1.

Humans, and other animals, are able to detect a range of stimuli

from the external environment, some of which are useful for
communication
Identify the role of receptors in detecting stimuli
A stimulus is a change in the internal or external environment of an
organism. Examples of stimuli include light, sound, temperature, pressure,
pain and certain chemicals.
The role of receptors is to detect stimuli and convert information into
electrochemical signals which can be interpreted by the brain
Stimulus
Light
Touch
Temperature
change

Type of receptor
Photoreceptors
Mechanoreceptors
Thermoreceptors

Organ
Eye
Skin
Skin, hypothalamus

Explain that the response to a stimulus involves: stimulus, receptor,

messenger, effector, response

The stimulus-response model is outlined above.

Stimulus
Stimulus that reflects changes in the environment
Receptor
Receptor that detects the stimulus. Each type of sensor is responsible
for detecting a certain type of stimulus.
Messenger
Messenger that involves receptors that change the energy of the
stimulus into an electrochemical signal that is used to start a nerve
impulse. The nerve impulse is the messenger that is sent via the
sensory neuron to the central nervous system (CNS) via the spinal
cord.

Effector
Simultaneously, while the message is transmitted to the brain the CNS
sends a message via the motor neuron to the effector organ.
Effector that is the organ that receives the message and carries out the
response.
Response
Response is the final reaction to the stimulus.
Identify data sources, gather, and process information from secondary
sources to identify the range of senses involved in communication
Sense
Sight (visual)

Analysis and examples of communication

- Detected by photoreceptors
- Sight is frequently the means by which animals obtain
information about their environment
- Used to measure distance, determine colour and
recognise potential threat
- Facial expression and posture in humans communicate
aggression or affection
- Bioluminescence in fireflies to attract mates
Sound
- Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical energy and
(auditory)
can detect pressure waves
- Communication by sound
- Many species cannot produce sound or detect a wide
range of sounds frequencies
- Humpback whales communicate by sound which can
travel hundreds of kilometres
Smell
- Chemoreceptors detect chemicals
- Communication via chemical signals
(olfactory)
- Many animals rely on smell to find food, find a mate or
as a means of identification. Male dogs use smell to
mark their territory and detect presence of females on
heat
Touch (tactile)
- Mechanoreceptors for touch are abundant under the
skin
- Sensory nerve endings in the skin respond to touch
- Herring gull chicks peck at a spot on their mothers
beak to get her to release food
Taste
- Chemoreceptors detect chemicals.
- Many animals use taste if they have a poor sense of
(gestation)
smell (these two are closely related senses)
- Male elephants taste the urine of female elephants to
see if they are fertile
2. Visual communication involves the eye registering changes in
immediate environment

Describe the anatomy and function of the human eye, including the;
conjunctiva, cornea, sclera, choroid, retina, iris, lens, aqueous and
vitreous humour, ciliary body, optic nerve
The eye functions as a sense organ by detecting light stimuli from the
environment and transforming this
information received into
nerve impulses that are carried
to the brain.
Humans have two eyes for
binocular vision. Each eye
sees a
different image of an object
in the light path. The two
images are fused into one
image in the brain, allowing
the perception of depth.
Associated with the eyeballs are
numerous parts that help maintain
adequate functioning of the eye.
The eyeball is essentially
surrounded by a coat, made up
of three layers of tissue: an
inner, middle and outer layer
(see diagram).
Posterior refers to the back part of the eye
Anterior refers to the front part of the eye
The outer coat:
The conjunctiva is a thin, transparent membrane that
protects the front of the eye. The membrane helps keep
the outer surface of the eyeball moist.
The sclera is the outmost layer of the eye. It is composed
of tough, non-elastic tissue that protects the inner layers of
the eye, and maintains the shape of the eyeball. It is also
the site of attachment for external muscles of the eye,
which enables the eyeball to move in the socket. Towards the back of the eye,
the sclera is opaque (forming the white part of the eye); towards the front, it
becomes a transparent structure called the cornea.
The cornea contains no blood vessels and is complete transparent, allowing
light to pass through. Its curvature helps bend/refract incoming light rays so they
converge at the back of the eyeball.
The middle coat:
The choroid layer is located in the middle coat of the eyeball. Most of the blood
vessels in the eye are located in this layer. Posteriorly (towards back of the eye),

the choroid layer is black and reduces scattering and reflection of light within the
eye. Anteriorly (towards front of the eye), the choroid forms the ciliary body and
lens. In front of this is the iris.
The ciliary body forms a ring around the front of the eye, and contains the
circularly arrange ciliary muscles. The ciliary muscles attach to the lens by
suspensory ligaments. The muscles and ligaments are important in adjusting the
curvature of the lens for near and far vision. The ciliary body also secretes
aqueous humour.
Aqueous humour is a transparent, watery liquid found in the anterior part of
the eye between the cornea and the lens. It provides nutrients for the lens and
the cornea (both of which do not have their own blood supply. It also helps
refract light.
Vitreous humour is a clear, jelly-like material filling the remainder of the
eyeball. It contains dissolved nutrients, refracts light, and helps maintain shape
of the eyeball.
The lens is a transparent structure made of cells enclosed in a membrane called
the lens capsule. The lens refracts light rays and directs them onto the retina to
form a focused image. The lens is highly elastic allowing it to change shape
(either rounder or flatter). This allows the eye to accommodate for near and far
vision.
The iris is the coloured part of the eye, situated behind the cornea and in front
of the lens. It is surrounded by aqueous humour. The iris is made up of
connective tissue and smooth muscles, which allow it to perform its main
function that is, controlling the size of the pupil. The pupil is an opening in the
iris through which light passes in order to reach the retina at the back of the eye.
The inner coat
The retina contains photoreceptor cells, nerves and blood vessels; the
photoreceptor cells (cones- which respond to colour, and rods which do not
respond to colour) respond to light before transmitting the information towards
the central nervous system.
The fovea is a particularly sensitive area (near the centre) of the retina that
focuses images most sharply. It contains densely packed cone cells, but no rod
cells at all. The fovea is the part of the retina where the greatest detail can be
detected
The blind spot is an area of the retina corresponding to the exit point for the
optic nerve. Because there are no rod/cone cells, light cannot be detected in
this area.
The optic nerve transmits visual signals from the retina to the brain.

