SEQUENTIALSWITCHING

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR

THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
DIPLOMA
IN
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Submitted By
L.MURALI VARMA (13253-EE-016)
M.RAMU (13253-EE-025)
C.KALYAN RAJ (13253-EE-027)
K.AJAY (13253-EE-044)
K.SUDHEER KUMAR (13253-EE-051)
L.SRIKANTH (13253-EE-060)
Under the Supervision of
B.GANESH BABU
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
VNRVJIET

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

2nd SHIFT POLYTECHNIC

VALLURUPALLI NAGESWARA RAO VIGNANA JYOTHI

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
1

AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE
(Approved by AICTE - New Delhi, Govt. of T.S. and Affiliated to JNTUH)
Accredited by NBA and NAAC with A Grade
Vignana Jyothi Nagar, Bachupally, Nizampet (S.O.), Hyderabad-500 090. Telangana, India.

2015-2016
nd

2 SHIFT POLYTECHNIC
VALLURUPALLI NAGESWARA RAO VIGNANA JYOTHI
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE
(Approved by AICTE - New Delhi, Govt. of A.P. and Affiliated to JNTUH)
Accredited by NBA and NAAC with A Grade
Vignana Jyothi Nagar, Bachupally, Nizampet (S.O.), Hyderabad-500 090. Telangana, India.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled SEQUENTIAL SWITCHING is a bonafide work
done under our supervision and is being submitted by L.MURALI VARMA(13253-EE-016) ,M.RAMU(13253EE-025), C.KALYAN RAJ(13253-EE-027), K.AJAY(13253-EE-044), K.SUDHEER KUMAR(13253-EE051), L.SRIKANTH(13253-EE-060) in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Diploma in Electrical
and Electronics Engineering of 2nd SHIFT POLYTECHNIC VNRVJIET, Hyderabad during the academic year
2015-2016.
Certified further that to the best of my knowledge the work presented in this thesis has not been
submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.

Internal Guide
B.GANESH BABU
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
EEE Dept.

Head of the Department

Dr.K.Anuradha
Professor and Head
Department of EEE,
VNRVJIET,
Hyderabad.
2

EXTERNAL EXAMINAR

2nd SHIFT POLYTECHNIC

VALLURUPALLI NAGESWARA RAO VIGNANA JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE
(Approved by AICTE - New Delhi, Govt. of T.S. and Affiliated to JNTUH)
Accredited by NBA and NAAC with A Grade
Vignana Jyothi Nagar, Bachupally, Nizampet (S.O.), Hyderabad-500 090. Telangana,
India.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled SEQUENTIAL SWITCHING is a bonafide work
done under our supervision and is being submitted by
L.MURALI VARMA

13253-EE-016

M.RAMU

13253-EE-025

C.KALYAN RAJ

13253-EE-027

K.AJAY

13253-EE-044

K.SUDHEER KUMAR

13253-EE-051

L.SRIKANTH

13253-EE-060

in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Diploma in Electrical and Electronics Engineering of 2nd
SHIFT POLYTECHNIC VNRVJIET, Hyderabad during the academic year 2015-2016.

Certified further that to the best of my knowledge the work presented in this thesis has not been
submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any Degree or Diploma.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere thanks to B.Ganesh Babu ,Department of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his precious guidance and kind co-operation at
every step of this project work.
My sincere thanks to Dr.K.Anuradha

HOD, E.E.E Department of VNR VJIET for

her inspiration, adroit guidance and giving permission to carry out the project successfully.
I am thankful to Dr. C. Kiranmayi ,

Principal, VNRVJIET, Hyderabad, for giving

me permission to carry out this project.

I am indebted to B.Ganesh Babu, for his help and guidance in my work. I consider
myself fortunate to have obtained his friendly and valuable advice during the course of my
research.
I am thankful to all the staff members of EEE Department, VNRVJIET for helping me
carrying out this project.
I am thankful to all the project committee members of EEE Department, VNRVJIET
for helping me carrying out this project.
Finally, I am very thankful to my family members for their great moral support.

