer of black odorous sludge is revealed, which
comprises anaerobic sulphate reducing bacteria. Beneath this
sludge, the steel is clearly pitted and shiny, sometimes
described as being like gunmetal.
ES.3 OVERALL APPROACH

ES.3.1
Three levels of inspection survey are specified. These are:

1)
Regular Visual Survey.

This is a relatively quick annual inspection survey, probably
by on site staff who should be competent but do not
necessarily have to be technically qualified. The purpose of
the survey is to provide early warning of specific corrosion
problems between the standard inspections. It should also
be used to check for damage.
As MIC tends to occur around LAT, it is important that this
survey is carried out at the lowest state of the tide as
possible.
2)
Standard Survey
This is a regular inspection of the structure by suitably
qualified technical staff. It will usually involve underwater
work, but in specific cases this may be omitted. The
frequency will depend on the local conditions, but typically
would be every four years.
As well as being carried out on a regular basis, a Standard
Survey should also be undertaken if the Regular Visual
Survey indicates that there is an unexpected and significant
corrosion problem
3)
Detailed Survey
Where the Standard Survey shows that there is corrosion
that needs remedial works, then a Detailed Survey may be
necessary. This would be tailored to suit the individual
circumstances.
10
ES.3.2
For the Standard and Detailed Surveys, a suitably qualified

Professional Team Leader shall be appointed. He shall be a
Chartered Engineer and take responsibility for the technical
content of the inspection survey.
ES.3.3
For the Standard Survey, ideally an Initial Engineering Review

should be carried out under the supervision of the Professional
Team Leader before specifying the extent of inspection. This will
enable the inspection to be tailored to suit the structures under
examination.
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ES.3.4
For the Initial Engineering Review, the following information on

the structures should be obtained where available:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
as built drawings of the structure;

the original design criteria, including how the design catered
for corrosion;
as built drawings of any subsequent modifications or repair
works, including the design criteria for these works;
any operation and maintenance manuals for the structure,
particularly if cathodic protection is provided;
details of tidal range and currents. Also details of any water
quality tests that have been carried out;
records of all previous inspections of the structures
concerned;
any reports on corrosion of other steel structures in the
same port;
the Health and Safety File where it exists.
ES.3.5
The Initial Engineering Review should assess the available

information as above and also take into account the local factors.
It should then adjust the scope of the Survey from that specified
in this document, to ensure that the inspection is appropriate. It
should also identify criteria against which the inspection can be
judged, such as acceptable loss of steel.
ES.3.6
The Initial Engineering Review should be fully documented so

that it can be used for future surveys.
ES.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR SURVEY

ES.4.1
This Guide includes specific guidance on the following:
competence of inspection personnel;

requirements for diving operations;
frequency of inspections;
methods of visual inspection;
requirements for non destructive testing (NDT);
extent of inspection and NDT;
checks on cathodic protection systems;
reporting requirements.
Table ES1 summarises the requirements for the surveys.

ES.4.2
Section 12 provides a generic review of possible remedial

measures. In practice every structure will need to be assessed
individually.
Table ES1: Summary of Recommended Inspection Procedures

Clause
Initial Engineering Review
Frequency
Personnel requirements
Draft May 2002
Clause 3.2
Section 6
Section 4
Regular Visual
Survey
Annual
Inspector
Standard
Survey
Every 4 years
Professional
Team Leader
Senior
Inspector,
Diving
Engineer/
Inspector
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General visual inspection,

Clause 7.2
above water
Underwater general visual

Clause 7.4
inspection
Close visual inspection,

Clause 7.3
above water
Underwater close visual

Clause 7.5
inspection
Photographic record
Clause 7.6
Ultrasonic thickness
Clause 8.1
measurements
Marine growth
Clause 8.2
measurements
Protective coating
Clause 8.3
measurements
Cathodic protection survey

Section 11
Report
Section 12
Notes: 1
The Initial Engineering Review may modify the requirements
for the Standard Survey, including the frequency.
2
The recommended spacings of the close visual inspections
and measurements are given in Section 9.
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1 - Introduction
1.1
PURPOSE
1.1.1
Steel in maritime structures is in a particularly hostile

environment. Methodical and regular inspections are essential to
the controlled programming, budgeting and economic execution
of maintenance work. Inspections are also necessary to
establish that the structures have not deteriorated to such a
degree that they can no longer meet their designed purpose.
1.1.2
This Guide is intended to:

1)
2)
1.1.3
provide a guide to the corrosion of steel maritime structures

for facility managers, who may not necessarily be engineers;
provide guidance to the engineers and other technical staff
who are responsible for carrying out the actual work.
The inspection programme has to be a balance between the

following factors:
cost of inspections;
risk of significant corrosion not being discovered during an
inspection;
risk of significant corrosion occurring between inspections;
effect of significant corrosion on safety and required
maintenance;
disruption to operations.
These factors will vary for different structures and locations. This
Guide gives specific guidance based on typical conditions, but it
may be appropriate to vary this depending on the actual
conditions.
1.2
BACKGROUND
1.2.1
Guidance on the inspection of maritime steel structures was

issued by the Property Services Agency in the 1980s. However
this advice predated the realisation that Microbiologically
Induced Corrosion (MIC) was becoming a significant problem in
maritime steel structures. Prior to the preparation of this Guide
there was no up to date guidance for property managers of
military establishments on what inspection regime they should
adopt.
1.2.2
Corrosion of steel is an important consideration in the

maritime environment. Many steel maritime structures have
been designed using unprotected steel, with additional sacrificial
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metal to allow for this corrosion. Predictions of normal corrosion

rates have been formulated for unprotected steel under various
exposure conditions. These typically vary from 0.04 mm/year to
0.17 mm/year for each exposed side in temperate climates.
1.2.3
Since the 1980s however higher corrosion rates have been

found in the low water zone in British estuarial waters,
associated with microbiological activity. This is called MIC
(Microbiologically Induced Corrosion) in this Guide. It is often
referred to as Accelerated Low Water Corrosion (ALWC) though
there is evidence of it occurring not just at Low Water. Normally
its effect is concentrated in discrete areas and the corrosion
rates can typically be 0.5 mm/year, though higher rates have
been reported.
1.2.4
MIC can result in the perforation of steel structures at a

much more rapid rate than would be expected with normal
corrosion. Depending on the structure involved, this can have
serious consequences for safety, though to date no catastrophic
failures have been reported in the technical press.
1.2.5
The existence of MIC in maritime structures has only been

identified as a significant problem since the 1990s, though its
existence in other areas such as shipping has been known for
much longer. There is ongoing research on various fronts, but
the reasons why and where it occurs is not fully understood.
1.2.6
This Guide provides guidance on inspecting steelwork, based

on the current state of knowledge.
1.3
SCOPE
1.3.1
This Guide applies only to steel components of maritime

structures. These will generally be steel bearing piles supporting
structures or structures having steel sheet piling.
1.3.2
This Guide does not apply to dock gates, caissons, floating

structures such as catamarans and pontoons, or linkspans
though many of the considerations will be the same.
1.3.3
Nuclear safety implicated structures have their own

prescribed inspection regimes that take into account their Safety
Function in relation to the Facility Safety Case. However, the
guidance in this Guide can be taken into account in developing
inspection regimes for such structures.
1.3.4
The Guide does not apply to steel embedded within concrete

components.
1.3.5
The Guide is intended to be used in temperate, tropical and

desert climates. It does not cover arctic climates, though the
considerations will be similar. Advice on specific cases can be
obtained from Defence Estates.
1.3.6
The Specification also considers repairs to corrosion damage

in a generic way. In practice the repairs for any structure will be
dependent on many site specific factors, including the type of
structure, operational requirements and local availability of
resources.
1.4
LAYOUT OF THE DOCUMENT
1.4.1
14
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This Guide is laid out as follows:
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Section 2 gives technical guidance on the different types of

corrosion. This includes how to recognise MIC.
Section 3 describes the overall approach to the inspections.
Section 4 gives requirements for the competence of inspection
personnel.
Section 5 gives specific requirements for diving operations, in
particular relating to safety aspects.
Section 6 gives guidance on how often the inspections should
occur.
Section 7 specifies the methods of visual inspection.
Section 8 specifies methods for non destructive testing.
Section 9 specifies the inspection and testing requirements for
each inspection.
Section 10 covers cathodic protection systems, which are not
covered by the previous sections.
Section 11 gives the reporting requirements.
Section 12 gives a generic review of possible remedial measures.
In practice every structure will need to be assessed individually.
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2 Corrosion of Steel Maritime