Identify the limited range of wavelengths of the electromagnetic

spectrum detected by humans and compare this range with those of
other vertebrates and invertebrates
Use available evidence to suggest reasons for the differences in range
of electromagnetic radiation detected by humans and other animals
The electromagnetic spectrum is a major stimulus that impacts on our sense.
It is a range of energy forms that all travel at the speed of light, and in waves.
However, electromagnetic waves differ in wavelength (distance between
successive crests of a wave) and frequency (amount of waves passing through a
given point in one second).
Visible light (for humans) lies towards the middle of the electromagnetic
spectrum with wavelengths of 400-700nm. The human eye is limited to the
detection of only the wavelengths that lie in this range; all other forms of
electromagnetic radiation cannot be detected by the naked eye.

Most living organisms have a visual range close to that of humans; however,
some are very different. For example:
Humans are able to detect wavelengths in the visible spectrum (400700nm) to allow for us to distinguish foods and objects within our
environment.
Honeybees are able to detect wavelengths in the ultraviolet range (300650 nm). Some flowers have ultraviolet markings on them which the bees
use to find pollen; to guide them to the nectar of a plant.

 Rattle snakes can detect infrared light (400-850 nm), in order to detect
prey (heat is emitted in the form of infrared waves)
Deep sea fish can only detect blue light (450-500 nm); little light
penetrates to the depth at which they live so they use bioluminescence
(470 nm) to communicate

Plan, choose equipment or resources, and perform a first-hand

investigation of a mammalian eye to gather first hand data to relate
structures to functions
Aim: To dissect a cows eye and relate structures to functions
Materials:

Cows eye
Dissecting equipment (sharp scalpel, dissecting scissors, forceps, probe)
Disposable rubber gloves
Dissecting tray
Newspaper

Safety:
Risk
Sharp scalpel/scissors could cut skin

Entry of infective microbes via any cuts

in skin

Controlling risk
Great care must be taken when using
scalpel/scissors. Use forceps to hold
the eye whilst dissecting to minimise
risk of cutting your own fingers.
Wear rubber gloves when performing
dissection

Method
1. Put on a pair of disposable gloves, collect and eye specimen and place on
newspaper on top of dissecting tray
2. Remove fatty tissue from around the eyeball with the scissors and scalpel
3. Examine the external features of the eye (optic nerve, sclera, cornea,
conjunctiva, iris, pupil etc.)
4. Cut a long around the eyeball parallel to the lens. The clear liquid that
escapes is the aqueous humour. Observe the pupil and iris at the front.
5. Remove the lens. The vitreous humour, which is denser and more jelly like
than the aqueous humour, can also be removed.
6. Clean the lens. Observe words on newspaper with the lens; try squeezing
the lens and see what happens.

7. Rinse the eyeball and examine the retina

8. Wrap the eye and eye parts in newspaper and dispose of them.
9. Place dissecting equipment in disinfectant, and dispose of dissecting
gloves

3. The clarity of the signal transferred can affect interpretation of

the intended visual communication
Identify the conditions under which refraction of light occurs
The bending of light is called refraction. Refraction occurs when light travels
from one medium to another of a different density at an angle other than 90
degrees (perpendicular). This is because the light travelling at differing speeds in
the different mediums. If light travels to a more dense medium, it bends towards
the normal; if it enters a less dense medium, it bends away from the normal.
Identify the cornea, aqueous humour, lens and vitreous humour as
refractive media
Light refraction occurs at each
boundary between the cornea,
aqueous humour, lens and vitreous
humour due to their varying densities.
The refraction is essential to form a
clear image on the retina.
Refraction occurs when light passes
from the air into the denser material of
the cornea. When the light then passes
into less dense aqueous humour, it is
refracted again. The same thing occurs
when the light passes through the
denser lens, and then finally through the vitreous humour.
Identify accommodation as the focusing on objects at different
distances, describe its achievement through the change in curvature of
the lens and explain its importance
Accommodation refers to the focusing of objects at different distances.

A convex lens is one that is thicker in the

middle, thinner on the outside. It causes light
The lenses in our eyes are convex.

to converge.

A concave lens is one that is thinner in the

middle, thicker on the outside. It causes light
to diverge.
Most of the refraction occurs when light passes
through the cornea; however fine focusing is
achieved through the lens. The lens is attached
via suspensory ligaments in the middle of a ring of muscle called suspensory
ligaments. The contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles in the ciliary body
causes the shape of the lens to change, and hence alters the focal
length/distance.
If we wish to see a close object, the ciliary body contracts, the
suspensory ligaments become loose, and the lens becomes more
rounded in shape.
If we wish to see a distant object, the ciliary body relaxes; the
suspensory ligaments become tighter and pull on the lens. The lens
gets flatter in shape, giving a clear image of the object.
This ability to make the lens just the right thickness in order to see objects at
different distances is called the power of accommodation.
Focusing is the result of accommodation. It is essential for an image to be
focused to achieve clear vision. In this way, accommodation allows organisms to
see both near and far objects clearly. This is important for many organisms to be
able to detect predators, food sources etc.
Compare the change in the refractive power of the lens from rest to
maximum accommodation
Maximum accommodation (in terms of the ciliary
muscles) occurs when focusing on very close
objects and the lens is rounded in shape.
Relaxed/rest state occurs when looking at distant
objects, and the lens is flatter in shape.
Refractive power is basically the degree to which
the lens bends/refracts light. It is inversely
proportional to the focal length of the lens, and is
measured by the unit dioptre.
When the eye is looking at close objects, the light rays tend to diverge as they
reach the eye. For proper focusing, the refractive power of the lens must be
increased, by making the lens more convex (rounded).

