Teaching Students with Developmental Disabilities through Music:

An Annotated Bibliography
Brianna Shepardson
Bibliography and Research
August 3rd, 2015

Table of Contents
Introduction

Relevant Sources Related to Advocating

for the Use of Music and Music Therapy
in Primary School Special Education Programs

Relevant Sources Related to Working

with Paraprofessionals

Relevant Sources Related to Lesson

Plans and Assessments for Students with
Developmental Disabilities in a Group
Setting

14

In 1975, Musicians, scientists, and psychologists have recently begun researching the
effects of music on the brain. It is clear that music can be a tool used to help the elderly, persons
with intellectual, physical, and developmental disabilities, and those who suffer from emotional
instability, among others. Music can be used to encourage physical movement, inspire
communication, and ease emotional turmoil. With the proper techniques, music teachers can
hone the deeply personal nature of music into a powerful tool for growth.
This bibliography focuses on the effect of music on students in primary schools with
moderate to severe intellectual, physical and developmental disabilities. I initially thought it
would be about promoting music therapy in all aspects of education, but soon realized I would
need to narrow my topic to specifically using music to teach students with developmental
disabilities to be as thorough as possible in my research.
The challenge in this search lies in the rapid change in social and scientific progress.
Often, I found book titles using words or labels that are now socially unacceptable. Research in
older books needed to be triple checked, to ensure the theories havent been disproven. For this
reason, with two exceptions, I limited my search to resources from the 1990s or later. The
exceptions, published in 1985 and 1988, both offer extensive, detailed lesson plans still relevant
in todays music classroom. The direct usefulness of these sources warranted their inclusion in
this search.
The bibliography is sectioned into three parts. The first section uses sources that focus on
how to advocate for music therapy practices in schools. Included in this section are definitions of
what music therapy is, and tools for advocating for music therapy in the schools. Next, the reader
will find research dedicated to effectively working with paraprofessionals and teacher assistants
in the classroom. This includes strategies for teachers as well as assistants. The final section

provides lesson plans and assessments for teachers to use with students with developmental
disabilities. These assessments and lesson plans can be combined with other specialized teachers,
used in an inclusion setting, or, ideally, in a group therapy class.

Relevant Sources Related to Defining Music Therapy and Advocating for Its Use in SchoolSponsored Special Education Programs

Aigen, K. (1995). An aesthetic foundation of clinical theory: An underlying basis of creative

music therapy. In C. B. Kenny (Ed.), Listening, playing, creating: Essays on the power of
sound (pp. 233- 257). Albany, NY: State University of New York.
One of the most important aspects of music is sometimes the most dismissed. The
asthetic quality of music-making makes it a universal, human experience. Aigen explores the
relationship between the aesthetic properties of music and music therapy. Everyone can
experience the sensation of beautiful or ugly sounds and these sounds evoke emotions in all
human beings. Aigen argues that this aesthetic experience is what makes music therapy effective
for clients and students of all ages and abilities. He encourages the music teacher to embrace and
expand on the natural aesthetic experience created through music.
American Music Therapy Association. (2015). American Music Therapy Association. Retrieved
from http://www.musictherapy.org
The American Music Therapy Association, or AMTA, is the go-to source for music
therapists and educators. The website is most useful with a paid membership with AMTA, which
includes access to extra resources, research, and podcasts. However, the public website provides
a great deal of useful resources including advocacy material, activity ideas, and music therapy
success stories. The main focus of AMTAs public site is to advocate for the use of music therapy
in various venues. The organization provides a clear definition of music therapy and reasons for
why it should be implemented in both classroom and one-on-one environments. The personal
stories described on the website deliver a strong case for the positive effects of music in special
education.

Boxill, E. H. (1985). Music therapy for the developmentally disabled. Austin, TX: Pro-ed.
Boxill presents a comprehensive look at music therapy practices for children with
developmental disabilities. She begins by defining music therapy and leads into eight chapters
discussing assessment, treatment, activities, and how to develop a music therapy program. This
source is useful in its comprehensive approach. The author provides detailed activities and
assessment ideas that are accessible to the general music teacher. Published in 1985, it is
somewhat outdated and may not include current information. The language used to define
disabilities is also outdated. Although it is outside the preferred date range, I included this source
because the detailed assessments and lessons make it an excellent beginning source for music
therapists and general music teachers.