Place: Hyderabad
Date: 09-03-2016

Name:
L.MURALI VARMA

Pin:
13253-EE-016

M.RAMU

13253-EE-025

C.KALYAN RAJ

13253-EE-027

K.AJAY

13253-EE-044

K.SUDHEER KUMAR

13253-EE-051

L.SRIKANTH

13253-EE-060
4

DECLARATION

I do declare that the thesis work entitled SEQUENTIAL SWITCHING submitted in the Department
of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (EEE), 2nd Shift Polytechnic, Vallurupalli Nageswara Rao Vignana
Jyothi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of the Degree of Diploma Electrical and Electronics Engineering in is a bonafide record of my own work
carried out under the supervision of B.GANESH BABU.
Also, I declare that the matter embodied in this thesis has not been submitted by me in full or in any part
thereof for the award of any degree/diploma of any other institution or university previously.

Place: Hyderabad

(Signature of the Student)

Date: 09-03-2016

ABSTRACT

The project is designed to switch industrial loads using a user programmable logic
control device for sequential operation using timers. This operation is generally used for
repetitive nature of work.

Programmable logic controllers used in industrial applications are very expensive for
simple operations like sequential switching of loads. In this project we demonstrate the
working of this simple operation using timers. The development of this application requires
the configuration of the program through input key-buttons. In industries, there are many
tasks are carried out which requires some repeated operation in various orders and time
intervals. For example, certain loads need to be switched ON/OFF in specific time intervals.
In order to achieve this, the timers are programmed in such a way that the loads a can be
operated in three modes: Set mode, Auto mode and Manual mode. In set mode, through
timers, the machinery works based on input time set by the user where as in auto mode it
works on default time settings and finally in the manual mode it functions while respective
key-buttons are pressed depending on the users need and flexibility.

Thus, tasks performed by costly PLCs can now be achieved using timers making the
device cost effective.

INDEX
CHAPTERS
PAGE NO.
1.

POWER

SUPPLY

RELAY

DRIVE

11-12
2.
13-15
3.

CIRCUIT

EXPLANATION

OF

4017

IC

16-19
4.

555

TIMER

20-22
5. LED, SCR, RESISTROS,
POTENTIOMETER
23-28
CAPACITORS &DIODE

6.

TRANSFORMER

29-39
7.

CONCLUSION

&

REFERENCE

41

CIRCUIT

DIAGRAM OF SEQUENTIAL SWITCHING

9

Hardware Requirements:

Relays

4017 IC Decade counter

555 Timer

Resistors

Capacitors

LEDs

SCRs

Diodes

Transformer

Lamps

10

SEQUENTIAL SWITCHING
POWER SUPPLY:A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric
energy to an electrical load. The primary function of a power supply is
to convert one form of electrical energy to another and, as a result,
power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power converters.
Some power supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas
others are built into larger devices along with their loads. Examples of
the latter include power supplies found in desktop computers and
consumer electronics devices. Every power supply must obtain the
energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while
performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design,
a power supply may obtain energy from various types of energy
sources, including electrical energy transmission systems, energy
storage devices such as a batteries and fuel cells, electromechanical
systems such as generators and alternators, solar power converters, or
11

another power supply. All power supplies have a power input, which
receives energy from the energy source, and a power output that
delivers energy to the load. In most power supplies the power input
and output consist of electrical connectors or hardwired circuit
connections, though some power supplies employ wireless energy
transfer in lieu of galvanic connections for the power input or output.
Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well,
for functions such as external monitoring and control.
An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet
(mains supply) and lowers it to the desired voltage. Some filtering
may take place as well. AC power supplies can be divided into single
phase and three phase systems. "The primary difference between
single phase and three phase AC power is the constancy of delivery."
[1] AC power Supplies can also be used to change the frequency as
well as the voltage, they are often used by manufacturers to check the
suitability of their products for use in other countries. 230V 50 Hz or
115 60 Hz or even 400 Hz for avionics testing.