Structures
2.1
INTRODUCTION
2.1.1
There are several different forms of corrosion. The most

important for steel in maritime structures can be divided into two
types, namely normal corrosion and Microbiologically Induced
Corrosion (MIC).
2.1.2
Normal corrosion as used here refers to the normal rusting

of steel as the result of a chemical reaction. This occurs
wherever unprotected steel is in the presence of water and
oxygen. It is reasonably well understood and predictable. There
are several different forms, and these are described in Section
2.2.
2.1.3
MIC, also called bio corrosion, is a similar process to normal

corrosion except that the corrosion of the metal is influenced by
micro organisms. Different mechanisms are known, but for
maritime structures that commonly described as Accelerated
Low Water Corrosion (ALWC) is important. This is described in
Section 2.3.
2.1.4
The Institution of Structural Engineers Guide to Inspection

of underwater structures, October 2001, gives further guidance
on the different forms of corrosion in Table 2. This includes the
following forms of corrosion that are outside the scope of this
Guide and are not discussed further:
a) selective leaching. This is particularly significant in cast
iron. The more anodic components in the cast irons
microstructure are preferentially corroded, leaving a porous mass
of graphite and iron oxides.
b) intergranular corrosion. This occurs in certain grades of
stainless steels and other metals that have been subjected to
uncontrolled heating. It is therefore often found around welds.
16
2.2
NORMAL CORROSION
2.2.1
Corrosion of steel is where the steel undergoes oxidation. It

is an electro chemical process consisting of two half cell
reactions: a reaction at the anode where the steel is oxidised and
a cathodic reaction involving the reduction of a chemical species
at the cathode. The resultant of these reactions for normal
corrosion is that iron combines with water and oxygen to form
rust. For normal corrosion it is therefore essential to have both
water and oxygen.
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2.2.2
The corrosion products (i.e. the rust) have a volume of some

ten times the original steel. This means that a steel member
can appear to be severely corroded with a substantial thickness
of rust, but when this rust is cleaned off the loss of section is
found to be relatively small.
2.2.3
The rate of corrosion is affected by contaminants, of which

the most important in the marine environment are chlorine and
to a less extent sulphur. The resulting iron compounds of these
elements stimulate the corrosion process, without being
consumed themselves, having an effect disproportionate to their
concentration.
2.2.4
The formation of anodes and cathodes requires non

uniformities within the material. In steel these are always
present as a result of the crystalline structure and also as a
result of the fabrication processes such as cold working and
welding. As corrosion proceeds, the anodes and cathodes move
on the surface and the resulting corrosion is uniform. However in
some cases due to specific non uniformities, the anodes and
cathodes do not move and pitting occurs.
2.2.5
For some metals such as aluminium, the corrosion results in

an oxide that forms a very dense and adherent film, preventing
any further corrosion. The rust of steel however provides only
very limited protection. It easily flakes off, allowing corrosion to
proceed.
2.2.6
The marine environment therefore has all the ingredients for

the corrosion of steel. Typical rates of loss of metal thickness
have been published for temperate climates and the figures are
given in Table 2.1. These vary depending on where the steel is in
relation to the tidal levels, which affects the availability of
oxygen and water.
Table 2.1
Typical Rates of Corrosion for Structural Steels in Temperate
Climates
Exposure Zone
Atmospheric Zone
-above splash zone and where direct wave or spray
impingement is infrequent
Splash Zone
-above mean high water to a height depending on
mean wave height and exposure to wind
Tidal Zone
-between mean high water and mean low water
springs level
Inter-tidal Low Water Zone
-between low water springs and 0.5m below LAT
Continuous Seawater Immersion Zone
-from 0.5m below LAT to sea bed
Below Seabed Level or in Contact with Soil
Note:
2.2.7
Corrosion Rate
mm per side/ year
Mean
Upper
Limit
0.04
0.10
0.08
0.17
0.04
0.10
0.08
0.17
0.04
0.13
0.015
max
The upper limit figures are the 95% probability values.
Reference: BS6349 Part 1:2000
There is little published data on corrosion rates in tropical
and desert climates, and what there is is inconclusive. However
above the continuous seawater immersion zone, the rates are
Draft May 2002
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likely to be higher due to the increased temperature. As an order

of magnitude, they could be twice the typical values for
temperate climates. In the submerged zones, the rates are likely
to be similar as oxygen is less soluble in warmer waters.
2.2.8
Other factors affect the rate of corrosion, and can cause

significantly higher rates locally. These include:
a)
repeated removal of the corrosion product layer, particularly

in the low water or immersion zones by the action of
fendering systems or other moving parts such as chains
(fretting corrosion);
b)
repeated removal of the corrosion product layer by the

movement of water, particularly if it contains abrasive
particles such as sands and gravels (erosion corrosion). This
can be caused by bow thrusters and propellers;
c)
bimetallic corrosion, where steel is electrically connected to

other metals. This can also occur when weld metal is
significantly different to the parent metal (galvanic
corrosion);
d)
stray electric currents. This can be a problem where

cathodic protection (CP) is used on steel structures adjacent
to steel structures without CP. The stray currents can cause
higher corrosion rates in the steel not protected by CP.
There can be interaction with a ship, where either the
structure or the ship has CP, resulting in localised higher
corrosion rates. This is not usually a problem unless the ship
is laid up at the berth, and therefore present for a
considerable time.
Stray currents can also occur as a result of bonding of
electrical earths, and lightning protection, though this effect
is not usually significant;
2.3
MICROBIOLOGICALY INDUCED CORROSION (MIC)
2.3.1
There are several forms of MIC, but those involving Sulphate

Reducing Bacteria (SRB) are important for maritime steel
structures. MIC is used in this Guide to describe this particular
corrosion, but it should be noted that there are other forms of
MIC found in other environments.
MIC is commonly referred to as Accelerated Low Water Corrosion,
or ALWC. This term has the advantage over MIC in that it is
specific to the type of corrosion found in maritime structures.
However MIC has been found at locations other than Low Water,
and therefore this Guide uses the term MIC in preference.
BS6349 Part 1, Maritime Structures uses the term concentrated
corrosion, but this also covers some other forms of corrosion.
Occurrence
2.3.2
18
The origins of MIC are uncertain. It has long been

established that high rates of non-uniform corrosion occur at sites
of bacterial growth, and the shipping and offshore industries have
been dealing with the problem for over a century.
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2.3.3
The corrosion colonies, which in the case of MIC act in unison

or partnership, produce extreme rates of corrosion. The attacks
are localised, but can be so numerous as to affect an almost
continuous band.
2.3.4
MIC has been noted at locations along the coastlines of all

the northern European countries, the West Indies, Japan, South
East Asia and recently in Australia. Latest figures for the UK
indicate that as many as 9 out of 10 harbour and port facilities
are suffering from MIC. It has also been noted in European fresh
water canals.
2.3.5
Surveys at a number of locations originally led to the

conclusion that MIC was always isolated to a zone approximately
1m in depth centred between mean low water level and LAT.
However, it has also been found down to bed level. In one
instance, divers found MIC on a tubular pile at bed level some
7m below CD, where the pile was completely disconnected. It
has also been found above low water, but only where the sea
bed level rises above low water when it can occur at the bed
level.
2.3.6
The reason for bacterial colonisation is not understood and

at the moment it is not possible to predict where MIC is likely to
occur. It is not clear whether MIC is affected by the particular
chemical or physical conditions of seawater. Incidences have
been recorded in polluted, clean and brackish water, with or
without strong tidal currents. Lighting conditions do not appear
to affect the growth either, with divers reporting occurrences in
both clear water, with exceptional visibility, and in turbid
conditions with poor visibility.
2.3.7
There have been suggestions that the increased occurrence

of MIC is linked to a cleaner environment, i.e. oxygen levels in
water are improving due to a reduction in toxic effluents. It has
been reported that MIC is suppressed at locations near sewage
(assumed to be untreated) out-falls, which may support this
claim.
2.3.8
It has been suggested that steel produced prior to the

1950s does not suffer from MIC, but this has not been verified. If
pre 50s steel does have improved durability, this may be due to
changes in the production process, which result in modern steels
being purer.
2.3.9
The evidence to date indicates that a properly operating

cathodic protection system (sacrificial anode or impressed
current) prevents the occurrence of MIC.
2.3.10
Some structural elements appear to suffer in a predictable way,

for example:
a)
Larssen sheet piles normally corrode on the out-pan.

However in one commercial southern UK port, Larssen piles
were visibly corroded and holed at the edges and webs.
b)
Frodingham sheet piles normally corrode on the webs and

corners. The corrosion pattern on the Frodingham pile can
be quite extensive with elongated holes as much as 1m long
developing (see photograph).
c)
Straight web sheet piles normally corrode in the centre of

the pans, similar to Larrsen.
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d)
On tubular piles, the welds have been reported as being

particularly susceptible. Poor selection of weld consumables
can result in the welds being more susceptible to corrosion.
Other standard sections such as columns and beams also suffer

from MIC, but records of these are too few to establish a pattern.
20
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FRODINGHAM PILES SHOWING

ELONGATED CORROSION HOLES
Picture courtesy of Posford Haskoning

Description of MIC
2.3.11
In general at MIC sites, the seaward side of the pile has a layer of
calcareous deposits together with shellfish, algae and weed in
direct contact with the seawater. Beneath this is a layer of
orange-brown poorly adhered paste. This layer, which is exposed
to oxygen, is composed of aerobic bacteria and ferrous and
metallic corrosion products and hydroxides. Below this, in direct
contact with the steel surface is a layer of black, odorous sludge.
The adherent sludge is generally in a liquid or semi-liquid state
with black particles held in suspension. It is composed of
anaerobic sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) which produce
hydrogen sulphide (H2S). The latter has a characteristic rotten
egg smell.
2.3.12
Sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) are anaerobic (they are able to

exist in the absence of oxygen). Their metabolism is based on
the reduction of sulphate leading to the production of hydrogen
sulphide. The sulphate is employed as the electron acceptor in
the respiration process, which in addition drives the oxidation of
organic carbon. The donors used are low molecular weight
carbon compounds such as mono or dicarboxylic acids, alcohols
etc. The most well known SRB are medium temperature loving
mesophiles of which there are 40 types.
2.3.13
It is recognised that SRB are involved in the corrosion process,

but the precise mechanics are unconfirmed. The process is now
thought to be more than just a simple cathodic depolarisation.
2.3.14
As their name suggests, the aerobic bacteria thrive in the

presence of oxygen. There are three types; two forms of
Thiobacilli (sulphur oxidising bacteria and iron bacteria) and
Vibrio.
2.3.15
Thiobacilli thrive in the presence of sulphur compounds; these

types of bacteria are autotrophic, which means that they obtain
their food from inorganic sources, i.e. they do not need to eat
other organisms. Despite the ability of the Thiobacilli to exist in
conditions that are very different to those required by the SRB,
they often coexist with SRB because of the H 2S by-product
necessary for their growth. A by-product of the Thiobacillis
synthesis of pyrites and sulphides is sulphuric acid. It is believed
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21
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that it is this acid which subsequently facilitates the corrosion

process.
22
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Corroded Piles, showing orange patches typical of aerobic bacteria.

