SHEILA MARIE M.

AMIGO

July 9, 2016

Chem 500 General Chemistry

1. Discuss how the science of chemistry started.

The discovery of alloys had led to the Bronze Age, an age when weapons and armors became
much superior in quality, because the blacksmiths had started to understand the concept of
metallurgy by that time, especially in Egypt. History of chemistry dates back to the first time that
man created fire but officially, the theory of atomism was a chemical idea that was documented
for the first time in the book De Rerum Natura by Lucretius, but it originally came from Democritus
and Leucippus, the Greek philosophers. Kanada, the Indian philosopher also gave the same idea
through his sutras.
Alchemy was the predecessor of chemistry and it gave rise to the concept of the Philosophers
Stone, which could turn any metal into gold and also the Elixir of Life, capable of curing all
diseases. None of the two was ever found, but people believed in them until as late as the 14th
century, when at last, the theories of alchemy started being discarded. The Arabic Muslims played
a big role, especially J?bir ibn Hayy?n, heralded as the ancient Father of Chemistry. This chemist
in the 9th century approached chemistry in a scientific way inside a laboratory. The man was
responsible for the invention of countless drugs and also the alembic. He also composed lapidaries
and differentiated acid from alkali among many other feats. Other famous Arabic chemists of the
time include Jafar al-Sadiq, Ab? al-Rayh?n al-B?r?n?, Avicenna, al-Tusi and Rhazes to name a
few.
Past the impeding European Middle Ages, chemists like Paracelsus put in an effort towards honest
and scientific approach to alchemy, which came to be known as iatrochemistry. Although he
rightly rejected the philosophical four element theory, he failed to achieve any real feats. De re
metallica by Georg Agricola in 1556 was the book that laid the foundations for future chemists to
learn and improve upon. Another book in 1605, written by Sir Francis Bacon, called The
Proficience and Advancement of Learning helped the chemists to understand what a scientific
approach is exactly. The first chemical equation in a book was found in Tyrocinium Chymicum by
Jean Beguin, written in 1615, which was also the first chemistry text book ever. Following the
discovery of the Boyles law and the book The Skeptical Chymist by Robert Boyle, came the
true Father of Modern Chemistry, Antoine Lavoisier. In 1783, He rejected the phlogiston theory of
combustion and in 1789; Lavoisier discovered the law of conservation of mass. In the same
century, the Russian chemist Mikhail Lomonosov rejected the same and suggested the kinetic
theory of gases. An accidental discovery by Friedrich Whler in 1828 showed chemists ways that
allowed them to synthesize organic compounds. The construction of the periodic table is credited
to Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer in 1870, which predicted the existence of yet undiscovered
elements like gallium and scandium. With the ion theory, Arrhenius successfully used the atomic
concepts in chemistry in the 20th century. Michael Faraday, famous for his principle of dynamo,
was a major contributor in electrochemistry. 1912 marked the discovery of the atomic structure by
Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr but it was Marie and Pierre Curies discovery of radioactivity that
changed the entire viewpoint of chemistry altogether and forever.
( http://www.adorablescience.com/history-of-chemistry/)
2. Why is the study of chemistry important to human lives?
Everything is made of chemicals. Many of the changes we observe in the world around we see
that caused by chemical reactions. Chemistry is very important because it helps us to know the
composition, structure and changes of matter. All the matters are made up of chemistry. In our
every day like various chemical are being used in various from, some of those are being used
as food, some of those used clanging etc.