12

Fig-1.1

CIRCUIT

DIAGRAM
OF

POWER
SUPPLY
SECTION

RELAY DRIVER:DC Relay Driver Circuit

We will first go over how to build a relay driver circuit for relays
which operate from DC power.
To drive a DC relay, all we need is sufficient DC voltage which the
relay is rated for and a zener diode.
All relays come with a voltage rating. This is called on a relay's
datasheet its rated coil voltage. This is the voltage needed in order for
the relay to be able to operate and be able to open or close its switch
in a circuit. In order for a relay to function, it must receive this
voltage at its coil terminals. Thus, if a relay has a rated voltage of
9VDC, it must receive 9 volts of DC voltage to operate. So the most
important thing a DC relay needs is its rated DC voltage. If you don't

13

know this, look up what relay you have and look up its datasheet and
check for this specification.
And the reason why a diode is needed is usually because it functions
to eliminate voltage spikes from a relay circuit as the relay opens and
closes. The coil of a relay acts an inductor. Remember that inductors
are basically coils of wires wrapped around a conductive core. This is
what relay coils are as well. Therefore, they act as inductors.
Inductors are electronic components that resist changes in current.
Inductors do not like sudden changes in current. If the flow of current
through a coil is suddenly interrupted, for example, a switch opening,
the coil will respond by producing a sudden, very large voltage across
its leads, causing a large surge of current through it. From a physics or
physical perspective, this phenomenon is a result of a collapsing
magnetic field within the coil as the current is terminated abruptly.
Mathematically, this can be understood by noticing how a large
change in current (dI/dt) affects the voltage across a coil (V=LdI/dt).
Since we are opening the switch, in this case, the current literally goes
from full mode to 0 instantaneously. This creates a large voltage
spike. Surges in current that result from inductive effects can create
very high voltage spikes (as high as 1000V) that can have nasty
effects on neighboring devices with in the circuits, such as switches
and transistors getting zapped. Not only are these voltage spikes
damaging to other electronic components in a circuit but they are also
damaging to the relay's switch contacts. The contacts will suffer from
these spikes as well.
14

So how do we prevent these voltage spikes? How can we

suppress them so that they don't cause this damage? The answer for
DC relay circuits is to use a diode. A diode is placed reverse biased in
parallel with the relay. The diode acts as a transient suppressor. A
transient is a spike. A transient suppressor suppresses these spikes.
Placing a diode in reverse bias across a relay's coil eliminates voltage
spikes by going into conduction before a large voltage can form
across the coil. In other words, a diode will conduct current in reverse
bias once the voltage reaches a certain threshold and shunt the current
to ground. Once the diode begins conducting, it no longer holds
voltage. So that the relay in parallel will not receive the excess
voltage. So the diode functions to shunt excess power to ground once
it reaches a certain threshold. Diodes are devices that do not conduct
in reverse. However, if the voltage reaches a certain level, called the
breakdown voltage, it will conduct. This is a good thing, when we
need the diode to act as a transient suppressor, because it forces all
excess power to ground, as to not affect any other parts of the circuit.

The diode must be rated to handle currents equivalent to the

maximum current that would have been flowing through the coil
before the supply current was interrupted. Therefore, if the relay
normally passes a certain amount of current through it during normal

15

operation, the diode must be rated for a current rating above this
value, as to not stop normal operation.

Again, the DC relay must receive its rated voltage value in

order to operate. The DC power source can be batteries, wall wart
power, or a DC power supply- any DC power source. The zener diode
is placed reverse biased in parallel to the relay.

DC Relay Driver Circuit Schematic

Below is the DC relay driver circuit which we will build:

FIG-2.1 DC RELAY DRIVER CIRCUIT

16

The relay which we use in this case is rated for 9V.