When the eye is looking at distant objects, light reaches the eyes in almost
parallel rays. This light is focused on the retina when the lens has little refractive
power (i.e. when it is quite flat). A minimal amount of refraction or bending of
light occurs when it passes through the lens as it is not required.
Lens
Shape
Distance from object
Refractive power

Maximum
accommodation
Bulges/round
Near
High (approx. 67
dioptres)

Rest
Thin/flat
Distant
Lower (20-34 dioptres)

Distinguish between myopia and hyperopia and outline how

technologies can be used to correct these conditions
Myopia, or short sightedness, is when it is possible
to see near objects clearly, but more distant objects
are blurred and indistinct. It occurs when the
distance between the lens and the retina is too great
(i.e. the eyeball is too long) or when the lens
cannot get thin enough to focus distant objects
correctly (instead, the image is focused in front of the
retina).
Myopia can be corrected by wearing glasses with
concave lenses (thinner middle, thicker ends
diverges light). They spread the light rays out before
entering the eye; allowing the lens to focus them
correctly.

Hyperopia, or long sightedness, is when it is possible to see distant objects

clearly, but near objects are blurred and indistinct. It occurs when the distance
between the lens and the retina is too short (i.e. eyeball is too short) or when
the lens cannot get fat enough to focus near objects correctly (instead, the
image is focused on an imagery spot behind the retina).

Hyperopia can be corrected by wearing glasses with

convex lenses. These bend the light rays in a bit extra to
allow them to focus on the retina.
Other corrective technologies
Laser surgery can also be used treat myopia and
hyperopia. The treatment involves reshaping the
curvature of the cornea. A thin flap or corneal tissue is
cut, folded back, and a laser beam is applied to the
exposed corneal tissue (reshaping the layers underneath
to treat refractive error). When the laser is finished, the
flap is returned.
Contact lenses are similar to spectacle lenses (either
concave or convex). However, they are designed to
model the curvature of the eyeball, and sit directly on the
surface on the eye just covering the cornea.
Explain how the production of two different images
of a view can result in a depth perception
Depth perception depends on binocular vision, where the field of view of each
eye overlaps allowing each eye to observe the same object simultaneously.
The images formed by each eye are superimposed by the brain, and because
each view is slightly different, it allows us to see it in three-dimensions.
When objects are close enough, we are also able to judge its distance from us.
Stereoscopic vision refers to vision where the same object is viewed from
slightly different angles creating an impression of depth. Predators also have
stereoscopic vision (eyes at front of the head) to allow them to estimate
distances from prey. Tree-dwelling primates have it to allow them to estimate
depth when moving from branch to branch. Animals that are likely to be preyed
upon, however, usually have eyes placed on each side of the head allowing for
a wider total visual field at the expense of losing the ability to judge distances.
Plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand
investigation to model the process of accommodation by passing rays of
light through convex lenses of different focal lengths
Aim: To model the process of accommodation by passing rays of light through
convex lenses of differing lengths
Independent variable: shape of the lens
Dependent variable: Distance between screen and the lens required to focus
Controlled variables: light source, screen, distance between light and screen
Equipment:

 Two convex lenses of different shape (one thin, one thick)

Lens holder
Sheet of white paper clipped on solid support (acts as a screen where the
object is focused)
Candle as a source of light

Method:
1. Darken the room and set up thin lens holder as above
2. Move the lens forwards and backwards to find a position that produces a
clear, focused image of the light source on screen.
3. Measure and record the distance of the screen from the lens
4. Keep the lens holder the same distance, and change the lens to the thick
lens. Observe the screen and not the appearance of the image
5. Repeat steps 2-3 for the thick lens
Results: The thicker lens (one with more curvature) had a smaller focal length
(was closer to the screen). The thinner lens (one will less curvature) had a longer
focal length (held further from the screen)
Analyse information from secondary sources to describe changes in the
shape of the eyes lens when focusing on near and far objects
When a person is looking at something close, the ciliary body contracts,
the ligaments loosen, and the lens becomes rounded. Accommodation and
refractive power of the lens are at a maximum.
When a person is looking at something distant, the ciliary muscles relax,
the ligaments tighten, and the lens becomes flatter and thinner. The
muscles are in a relaxed state, and refractive power is minimal.
Process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe
cataracts and the technology that can be used to prevent blindness
from cataracts and discuss the implications of this technology for
society
Cataracts are a condition where the lens grows cloudy and eventually becomes
opaque. When part or the whole of the lens becomes opaque, the transmission of
light through the eye is obstructed, causing both near and far objects to become
blurred. Cataracts mostly develop slowly as a result of aging. The development
of cataracts is often linked to eye injury, extended exposure of the eyes to the
suns UV light, excessive smoking, radiation and particular diseases (e.g.
diabetes).