Picture courtesy of Posford Haskoning
Example of Pitted
Surface, biofouling removed to reveal an example of the corrosion surface.
Rates of Corrosion
2.3.16
For MIC, typical corrosion rates of 0.5 mm/ year are quoted, but
higher values of 1 mm/year or more have been reported. There
is some uncertainty in the actual rate of corrosion, because
where it has been measured it has not been possible to
determine exactly when the attack started.
2.3.17
Such high rates of corrosion can lead to perforation of the steel in

a relatively short period. For example a typical sheet pile wall
section could have 9 mm wall thickness, which would be
perforated in 9 years at 1mm per year if no action is taken.
2.3.18
To date no major failures of marine structures resulting from MIC

have been reported. This is in part because the attacks are
localised, and for sheet pile walls, the maximum stresses are not
usually at low water level, the most likely area of attack. The
most common failure mode for sheet pile walls suffering from
MIC is loss of material from behind the wall through the
perforation. The loss of this material has caused large
settlements in the ground behind the wall.
Draft May 2002
23
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2.4
CORROSION DESIGN OF STEEL MARITIME STRUCTURES
2.4.1
This describes in outline how steel maritime structures are

or were commonly designed to cope with corrosion. It is
necessary to understand this in order to assess the significance
of any corrosion.
2.4.2
Traditionally corrosion of steel piling in the maritime

environment has been addressed in one of the following ways:
1)
the steelwork is not protected, but the members are sized to

allow for a certain loss of metal thickness over the design
life of the structure. This would be calculated based on
forecast corrosion rates, see Section 2.2 and in particular
Table 2.1.
2)
the steelwork is fully protected with paint, wrapping or

concrete, which is maintained throughout the design life of
the structures. There is no allowance for loss of metal as a
result of corrosion.
A properly specified and applied painting system could have
a design life up to about 15 years in the marine
environment.
3)
cathodic protection is provided, see Section 10 for further

details.
It should be noted that cathodic protection only protects the
steelwork that is immersed. It therefore provides full
protection to the steel below LAT, partial protection for steel
between LAT and MHWS and no protection above MHWS.
Cathodic protection is often combined with protective
coatings. The protective coating can provide full protection
above LAT, if it is properly maintained. Below LAT, it is not
generally practicable to maintain the coating. Therefore
with time the coating in this area is only partially effective,
due to damage and deterioration, but the CP ensures full
protection. However the protective coating substantially
reduces the demand on the CP system.
4)
24
A combination of 1) and 2). The steelwork is painted, but it

is assumed that this is not maintained and only lasts a
certain period (not more than 15 years). The remainder of
the design life is then achieved by allowing for the loss of
sacrificial metal thickness as a result of corrosion.
2.4.3
The approach adopted will have depended in part on the

design life of the structure. For steel maritime structures, the
design life is likely to be between 25 and 50 years, or possibly up
to 60 years.
2.4.4
The advantage of the first approach, a sacrificial corrosion

allowance, is that it does not rely on the structure being
maintained. It is often the most cost effective solution for the
shorter design lives, say 25 to 30 years, because:
a)
for sheet pile walls, the highest stresses are often not at
locations where high corrosion is predicted;
b)
for driven bearing piles, the in service stresses are less than
the stresses during installation of the pile. The pile has to
Draft May 2002
DMG 29
be sized for the installation case and will have spare

capacity in the completed structure.
2.4.5
Up to around 1990, many designers of steel sheet piles

allowed much higher steel stresses for the corroded section at
the end of its life. This was recommended by The Piling
Handbook of the time, published by British Steel (now Corus),
which gave a design life of unpainted piles in sea water of
between 45 and 125 years dependent on the actual section.
This design life was based on the loss of steel from corrosion
being compensated for by the increase in allowable stresses.
This approach is no longer in favour.
2.4.6
In some cases, steel tubular piles were /are driven and filled
with reinforced concrete. The design is based solely on the
concrete section, and the steel pile is treated as permanent
sacrificial formwork. Corrosion of the steel pile in these cases is
therefore of no concern. Care should be taken to ensure that this
is the case, as steel piles can be filled with concrete for other
reasons where the steel pile is still essential to the design. For
example, it has been suggested that tubular steel piles should be
filled with concrete or sand to prevent MIC becoming established
inside the pile.
2.4.7
The use of unprotected steel and a corrosion allowance was

probably the most common approach until MIC was found to be a
widespread problem in sheet pile walls in the early 1990s.
However the loss of metal thickness as a result of MIC is much
higher than for normal corrosion, and it is not economic to
provide additional steel to cater for this over the typical life of
the structure. If modern structures are designed with an
allowance for loss of metal thickness as a result of corrosion, it is
therefore assumed that the structures will be inspected regularly
and action taken if MIC is found.
2.4.8
Cathodic protection has been found to prevent MIC, and

therefore this is becoming more common where it is considered
that MIC is likely to occur.
2.4.9
The design criteria for the original structure should describe

how the effects of corrosion were designed to be catered for. If
this is available, this is a very useful document to assist in
assessing the structure.
Draft May 2002
25
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3 Overall Approach
3.1
INTRODUCTION
3.1.1
This section describes the overall approach to corrosion

inspection of steel maritime structures. It should be noted that
the inspection is intended to identify all forms of corrosion, not
just MIC.
3.1.2
There are three levels of inspection survey. These are:

1)
Regular Visual Survey

This is a relatively quick annual inspection, probably by on
site staff, who should be competent but do not necessarily
have to be technically qualified. The purpose of the
inspection is to provide early warning of specific corrosion
problems between the standard inspections. It should also
be used to check for damage.
As MIC usually occurs around LAT, it is important that this
survey is carried out at the lowest state of the tide as
possible, compatible with the requirement for an annual
survey. Spring tides are generally particularly low and
therefore suitable around the equinox, i.e. in March and
September.
2)
Standard Survey
This is a regular inspection of the structure by suitably
qualified technical staff. It will usually involve underwater
work, but in specific cases this may be omitted.
As well as being carried out on a regular basis, a Standard
Survey should also be undertaken if the Regular Visual
Survey indicates that there is an unexpected and significant
corrosion problem. In such cases, the Standard Survey
should be carried out as soon as practicable following the
Regular Visual Survey.
3)
Detailed Survey
Where the Standard Survey shows that there is corrosion
that needs remedial works, then a Detailed Survey may be
necessary. This would be tailored to suit the individual
circumstances.
3.2
26
INITIAL ENGINEERING REVIEW
Draft May 2002
DMG 29
3.2.1
For the Standard Survey, ideally an Initial Engineering

Review should be carried out before specifying the extent of the
survey. This will enable the inspection to be tailored to suit the
structures under examination.
3.2.2
The following information on the structures should be

obtained where available:
a)
as built drawings of the structure;
b)
the original design criteria, particularly information on how

the design catered for corrosion;
c)
as built drawings of any subsequent modifications or repair

works, including the design criteria for these works;
d)
the Operation and Maintenance manuals for the structure,

particularly for any cathodic protection (CP) system where
this is provided. Where CP is not provided, it is unlikely that
any manuals exist.
e)
details of tidal range and currents. Also details of any water

quality tests that have been carried out;
f)
records of all previous surveys of the structures concerned,

including those for the Regular Visual Surveys undertaken
since the last Standard Survey;
g)
any reports on corrosion of other steel structures in the

same port.
h)
the Health and Safety File where it exists. This is required

by the CDM Regulations in the UK, and applies to all
construction work since 1995 (subject to minor exceptions).
In addition, the following may be useful:

i)
the original specification for the works;
j)
design calculations.
3.2.3
If there is an existing Initial Engineering Review from a

previous Standard Survey, this should form the basis for the new
Review (see 3.2.8).
3.2.4
The Initial Engineering Review should assess the available

information to ensure that the inspection is directed to the
critical areas. It should be carried out under the supervision of
the Professional Team Leader (see Section 4), who shall take full
responsibility for it.
3.2.5
The Initial Engineering Review should identify criteria against

which the inspection can be judged. This would include:
1)
the anticipated corrosion of any unpainted steel based on

typical corrosion rates or previous survey information if
available.
This will enable the inspectors to identify any rogue readings
during their survey.
2)
Draft May 2002
where the steelwork is painted, the anticipated life of the

paint system, and therefore what condition it should be in.
27
DMG 29
3)
for structures fitted with cathodic protection using sacrificial

anodes, the anticipated condition of the anodes.
4) the acceptable corrosion with respect to the safety of the

structure.
This will enable the inspectors to assess how critical their
results are during the survey.
If there is only limited data available on the original design, it
may not be possible to determine the acceptable corrosion
without carrying out new design calculations. If this is the case,
the new design calculations should not be carried out prior to the
inspection, due to the cost and effort required.
3.2.6
The Initial Engineering Review should also consider local

factors, such as the following:
Factor
Operational
requirements
Access to the
structure
Tides and currents
Underwater visibility
Local availability of
resources
3.2.7
In most cases, the inspection will have to take

place when the facility is not being used.
Operational requirements may restrict the time
available.
It will not be economic to provide extensive
access scaffolding. Access above water will
therefore usually be from the existing structure
and from a boat.
If there are strong currents, some parts of the
inspection may only be possible at slack water.
This will limit the time available and with a large
tidal range, this could make it difficult to inspect
the structure at certain levels
The underwater visibility will affect whether
underwater photographs and or video is
appropriate.
At remote sites, it may be difficult and expensive
to mobilise the full resources, such as diving
inspectors.
The Initial Engineering Review should then adjust the scope

of the inspection work, to ensure that it is appropriate for the
structure, local factors and the importance of the structure. In
particular it should ensure that resources are not wasted
attempting to carry out excessive close inspections of parts of
structures that are difficult to access but not critical.
Subject to contractual requirements, this may include adjusting
the frequency of the inspections. In certain situations, it may be
concluded that a Standard Survey is not necessary, see Section
6.2.
3.2.8
The Initial Engineering Review should be fully documented

so that it can be used for future surveys. The Review for the
next Standard Survey will then just be a review of the previous
Initial Engineering Review and the results of the subsequent
Regular Visual Surveys.
3.3
APPRAISAL OF RESULTS OF THE SURVEY