Therefore, a 9-volt DC voltage source feeds the resistor. To suppress
transients that may be caused by the relay opening and closing, we
place a zener diode reverse biased in parallel with the relay. This will
shunt all excess power to ground once it reaches a certain threshold.
This is all that is needed to operate the relay. With sufficient power,
the relay will now close, driving the loads that are connected to its
output.

CIRCUIT EXPLANATION OF 4017 IC

The 4017 decade counter has ten outputs which go high in
sequence when a source of pulses is connected to the clock input and
when suitable logic levels are applied to the reset and enable inputs.
4017 IC is a CMOS (Complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor) decade counter chip. It can produce output at the 10
pins (Q0 Q9) sequentially, means it produce output one by one at
the 10 output pins.
At first, output at Q0 (pin 3) is high, then with each clock pulse,
output advance to the next pin. Like one clock pulse makes the Q0
low and Q1 high, and then the next clock pulse makes the Q1 low and
17

Q2 high, and so on. After the Q9, it will start from the Q0 again. So it
creates sequential on and off of all the 10 output pins.

It has 16
the
of

FIG 3.1 PIN DIAGRAM OF 4017 IC

each

explained

pins and
functionality
pin

is

as follows:

Pin-1: It is the output 5. It goes high when the counter reads 5

counts.

Pin-2: It is the output 1. It goes high when the counter reads 0

counts.

Pin-3: It is the output 0. It goes high when the counter reads 0

counts.

Pin-4: It is the output 2. It goes high when the counter reads 2

counts.
18

Pin-5: It is the output 6. It goes high when the counter reads 6

counts.

Pin-6: It is the output 7. It goes high when the counter reads 7

counts.

Pin-7: It is the output 3. It goes high when the counter reads 3

counts.

Pin-8: It is the Ground pin which should be connected to a LOW

voltage (0V).

Pin-9: It is the output 8. It goes high when the counter reads 8

counts.

Pin-10: It is the output 4. It goes high when the counter reads 4

counts.

Pin-11: It is the output 9. It goes high when the counter reads 9

counts.

Pin-12: This is divided by 10 outputs which are used to cascade

the IC with another counter so as to enable counting greater than the
range supported by a single IC 4017. By cascading with another 4017
IC, we can count up to 20 numbers. We can increase and increase the
range of counting by cascading it with more and more IC 4017s. Each
additional cascaded IC will increase the counting range by 10.
However, it is not advisable to cascade more than 3 ICs as it may
19

reduce the reliability of the count due to the occurrence glitches. If

you need a counting range more than twenty or thirty, I advise you to
go with conventional procedure of using a binary counter followed by
a corresponding decoder.
o

Pin-13: This pin is the disable pin. In normal mode of operation,

this is connected to ground or logic LOW voltage. If this pin is
connected to logic HIGH voltage, then the circuit will stop receiving
pulses and so it will not advance the count irrespective of number of
pulses received from the clock.

Pin-14: This pin is the clock input. This is the pin from where
we need to give the input clock pulses to the IC in order to advance
the count. The count advances on the rising edge of the clock.

Pin-15: This is the reset pin which should be kept LOW for
normal operation. If you need to reset the IC, then you can connect
this pin to HIGH voltage.

Pin-16: This is the power supply (Vcc) pin. This should be given
a HIGH voltage of 3V to 15V for the IC to function.

This IC is very useful and also user friendly. To use the IC, just
connect it according the specifications described above in the pin
configuration and give the pulses you need to count to the pin-14 of
the IC. Then you can collect the outputs at the output pins. When the
20

count is zero, Pin-3 is HIGH. When the count is 1, Pin-2 is HIGH and
so on as described above.

FIG 3.2 Counting action of the 4017 decade counter

21

555 TIMER:The

555

timer

IC

is

an

integrated circuit (chip) used in

a

variety

generation,

of

timer,

and

pulse

oscillator

applications. The 555 can be

used to provide time delays, as
an oscillator, and as a flip-flop
element. Derivatives proVide up
to four timing circuits in one
FIG 4.1 555 TIMER IC

package.