When the presence of cataracts begins to interfere with daily activities and the
quality of ones life, treatment by means of surgery is the only option
Technologies used
Today, cataract surgery involves IOL implantation that is, replacing the
cloudy lens with a plastic/silicone intraocular lens (lens within the eye), similar
in shape to a natural human lens.
The most common technique (phacoemulsification) involves making a 3mm
incision where the cornea meets the sclera, and small, vibrating probe is inserted
into the eye. This probe breaks up the lens into small particles, which are then
suctioned out using an aspirator. The artificial lens is then inserted into the space
left in the existing lens capsule. The incision in the eye may be so small that no
stiches are needed.
Implications
The cataract surgery takes very little time, is performed under local anaesthetic,
and can be done anywhere. It has revolutionised the treatment of cataracts so
that people who are cataract blind, can now see. The implications of cataract
surgery are huge; regaining sight often increases an individuals life span, and
allows older people to live more independent and active lives, thus reducing the
financial burden required to look after the elderly.
This safe, precise and successful technique has been made available to
thousands of people in developing countries through groups like the Fred Hollows
Foundation, which send teams to those isolated and poor communities to
perform cataract surgery. As such, the surgery was made available to those who
could not previously afford them.
4. The light signal reaching the retina is transformed into an
electrical impulse
Identify photoreceptors cells as those containing light sensitive
pigments and explain that these cells convert light images into
electrochemical signals that the brain can interpret
The retina is a thin sheet of cells that contain photoreceptor cells.
Photoreceptor cells are those containing light sensitive pigments and
these cells convert light into electrochemical signals that the brain can
interpret.
There are two types of photoreceptor cells in the retina:
- Rods
- Cones (respond to colour
Rod

Cone
responds
to colour

Rods and
cones contain

photosensitive chemical substances that undergo chemical reactions

when they absorb light energy.
When the rods and cones are stimulated by light, electrochemical signals
are transmitted through successive neurones on the retina and finally into
the optic nerve and then to the cerebral cortex in the brain.
Describe the differences in distribution, structure and function of the
photoreceptor cells in the eye

Feature
Distribution

Rods
- 125 million in the human
retina
- Spread across the retina
but more dense around
the edges of the retina
(periphery)

Cones
- 6-7 million in the human retina
- Located mostly on the fovea
(centre) of the retina and a
small depression in the centre
of the macula lutea at the
back of the eyeball.

Structure

none in the fovea

Elongated
Narrower, longer and
straighter
Contains visual pigments
(rhodopsins) in stacks of
disc-shaped membrane at
one end of the cell. The
other end connects to a
nerve cell
In low light conditions
the pupil dilates, allowing
light to fall on the rods
So in low light levels, our
vision is more grainy and
we cannot discriminate
colour.
Best in dim light, do not
distinguish colour
(discriminates between
shades of light and dark),
used for night vision
More sensitive to light
Sensitive to movement
Formation of images

Function

In the fovea each cone cell is

connected to one nerve cell to
give the greatest acuity
Elongated
Conical
Shorter
Contains visual pigments
(photopsins) in stacks of discshaped membrane at one end
of the cell. The other end
connects to a nerve cell
In bright light the pupil is
contracted and most light falls
on the cones
This means that in bright light
we can see detailed, coloured
images
Require more light than rods to
be stimulated
Day vision, colour vision and
visual tasks requiring visual
acuity (e.g. reading)
Formation of images

Outline the role of rhodopsin in rods

Rod cells contain a photosensitive pigment that absorbs light waves called
rhodopsin which is made of up of the protein opsin in loose chemical
combination with a pigment called retinal.
When light strikes a rod cell it stimulates a response, the retinal changes
shape and loses its attachment to the opsin molecule and splits rhodopsin
molecules into its components.
Energy (ATP) is required to reattach retinal to opsin and to return rhodopsin
to the shape that it had before being stimulated by light.
Rhodopsin allows seeing the shades of grey, black and white.
Identify that there are three types of cones, each containing separate
pigment to either blue, red or green light
There are three types of cones in the human eye, each containing a
pigment sensitive to either blue, red or green light.
Because three photopigments are used to interpret colour by the various
cone cells, humans possess trichromatic vision.
The photosynthetic pigment present in cones is iodopsin, which contains
photopsin. There are 3 types of photopsin present in cones:

- Opsin green
- Opsin red
- Opsin blue
An individual cone contains only one of the three types of photopsins.
Each type of photopsin absorbs light in a particular range of wavelengths:
- Blue: short wavelengths
- Green: medium wavelengths
- Red: long wavelengths
Explain that colour blindness in humans results from the lack of one or
more of the colour-sensitive pigments in the cones
Colour blindness is the inability to see certain colour; there are a range
of colour blindness conditions from only a slight difficulty distinguishing
different shades of the same colour to the rare inability to distinguish any
colours.
Colour blindness in humans results from the lack of one or more of the
colour-sensitive pigments in the cones, people who are colour blind still
see some colour.
As rod cells detect light (not colour), they play no role in colour blindness
so those who are colour-blind can usually
see.
The most common type of colour blindness
is red-green (people with the condition
perceive red and green as the same
colour), where the cones most receptive to
red light and green light are missing.
Colour blindness is more frequent in males
than females because it is a sex-linked
characteristic; the gene for the red and
green cones is located in the X
chromosome. Females have two X
chromosomes (XX) and males only have
one (XY) which means that females need
both chromosomes carrying the defective gene to express it while males
only need one.
Process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare
and describe the nature and functioning of photoreceptor cells in
mammals, insects and in one other animal

Type of
photorecep
tor
Type of
image

Mammal: Human

Insect: Dragonfly

Rods and cones

Reticular/retinal cells
in separate
ommatidia
Mosaic image of large
visual field, can see in
colour

Image on retina is
inverted and diminished

Flatworm: Planarian
Worm
Eye cups

Image (if formed) is

unclear and not inverted
gives information about

light intensity and

direction
Detects light - rhodopsin

Similarity in
photorecep
tors
Difference
in
photorecep
tor

Detects light - rhodopsin

Detects light rhodopsin

Has higher resolving

power and greater
visual acuity

Has fewer photoreceptor

cells than insect or
mammals and has poor
visual acuity and no
colour vision. Two eye
spots (Ocelli) are used to
detect light and move
away from it.