Bruscia, K. E. (1998). Defining music therapy (2nd Ed.). Gilsum, NH: Barcelona.
The definition of music therapy is constantly evolving. Authors, psychologists, doctors,
and musicians all define it differently. As an older source, this book gives a glimpse into the
earlier definitions of music therapy. However, it is still relevant for therapy advocates because of
the extent to which Bruscia defines music therapy. His book includes twenty-seven chapters, all
of which describe a different disability or condition that can be relieved through music. When
promoting music in a special education setting, this book provides scientifically backed evidence
of its benefits.

Darrow, A.-A. (2014). Applying common core standards to students with disabilities in music.
General Music Today, 27(3), 33-35. doi: 10.1177/1048371313519645
Darrow provides a helpful resource for advocating for the use of music therapy in
schools. The author explores the connection between common core standards and teaching
disabilities in the music classroom. Music can be used as a tool to encourage students and to
reinforce content learned in the general classroom. Darrow suggests teaching songs that explore
numbers, math, and history. For some students who struggle in the regular classroom, learning
these common core standards through music may prove to be more effective. Darrow also offers
resources for teachers to use to teach to common core in the music classroom. Though small in
length, this resource has the potential to be powerful. Darrows theory legitimizes music
education and music therapy to educators, administrators, and parents who may not see its value.

Darrow, A.-A. (2014) Promoting social and emotional growth of student with disabilities.
General Music Today, 28(1), 29-32. doi:10.1177/1048371314541955
A primary component of music education, especially in special education, is the ability to
engage social skills. Darrow maintains that students with disabilities often lack the social skills
needed to be successful in their adult lives. An extensive music education provides the
opportunities for these skills to flourish. Through choosing their own instruments and favorite
songs to perform, students develop assertiveness. Social skills are honed during interactions
before and after class and through group activities, and self-esteem is established through songwriting and positive interaction with peers during class. By developing these important life skills,
music fosters continued learning and success through adulthood.

Heldingsfelder, L. (2014). The slogan of the century: Music for every child; every child for
music. Music Educators Journal, 100(4), 47-51. doi:10.1177/0027432114528716
Heldingsfelder, a general music teacher and private lesson instructor, explores the phrase,
music for every child; every child for music. This phrase has been tossed around for years and
is used as an advocacy tool to ensure that all students receive a legitimate music education. The
author discusses the importance of music not only in schools that can afford it, but especially for
students in lower socio-economic classes. He also emphasizes the importance of music education
for students with special needs. Often, these students are left out of music instruction for
convenience, but Heldingsfelder insists it is essential that these students receive a meaningful
music experience, which may be achieved through the general music classroom or music therapy
practices.

Jellison, J. A. & Draper, E. A. (2015). Music research in inclusive school settings: 1973-2013.
Journal of Research in Music Education 64(4), 325-331.
doi:10.1177/0022429414554808
A study conducted found music inclusion to be the most effective means of inclusion for
students with special needs at the elementary level. Researchers observed the success of students
based on participation, questions answered correctly, and the ability to be self-sufficient. The
study showed students were more likely to participate with little help from an adult during the
music classes. Most students with disabilities were engaged and demonstrated an understanding
of musical concepts. The authors suggest more research in inclusive music settings should
include recommendations for how to successfully integrate students with disabilities into the
general music classroom.

Krikeli, V., Michailidis, A., & Klavdianou, N.-D. (2010). Communication improvement through
music: The case of children with developmental disabilities. Retrieved from ERIC
database. (EJ890560)
A study based on heart rate and anxiety levels of students with severe disabilities was
conducted during various music therapy activities and while watching television. The study
showed a significant decrease in anxiety during music therapy, but no substantial change while
watching television. The heart rate test also indicated a calming effect of music therapy, which
may ultimately produce the ability to communicate more effectively. The findings support a need
for music therapy sessions in special education.

Patterson, Allyson. (2003). Music teachers and music therapists: Helping children together.
Music Educators Journal 89(4), 35-38. doi:10.2307/3399902
Patterson, a former elementary school music teacher, develops a promising request for
music therapy in schools. She purposefully distinguishes between music education and music
therapy and urges the reader to make this distinction clear to his or her supervisor. The music
educators role is to teach music concepts, while the therapist focuses on developing crucial life
skills through music. This is a great resource for new teachers who feel unprepared to work with
students with special needs in their school.