Introduced in 1971 by American company Signetics, the 555 is still in

widespread use due to its low price, ease of use, and stability. It is
now made by many companies in the original bipolar and also in lowpower CMOS types. As of 200

FIG 4.2 555 TIMER PIN DIAGRAM

22

TABLE 4.1 VARIOUS PIN OUT DISCRIPTION OF 555 IC

Pin 5 is also sometimes called the control voltage pin. By applying a

voltage to the control voltage input one can alter the timing
characteristics of the device. In most applications, the control voltage
input is not used. It is usual to connect a 10 nF capacitor between pin
5 and 0 V to prevent interference. The control voltage input can be
used to build an astable multivibrator with a frequency-modulated
output.

Modes

23

The IC 555 has three operating modes:

Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger the 555 can
operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and
no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free
latched switches.

Monostable mode in this mode, the 555

FIG 4.3 SCHEMATIC OF 555 IN BISTABLE
functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
MODE
Applications include timers, missing pulse
detection, bounce-free switches, touch switches,
frequency divider, capacitance measurement,
pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on.
FIG 4.4 SCHEMATIC OF 555 IN MONOSTABLE
MODE

Astable (free-running) mode the 555

can operate as an
electronic oscillator. Uses include LED and
lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks,
tone generation, security alarms, pulse position
modulation and so on. The 555 can be used as a
simple ADC, converting an analog value to a
pulse length (e.g., selecting a thermistor as
timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a
temperature sensor and the period of the
output pulse is determined by the temperature).
The
FIG 4.5 SCHEMATIC OF 555 IN
ASTABLE MODE

24

use of a microprocessor-based circuit can then convert the pulse

period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration means.

25

LED:A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor

light source. It is a pn junction diode, which emits light when
activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons
are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing
energy

in

the

form

of

photons.

This

effect

is

called

electroluminescence, and the colour of the light (corresponding to the

energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.
LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to
be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in
advanced communications technology.

26

FIG 5.1 PARTS OF AN LED

27

SCR:A silicon controlled rectifier or semiconductor-controlled

rectifier is a four-layer solid-state current-controlling device. The
name "silicon controlled rectifier" is General Electric's trade name for
a type of thyristor. The SCR was developed by a team of power
engineers led by Gordon Hall and commercialized by Frank W. "Bill"
Gutzwiller in 1957.

SCRs are unidirectional devices (i.e. can conduct current only in

one direction) as opposed to TRIAC s, which are bidirectional (i.e.
current can flow through them in either direction). SCRs can be
triggered normally only by currents going into the gate as opposed to
TRIACs, which can be triggered normally by either a positive or a
negative current applied to its gate electrode.

28

RESISTORS:-

FIG 5.2 SCR

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component

that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act
to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage
levels within circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit
current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements, and
terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power resistors,
that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used
as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test
loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change
slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors
can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a
lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or
chemical activity.

29

FIG 5.3 RESISTORS

POTENTIOMETER:A potentiometer, informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor

with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an adjustable voltage
divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts
as a variable resistor or rheostat.
Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical
devices such as volume controls on audio equipment

30

FIG 5.4 POTENTIOMETER

CAPACITORS:A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive twoterminal electrical component used to store electrical energy
temporarily in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates)
separated by a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy by
becoming polarized). The conductors can be thin films, foils or
sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The no
conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity.
Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic
film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical
31

devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy.

Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field
between its plates.

FIG 5.5 CAPACITOR

DIODE:In electronics, a
diode is a twoterminal
electronic

component that conducts primarily in one direction (asymmetric

conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance to the flow of
current in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the
other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a
crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a
pn
junction
connected
to

two

electrical

terminals.