Element in the Human Body

Body is made up of chemical compounds, which are combinations of elements. Probably know
body is mostly water, which is hydrogen and oxygen.
Health Care and Beauty:
The diagnostic tests carried out in laboratories, the prognostic estimations, medical
prescriptions, pills, the vaccines, the antibiotics play very vital role in health monitoring, control
of diseases and in alleviating the sufferings of the humanity. Right from birth control to
enhancement of life expectancy- all have been made possible using the unequivocal services of
Chemistry. From simple sterilization surgical instruments with antiseptic solution to
Chemotherapy and Genome sequencing are all nothing but applications of Chemistry. Injecting
cows, buffaloes, goat and sheep with bovine some towrope Increases milk-production but it is
indiscriminately being used by sportspersons to un-ethically enhance performance. Aging- a
chemical change can only be checked chemically. Most beauty products are produced through
chemical synthesis to clean, nurture and protect skins. However their certain ingredients are
hazardous to our health in the long run.
Industries and Transport:
From cloth mills, lather factories, petro-chemical industries and refineries to metal industries- all
use numerous fuels for power generation and chemical products for processing their product
and improve the equality and simultaneously produce pollution. Now-a-days chemical effluent
treatment plants use chemicals to control or neutralist he hazardous impact of pollutants
produced by the industries. Aviation and shipping industries generate power through power
plants which burn fuels. Petrol and diesel emit out green house gases dangerous for the survival
on earth which damage the ozone layer that protects us from UV rays. As a result global
warming has taken place which is a destroyer of the planet earth. But again Chemistry paves
the way with bio-fuels.
Food Security and Agriculture:
The famous green revolution to increase agricultural produce so as to ensure food security was
triggered by the advent of inorganic fertilizers. Since then fertilizers are extensively used by
farmers to restore the fertility of soil in the fields. Pesticides are used to protect the crop during
farming and preserve the grains from pests, rats and mice during storage. Genetically modified
seeds which are used to enhance production and earn profits through export of food grains are
agricultural applications of Bio-chemistry. Whereas refrigeration system for cold storage of
vegetables and raw meat uses Poly Urethanes Foam (PUF) and the chemical properties of
gases, the preservatives in packaged food products are known to have adverse impact on our
body.
Science and Technology:
The destructive effects of Atom Bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki? Generations in
Japan have suffered the devastation and there has-been no solace. The threat of weapons of
mass-destruction (WMDs) like the Nuclear, Chemical and Biological weapons looms large on
the Humanity. Terrorists are using RDX and other explosives to run currents of fear down the
spines across the globe. Nuclear reactors which are going to serve the future generations
through power generation leave us with the problem of Nuclear Waste Management. Whereas
the destructive power is generated through chains of chemical reactions, we remain assured
that Chemistry has facilitated the chain of counter measures too in the form of safety suites and
NBC resistant bunkers. Forensic science- the comprehensive scientific analysis of material
evidence in the context of the law uses principles of chemistry to facilitate crime investigation.
Tele-communications, Information Technology and Space Missions- all bank on the chemistry of
semi-conductor sand nano-tubes.
Cooking
Chemistry explains how food changes as we cook it, how it rots, how to preserve food, how our
body uses the food eats, and how ingredients interact to make food.
Cleaning
Part of the importance of chemistry is it explains how cleaning works. we use chemistry to help
decide what cleaner is best for dishes, laundry, yourself, and your home. we use chemistry

when use bleaches and disinfectants and even ordinary soap and water. How do they work?
That's chemistry!
Medicine
it is very need to understand basic chemistry so that we can understand how vitamins,
supplements, and drugs can help or harm us. Part of the importances of chemistry lies in
developing and testing new medical treatments and medicines.
Environmental Issues
Chemistry is at the heart of environmental issues. What makes one chemical a nutrient and
another chemical a pollutant? How we can clean up the environment? What processes can
produce the things our need without harming the environment? We're all chemists. We use
chemicals every day and perform chemical reactions without thinking much about them.
Chemistry is important because everything you do is chemistry! Even our body is made of
chemicals. Chemical reactions occur when we breathe, eat, or just sit there reading. All matter is
made of chemicals, so the importance of chemistry is that it's the study of everything.
(http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistry101/f/importanceofchemistry.htm)
3. Enumerate at least five products you buy everyday and their use to you. How would you
feel without using them?
a. Soap The most essential hygiene tool we are using everyday. Without using soap you can
feel uneasy, unclean and rough and dry skin.
b. Shampoo Hygienic and provides good smell on my hair. If I cant use a shampoo, my hair
feels frizzy and warm.
c. Toothpaste This keeps my teeth clean, healthy and bacteria free. Without toothpaste,
definitely it will be very unbearable.
d. Deodorant It removes or conceals unpleasant smells, especially bodily odors. I might feel
and smell stinky if I cant use deodorant in a day.
e. Lotion This hydrates my skin and makes it feel soft and smooth. Without applying lotion, my
skin is definitely dry and flaky.
4. What is scientific method? What are the processes or steps involved in scientific
method? Explain each step.
The Scientific Method is a logical and rational order of steps by which scientists come to
conclusions about the world around them. The Scientific Method helps to organize thoughts and
procedures so that scientists can be confident in the answers they find. Scientists use
observations, hypotheses, and deductions to make these conclusions, just like you will use the
Scientific Method in your science fair project. You will think through the various possibilities
using the Scientific Method to eventually come to an answer to your original question.
The observation is done first so that you know how you want to go about your research. The
hypothesis is the answer you think you'll find. The prediction is your specific belief about the
scientific idea: If my hypothesis is true, then I predict we will discover..... The experiment is the
tool that you invent to answer the question, and the conclusion is the answer that the
experiment gives.
OBSERVATION
This step could also be called "research." It is the first stage in understanding the problem you
have chosen. After you decide on your area of science and the specific question you want to
ask, you will need to research everything that you can find about the problem. You can collect
information on your science fair topic from your own experiences, books, the internet, or even
smaller "unofficial" experiments. This initial research should play a big part in the science fair
idea that you finally choose.
Let's take the example of the tomatoes in the garden. You like to garden, and notice that some
tomatoes are bigger than others and wonder why. Because of this personal experience and an
interest in the problem, you decide to learn more about what makes plants grow.
For this stage of the Scientific Method, it's important to use as many sources as you can find.
The more information you have on your science fair project topic, the better the design of your