Pavlicevic, M. (1997). Music therapy in context: Music, meaning and relationship. London,
United Kingdom: Jessica Kingsley.
Unlike many of the other sources in this section, this book is written by a trained
musician, as opposed to a doctor or psychologist. Because of this difference, the author focuses
more on the internal, emotional effects of music and music therapy. Pavlicevic explores the
impact of clinical improvisation on students with special needs. Part one addresses the mostfrequently used words in music therapy and their positive and negative impacts on the practice.
Part two considers the impact music has on human emotion and the ability to develop
relationships, and part three again focuses on the importance of choosing words wisely in order
to clarify the purpose of music therapy. The author encourages the reader to think about why they
are interested in this work, and how they can use that passion to create meaningful experiences
for young people.

Pavlicevic, M. (1999). Music therapy: Intimate notes. London, United Kingdom: Jessica
Kingsley.
This is a wonderful personal account of music therapists in action. Each chapter tells the
story of a different music therapy student and the impact their music therapists work had on
them. The first half of the book is most relevant to this topic as it focuses on children. The stories
range from children who came in with severe disabilities to those with behavioral disorders.
Most of the stories begin in frustration, but end with incredibly positive results. The stories are
personal and beautifully told. Amidst the scientific studies and research, this source offers a fresh
outlook on the intimacy and passion behind music therapy in schools.

Rainey Perry, M. M. (2003). Relating improvisational music therapy with severely and multiply
disabled children to communication development. Journal of Music Therapy, 40(3), 227246. doi:10.1093/jmt/40.3.227
Perry explores the relationship between musical call and response activities and
communication in students who have severe disabilities. Many of the students in this study suffer
from cerebral palsy and have limited, if any, means of interaction. They are assessed on their
ability to communicate through music while the therapist plays background music or during
imitation activities. Each client showed a different response to the therapist, but all showed
improvement in their communication. This source helps define the role of musical therapy in
improving communication. The clear and organized research is derived from authentic
interaction with these children. This source also proves the legitimacy of using music therapy
with students with severe disabilities.

Schneck, D. J., & Berger, D. S. (2006). The music effect: Music physiology and clinical
applications. London, United Kingdom: Jessica Kingsley.
This book focuses primarily on the science behind music therapy. The authors educate the
reader about the physical effects of music on the human body and brain. Schneck and Berger
explore rhythm, pitch, melody, harmony, and timbre, and how each of these elements can have a
significant impact on the brain. The importance of this source lies in the solid scientific base of
the included information. However, published in 2006, some information may not be up to date.
It is a wonderful resource for understanding the importance and legitimacy of music therapy in
schools.

Sze, S. & Yu, S. (2004). Educational benefits of music in an inclusive classroom. Retrieved from
ERIC database. (ED490348)
Sze and Yu deliver valuable research for the music educator or administrator promoting
music therapy practices in the schools. The authors provide suggestions for effective use of
music with students with special needs. Musical instruments may help promote physical
movement and increased communication and are a powerful tool for stimulating a students
intrinsic motivation. In this study, music is proven to be an effective means of communication for
students with disabilities.

Taylor, D. B. (1997). Biomedical foundations of music as therapy. Saint Louis, MO: MMB
Music.
The brain and body are both powerfully motivated by music. Anyone can observe this,
but the science behind it is foreign to most. Dr. Taylor presents a broad study on music and its
effects on human behavior and health. The book begins with a definition of music therapy and a
history of its uses and identity, followed by a detailed portrayal of how music impacts brain
functions in prenatal development. The last few chapters focus on specific functions of music
therapy including pain management, emotional stability, communication skills and stress relief.
Further research has been discovered since this source was published, but it is a good starting
point for teachers looking to implement music therapy in their schools.

Thompson, G. A., & McFerran, K. S. (2015). Music therapy with young people who have
profound intellectual and developmental disability: Four case studies exploring
communication and engagement within musical interactions. Journal of Intellectual and
Developmental Disability 40(1), 1-11. doi:10.3109/13668250.2014.965668
The ability to communicate is a crucial life skill. This study attempts to connect music
therapy with communication improvement in children with intellectual and developmental
disabilities. Specifically, the study compares the effectiveness of music therapy as compared to
toy therapy. Six children with severe disabilities participated in both music and toy therapy with
the same therapist for six months. Results showed that the children were engaged in both
activities. Music therapy prompted more communication through singing and toy play stimulated
more rejection actions. Ultimately, music therapy was found to be an engaging and positive way
for these children to communicate. The value in this source comes from the reliability of the
experiment. Many variables were controlled to create a consistent environment. However, there
is no concrete evidence or data to show true improvement in communication, only observations.
It is clear through this study that music therapy is a useful tool for special learners.