Vacuum

tube diode has

two

electrodes,

5.6 DIODE
plate (anode) and a heated FIG
cathode.
Semiconductor diodes were the

first semiconductor electronic devices.

32

TRANSFORMER:A

transformer is
an

electrical

device

that

transfers

electrical

energy

between two or more circuits

through

electromagnetic

induction.
induction

Electromagnetic
produces

electromotive

an

force

which is exposed to time

acrossFIGa6.1conductor
TRANSFORMER
varying

magnetic

fields. Commonly, transformers are used to increase or decrease the

voltages of alternating current in electric power applications.
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates
a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core and a varying
magnetic field impinging on the transformer's secondary winding.
This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary
winding due to electromagnetic induction. Making use of Faraday's
Law (discovered in 1831) in conjunction with high magnetic
permeability core properties, transformers can thus be designed to

33

efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another

within power networks.
Since the invention of the first constant potential transformer in
1885, transformers have become essential for the transmission,
distribution, and utilization of alternating current electrical energy. A
wide range of transformer designs are encountered in electronic and
electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF
transformers less than a cubic centimetre in volume to units
interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons.

Basic principles:
Ideal transformer:

For simplification or approximation purposes, it is very

common to analyze the transformer as an ideal transformer model as
presented in the two images. An ideal transformer is a theoretical,
linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled; that is, there
are no energy losses and flux is completely confined within the
magnetic core. Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic
permeability and winding inductances and zero net magneto motive
force.

34

varying

current

in

transformer's primary

FIG 5.2 IDEAL

TRANSFORMER
winding
creates a

the

varying magnetic flux in the

core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary

winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary
winding. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a
core of infinitely high magnetic permeability[d] so that all of the
magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary
windings. With a voltage source connected to the primary winding
and load impedance connected to the secondary winding, the
transformer currents flow in the indicated directions.

Ideal transformer equations (eq.)

By Faraday's law of induction
. . . (1)[a]
. . . (2)
Combining ratio of (1) & (2)
Turns ratio

. . . (3) where
35

For step-down transformers, a > 1

For step-up transformers, a < 1
By law of conservation of energy, apparent,
real and reactive/88 power are each conserved in the input and output
. . . (4)
Combining (3) & (4) with this end note yields the ideal transformer
identify
. (5)
By ohms law and ideal transformer identity
. . . (6)
Apparent load impedance Z'L (ZL referred to the primary)
. (7)

According to Faraday's law of induction, since the same

magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary
windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is induced in each
winding, according to eq. (1) in the secondary winding case,
according to eq. (2) in the primary winding case. The primary EMF is
sometimes termed counter EMF. This is in accordance with Lenz's
law, which states that induction of EMF always opposes development
of any such change in magnetic field. The transformer winding
36

voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to the winding

turns ratio according to eq. (3).According to the law of Conservation
of Energy, any load impedance connected to the ideal transformer's
secondary winding results in conservation of apparent, real and
reactive power consistent with eq. (4). Instrument transformer, with
polarity dot and X1 markings on LV side terminal the ideal
transformer identity shown in eq. (5) is a reasonable approximation
for the typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and
winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the
corresponding current ratio. By Ohm's Law and the ideal transformer
identity: the secondary circuit load impedance can be expressed as eq.
(6) the apparent load impedance referred to the primary circuit is
derived in eq. (7) to be equal to the turns ratio squared times the
secondary circuit load impedance.

37

FIG 5.3 IDEAL

TRANSFORMER

38

Equivalent circuit:Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behaviour

may be represented by an equivalent circuit model, which can
incorporate an ideal transformer. Winding joule losses and leakage
reactances are represented by the following series loop impedances
of the model:
Primary winding: RP, XP
Secondary winding: RS, XS.
FIG 5.4 REAL TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT

In normal course of circuit equivalence

transformation, RS and XS are in practice usually referred to the
primary side by multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio
squared, (NP/NS) 2 = a2.
Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg
impedances of the model:
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Core or iron losses: RC

Magnetizing reactance: XM.