experiment is going to be, and the better your science fair project is going to be overall. Also try
to get information from your teachers or librarians, or professionals who know something about
your science fair topic. They can help to guide you to a solid experimental setup.
HYPOTHESIS
The next stage of the Scientific Method is known as the "hypothesis." This word basically means
"a possible solution to a problem, based on knowledge and research." The hypothesis is a
simple statement that defines what you think the outcome of your experiment will be.
All of the first stage of the Scientific Method -- the observation, or research stage -- is designed
to help you express a problem in a single question ("Does the amount of sunlight in a garden
affect tomato size?") and propose an answer to the question based on what you know. The
experiment that you will design is done to test the hypothesis.
PREDICTION
The hypothesis is your general statement of how you think the scientific phenomenon in
question works. Your prediction lets you get specific -- how will you demonstrate that your
hypothesis is true? The experiment that you will design is done to test the prediction.
An important thing to remember during this stage of the scientific method is that once you
develop a hypothesis and a prediction, you shouldn't change it, even if the results of your
experiment show that you were wrong.
An incorrect prediction does NOT mean that you "failed." It just means that the experiment
brought some new facts to light that maybe you hadn't thought about before. The judges at your
science fair will not take points off simply because your results don't match up with your
hypothesis.
EXPERIMENT
This is the part of the scientific method that tests your hypothesis. An experiment is a tool that
you design to find out if your ideas about your topic are right or wrong.
It is absolutely necessary to design a science fair experiment that will accurately test your
hypothesis. The experiment is the most important part of the scientific method. It's the logical
process that lets scientists learn about the world.
CONCLUSION
The final step in the scientific method is the conclusion. This is a summary of the experiment's
results, and how those results match up to your hypothesis.
You have two options for your conclusions: based on your results, either
(1) you CAN REJECT the hypothesis, or
(2) you CAN NOT REJECT the hypothesis.
This is an important point. You can not PROVE the hypothesis with a single experiment,
because there is a chance that you made an error somewhere along the way. What you can say
is that your results SUPPORT the original hypothesis.
If your original hypothesis didn't match up with the final results of your experiment, don't change
the hypothesis. Instead, try to explain what might have been wrong with your original
hypothesis. What information did you not have originally that caused you to be wrong in your
prediction? What are the reasons that the hypothesis and experimental results didn't match up?
Remember, a science fair experiment isn't a failure if it proves your hypothesis wrong or if your
prediction isn't accurate. No one will take points off for that. A science fair experiment is only a
failure if its design is flawed. A flawed experiment is one that (1) doesn't keep its variables under
control, and (2) doesn't sufficiently answer the question that you asked of it.
(http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/scientific_method.html)