Structure
that
refracts
light
Sensitivity
to light

Cornea, aqueous
humour, lens (changes
curvature), vitreous
humour
Rhodopsin is a
photosensitive pigment

Is made up of many
units called
ommatidia (each has
its own cornea and
transparent
crystalline cone which
acts as lens) pointing
in different direction.
Can be more efficient
detecting colour than
mammals and fast
movement.
Cornea, lens (fixed,
cannot
accommodate)

Highly sensitive

Visual
acuity

High visual acuity

Greater detects
light, UV as well as
visible light
Lower visual acuity
than mammals but
more efficient in
detecting movement

No refraction

Poor visual acuity

Mammals have a similar eye structure to humans; the major difference

within mammal eyes is the presence or absence of cone cells (nocturnal
mammals have no cones, so they cannot
Worm
Compoun
see colour).
eye cup
d eyes

Process and analyse

information from
secondary sources to
describe and analyse the
use of colour for
communication in animals
and relate this to the
occurrence of colour
vision in animals
Many animals use colour for
communication. Colour can
be used to enable animals to:
Find a mate
Warn off predators
Find food
Animal
Fireflies
Blue-ringed
octopus
Peacock

Method
Bioluminescence
Glowing blue ring around
their bodies
Extensive colouring of
feathers

Rainbow lorikeets

Bright colours underneath

wings/beaks

Red-back spider

Red strip on abdomen

Purpose
To attract mates
Signal an intention to attack
Peacocks use colour in
courtship behaviour. The
male peacock has a bright
blue chest to attract and
impress the female
The lorikeet threaten rivals
by opening their wings/beaks
to display the warning
colours
Use as a warning mechanism
telling predators that they
are poisonous

5. Sound is also a very important communication medium for

humans and other animals
Explain why sound is a useful and versatile form of communication
Sound is a useful and versatile form of communication as it does not require
contact or closeness between organisms to send and receive messages. Sound
can convey very complex messages because it has many features that can be
varied (e.g. frequency, loudness, speed, length of sound)

 Sound can be used to communicate both at day and night; and over
distances where animals cannot see, smell or touch each other. For
example, it can be used to communication in dense forests
All animals live in environments that transmit sound (solid, liquid, gas
mediums air, water, earth).
Explain that sound is produced by vibrating objects and that the
frequency of the sound is the same as the frequency of the vibration of
the source of the sound
Sound is a form of energy caused by a
vibrating object (moving back and
forth). Sound waves must then have
medium to travel through; the
medium can be solid, liquid or gas. The
vibrating object causes vibrations (of the
same frequency) in the medium
compressing surrounding particles, which
is subsequently followed by rarefaction
(where the particles spread out again). This
action results in a compression
(longitudinal) wave travelling through the
medium.

Frequency refers to the number of wavelengths that pass through a given point
per second, and is measured in hertz (Hz). It determines the pitch of the sound.
Note: Lower frequencies (longer wavelengths) travel further, whilst shorter
frequencies do not travel as far
Amplitude refers to the maximum displacement of particles (i.e. maximum
compression), and determines the loudness of the sound.
Outline the structure of the human larynx and the associated structures
that assist the production of sound

The larynx is a complex structure situated in the throat-neck region, which

forms part of the trachea. It is made up of cartilage leading from the oral
cavity (mouth) to the bronchi/lungs. A major function of the larynx is to produce
sound. This is mainly achieved through the two muscular vocal cords/folds
(made of elastic fibres) within the cartilage, which move when we speak and
breathe. Controlled vibration of these vocal chords produces sounds of different
pitch and volume by changing shape.
Tight, stretched vocal folds (with a smaller gap between the vocal folds)
produce a higher pitch
Looser, relaxed vocal folds(with a larger gap between vocal folds) produce
a lower pitch

Overall speech requires many other systems, including:

The brain
The mouth (lips, soft palate, tongue)
Respiratory system (nose, throat and lungs the muscles to the lungs
provide the volume of the sound)
Gather and process information from secondary sources to outline and
compare some of the structures used by animals other than humans to
produce sound
Structures used to produce sound
Cicada

Grasshoppers and
crickets
Frogs

Muscular action altering the chitinuous membranes

(within its abdomen) produces sound, which is then
amplified using tympana membranes.
Stridulation the insect rubs its rear legs on their
forewings to generate a sound through friction
Male frogs squeeze air through the larynx and over the
vocal cords whilst the mouth and nose are closed to
produce sound. This sound is then amplified by inflated
vocal sacs (membranes of skin under the throat)

Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to gather data to identify

the relationship between wavelength, frequency and pitch of a sound
Wavelength refers to the distance from one crest to another (or one trough to
another)
Frequency refers to the number of crests that pass a particular point per unit
time. It is measured in Hertz (Hz)
The pitch refers to our perception of the sound, and depends on the
frequency/wavelength of the sound. A sound wave with a short wavelength will
have a high frequency, producing a sound of higher pitch. A sound wave with a
longer wavelength will have a low frequency, producing a sound of lower pitch.
Method
1. Place a 30 cm ruler on the end of a table. Ensure that approximately 2/3 of
the ruler is hanging off the table
2. Push down on the end of the ruler hanging off the table and release
3. Observe the pitch of the sound and the frequency (through the
approximate number of vibrations of the ruler per second)
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 with a gradually lower proportion of the ruler
hanging off
Note: the force upon which you push down on the ruler correlates to the
amplitude of the sound produced (more force = higher amplitude = higher
volume)
Results
When a larger portion of the ruler was left hanging off, a lower pitch was heard
(due to a lower number of vibrations of the ruler, and hence a lower frequency).
When a lower portion of the ruler was hanging off, the opposite effect was
observed.
6. Animals that produce vibrations also have organs to detect
vibrations
Outline and compare the detection of vibrations by insects, fish and
mammals
Insects
Some insects have tympanic organs special structures used to detect
vibrations. For example, crickets have tympanic membranes on their legs and
abdomen, which vibrate when sound reaches them (acting like eardrums).
Sensory cells (mechanoreceptor cells) detect the messages and send it to the
brain. This system is more sensitive to high frequency sounds.
On the other hand, mosquitoes have hairs on antennae to detect sound.
Fish