Relevant Sources Related to Working with Paraprofessionals

Ashbaker, B. Y. & Morgan, J. (2001). Paraprofessionals: A powerful human resource. Retrieved
from ERIC database. (ED453573)

Paraprofessionals have become an invaluable asset to the public school system in the last
few decades. As their roles become more complex, it is important for teachers and administrators
to understand the importance of assuring paraprofessionals that they value their presence and the
work they do with the students. The article addresses strategies to help paraprofessionals feel
valued both at the school-wide level and in the classroom. Ashbaker and Morgan suggest
teachers set aside time to go over lesson plans with paraprofessionals so they understand what is
expected of them and how to most effectively help the students they are working with. In some
cases, paraprofessionals and teachers may value from collaborating on lesson plans. The
strategies suggested in this article encourage a positive relationship between teacher and
paraprofessional.

Bernstorf, E. D. (2001). Paraprofessionals in music settings. Music Educators Journal, (87)4, 3640.
Including paraprofessionals in lesson planning, implementation and conversation
empowers both the teacher and paraprofessional to develop a positive classroom environment.
Berstorf offers an extensive list of strategies to include the paraprofessional, while still keeping
boundaries. While the teacher should always lead class, write lesson plans and manage classroom
behavior, they should also be open to suggestions from paraprofessionals. Often, these assistants
have a close relationship with students with special needs and may be able to offer suggestions
for lesson adaptation. Bernstorf also stresses the importance of understanding the different types
of paraprofessionals and their roles in the classroom. Both teachers and teacher assistants will
find this article helpful and informative.

Campbell, A. & Fairbairn, G. (Eds.). (2005). Working with support in the classroom. London,
United Kingdom: Paul Chapman.
Campbell and Fairbairn collaborate to produce an informative, relevant resource for both
teachers and teachers assistants. The editors compile resources for working with special
education aids, volunteers in the classroom, and student teachers. The most relevant section,
chapter three, describes the teacher-assistant relationship when educating students with special
needs. Though this role can be perceived in many different ways, it is important for the teacher
and the assistant to be clear in their expectations. The author of this chapter, Wendy Hall,
encourages teachers to establish a partnership with their assistants to develop an effective team.
The issues discussed in this source are relevant in todays classroom. Learning how to work most
efficiently with teachers assistants is essential for cultivating the most effective music program
for students with developmental disabilities.

Carnahan, C. R., Williamson, P., Clarke, L. & Sorensen, R. (2009). A systematic approach to
supporting paraeducators in educational settings: A guide for teachers. Teaching
Exceptional Children 41(5), 34-45. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy
In order for paraprofessionals to be successful, teachers need to clearly articulate their
expectations of the individual as well as goals and objectives of the lesson. The authors suggest
most of the time, dissatisfaction with paraprofessional work is due to lack of communication
from the teacher. The article lays out suggestions for making these expectations more clear in
order to provide the most beneficial environment for the students. When teachers and
paraprofessionals develop a similar teaching philosophy, the classroom transforms into a positive
learning environment. Teachers looking for clear guidelines for working with paraprofessionals
will find this article worthwhile.
Darrow, A.-A. (2010). Working with paraprofessionals in the music classroom. General Music
Today, 32(2), 35-37. doi:10.1177/1048371309352345
Darrow presents a fantastic source for teachers looking to foster positive, professional
relationships with the paraprofessionals in order to provide the most valuable education for
students with special needs. The author stresses the importance of setting clear expectations,
asking for feedback, and providing the opportunity for safe, honest conversations.
Paraprofessionals can be an invaluable resource in the music classroom when they have a
respectful, collaborative partnership with the teacher. The article gives specific examples of
important conversations that both the music teacher and paraprofessional should initiate
throughout the school year. It aids the reader in understanding the importance of
paraprofessionals in the music classroom.

ERIC Clearing House on Disabilities and Gifted Education. (2003). Paraeducators: Providing
support to students with disabilities and their teachers. Research connections in
education. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED476844)
The role of paraprofessional is always evolving. How actively a paraprofessional engages
in the classroom is dependent upon many things, one being their perception of their
responsibility in the classroom. According to this article, paraprofessionals are capable of aiding
the teacher in accommodating lesson plans and adapting lesson plans for students during class.
The document provides examples of effective implementation of paraprofessional instruction.
When looking for more instructional help in the classroom for students with disabilities, this is a
useful resource.