RC and XM are

collectively termed the magnetizing branch of the model.

Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current

effects in the core and are proportional to the square of the core flux
for operation at a given frequency. The finite permeability core
requires a magnetizing current IM to maintain mutual flux in the core.
Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux, the relationship
between the two being non-linear due to saturation effects. However,
all impedances of the equivalent circuit shown are by definition linear
and such non-linearity effects are not typically reflected in
transformer equivalent circuits. With sinusoidal supply, core flux lags
the induced EMF by 90. With open-circuited secondary winding,
magnetizing branch current I0 equals transformer no-load current.
The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact'
equivalent circuit based on linearity assumptions, retains a number of
approximations. Analysis may be simplified by assuming that
magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the
branch to the left of the primary impedances. This introduces error but
allows combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and
reactances by simple summation as two series impedances.
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Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and

transformer ratio parameters can be derived from the following tests:
open-circuit test, short-circuit test, winding resistance test, and
transformer ratio test.

TYPES:Various specific electrical application designs require a variety

of transformer types. Although they all share the basic characteristic
transformer principles, they are customizing in construction or
electrical properties for certain installation requirements or circuit
conditions.
Autotransformer: Transformer in which part of the winding is
common to both primary and secondary circuits.
Capacitor voltage transformer: Transformer in which capacitor
divider is used to reduce high voltage before application to the
primary winding.
Distribution

transformer,

power

transformer:

International

standards make a distinction in terms of distribution transformers

being used to distribute energy from transmission lines and networks
for local consumption and power transformers being used to transfer
electric energy between the generator and distribution primary
circuits.

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Phase angle regulating transformer: A specialised transformer used

to control the flow of real power on three-phase electricity
transmission networks.
Scott-T transformer: Transformer used for phase transformation
from three-phase to two-phase and vice versa.
Polyphase transformer: Any transformer with more than one phase.
Grounding transformer: Transformer used for grounding threephase circuits to create a neutral in a three wire system, using a Ydelta transformer, or more commonly, a zigzag grounding winding.
Leakage transformer: Transformer that has loosely coupled
windings.
Resonant transformer: Transformer that uses resonance to generate
a high secondary voltage.
Audio transformer: Transformer used in audio equipment.
Output transformer: Transformer used to match the output of a
valve amplifier to its load.
Instrument transformer: Potential or current transformer used to
accurately and safely represent voltage, current or phase position of
high voltage or high power circuits.
Pulse transformer: Specialized small-signal transformer used to
transmit digital signalling while providing electrical isolation.

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APPLCATIONS:Transformers are used to increase (or step-up) voltage before

transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires.
Wires have resistance which loses energy through joule heating at a
rate corresponding to square of the current. By transforming power to
a higher voltage transformers enable economical transmission of
power and distribution. Consequently, transformers have shaped the
electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be located
remotely from points of demand. All but a tiny fraction of the world's
electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the
time it reaches the consumer.
Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products
to decrease (or step-down) the supply voltage to a level suitable for
the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically
isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage.
Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of
amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record
players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed
telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single
pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced
to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as
between external cables and internal circuits
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Transformer universal EMF equation:If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship
for either winding between its rms voltage Erms of the winding, and the
supply frequency f, number of turns N, core cross-sectional area a in
m2 and peak magnetic flux density Bpeak in Wb/m2 or T (tesla) is given
by the universal EMF equation:

If the flux does not contain even harmonics the following equation
can be used for half- cycle average voltage Eavg of any wave shape:

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CONCLUSION:
This study presents a simple and efficient switching
system. This provides automation in industry by operating industrial
loads automatically with the help of the 555 timer & IC 4017 decade
counter. Thus, tasks performed by costly PLCs can now be achieved
using simple ICs making the device cost effective.

REFFERENCE:Wikipedia

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