Fish have internal ears and a lateral line system along the sides of their
body.
The line system consists of a long fluidfilled canal (lateral line canal) which
runs underneath the skin on the side of
the fish. There are pores (openings) at
regular intervals joining the canals to the
outside. Any disturbance in the water
causes vibrations in the fluid, which is
then detected by the neuromasts via
the receptor hair cells on their ends.
The hair cells project into the canal fluid,
thus allowing it to detect vibrations. Once the hair cells are stimulated, nerve
impulses are then sent to the brain.
The line system detects the fishs own movement through the water, the
direction/speed of the current, any vibrations or pressure waves from moving
objects (e.g. predators) and low-frequency sounds.
Fish also have inner ears near the brain. Vibrations are conducted through the
skeleton and the air-filled swim bladder (in the abdomen) through to the
inner ear. Hair cells in the semicircular canals (in the inner ears) vibrate in
response and send a message to the brain.
Mammals
The detection of vibrations in mammals occurs through organs known as ears.
Vibrations are detected by hair cells in internal structures as a result of
vibration of membranes and their amplification from the outside through to the
inner ear.
Describe the anatomy and function of the human ear, including: pinna,
tympanic membrane, ear ossicles, oval window, round window, cochlea,
organ
of Corti,

auditory nerve

The outer ear

The outer ear consists of the pinna and an ear canal which ends in a membrane
called the eardrum.
The pinna refers to the outer part of the ear visible on the side of ones head. It
consist of numerous grooves; folds of skin over cartilage. Its function is to
collect sound waves and direct them into the ear.
The sound waves travel along the ear canal (external auditory meatus) until it
reaches the tympanic membrane (ear drum). The ear drum is a flexible
membrane that stretches tightly across the passage of the canal. It vibrates
when sound waves reach it, and transfers the mechanical energy into the middle
ear.
The middle ear
The middle ear consists of three tiny bones (ossicles), the oval/round window and
the Eustachian tube (which connects with the back of the nose and throat)
The ear ossicles (note MIS) consist of three tiny, movable bones: the malleus
(hammer), incus (anvil) and the stapes (stirrups). When the eardrums vibrate,

the ossicles vibrate, in turn amplifying the sound and conducting it to the oval
window.
The oval window is a flexible region that joins the ossicles of the middle ear to
the cochlea in the inner ear. The oval window is directly connected to the stapes,
allowing it to fulfil its function of: picking up vibrations from the ossicles and
passing them into the fluid in the cochlea.
The round window is a flexible membrane between the cochlea and middle
ear, situated just below the oval window. When the stapes pushes into the oval
window, the round window bulges outwards and acts as a pressure release
valve (adjusting pressure differences to allow for fluid movement within the
cochlea). This is important because the fluid movement is required for the hair
cells within the cochlea to be stimulated (and hence cause hearing).
The inner ear
The inner ear consists of a series of bony canals and chambers that are filled
with fluid. From here, nerve fibres join up to form the auditory nerve, which
transmit impulses to the auditory cortex of the brain.
The cochlea is a coiled up system of three tubular chambers filled with fluid. It
has the appearance of the snail shell. Its function is to change mechanical
energy into electrochemical energy.
The organ of Corti is a structure within the cochlea (in the cochlear duct on
the basilar membrane) that contains millions of receptor hair cells that convert
vibrations (fluid movements) into electrochemical signals (nerve impulses).
The hair cells synapse onto sensory neurones, which collect into the auditory
nerve.
The auditory nerve is a nerve that travels from the ear to the brain. Its function
is to essentially transmit electrochemical signals to the brain.

Outline the role of the Eustachian

tube
The Eustachian tube connects the
middle ear to the throat/nose. The main
role of the Eustachian tube is to
equalise the pressure between the
outer and inner ear, so that the eardrum
can vibrate efficiently. The Eustachian
tube executes its function by connecting
the middle ear to an air-filled space
(pharynx in the throat). The tube is
usually closed, but is opened by yawning or swallowing.

Outline the path of a sound wave through the external, middle and
inner ear and identify the energy transformations that occur
In air, sound travels in a longitudinal (compressional) wave. It consists of a series
of compressions and decompressions of particles in the air, caused by a vibration
at the source.
Sound waves firstly travel into the ear canal and reach the tympanic membrane
(ear drum) causing vibration of the ear drum at the same frequency as the
entering sound waves. In this way, sound energy is converted to mechanical
energy (movement of the tympanic membrane). Subsequently, the ear ossicles
also vibrate.
As the ear ossicles vibrate, they transfer the vibrations to the oval window which
is pushed inwards onto the cochlea. This creates a pressure wave in the fluids of
the cochlea. As the wave travels through the fluids, the round window membrane
is pushed in the opposite direction. The fluid pressure waves push into the
cochlear duct, and onto the membranes close to the organ of Corti. This
movement of the membranes bend the cochlear hair cells. This stimulates nerve
impulses in the neurones that lead to the auditory nerve. Hence mechanical
energy is converted into electrochemical energy (nerve impulses). The
impulses travel along the auditory nerve to the brain, where it is interpreted as
sound.
Describe the relationship between the distribution of hair cells in the
organ of Corti and the detection of sounds of different
frequencies
There are thin fibres of varying lengths spread within the
basilar membrane on the organ of Corti.
Vibrations of different frequencies travel different
distances through the fluids of the cochlea, before
causing the fibres of the membrane to vibrate.
Hence, each length of fibre vibrates at a
different frequency.
High frequency sounds cause the short
fibres in the front part of the membrane
(near the oval window) to vibrate. Lower
frequency sounds cause the longer fibres
towards the end of the basilar membrane
(see right)
When a particular fibre is stimulated (vibrated), its associated hair cell is
bent. This then causes the cell to send an electrochemical impulse along the
auditory nerve to the brain. The nerve impulses travel to different areas of the
auditory cortex in the brain, depending on where the nerve impulse is generated
on the basilar membrane. In this way, sound of different frequencies will activate