28
Draft May 2002
DMG 29
3.3.1
The appraisal of the Regular Visual Survey will normally be

undertaken by the Inspector who carried out the work.
Depending on the technical competence of the Inspector and
what has been noted, professional and technical assistance may
be required with the appraisal. If so, this could be from the
Professional Team Leader who was responsible for the most
recent Standard Survey.
3.3.2
The appraisal shall consider the following:

1)
has any MIC been noted?
2)
has the structure suffered significant and unexpected

corrosion since the last Standard Survey, or indeed the last
Regular Visual Survey?
If the answer to either of the above questions is yes, then an

Initial Engineering Review and Standard Survey should be
undertaken.
Standard Surveys
3.3.3
The appraisal of the results of the Standard Survey should

be carried out by the Professional Team Leader. This appraisal
should cover the following:
1)
whether the condition of the structure is in line with

expectations;
2)
whether MIC is present;
3)
the anticipated remaining design life of the structure,

assuming no works are undertaken;
4)
whether any repairs or other works are necessary to ensure

the safety of the structure until the next Standard Survey;
5)
whether any repairs or other works are recommended on

economic grounds to ensure the structure is likely to safely
achieve the required life. The required life will depend on
operational considerations, and may not be the same as the
original life that the structure was designed for.
6)
when the next Standard Survey should take place.
If significant corrosion and/or MIC is found, then a further,

Detailed Survey will normally be required.
3.4
SUMMARY OF OVERALL APPROACH
3.4.1
Figure 3.1 gives a flow chart summarising the steps for the
Standard Inspection.
Figure 3.1
Methodology for Standard Survey
Draft May 2002
29
DMG 29
Identify Steel Structures
Collect Drawings, Design Information,

Results of Previous Surveys
Appoint Professional Team Leader
Carry Out Initial Engineering Review

Determine Scope of Work for Inspection
Appoint Survey Team
Carry out Standard Survey
Assess the Results of the Survey

Prepare Survey Report
Is Action Required ?
NO
Regular Visual Surveys at 1 Year Intervals
Next Standard Survey as Required
30
Draft May 2002
YES
To be determined Detailed Survey?
DMG 29
Section 4 Competence of
Inspection Personnel
4.1
INTRODUCTION
4.1.1
For inspection at and above water level, three grades of

inspection personnel are specified as follows:
Professional Team Leader
Senior Inspector
Inspector.
The requirements for these are given in Sections 4.2 to 4.4
below.
4.1.2
For underwater inspections, a diving team will be required.

The diving team shall comply with the current UK Regulations
and other relevant regulations, see Section 5.
This Guide specifies requirements for a Diving Engineer and a
Diving Inspector. To satisfy the Health and Safety regulations, a
Diving Supervisor with particular qualifications is required,
however this is not specified here as this role relates to safety
rather than the technical content of the survey.
4.1.3
Notwithstanding the specific requirements, all staff shall be

suitably qualified and experienced to carry out their tasks.
Where the survey is carried out by a third party, the curricula
vitae of the Professional Team Leader, the Senior Inspectors, the
Diving Engineers and the Diving Inspectors shall be provided for
the Clients approval.
4.1.4
Advice on the acceptability of qualifications and experience

in specific circumstances can be obtained from the contact point
identified at the front of this Guide.
4.2
PROFESSIONAL TEAM LEADER
4.2.1
For all surveys except the Regular Visual Surveys, there shall
be a Professional Team Leader.
4.2.2
The Professional Team Leader shall be responsible for

ensuring that the survey addresses the critical areas appropriate
for the structures being inspected. He shall be responsible for
the technical content of the survey report, and shall approve any
such report.
4.2.3
The Professional Team Leader shall be a chartered civil

engineer, with a minimum of 10 years professional experience.
Draft May 2002
31
DMG 29
This shall include 5 years experience of steel maritime

structures, including their design and specification. He shall
have an in-depth understanding of steel structures in the
maritime environment.
4.3
SENIOR INSPECTOR
4.3.1
Senior Inspectors will be responsible for the Standard

Surveys.
4.3.2
Senior Inspectors could be either :

a)
professional civil engineers, educated to degree level.

Ideally they should be chartered, but this is not essential if
they have suitable experience. The Professional Team
Leader could also be the Senior Inspector;
b)
incorporated engineers;
c)
or full time inspectors.
Senior Inspectors shall have a minimum of 5 years relevant

experience, including previous experience of inspections of
maritime structures.
32
4.4
INSPECTOR
4.4.1
Inspectors may undertake the Regular Visual Surveys.
4.4.2
Inspectors can also assist with the Standard Survey provided it is

under the direct supervision of a Senior Inspector. A Senior
Inspector shall not supervise more than two Inspectors at any
one time.
4.4.3
The Inspector is not required to have specific levels of

experience, but shall be competent for the tasks he has to
undertake.
4.4.4
For the Regular Visual Surveys, it is envisaged that the

Inspector could be an appropriate individual already working at
the facility. He shall be conversant with this Guide, and in
particular shall have practical experience of recognising all forms
of corrosion, including MIC.
4.5
DIVING ENGINEER
4.5.1
Ideally the diving team shall include a Diving Engineer. It is

however recognised that suitably qualified Diving Engineers are
not common, and in certain circumstances a Diving Inspector
may take this role. An example may possibly be if the survey is
expected to be particularly routine, or if a Diving Engineer is not
available at a reasonable cost. Where it is proposed not to use a
Diving Engineer, the Professional Team Leader shall assess and
approve this decision, taking into account the qualifications of
the Diving Inspector.
4.5.2
The Diving Engineer shall be responsible for all technical

aspects of the underwater survey, and shall ensure that the
underwater survey addresses the critical areas appropriate for
the structures being inspected. He shall be responsible for the
Draft May 2002
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technical content of the underwater survey report, and shall

approve any such report together with the Professional Team
Leader.
4.5.3
The Diving Engineer shall be at least a degree qualified civil or

structural engineer, but preferably a chartered civil or structural
engineer, with river or marine works experience , a minimum of five
years professional experience and hold an HSE commercial diver
training qualification with a minimum Inshore Air Diver standard
or equivalent approved by HSE. The five years professional
experience shall include two years experience of steel maritime
structures.
4.5.4
The Diving Engineer shall have a clear understanding of

steel structures in the maritime environment, and be thoroughly
conversant with, and have practical experience in recognising, all
forms of corrosion including MIC.
4.6
DIVING INSPECTOR
4.6.1
Diving Inspectors shall undertake the underwater visual

inspections.
4.6.2
The Diving Inspector shall work under the technical direction

of the Diving Engineer.
4.6.3
The Diving Inspector shall have at least a basic education to

GCSE standard, hold an HSE commercial diver training certificate
to at least Inshore Air Diver standard, preferably hold CSWIP 3.1U
or 3.2U certification, and have at least two years experience with
diving inspections of river or marine works.
4.6.4
The Diving Inspector shall be thoroughly conversant with,

and have practical experience in recognising, all forms of
corrosion including MIC.
Draft May 2002
33
DMG 29
Section 5 Diving Operations
34
5.1
DIVING OPERATIONS
5.1.1
The Contractor shall provide a competently manned commercial diving team using
surface demand diving equipment for all the underwater works. The minimum
number of personnel in a diving team shall be four.
5.1.2
All diving operations shall be performed in accordance with the relevant UK

Regulations, any local Regulations where outside the UK, and any local MOD
procedures. In particular, the operations shall comply with The Diving At Work
Regulations, UK, S.I. 1997/2776 and the relevant Approved Code of Practice for
Commercial Diving Projects Inland/Inshore, ref. L104, 1998, or any subsequent
revisions to these.
5.1.3
SCUBA diving should not generally be used in support of

inspection, construction, maintenance and salvage work except
when absolutely necessary and only then permitted when used
with hard wire communications and a safety line.
5.1.4
All divers shall be in possession of bona fide commercial

diver training certificates, current certificates of medical fitness
and diving logbook. In addition, sufficient divers in the team
shall have current certificates of diving or general first aid in
order to comply with the current regulations. Non-availability of
and non-compliance with any of the above shall immediately
render the diver to a non-diving role.
5.1.5
The Contractor shall preferably be a member of a recognised

diving contractors trade association such as the Association of
Diving Contractors (known as the ADC).
5.1.6
Information on diving techniques and equipment is given in

Guide to Inspection of underwater structures, published by the
Institution of Structural Engineers.
Draft May 2002
DMG 29
Section 6 Frequency of Surveys
6.1
REGULAR VISUAL SURVEYS
6.1.1
The objective of the Regular Visual Survey is to provide early

warning that there may be problems with MIC, or other forms of
corrosion.
6.1.2
Regular Visual Surveys shall take place annually.