Giangreco, M.F. (2002). Model for professional and supervisor training designed to meet the
needs of students with disabilities in special education settings. Final Report. Retrieved
from ERIC database. (ED471808)
This report gathers information from a three-year project to develop successful
paraprofessional training. The materials provided are accessible and easy for beginning teachers
to understand. The document explains the project and provides all handouts, activities, and
materials used during the training. It is an objective source, identifying the successful attributes
of the training as well as the unsuccessful. Perhaps the most helpful part of the document is the
references to ongoing projects, such as a paraprofessional website, to aid in future professional
development.
Morgan, J. & Ashbaker, B. Y. (2004). An interview with Joyce Hinckley on the front line.
Intervention in School and Clinic 39(3), 168-171. Retrieved from
http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy
Joyce Hinckley, a paraprofessional in a school special education program for fifteen
years, describes her experience throughout the years. Hinckley describes how the role of the
paraprofessional has changed over the years, what her successes were, and her biggest challenges
were when working under a teacher. She describes her ideal teacher as someone who is
respectful, open and a successful communicator. Morgan and Ashbakers interview style is easy
to follow and informative in nature. It provides a well-rounded personal account of the
components necessary for a successful paraprofessional-teacher relationship.

North Dakota State Department of Public Instruction. (2000) Resource manual: The
implementation of effective paraeducator practices in educational settings. Retrieved
from ERIC dataase. (ED442255)
The North Dakota State Department of Public Instruction issued this helpful manual to
describe paraprofessional and teacher roles in the inclusive classroom. The manual includes a
definition of paraprofessional, clear responsibilities for the paraprofessional and the supervisor,
and evaluation techniques. This source is unique in that it provides many of the materials
necessary for a successful paraprofessional system in an appendix at the end. The appendix
supplies job description and portfolio examples for paraeducators, sample rules to implement in
the classroom, advice for administrators working with paraprofessionals and teachers, and
various sample materials for schools interested in paraprofessional training.

Pickett, A. L. (1999). Strengthening and supporting teacher/provider-paraeducator teams:

Guidelines for paraeducator roles, supervision, and preparation. Retrieved from ERIC
database. (ED440506)
With the right training, paraprofessionals are an important asset to any special education
program. Pickett describes the roles and responsibilities of a paraeducator in the classroom, but
this source stands out in its focus on why paraprofessionals are necessary. The author emphasizes
the importance of the paraprofessionals unique ability to relate directly to one or two students
with disabilities. Because of this relationship, the paraeducator can help the teacher provide the
most relevant education for all students. In addition, the author gives evaluation suggestions for
teachers and paraprofessionals, standards for paraprofessional and teacher knowledge, and
suggestions for further education of paraprofessionals.

Stockall, N. S. (2014). When an aide really becomes an aid: Providing professional development
for special education paraprofessionals. Teaching Exceptional Children 46(6), 197-205.
doi: 10.1177/0040059914537202
This source is directed more toward administrators than teachers, but can be used to the
teachers advantage. While teachers typically do not implement training for paraprofessionals,
they should be aware of what this training entails and how they fit into it. Stockall stresses the
importance of communication between teachers and paraprofessionals. Sufficient communication
skills allow the teacher to collaborate with the paraprofessional in a timely manner so
instructional time is not lost. The author states that the communication skills required to work
well with a paraprofessional are necessary when working with any colleague. When both parties
communicate, instructional time is saved, learning is evident, and the classroom environment is
positive.

Twyford, K. (2008). Collaborative and transdisciplinary approaches with children. In Twyford,

K. (Ed.), Integrated team working: Music therapy as part of transdisciplinary and
collaborative approaches (pp. 31-41). London, United Kingdom: Jessica Kingsley.
Music therapy is most effective when implemented as a part of a more comprehensive
curriculum. Twyford describes an approach to music therapy which requires the input of every
person involved in the education of students with special needs. This includes nurses, art
teachers, physical education teachers, classroom teachers, paraprofessionals, etc. The author
stresses the importance of clear communication between the adults. This communication results

in a better understanding of the goals for each student, and creatives a productive, collaborative
environment where students will flourish. This is a wonderful source for teachers who are
looking for ways to involve special education teachers and paraprofessionals in the music
therapy process.