different sets of hair cells that send the signal to a distinct area of the brain
causing us to perceive sound of a particular pitch.
Outline the role of the sound shadow cast by the head in the location of
the sound
The location of our ears on either side of our
head helps us perceive the direction from
which a sound is sourced from. Sound waves
coming directly in front, behind or above the
head will cause both ears to receive the sound
waves equally. However, sound coming from the
one side reaches the ear corresponding to that
side but is blocked by the head in reaching the
other ear. This creates a sound shadow for the
ear furthest from the sound source (receiving a
reduction in amplitude).
The receptors in the ear closer to the sound will detect it more intensely (and
also earlier). The differences in perception by each ear due to the sound shadow
enable the brain to then interpret the direction of a sound.
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources on the
structure of the mammalian ear to relate structures to functions
Structure
Pinna
Tympanic
membrane
Ear ossicles
Oval
window
Round
window
Cochlea

Description of Anatomy
Large fleshy external part of
the ear
The eardrum membrane that
stretches across the ear canal
Three tiny bones: malleus,
incus, stapes
Region linking the ossicles
(middle ear) to the cochlea (in
inner ear)
Membrane between cochlea
and middle ear beneath oval
window
Circular fluid filled chamber

Organ of
Corti

Structure within cochlea

Auditory
nerve

Nerve travelling from the ear

to the brain

Function
Collects sound and channels it
into the ear
Vibrates when sound reaches it
and transfers mechanical energy
into middle ear
Amplify the vibrations from
tympanic membrane
Picks up vibrations from ossicles
and passes them into cochlear
fluid
Bulges outwards to allow release
of pressure caused by vibration of
stapes onto the oval window
Changes mechanical energy into
electrochemical
Contains hair cells that transfer
the vibrations into
electrochemical signals
Transmits electrochemical signals
to the brain

Process information from secondary sources to outline the range of

frequencies detected by humans as sound and compare this range with
two other mammals, discussing possible reasons for the differences
identified
Mamm
al
Human

Hearing
range (Hz)
16 20,000

Mouse

1000
123,000

Bat

1000
120,000

Reason
This hearing range encompasses the normal range
projected by human voice (1000 3000Hz), of which
our ear is most sesntivie to.
Mice communicate using high frequency noise, and
are able to produce sounds out of predators
frequency ranges. Hence they can alert other mice of
danger without alerting the predator to their presence.
Bats produce frequencies up to 120,000 Hz for
echolocation, where they listen to the echoes of their
calls in order to navigate and locate food. This is
important as bats are nocturnal mammals, thus they
often find food in complete darkness.

Process information from secondary sources to evaluate a hearing aid

and a cochlear implant in terms of: the position and type of energy
transfer occurring, conditions under which the technology will assist
hearing, limitations of each technology
Descriptio
n

Hearing aid
Hearing aids are battery
operated devices that are
designed to amplify the sound
entering the outer ear. They can
be removed at any time

Position

Worn externally; inside the

external auditory canal

Type of
energy
transfer
Descriptio

Sound Electrical Sound

(Microphone, amplifier, speaker)
The aid receives sound energy

Cochlear implant
Cochlear implants are battery
operated devices used to replace a
damaged cochlear, which functions to
convert vibrations into
electrochemical energy to be sent
along the auditory nerve.
Worn both internally and externally:
o Headset (microphone and coil)
worn outside ear
o Speech processor also outside
ear
o Implant (receiver package and
electrodes) which is surgically
placed inside the skull and
inner ear (cochlea). The
receiver is inserted into a bone
behind the ear, and the coil is
threaded through the cochlea.
SoundElectricalElectrochemical

Sound waves are picked up by a

n of
energy
transfer

through a microphone, which

converts it into electrical energy.
The amplifier increases the
volume (amplitude) of the sound
and converts the electrical
energy back to sound. The sound
is then directed in the auditory
canal via a speaker on the aid.

Conditions
under
which it
will assist

Hearing aids only work if the

inner ear is intact and
functioning normally (i.e. no
nerve damage/defect; patient
must have residual hearing). For
example, if cochlea is damaged,
the aid wouldnt work as it only
amplifies the sound reaching the
inner ear. However, it will assist if
there is a ruptured ear drum, or
damaged ossicle.
o Some higher sound
frequencies cannot be
detected with the aid
o Loud noises are annoying
for users/ difficulty in
hearing with background
noises
o Does not assist when there
is damage to inner ear;
quality depends on
residual hearing
o Advantages: non-invasive,
no side effects, relatively
inexpensive, can be used
at any age.

Limitation
s

Future/
improvem
ent

The detection of more high

frequency sounds could be a
potential source of research and
improvement.

microphone and converted into an

electrical code by the speech
processor. Connecting cables then
transfer the electrical signals to the
implanted cochlear. The implant then
uses the electrical pulses to stimulate
the cochlear nerves creating
electrochemical messages that are
sent along the auditory nerve.
Cochlear implants are used where
permanent damage/defect has
occurred to the inner ear. It bypasses
damaged parts of the inner ear and
electronically stimulates the auditory
nerve. However, the implants will not
work if the auditory nerve is damaged.

Expensive in comparison to
hearing aids
o Requires surgery carries risk
and has side effects
o The sounds created by the
implant are different to normal
hearing (patients usually have
approx. 80% speech
recognition), which takes time
to learn. Works best if
implanted before the age of
five.
o Same issue as hearing aid with
background noises
o Required to adjust
programming for different
situations (e.g. conversation,
watching television)
o Recipient required to wear
permanent device (sound
processor) attached to skull,
which is a hindrance
Cochlear implants cannot help if
auditory nerve is damaged; this could
be a potential area of research. As
well, the limitations could be a source
of improvement, for example, having
more electrodes to improve range and
o

quality of hearing.