As MIC usually occurs around LAT, it is important that this survey
is carried out at the lowest spring tides of the year. These
usually occur around the equinox, i.e. in late March and late
September.
6.2
STANDARD SURVEYS
6.2.1
The objective of the Standard Survey is for technically

qualified inspectors to assess the corrosion of the structures.
6.2.2
The frequency of inspection will depend on a variety of

factors, including:
the age of the structure;

the type of structure;
the importance of the structure and the effect of any failure
of the structure resulting from corrosion;
the protection system of the steelwork;
ease and cost of inspection.
For military structures, Standard Surveys should typically take

place every four years. The Initial Engineering Review should
consider if four years is appropriate, taking into account the
above factors, and if not determine a more appropriate period.
For new structures where the steel is protected by a protective
coating or cathodic protection, a Standard Survey would not
normally be required after the first four years. The first Standard
Survey would typically be after eight years, and thereafter every
four years. Notwithstanding this, an Initial Engineering Review
should be undertaken after four years to confirm that the
Standard Survey is unnecessary.
Draft May 2002
35
DMG 29
36
6.3
DETAILED SURVEYS
6.3.1
Where the Standard Survey has identified an area of

concern, further investigation may be required. The need for a
Detailed Survey will be established during the appraisal of the
results.
6.4
CATHODIC PROTECTION
6.4.1
Where cathodic protection is provided, this needs regular

checks outside the Surveys. These are discussed in Section 10.
Draft May 2002
DMG 29
Section 7 Methods of Visual

Inspection
7.1
INTRODUCTION
7.1.1
The following types of visual inspections are specified:
7.1.2
General Visual Inspection (above water);

Close Visual Inspection (above water);
Underwater General Visual Inspection;
Underwater Close Visual Inspection.
For all inspections, it is essential to set up a proper

referencing system to establish the locations of all defects, close
visual inspections and tests.
For sheet pile walls, a chainage regime shall be set up for each
structure.
For bearing piles each pile shall be given a unique reference.
A tape measure shall be used to measure the vertical location.
In the case of raking piles, it shall be made clear whether
distances are measured vertically or parallel to the pile axis.
7.2
GENERAL VISUAL INSPECTION
7.2.1
General visual inspections are required for all elements of

the structure at and above Mean Low Water Springs, under all
inspection regimes.
7.2.2
General visual inspections shall be a brief qualitative visual

assessment of the condition of the steel, without removal of
marine growth. The method shall be suitable for the conditions.
As a minimum, it shall be undertaken at a distance of not more
than 5 metres from the steel, or not more than 15 m with the aid
of binoculars.
7.2.3
For individual piles, the inspection shall cover the element

from Mean Low Water Springs to the visible top of the pile.
Ideally it should cover all sides of the pile, but where access is
difficult and for the Regular Visual Survey, one side is sufficient.
7.2.4
For sheet pile walls, the inspection shall cover the exposed
face only, from Mean Low Water Springs to the top of the wall.
7.3
CLOSE VISUAL INSPECTION
Draft May 2002
37
DMG 29
7.3.1
A Close Visual Inspection involves careful inspection of the

element at specific points.
7.3.2
All marine growth shall be removed at each point to expose

the protective coating if present or, if there is no protective
coating, the steel or rust products.
It should be noted that marine growth provides some protection
to the steelwork, and therefore no more than is necessary for the
purposes of the inspection should be removed.
Care shall be taken to ensure that the removal of the marine
growth does not damage any protective coating.
Where there is a protective coating, the steelwork should
preferably be cleaned using a low pressure water jet, at a
pressure of around 1,000 to 1,200 psi. This will remove loose
products but is less likely to damage the coating compared to
mechanical methods.
If any protective coating is damaged, this shall be made good at
the time of the inspection.
7.3.3
Any rust products shall be investigated during the inspection

to establish whether they are as a result of MIC or normal
corrosion.
7.4
UNDERWATER GENERAL VISUAL INSPECTION
7.4.1
Underwater General Visual Inspections (UGVI) are required

for all elements of the structure below Mean Low Water Springs
(or from where the above water inspection could not be done) for
Standard Surveys. UGVIs shall be a brief qualitative visual
assessment of the condition of the steel.
7.4.2
The method of UGVI shall be suitable for the conditions, and

agreed by the Professional Team Leader. Where visibility is very
poor, a UGVI may not be possible or be too time consuming. In
these cases, it may be necessary to restrict the extent of the
UGVI, or rely on UCVIs at discrete points, subject to the approval
of the Professional Team Leader.
Where turbidity varies significantly over time, the UGVI should be
scheduled to make use of the best conditions. For example the
diving may have to be delayed during heavy rains, if the latter
increases the amount of sediment in suspension in the water.
7.4.3
For individual piles, the UGVI shall cover the element from
Mean Low Water Springs to the seabed. Ideally it should cover
all sides of the pile, but where access is difficult, one side is
sufficient.
7.4.4
For sheet pile walls, the UGVI shall cover the exposed face
only, from Mean Low Water Springs down to the seabed or
estuary bed.
Particular attention should be paid to the areas at LAT and also

the bed level.
7.4.5
38
The UGVI shall identify the general condition and features on

every structure sufficiently closely to detect major and minor
defects or abnormalities. No removal of marine growth or
deposits is required.
Draft May 2002
DMG 29
7.5
UNDERWATER CLOSE VISUAL INSPECTION
7.5.1
The Underwater Close Visual Inspection (UCVI) shall entail

close inspection of specific areas.
7.5.2
All marine growth shall be removed at each point to expose

the protective coating if present or, if there is no protective
coating, the steel or rust products. The area shall be a minimum
of 150mm by 150mm.
It should be noted that marine growth provides some protection
to the steelwork, and therefore no more than is necessary for the
purposes of the inspection should be removed.
Care shall be taken to ensure that the removal of the marine
growth does not damage any protective coating, see clause
7.3.2.
7.5.3
Any rust products shall be inspected to establish whether it

is MIC or normal corrosion.
7.6
PHOTOGRAPHY
7.6.1
A comprehensive photographic record should normally be

taken for all Surveys, subject to MOD Regulations. Above water,
this shall include colour still photographs of major defects and
general photographs of the structure to give an overall
impression of the typical condition of the structure.
The photographs shall generally be taken in the same locations
and of the same areas at each survey, to give a regular record of
the condition of the structure.
7.6.2
All shots shall be recorded on suitable log sheets, with their

locations clearly identified.
7.6.3
For underwater work, stills photographs or video records

should be made, subject to available underwater visibility. For
visibility less than 1.0 1.5m, stills photos are not normally
useful. For underwater visibility less than 300mm video
recordings are also not practical. Low light subsea cameras can
focus to 100mm but the diver in the water cannot.
There should not be a reliance on still and video cameras to carry
out or assist inspection work of this nature. However if it is
possible to provide stills or video, all shots and footage must be
recorded on log sheets with their locations, to complement the
Ultrasonic Test and Cathodic Protection logs at the same location.
Draft May 2002
39
DMG 29
Section 8 Requirements for NonDestructive Testing
8.1
ULTRASONIC THICKNESS MEASUREMENTS
8.1.1
Residual steel thickness measurements shall be made as

specified using an ultrasonic thickness (UT) meter.
8.1.2
The diver held underwater UT meter shall be the multiple

echo single probe type with remote read out between 1-99mm
range to 0.1mm accuracy.
8.1.3
The UT meter shall be used in accordance with the

manufacturers recommendations and the following practical
procedures.
Procedure
8.1.4
The following procedure should be used. Where appropriate,

it may be adjusted slightly to suit site conditions.
(a) Calibration Pre-calibrate the meter with the blocks supplied
with the UT Meter. The UT meter shall be calibrated on
the surface before and after the main measurements with

10, 15, 20 or 25 mm calibration blocks. Record the results
in the correct place on the UT Log sheets (see sample in
Appendix).
(b) Readings - At the specified position, clean off the marine
growth using a wire brush and/or scraper and remove any
loose flaking steel. The cleaned area shall be a minimum of
150mm by 150mm. Squeeze some ultrasonic couplant (not
too much) on to the area (note: couplant is not required
underwater). Attempt to obtain a reading without any
grinding. This is preferable, but if it is not possible grinding
will be required, see 8.1.5 below. Take 4 no. readings at
each localised spot within a 50-60mm square. Write the four
readings in the UT Log Sheet. Check if there are any
spurious readings (i.e. any wildly out) and re-do again to end
up with 4 no. readings. Check the results against the
original steel thickness. Take the average of the four
readings to give the result.
(c)
40
Draft May 2002
Recording - Use appropriate UT Log sheets (see Appendix for

example) to record the results. Draw a sketch of the steel
sheet piling/ section to illustrate where the measurements
were taken. Measure up the overall dimensions of the
section to check that it is as recorded on the drawings.
Record the original steel thickness.
DMG 29
8.1.5
Usually the use of a Multiple Echo Measurement Technique

(such as a Cygnus 1 underwater UT meter) will negate the
requirement of grinding. However when using other systems, if
corrosion has caused pitting of the surface, it may not be
possible to obtain a UT reading. If this is the case grinding will be
required to obtain reading from the UT meter. Grinding should be
done very carefully and slowly in 0.5mm stages to minimise the
removal of structurally intact steel prior to a successful UT
reading being completed. Grinding is stopped either when the
bottom of any corrosion pit is reached and the probe can take a
reading or when the entire steel surface is visibly bright steel.
Above water an electric grinder can be used. Below water either
an air grinder or a hydraulically powered grinder will be required.
8.1.6
Assuming that the age of the structure is known, the

readings shall be converted to an estimated corrosion rate. Take
the original wall thickness (WT) minus the remaining WT and
divide it by the age of the structure to give the corrosion rate in
mm/year. This can be compared with typical values.
Where there are previous readings, the corrosion rate between
each reading shall also be calculated, to establish whether this is
consistent.
8.2
MARINE GROWTH MEASUREMENTS
8.2.1
The thickness, percentage cover and density of the soft and

hard marine growth (MG) shall be recorded on MG Log sheets
(see Appendix for an example). The equivalent marine growth
thickness shall be calculated from the equation
ET =[ (A * B) + 0.5 (C * D)]/100
where ET = equivalent marine growth thickness in mm
A = %cover of hard MG
B = thickness of hard MG in mm
C = % cover of soft MG
D = thickness of soft MG in mm
Ultrasonic Testing Meter being used on steel

beam to measure wall thickness
Photograph courtesy of Posford Haskoning
Marine growth measurements will act as a record for future
inspections determining the level of cleaning that may be
Draft May 2002
41
DMG 29
required and therefore, providing guidance for programming on

how labour intensive future surveys will be.
8.3
PROTECTIVE COATING THICKNESS MEASUREMENTS
8.3.1
Where the steel has a protective coating, the thickness of

this coating shall be measured as specified using a proprietary
measuring gauge.
Such instruments as the submersible Cygnus Instruments QuaNix
7500 can be used to measure coating thicknesses over ferrous
and non-ferrous substrates underwater. Measurement range
varies from 0.0 - 2000m.
8.3.2
42
The measuring gauge shall be used in accordance with the

manufacturers recommendations and the following procedures.
-
to obtain an accurate estimate of the thickness of the

coating, an average of five readings per inspection area
should be undertaken.
should a thickness profile be required, readings should be

taken from bed level to above the tidal zone, nominally at 1.0
metre intervals.
Draft May 2002
DMG 29
Section 9 Extent of Inspection and