Twyford, K., Parkhouse, C., & Murphy, J. (2008). Transdisciplinary assessments with children
with special needs. In Twyford, K. (Ed.), Integrated team working: Music therapy as part
of transdisciplinary and collaborative approaches (pp. 48-55). London, United Kingdom:
Jessica Kingsley.
This study investigates three therapists with different specialty areas and their ability to
work together to create a comprehensive assessment. The music therapist, speech and language
therapist and physiotherapist

Relevant Sources Related to Lesson Plan and Assessments for Students with Developmental
Disabilities in a Group Setting
Abramo, J. (2012). Disability in the classroom: Current trends and impacts on music education.
Music Educators Journal 99(1), 39-45. doi: 10.1177/0027432112448824
Abramo describes some of the disabilities encountered in music classrooms today and
offers useful solutions and strategies to provide all students with a successful learning
experience. The author describes solutions such as adaptive instruments for students who may
not be able to hold or play regular classroom instruments. He also cautions the music teacher to
make sure his or her method of teaching is not making what could be an impairment into a
disability. Teachers can make many small adjustments such as seating a student closer to the
smart board, giving a student extra time, or giving them some extra room to move around. The
article does not address severe intellectual disabilities, but is useful for teachers who have
students with physical disabilities.

Adamek, M.S. (2001). Meeting special needs in music class. Music Educators Journal 87(4), 2336. doi:10.2307/3399720

Successful integration of students with special needs is broken down into a few key
factors in this article. First, and arguably most important, is the ability for music teachers to
communicate with special education teachers and paraprofessionals professionally and
positively. Next, teachers should read and understand each students IEP in order to develop
appropriate adaptations. Every student is different and requires a unique adaptation technique.
Here, the author gives examples of a variety of effective adaptations that would be useful in the
general music classroom. The examples here provide a great start to adaptive music lesson plans.
Adamek, M. S. & Darrow, A.-A. (2010). Music in special education. Silver Spring, MD: The
American Music Therapy Association.
Music in Special Education draws on the history of education and the nature of particular
disabilities to develop a strong, expansive look at the use of music in the special education
classroom. What sets this book apart from other sources in this section is the description of each
disability, how it occurs, how it affects a students learning, and how a teacher can best adapt to
that students needs. Adamek and Darrow do not hand out specific lesson plans, but they strive to
provide the reader with an in-depth understanding of the challenges facing the students in their
special education programs. It is through digesting that information that the reader can begin to
formulate and adapt lesson plans to meet the needs of individual students.

Barksdale, A. L. (2003). Music therapy and leisure for persons with disabilities. Champaign, IL:
Sigamore.
In terms of practical resources, this book provides useful lesson plans, ideas for
collaborating with other teachers, and creating a meaningful music therapy program. Barksdale
stresses the importance of assessment when working with students with special needs. After
students are assessed, she discusses how to create and collaborate on IEP goals, and outlines
various activities for working toward each goal. The book also discusses techniques for
collaborating with art or physical education teachers. The author writes both from personal
experience and research, creating a useful resource for current and practicing teachers.

Borczon, R. M. (1997). Music therapy: Group vignettes. Gilsum, NH: Barcelona.

Borczon offers a variety of lesson plans, group activities, story games, and therapeutic
strategies to implement in a group setting. Because most schools with students with special needs
require that they have music in a group, this is a useful resource for music teachers in the school
setting. The author lays out a detailed outline of what each therapy session should look like with
a group of students with disabilities. He suggests a warm-up, transition into active musical

activities, and gently bring the group to a stopping point toward the end of class. Music teachers
new to music therapy will find this to be a helpful source for developing organized lessons.

Coast Music Therapy. (2015). Free Resources. Coast Music Therapy: Creating a Spark through
Music and the Arts. Retrieved from http://www.coastmusictherapy.com/free-resources
Coast Music Therapy is an organization specializing in music therapy in the schools and
developing individualized education plans (IEP). Like any for-profit organization, Coast Music
Therapy sells some of its resources through its website, but it also dedicates an entire portion of
its site to free resources. This part of the website offers full lesson plans and activity ideas for
students with specific disabilities, groups, technology integration, and seasonal topics. The
website also provides links to music therapy playlists that can easily be pulled up and used
directly in the classroom. Overall, this is a practical and relevant source for music educators and
music therapists.