5. Differentiate theory, hypothesis, and law.

Hypothesis: A proposed explanation for a phenomenon made as a starting point for further
investigation.
Theory: A well-substantiated explanation acquired through the scientific method and repeatedly
tested and confirmed through observation and experimentation.
Law: A statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes some phenomenon
of nature. Proof that something happens and how it happens, but not why it happens.
(http://lifehacker.com/the-difference-between-a-fact-hypothesis-theory-and-1732904200)
6. What are the six states of matter? Describe their properties.
a. Solids - Matter that is composed of atoms packed tightly together are known as solids. You
cannot walk through a solid wall. The matter is packed so tight that it prevents you from
moving through it. Solids hold their shape at room temperature. The pencil that you left in the
desk at school will still be the same shape when you return tomorrow.
Even in solids there is a small space between the atoms. Depending on how tight the atoms
are packed determines the density of matter. This means that a one inch block of wood is not
as dense as a one inch block of gold. There is more space between the atoms of the wood
than the atoms of the gold.
b. Liquids - Liquids do not hold their shape at room temperature. There is space between the
atoms of a liquid and they move slightly all of the time. This allows you to stick your finger into
water and pull it back out, letting the water fill back in where your finger once was. But when
walking through the water in the swimming pool, you have to push the water out of the way
this means that you feel the heaviness of the water. Liquids flow or pour and can take on the
shape of a container. If the liquid is poured into a wider or narrower container, the liquid will
take on that new shape. Liquids are affected by gravity. If you pour only half a cup of milk, the
top half of the container would have no milk. Liquids cannot be handed to another person well
without the container. Imagine going into a restaurant and asking for lemonade. What if the
waiter just put the lemonade into your hands no glass or cup? Could you lay the lemonade on
the table to drink in a few minutes? Even water in a river or a lake has a container the banks,
the bottom, the shore they form the container.
c. Gases - Gases not only do not hold their shape at room temperature, they don't even stay put.
Gases are always moving. There is so much space between the atoms in gas that you can
move around in them easily. When you walk from one side of the room to the other, you have
walked through a bunch of gases that make up our air. You barely even know they are there.
Gases will take on the shape of their container and can be compressed into a smaller space.
Like when we compress air into a balloon it fills out the balloon shape. Gases will fill up the
space too. You don't see only half of the balloon filled with air the air is not as influenced by
gravity as a liquid or a solid would be. (http://idahoptv.org/sciencetrek/topics/matter/facts.cfm)
d. Plasma - Plasma is ionized gas. It is gas that is superheated to the point some of its electrons
break away from their nuclei and join other nuclei. The gas molecules are in an unstable state
and therefore behave in a haphazard and unpredictable manner. Stars are made of plasma
Fire is plasma. It is powerful, dangerous and attractive at the same time.
e. Beam - The difference between beam and the other four states is that the particles of solid,
liquid, gas and plasma all move randomly in all directions whereas the particles of beam move
harmoniously in one direction.
Beam is harmonious and coherent whereas plasma is chaotic and erratic. The vast difference
of temperament between the forth and fifth state of matter very well corresponds to the idea
that there is greatest amount of chaos right before order, or there is greatest amount of
confusion right before clarity appears. There is great war before there is great peace.
Beam also differs from the other four states in terms of being non-thermal while the rest are
thermal. The more energetic the vibrations of particles are, the more heat they would generate.

But because the particles of beam are traveling in the same direction, they do not collide
against each other to generate heat.
Friction is the cause of heat. Friction is the result of particles colliding with each other and
increasing their vibration or kinetic energy. Beam creates heat not in itself but when its
particles clash against other matter. You feel the heat of light when its photons clash against
the molecules of your skin. The greater the intensity of the beam and the more concentrated it
is, the more friction it will generate when it interacts with other matter. You get incinerated
when you get close enough to the sun.
Heat is vibration generated by friction of one state of matter with another or with itself. Sound is
vibration propagating through matter.
f. BEC or Bose-Einstein Condensate Known as the zero state of matter. It is the most
condensed condensate of all matter.
This state of matter was discovered by the scientist called Bose. He shared his findings with
Einstein who helped him to publish his work to the world. Their joint venture resulted in the
newly discovered state of matter being known as the Bose-Einstein Condensate.
A BEC exists when matter is frozen to extremely low temperatures that are a tiny fraction of a
degree above absolute zero.
In this state, the atoms overlap into each other to form a wave. The BEC is a matter wave. If
the wave was compressed, it would form a singularity. If enough mass was condensed into the
singularity it could turn into a black hole.
It is believed that the zero state of matter could lead to the development of flat space
technology. In future, it might be possible to transport huge objects in very tiny spaces as long
as they are not compressed beyond the critical mass which would result in a black hole.
The occurrence of a black hole while making BEC would not need to be too much of a concern
anyway because it would require a tremendous amount of energy to compress mass into the
critical point.
The zero state of matter, like the fifth state of matter, is also non-thermal. It does not emit heat
as well since its particles are not in motion at all thereby not causing friction.
Some elements of each state of matter are able to exist at room temperature. There are room
temperature plasmas and matter waves (dark matter).
(http://www.mindreality.com/seven-states-of-matter-everything-is-mind)