NDT
9.1
REGULAR VISUAL SURVEYS
9.1.1
Regular Visual Surveys shall comprise a General Visual

Inspection of all exposed steel pile elements between cope level
and Mean Low Water Springs (MLWS).
9.1.2
Ideally it should also cover the area from LAT to MLWS. This
will depend on the state of the tides at the time of inspection,
but the inspections should be timed to provide the best possible
coverage.
9.1.3
A photographic record shall be taken where MoD regulations

permit. This shall comprise still colour photographs of major
defects and general photographs of the structure to give an
overall impression of the typical condition of the structure. See
Section 7.6.
9.2
STANDARD SURVEYS
9.2.1
The Standard Survey shall comprise the Regular Visual

Survey and the additional requirements as given below.
9.2.2
An Underwater General Visual Inspection shall be carried out

on all steelwork between sea bed level and the lowest level
inspected during the above water survey.
The underwater inspections do not necessarily have to take
place at the same time as the above water inspections.
9.2.3
Close Visual Inspections, including Underwater Close Visual

Inspections, shall be undertaken as follows:
Sheet Pile Walls
Horizontally at 10 m spacing
Vertically
Draft May 2002
at bed level
one location half way between bed level and
LAT
two locations 300-500 mm apart between LAT
and MLWS
one location at approximately mean tide
one location in the splash zone, above MHWS
at tie rod level where installed, if this is not
covered by one of the above.
43
DMG 29
At each location, the inspection shall cover the inpan, side

wall and outpan. At tie rod level, it shall also cover the tie
rod if exposed.
Where the tidal range is less than 1m or there is no tide, the
mean tide of the vertical readings may be omitted.
Bearing Piles
15% of all piles shall be inspected, with a minimum of at
least two per individual structure (dolphin, jetty etc)
The piles shall be inspected at the levels specified for sheet
pile walls (except that the tie rod level is not applicable), on
two sides at each location.
9.2.4
In addition, a Close Visual Inspection shall be carried out of

any areas that appear significantly more corroded than the
specified areas, along with those areas showing signs of MIC.
This may include underwater areas.
9.2.5
Where the structure is protected by a cathodic protection

system, the number of Underwater Close Visual Inspections may
be reduced, provided the Underwater General Visual Inspection
shows that the CP appears to be providing satisfactory
protection. The Professional Team Leader should consider this
during the Initial Engineering Review and during the survey, and
must approve any such reduction.
9.2.6
At all locations of Close Visual Inspections, the thickness of

the steel shall be measured using an ultrasonic thickness meter.
Where the steel is painted, the thickness of the paintwork shall
be measured.
9.2.7
At all locations of Close Visual Inspections, the thickness,

percentage cover and density of marine growth shall be recorded
(see Section 8.2).
9.2.8
A full photographic record shall be taken of the inspection,

see Section 7.6.
9.2.9
Where cathodic protection is provided, tests appropriate to

the system being used shall be carried out, see Section 10.
9.2.10
The Professional Team Leader should carry out a preliminary

appraisal of the results of the Standard Survey before the diving
team leaves site. The objective of this appraisal is to check that
the results appear reasonable and consider whether any
inspections should be repeated or further inspections are
required.
This preliminary appraisal should be carried out expeditiously so
as to avoid unnecessary delays to the diving team. Ideally it
should be carried out in discrete packages during the Survey,
and not just at the end. The thoroughness of the preliminary
appraisal shall take into account the costs of any delays to the
diving team with the cost of remobilising the diving team if
additional inspections are required.
If the preliminary appraisal concludes that substantially more
inspection work is required, it may be preferable to demobilise
the diving team, carry out a full appraisal and specify an
additional Detailed Survey, rather than trying to complete the
diving in one visit.
44
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DMG 29
9.3
DETAILED SURVEYS
9.3.1
Detailed Surveys are required where the Standard Survey

has revealed a cause for concern, and the Professional Team
Leader requires additional information. The extent of the Survey
will be specified by the Professional Team Leader to suit each
case.
A Detailed Survey may involve using a suitable method of
dewatering, such as a limpet dam, in order to improve the
quality of the inspection.
Draft May 2002
45
DMG 29
Section 10 Checks on Cathodic

Protection System
10.1 GENERAL
10.1.1
Cathodic protection provides effective corrosion control on steel

structures by creating a potential (voltage) gradient opposing the
flow of ions away from the surface and preventing the steel
forming anodes. It requires that the steel is immersed in a
suitable electrolyte, and therefore only protects the steel that is
below the water level. It provides full protection to the steel
below LAT, partial protection for steel between LAT and MHWS
and no protection above MHWS.
Cathodic protection(CP) has been found to be effective in
preventing MIC.
10.1.2
There are two basic types of cathodic protection. In an

impressed current system, an electric current is supplied by a
rectifier, or other direct current source, to a protected structure in
order to attain the necessary protection potential.
10.1.3
In a sacrificial anode system, an anode is used to protect a

structure by galvanic action. The anode will be a metal that has
a more negative potential than steel, and hence the sacrificial
anode will corrode instead of the steel. The anode has to be
immersed in the electrolyte, i.e. the water, and therefore will be
situated below LAT.
Specially formulated alloys of aluminium, zinc or magnesium are
used for the anodes. The anode will be consumed at a rate
dependent on various factors including the area of steel being
protected. The weight required is calculated based on the
consumption rate and the required design life of the anode. The
design life of the anode may be less than the design life of the
structure, where it is intended that the anode is replaced during
the life of the structure.
The driving voltage in the sacrificial anode system tends to be
lower than in the impressed current system.
10.1.4
Which cathodic protection system is used will depend upon

physical and financial factors, and in particular the ongoing
operational and maintenance requirements.
Sacrificial anode systems have the advantages of being simple
and robust. As individual anodes provide relatively low currents,
galvanic systems are easy to design in terms of the current
provision and distribution. Adjacent structures are less likely to
be affected by stray currents.
46
Draft May 2002
DMG 29
Sacrificial anode systems are more expensive to install, but

require little maintenance.
10.1.5
Impressed current systems are cheaper to install, and usually

have a lower whole life cost when compared to sacrificial anode
systems. They are intrinsically more complex, more vulnerable
to mechanical damage and require regular checks on the
electrical system. They require a reliable electrical power
supply, though their operating costs are relatively low.
10.1.6
In any cathodic protection system, it is essential that the current

provision to achieve the correct protection criteria under the full
range of environmental conditions is available at all locations
over the structure. It is not sufficient for the cathodic protection
system design to just provide the correct total current overall.
The position and even distribution of anodes is critical to avoid
uneven distribution, providing over protection to some areas and
insufficient in others. The designer must consider the potential
for salinity changes due to fresh water run off or estuarine
conditions over the full design life of the structure.
It is important to ensure that the potential is not too high,
causing over polarization. This can affect the adhesion of some
paints and there is an increasing risk of hydrogen embrittlement
of susceptible steels, with a consequential adverse effect on
fatigue life.
10.2 CHECKS ON IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEMS

10.2.1
An impressed current system will require regular monitoring.

Details of this should be set out in the maintenance manuals for
the system. This monitoring will be ongoing, and is not part of
the Surveys specified in this Guide. For information only, typical
requirements are given in sub clauses 10.2.2 to 10.2.4 below.
However, for the Standard Survey, where divers are being used,
additional checks should be carried out to take advantage of
their availability. These are described in sub clause 10.2.5 to
10.2.8.
10.2.2
The maintenance of the power supply equipment, such as

transformers and switchgear, will follow normal procedures and
should be set out in the Operating and Maintenance manual.
Particular attention should be paid to safety and earthing
measures and equipment in hazardous areas.
10.2.3
The current output of the transformer rectifier may need to be

adjusted from time to time to maintain a satisfactory level of
protection. In the first year of operation, it is usually possible to
decrease the current as polarization increases. Later it may be
necessary to increase the current to compensate for
deterioration and damage to any protective coating system.
10.2.4
The transformer- rectifier voltage and current output should be

measured regularly, along with structure/electrolyte potential
readings at a limited number of representative points. BS 7361
recommends:
Draft May 2002
at least monthly measurements for transformer-rectifier

voltage and current output;
47
DMG 29
structure/electrolyte potential readings monthly for the first

year, thereafter if stable conditions have been reached every
2 to 3 months, depending on local conditions.
Provision should be included for carrying out the

structure/electrolyte readings at the selected points from the
deck. Fixed reference electrodes are not generally used owing to
the difficulty of maintenance. Portable reference electrodes are
extremely difficult to position against the structure with any
consistency; in order to overcome this, perforated plastic location
tubes can be fixed on the structure at the required locations.
Systems are available to provide automatic measurements,
including remote monitoring.
Standard Survey Requirements