Darrow, A.-A. (2015) Differentiated instruction for students with disabilities: Using DI in the
music classroom. General Music Today 20(2), 29-32. doi:10.1177/1048371314554279
Darrow begins by clarifying the difference between working with a student individually
and differentiating instruction for one or two students while working with an entire group. Music
teachers can differentiate instruction to ensure each student receives a fulfilling musical
education. She suggests using a layered curriculum where all students learn the same concept,
but at different levels of complexity. The best way to achieve this is by setting up centers in the
music classroom so students can learn at their own pace. In some cases, paraprofessionals will
help facilitate the centers to make sure they run smoothly.

Hammel, A. M. & Hourigan, R. M. (2011). Teaching music to students with special needs: A
label-free approach. New York, NY: Oxford University.
This comprehensive resource explores everything from the existing layout of special
education in the United States to how to develop a music curriculum for students with special
needs. Hammel and Hourigan examine the legal rights and current educational standards for
students with various disabilities. Their research begins with a history of special education and
how it has changed in recent years. The next section presents strategies for working with students
with various disabilities, from behavior disorders to severe physical or intellectual disabilities.
The authors then provide examples of successful integration techniques, performing strategies,

and curriculum adjustments for students with special needs. The book ends with an abundant list
of internet and print resources for teaching music to students with special needs.

Humpal, M. E. & Dimmick, J. A. (1995). Special learners in the music classroom. Music
Educators Journal, 81(5), 21-23. doi:10.2307/3398851
Humpal and Dimmick explore the use of music in special education through the eyes of
music teachers who have been asked to become music therapists as well. They offer simple
suggestions and examples for any music educator to easily implement in their general music
classroom. Each disability is listed and described, and an adaptive activity is recommended.
Some of these activities include switches and other technological devices, which may not be
available to all students. However, all music teachers will find relevance in many of the lesson
ideas presented in this article.

Langer, H. M. (2013). Modifications, accommodations, and strategies for

children with special needs in the elementary general music classroom
(Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Proquest Dissertations & Theses
Global. (1513247685)
Langer follows six students through music programs in primary schools
that work with students with disabilities. Each student faces a different
challenge, either developmentally, intellectually, or behaviorally. The author
observes the strengths and limitations of each student and creates
individualized lesson plans based on these observations. In addition to
detailed lesson plans and strategies, this study provides a brief history of
music education for children with special needs and a useful description of
the individualized education plan. This is an excellent resource for
understanding effective strategies for educating students with special needs
through music.

Lathom-Radocy, W. B. (2002). Pediatric music therapy. Springfield, IL:

Charles C Thomas.

For most educators, the reason they teach music is to help their
students experience the full human experience. Music makes us human, and
teaches things most other subjects cannot. Lathom-Radocy approaches
music therapy with this philosophy, and the conviction that all students
should be given the opportunity to enhance their human condition despite
their skill level. The author describes each prominent disability, both
intellectual and physical, that may be encountered in school therapy
programs. Along with a full description, Lathom-Radocy offers the reader
activities suited to the particular abilities of students with these disabilities.
He also suggests some ways to adapt lesson plans when students are
integrated into the general music classroom. Pediatric Music Therapy is an
invaluable source for elementary music teachers working with students with
special needs.

McCord, K. (2009). Improvisation as communication: Students with

communication disabilities and autism using call and response on
instruments. Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ912419)
McCord, a jazz education specialist, focuses her research on jazz
improvisation in the music classroom and how it can stimulate
communication between students. In this article, she expands her research
to include the effect of jazz on communication between students with and
without disabilities. The study follows six students with disabilities through
an improvisation activity in an inclusive music setting. The students with
disabilities respond with either electric or traditional instruments to the
sound made by their peers without disabilities. McCord explains the process
of this activity and its benefits. This helpful lesson plan is supported with
concrete research and various examples to reiterate its relevance in the
inclusive music classroom.

McFarren, K. S. & Shoemark, H. (2014). How musical engagement promotes

well-being in education contexts: The case of a young man with
profound and multiple disabilities. International Journal of Qualitative
Studies on Health and Well-being, (8). doi: 10.3402/qhw.v8i0.20570.

McFarren and Shoemark comment on every childs right to music education and
opportunities to build relationships. Students with profound intellectual disabilities have the
same rights as any other student in the public school system and should receive a quality, though
not identical, music education. Not only do they have this right, but the authors argue that the
relationships built through music education are essential to the health of these students. The
study follows one student and his relationship with a music therapist over a few weeks. The
results show growth in communication and clear evidence of a positive relationship between the
student and therapist. The article proves the importance of music therapy practices in schools
with special education programs.