10.2.5
The regular monitoring will normally be done without divers.

During the Standard Survey, the presence of the divers should be
taken advantage of to provide additional checks.
10.2.6
A visual assessment shall be made of the condition of the cable

from the surface, the cable fixings, the anodes and the anode
fixings. Damage can occur to any one of those elements. If so,
then the system cannot operate as designed.
10.2.7
Structure electrolyte readings shall be taken at selected test

positions. These positions shall be selected to ensure that these
provided a comprehensive survey of the structure. In particular
both areas furthest from the anodes and those close to the
anodes shall be included. Procedures shall be in accordance with
BS 7361.
Measurements shall be taken in mV and logged with their
location on the CP log sheet (see Appendix).
10.2.8
Generally when the diver is in the water, the impressed current

system shall be switched off. Only the diving supervisor can
authorise the switching back on.
10.3 CHECKS ON SACRIFICIAL ANODE SYSTEMS

10.3.1
The sacrificial anode cathodic protection system should have a

maintenance manual, which sets out the monitoring required.
This monitoring will be ongoing, and is not part of the Surveys
specified in this Guide. For information only, typical
requirements are given in sub clauses10.3.2 and 10.3.3.
However certain checks that require divers could be carried out
as part of the Standard Survey. These are described in sub
clause 10.3.4 to 10.3.6.
10.3.2
Routine readings of structure/electrolyte potential at a limited

number of representative points should be made at suitable
intervals. BS 7361 suggests that 3 monthly intervals are usual.
Provision should be included for carrying out the
structure/electrolyte readings at the selected points from the
deck.
Where facilities are provided, the current output of each anode
should also be measured at 3 monthly intervals. However this is
48
Draft May 2002
DMG 29
only possible where link boxes or similar are provided, and is not
possible where the anodes are bolted or welded directly to the
structure.
10.3.3
In addition regular checks of anode wastage should be

undertaken. Depending on the details of the installation, it may
be possible to carry this out without divers; for example at very
low tides. Where this is not the case, the Standard Survey
should include these checks.
Standard Survey Requirements

10.3.4
A visual assessment shall be made of the condition of the anode

(or anode sled), and its fixings. Damage can occur to those
elements. If so, then the system cannot operate as designed.
Each anode shall be surveyed as follows:
-
10.3.5
locate and note position of anode

clean off anodes to solid material
measure length, width and depth of at least three anodes in
different places.
calculate their residual volume
estimate the percentage depletion or wastage from the
original shape.
calculate the average rate of loss of the anode per year
calculate the number of years of useful anode life remaining,
based on the loss of material since new and how long the
anode has been the .
record all the above on log sheets with sketches.
Structure electrolyte readings shall be taken at selected test

positions. These positions shall be selected to ensure that these
provided a comprehensive survey of the structure. In particular
both areas furthest from the anodes and those close to the
anodes shall be included. Procedures shall be in accordance with
BS 7361.
Measurements shall be taken in mV and logged with their
location on the CP log sheet (see Appendix).
10.3.6
There is no danger to the diver from the electrical currents in a

sacrificial anode system.
Draft May 2002
49
DMG 29
Section 11 Reporting
Requirements
11.1 GENERAL
11.1.1
It is important that accurate records of each survey are made

and kept. This will enable each survey to be compared to the
previous surveys to give a more accurate picture of the
deterioration of the asset due to corrosion over time. This
information will be very useful in deciding what action if any
should be taken and when.
11.1.2
Copies of all survey reports shall be retained locally by the MoD

Manager who is responsible for maintaining the asset until the
asset is decommissioned.
11.1.3
Where quantitative results on corrosion are obtained,

consideration should be given to pooling these results, in order to
provide a database to enhance the state of knowledge of
corrosion in maritime steel structures.
11.2 REGULAR VISUAL SURVEY

11.2.1
Only a brief report is required for the Regular Visual Survey. This
shall detail the following:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Structures inspected;
Dates and time of inspection, for each structure;
Water levels at time of inspections (ideally these should be
as recorded at the time of the inspection, but where
there is no tidal recording device predicted tidal levels
may be used);
Brief description of how inspection was carried out (e.g. by
boat);
Observations made: corrosion noted
whether MIC noted
condition of any protective coatings
any significant damage
If unexpected corrosion or MIC noted, what further action
was taken;
Name and signature of inspector
The photographs shall be appended to the report, with their

locations fully referenced.
A typical proforma is included in Appendix 1.
50
Draft May 2002
DMG 29
11.2.2
The results of the Regular Visual Survey should be reviewed by a

technically competent engineer, if the Inspector who carried out
the survey is not so qualified.
11.3 STANDARD SURVEY

11.3.1
A full report is required for Standard Surveys. It shall comprise

the following sections:
1)
2
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Summary
Introduction
Description of the Structures
Inspection
Findings
Discussion
Conclusions
Recommendations
Appendices
Each section is described below.

11.3.2
The Summary shall be a concise summary of the inspections

undertaken, the main findings, conclusions and
recommendations.
11.3.3
Section 1, the Introduction, shall give the background to the

inspection and shall include the following:
11.3.4
the Client for the works;

the firms undertaking the inspections;
the names of the Professional Team Leader and the
Inspectors;
the structures inspected;
the type of inspection;
the dates and times of the inspection;
any limitations and exclusions.
Section 2, the Description of the Structures, shall give a general

description of the structures inspected. This shall include:
a brief history of each structure, including when it was

constructed;
the structural concept, including the original design approach
to corrosion where known;
references to previous surveys.
General arrangement drawings shall be included in the

Appendices (see below). These shall be in sufficient detail so
that the structural concept of each element can be fully
understood and to ensure that the system used to locate the
measurement sites is clear.
For a sheet pile wall this would include a plan, a typical cross
section through the wall and an elevation on the wall. Assuming
a chainage system was used, this would be indicated. For
bearing piles, this would include an overall plan and a detailed
piling plan indicating the location of each pile, and its rake. The
latter would include either a unique number for each pile, or a
system of grid references depending on the reference system
used.
Draft May 2002
51
DMG 29
Where Reports on previous Standard Surveys are available, it

may be appropriate for this Section to refer to the previous
Survey Report.
11.3.5 Section 3, Inspection, shall give general information on the
Inspection, including:
11.3.6
methods of inspection and testing;

methods of identifying inspection locations and levels
equipment used;
tidal and weather details.
Section 4, Findings, shall describe the findings of the inspection.

The main text shall summarise the findings for each element of
the structure, with the detailed measurements and reports
included in the Appendices.
The location of all defects shall be clearly identified.
Colour photographs illustrating the condition of the structures
shall be included in the Appendices. These shall cover all
significant defects and all elements.
Sketches illustrating significant points shall be included in the
Appendices where appropriate.
11.3.7
Section 5, Discussion, shall discuss the significance of the

findings. The depth of the discussions will depend on the Scope
of Work agreed.
11.3.8
Section 6, Conclusion, shall give a brief overview of the report,

including the areas of concern.
11.3.9
Section 7, Recommendations, shall give recommendations for

future action. Where significant corrosion of concern is noted,
recommendations for further action shall be made.
Depending on the agreed Scope of Work, the recommendations
may only be for further work to identify suitable repairs.
Depending on the nature of the corrosion, the assessment of the
repairs can be time consuming. It is not therefore recommended
that the Inspection team should be required to propose repair
solutions as part of a fixed price contract for the inspection, as it
is difficult to quantify the effort required prior to the inspection.
11.3.10 The Appendices shall include the following:

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Drawings and sketches of the structures.

Colour photographs
Details of visual inspections
Details of marine growth surveys
Details of all ultrasound thickness measurements
Details of paint thickness measurements
Details of cathodic potential measurements
Further information may be added as required.
11.4 DETAILED SURVEY

11.4.1
52
Normally the results of Detailed Surveys should be included in

the Standard Survey Reports to which they relate. The
Draft May 2002
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Professional Team Leader should specify any specific

requirements.
Draft May 2002
53
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Section 12 Generic Review of

Possible Remedial Measures
12.1 GENERAL
12.1.1
This Section comprises a general discussion on possible remedial

measures and is intended to give the reader background
information. As such it can not cover every aspect that may be
relevant. In practice, every situation will be different and
specialist advice will be required in each and every case where
remedial measures are required.
12.1.2
Remedial action and repairs to existing structures are ongoing concerns and will
always be expensive. Difficult working conditions and operational requirements
will normally dictate the optimum solution, but the following factors will
also need to be considered:
12.1.3
the type of corrosion; (normal or MIC);

the required remaining life of the structure;
the type of structure;
the original design approach to corrosion;
ease of access;
cost;
operational restrictions.
It is important to establish the objective of the repairs, which will

be one or possibly both of the following:
A
B
To prevent further corrosion;

To replace lost steel.
For example, a steel element may have been designed as

unprotected but with additional sacrificial steel as a corrosion
allowance. If the inspection shows that the loss of steel has used
up the corrosion allowance but the facility is still required, then
the objective of the repairs could be A, to prevent further
corrosion, or B to replace the lost metal. In this case, one would
probably investigate both options before deciding which is most
appropriate.
If MIC or other severe forms of corrosion are present, then it is
recommended that measures are taken to prevent further
corrosion, unless the required remaining design life is relatively
short, say 5 years. It is not recommended that unprotected
sacrificial steel plates are adopted for the long term because of
the uncertainty of the design life and actual rate of corrosion
once MIC is present.
54
Draft May 2002
DMG 29
12.1.4
Any solution should be carefully assessed by a suitable corrosion

expert to ensure that it does not produce an extremely
aggressive corrosion cell. For example, this can occur with
combinations of additional steel and concrete infill.
12.2 MEASURES TO PREVENT FURTHER CORROSION