Ritter-Cantesanu, G. (2014). Music therapy and the IEP process. Music Therapy Perspectives,
(32)2, 142-152.
For a music therapy program to be successful, especially in the schools, it is important for
the music teacher to understand the purpose of IEPs and how to create them. Music teachers
should be a part of developing the IEPs in order to be an active participant in the students
growth process. Ritter-Cantesanu defines what an IEP is, explains the laws surrounding them,
and suggests some goals music teachers may add to an IEP. The author also proposes relevant
assessments for teachers to understand where to meet each individual student in the learning
process. As a teacher in the public schools, Ritter-Cantesanu offers a genuine perspective to the
role of a music teacher or music therapist in the IEP writing process.

Schaberg, G. (1988). Tips: Teaching music to special learners. Reston, VA: Music Educators
National Conference.
Although this source is two years older than the date range this bibliography covers, its
clear activities and detailed rationales make it a worthy addition. Schaberg lists eight different
disabilities and provides specific activities for each. Activities are individualized and address
particular strengths and weaknesses each child may have. It also lists any materials needed for
the lesson. In addition, the author describes some teaching techniques related to using sensory
stimulation for the benefit of the students. Though the book is not lengthy, the content is relevant
and useful for use in the classroom on a daily basis.

Shaw, J. & Manthey, C. (1996). Musical bridges: Integrational music programs. Saint Louis,
MO: MMB Music.

The lesson plans and activities provided in this source are intended for both young
children and elderly persons. Although this bibliography does not address music therapy for the
elderly, this source is still helpful in creating lesson plans for young children with developmental
disabilities. Shaw and Manthey catalog twenty five lessons, which they call programs, complete
with sheet music, activity pages and clear instructions. This is a great place to look for seasonal
lesson plans for group music therapy classes.

Sobol, E. S. (2001) An attitude and approach for teaching music to special learners. Raleigh,
NC: Pentland.
Sobol, a celebrated music education specialist, offers lesson plans that can be adapted to
work with an entire group of students with special needs or used in an inclusive classroom
setting. Each lesson plan has been implemented in a classroom and proven to be effective. The
description of the activities are complete with material lists, step by step instructions, and
pictures to clarify the room set-up. In addition to being a helpful resource for lessons, Sobols
guide offers a fresh perspective on how to maintain a positive attitude in the special education
environment.

Sobol, E. S. (2008). An attitude and approach for teaching music to special learners (2nd Ed.).
Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
In her second edition, Sobol expands on her first edition with more lesson plans, a section
on ADD, and a list of music-related childrens literature. The most useful part of the second
edition is the compact disc provided on the back cover. Here, Sobel provides digital copies of
lesson plan materials so they can be directly used in the classroom. The positive approach
demonstrated in her last book is still a focus of the new edition, but music teachers should look at
both editions to get the most comprehensive list of activities and resources.

Tomlinson, J., Derrington, P. & Oldfield, A. (Eds.). (2012). Music therapy in schools: Working
with children of all ages in mainstream and special education. London, United Kingdom:
Jessica Kingsley.
The editors compiled chapters from various music therapists throughout the United
Kingdom. The chapters specifically highlight the benefits of music therapy in mainstream
schools. Working with students who have autism spectrum disorders, aggressive behavior,
developmental disabilities, and emotional difficulties are all topics addressed in this source.

Several authors provide a range of solutions to these challenges, making this a well-rounded
source. However, the shift in material from chapter to chapter causes a lack of focus. For general
music teachers, this book provides an overview of various approaches to music therapy and how
to create a genuine learning experience for students with developmental disabilities.

Wheeler, B. L. (2008). Using typical infant development to inform music therapy with children
with disabilities. Early Childhood Education Journal, (35)6, 585-591. doi:
10.1007/s10643-007-0224-1.
This study focuses on the relationship between infant development and that of children
with severe intellectual disabilities. First, musical activities were used with infants at various
age-related stages and results were recorded. The same music therapist then used these activities
with a child with special needs. The reactions in both cases were similar, though each student
with special needs functioned at a different developmental stage. The study gives clear examples
of appropriate music activities for each developmental stage, and suggestions for how to assess
the stage of each student. It is a helpful guide for understanding the first steps in creating a
successful music therapy program in schools.