12.2.1
There are two principal options, protective coatings and cathodic

protection.
12.2.2
Protective coatings include the following:
12.2.3
painting;
concrete;
wrapping.
For painting, it is essential that the paint is suitable for marine

conditions and on site application. Several paint manufacturers
offer suitable products, with typical design lives up to a
maximum of 10 to 15 years.
The success of any painting system depends on good
workmanship, particularly the preparation of the metal prior to
applying the paint. These are difficult to achieve in the marine
environment, particularly at low water level (often the most
critical area), but the paints are designed to be tolerant of the
conditions.
Generally painting can only be applied from low water and
above, unless the water level can be lowered locally. Specialist
paint products are available for application underwater but they
are very expensive and their use has not always been
successful.
12.2.4
Concrete protective coatings can be used. These would usually

be reinforced with a steel mesh and be between 100 mm and
150 mm thick. Any reinforcement steel provided should have
adequate concrete cover.
Typically this would involve welding shear connectors to the
existing steel, fixing steel mesh, placing shutters and pouring
concrete into the shutter. There are proprietary systems
available for tubular piles that use permanent formwork.
The details of the protective coating should be checked to ensure
that an aggressive corrosion cell is not set up.
12.2.5
Wrapping can be used on tubular and other bearing piles. It is

not however appropriate for sheet pile walls. There are
proprietary systems available such as that developed by Denso,
which provide suitable protection. In the Denso system, the piles
are wrapped in a grease impregnated tape with a protective
abrasion resistant sheath.
12.2.6
Cathodic protection can be applied to existing structures.

Specialist advice on its design should be taken. Particular care
needs to be taken to ensure that stray currents do not affect
adjacent structures, which could result in excessive localised
corrosion in the adjacent structures.
12.3 MEASURES TO REPLACE LOST STEEL

Draft May 2002
55
DMG 29
12.3.1
The principal method of replacing lost steel is the welding of

additional steel plates to the structural elements. This directly
replaces the lost material.
12.3.2
Another option is to replace the lost metal with concrete (but see
Clause 12.1.4). This is similar to the concrete protection, except
that the concrete may have heavier reinforcement. This option
may be appropriate where:
12.3.3
it is difficult to weld additional plates

the concrete satisfies other criteria. For example it will
provide protection to the steel.
Where the corrosion is severe and extensive, more extensive

methods may be required, for example driving an additional
sheet pile wall in front of an existing wall, or sleeving tubular
piles.
12.4 DISCUSSION OF OPTIONS

Sheet Pile Walls
12.4.1
As discussed in Section 2.4, it may not be necessary to replace

steel lost from corrosion. This is because:
a)
b)
the design may have allowed for a certain amount of

corrosion;
the corrosion may occur where the steel is not highly
stressed.
It is however necessary to ensure that there are no holes in the

wall, which would allow material to be washed out from behind
the wall.
12.4.2
Repairs to sheet pile walls usually comprise the welding of

additional steel plates over the affected areas, to increase the
structural capacity and plug any holes.
12.4.3
If the objective is to halt further corrosion, then the sheet pile

wall will need to be protected. The most usual method is to
paint the piles from Low Water to the top, which if properly
specified and carried out should provide about 10 years
protection.
This will not however protect those parts of the wall below Low
Water. There may be spare structural capacity in this area
because of the lower rate of corrosion, and therefore further
corrosion may be acceptable below Low Water. In this case, it
may not be necessary to protect the latter, but if it is then a
cathodic protection system should be considered.
It should be noted that cathodic protection does not protect the
steel above the water level.
12.4.4
Where MIC is found, one of the following approaches is usually

appropriate:
1)
56
Draft May 2002
If the attack is limited or the required remaining design life

is short, say 5 to 10 years, then the affected areas could be
plated up only. This will require ongoing monitoring and
maintenance but overall may give the lowest whole life cost.
DMG 29
2)
Where the attack is severe and/or the structure is required

to be serviceable for the medium term, then after plating up,
a cathodic protection (CP) system could be installed,
possibly combined with a protective coating above Low
Water.
A properly designed and maintained cathodic protection is
considered the most reliable form of defence against MIC.
3)
A protective coating could be applied. For a paint system,

this will require that the water level is lowered locally, see
Section 12.5.
The actual repairs will need careful consideration by a suitably

qualified and experienced engineer.
Bearing Piles
12.4.5
The same considerations apply for bearing piles as for sheet pile
walls, except as noted below.
12.4.6
As discussed in Section 2.4, it may not be necessary to replace

steel lost from corrosion. This is because:
a)
b)
12.4.7
the design may have allowed for a certain amount of

corrosion;
the critical design consideration for a driven pile may be the
stresses during installation. Once installed a certain loss of
section may be acceptable.
As an alternative to painting, the piles can be protected by

wrapping.
12.5 CONSTRUCTION METHODS

12.5.1
Access to the steel is an important consideration in any remedial

works, particularly to those areas below water.
In some cases, e.g. dry docks and locks, it is possible to lower
the water level to allow access. Design checks should be carried
out to ensure that the structures have been designed to allow for
this.
12.5.2
One technique for sheet pile walls that has been developed is
the use of a limpet dam. This is a box open on one side and the
top. The open side is placed against the sheet pile wall, and a
seal is formed between the box and the wall. The water can
then be pumped out from inside the box, allowing access in the
dry to the local section of wall that would otherwise be
underwater.
12.5.3
Where limpet dams are not appropriate and underwater work is

necessary, then divers will need to be used.
Draft May 2002
57
DMG 29
Section 13- References
1. BS 6349-1:2000, Maritime structures Part 1: Code of practice for

general criteria
2. SI 1997 No. 2776 - The Diving at Work Regulations 1997.
3. HSC Approved Code of Practice Commercial Diving Projects
Inland/Inshore L104, 1998.
4. US Navy Diving Manual (Air Diving),1996, Best Publishing Co., USA
5. British Steel Piling Handbook, 1997.
6. CIRIA Report 158, Sea Outfalls Inspection and Diver Safety, 1996.
7. BS 7361:Pt1:1991, Cathodic Protection Part 1. Code of Practice for
Land and Marine Applications.
8. BS 5493:1977 Code of Practice for Protective Coating of Iron and Steel
Structures against Corrosion (obsolescent, partly replaced by next
reference).
9. BS EN ISO 12944-2:1998, Paints and varnishes Corrosion protection
of steel structures by protective paint systems
10. PIANC Inspection, Maintenance and Repair of Maritime Structures
exposed to Material Degradation caused by Salt Water Environment,
Supplement to Bulletin No. 71 (1990).
11. The Association of Diving Contractors, The Inshore Diving Supervisors
Manual, 2000.
12. The Association of Diving Contractors, Code of Practice for the Safe
Use of Electricity Underwater, AODC035, Sept. 1985.
13. Svensk Standard, SS 055900:3rd edition:1988, (ISO 850-1:1988),
Preparation of Steel Substrates before Application of Paints and
Related Products.
14. Professional Divers Handbook, Submex, London, 1984.
15. The Institution of Structural Engineers, Guide to Inspection of
Underwater Structures, October 2001.
58
Draft May 2002
DMG 29
Appendix Sample Inspection

Reports
Draft May 2002
59

Guide to Inspecting Corrosion of Steel Piled Maritime Structures

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Guide to Inspecting Corrosion of Steel Piled Maritime Structures

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Design and Maintenance Guide 29

Corrosion inspection of steel

Draft May 2002

Draft May 2002

Draft May 2002

Section 3 Overall Approach

Section 4 Competence of Inspection Personnel

Draft May 2002

Section 5 Diving Operations

Draft May 2002

Section 6 Frequency of Surveys

Regular Visual Surveys

Section 7 Methods of Visual Inspection

Section 8 Requirements for Non Destructive Testing

Ultrasonic Thickness Measurements

Section 9 Extent of Inspection and NDT

Regular Visual Surveys

Section 10 Checks on Cathodic Protection System

Section 11 Reporting Requirements

Section 12 Generic Review of Possible Remedial Measures

Appendix Sample Inspection Forms

Draft May 2002

Steel in maritime structures is in a particularly hostile

This Specification is intended to:

provide a guide to the corrosion of steel maritime structures

This Specification applies only to steel components of maritime

ES.2 CORROSION OF STEEL MARITIME STRUCTURES

Corrosion of steel in maritime structures can be divided into two

Normal corrosion refers to the normal rusting of steel as the

Bio-corrosion is a similar process to normal corrosion except that

MIC causes only localised corrosion, but the rate of corrosion is

MIC usually occurs in a zone approximately 1m high, centred

Draft May 2002

MIC in maritime structures has been known about since the

Why and where MIC occurs is not fully understood, so it is not

MIC is caused by two different bacteria. It is recognised as

ES.3 OVERALL APPROACH

Three levels of inspection survey are specified. These are:

Regular Visual Survey.

For the Standard and Detailed Surveys, a suitably qualified

For the Standard Survey, ideally an Initial Engineering Review

Draft May 2002

For the Initial Engineering Review, the following information on

as built drawings of the structure;

The Initial Engineering Review should assess the available

The Initial Engineering Review should be fully documented so

ES.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR SURVEY

This Guide includes specific guidance on the following:

competence of inspection personnel;

Table ES1 summarises the requirements for the surveys.

Section 12 provides a generic review of possible remedial

Table ES1: Summary of Recommended Inspection Procedures

Draft May 2002

General visual inspection,

Underwater general visual

Close visual inspection,

Underwater close visual

Cathodic protection survey

Draft May 2002

Steel in maritime structures is in a particularly hostile

This Guide is intended to:

provide a guide to the corrosion of steel maritime structures

The inspection programme has to be a balance between the