Hearing aid:

Cochlear implant

7. Signals from the eye and ear are transmitted as electrochemical

changes in the membranes of the optic and auditory nerve

Identify that a nerve is a bundle of neuronal fibres

The units that make up the nervous system are the nerve cells (also known as
neurones). There are three types of neurones
Sensory neurones which transmit electrochemical impulses from sense
organs to other neurones in the CNS
Motor neurones which transmit electrochemical impulses from the CNS to
muscles/glands
Connector neurones, which connect sensory neurones to motor neurones
(in brain/spinal cord)
Each neurone has three parts:
A cell body containing the nucleus (forms grey matter of the CNS)
One or more branching extensions called dendrites, which conduct nerve
impulses towards the cell body. In sensory neurones, there is a single
elongated dendrite called a Dendron
One single long extension called an axon (forms white matter of the CNS),
conducting nerve impulses away from the cell body.

Dendrites and axons are collectively referred to as neuronal fibres. They

consist of fluid-filled tubes and are often surrounded by a fatty, insulating cover
called the myelin sheath. The cell body of a neurone is usually located in the
CNS (brain or spinal cord), whilst the axon and dendrites usually extend towards
a sensory or effector organ. In this way, nerves can stretch over a long distances
(e.g. from base of spine to foot). The neuronal fibres (sensory or motor fibres) are
gathered into bundles, which are known as nerves. The bundle is held together
by a connective tissue sheath.

Neurone bundle (nerve)

Perform a first-hand investigation using stained prepared slides and/or

electron micrographs to gather information about the structure of
neurones/nerves
Myelin
sheath/ax
on electron
micrograph
(20,000x)

Electron
micrograph
of three
neurones
in human
brain

Electron
micrograph
sensory
neurone
in retina
(500x)

Identify neurones as nerve cells that are the transmitters of signals by

electrochemical changes in their membranes
Within a neurone, the myelin sheath has small gaps called the nodes of
Ranvier. The ion channels that function in the action potential are
concentrated in the node regions of the axons. Also, extracellular fluid is only in
contact with the neuronal membrane at these nodes. The action potential jumps
from node to node, skipping the insulated regions of the membrane between
each node.

Nerve impulses are electrical signals

produced by the plasma membrane of a
nerve cell. Basically, when the cell is at rest, a
potential difference (difference in electrical
charge) exists across the membrane. The side
of the membrane exposed to the cytoplasm is
negative, whilst the side exposed to the
extracellular fluid is positive. The differences
on either side of the membrane result in a
cellular voltage (difference in potential
energy), which is known as the resting
membrane potential. This potential
measures to be about 70 millivolts, expressed
as -70 mV (indicating the inside of the
membrane as negative). Thus, the membrane
is known to be polarised.
At resting state, there is a higher
concentration of sodium ions in the
extraceullar fluid and a higher concentration
of potassium inside the cell membrane. The ion channels (which are
selectively permeable to Na+, K+, Cl- ) are closed and the ratio of Na + within the
cell is maintained via the Na+/K+ exchange pump (where Na+ is actively
transported out).
Depolarisation and action potential
A cell membranes potential can change in response to appropriate stimulations.
When the cell membrane of a neuron is stimulated (e.g. light at sensory
receptor), the sodium channels open and subsequently, Na + ions diffuse into the
cell, causing depolarisation (a positive shift from membrane potential; e.g.
from -70mV to -40mV). If the depolarisation is strong enough, it generates a
nerve impulse or action potential.
The change in voltage causes the potassium channels to open, so K + ions diffuse
outside to restore the potential difference. Meanwhile, the sodium channels
close. This process is called repolarisation. The original distribution of the K+
and Na+ ions is restored via the Na+/K+ exchange pump, causing the cell
membrane to return to its resting potential. This is known as the refractory
period, a brief moment where another action potential cannot be generated

Transmitting action potentials

The action potential is propagated along the
whole neurone as the inward flow of the Na +
affects the permeability of the next region of
membrane and it too depolarises creating a
domino effect, ultimately resulting in a wave
of ionic changes moving along the whole
neurone. Note that the movement occurs in
one direction only.
Furthermore, action potentials are
transmitted from neurone to neuron across
synapses, which are gaps between end of
an axon (of one cell) and the dendrites of the
next receiving neurone. Basically
neurotransmitter chemicals diffuse across
the gap from one neurone to the membrane
of another causing an electrical response
Define the term threshold and explain
why not all stimuli generate an action
potential
Present information from secondary
sources to graphically represent a
typical action potential
The threshold refers to the amount of
positive charge in a membrane pontetial
required before an action potential is
produced. The threshold is typically at least
15 mV more positive than resting potential (70 mV).
The action potential is an all-or-none
response; either the level of stimulation is
below the threshold and nothing
happens, or it reaches the threshold and an
action potential is generated.
Note that an action potential does not
vary in size. If a stimulus is very strong, the
rate at which action potentials are generated
increases, causing an increase in the number
of cells to respond.
Furthermore, if a cell is within its refractory period, an action potential cannot be
produced, until the previous one is complete.

Identify the areas of the cerebrum involved in the perception and

interpretation of light and sound
The cerebrum forms a large portion of the brain, and it controls thinking,
foresight, movements and sensation. The cerebrum is separated into two
hemispheres the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body whilst the
right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. The two halves connect and
communicate via bundles of nerve fibres that make up the corpus callosum.
The cerebrums folded surface layer is called the cerebral cortex.
The hemispheres are divided into four lobes:
Frontal lobe contains Brocas area which controls muscles of speech
and articulation of words
Temporal lobe Responsible for hearing, memory processing and
integration of hearing and vision. Includes the Wenickes area which
controls interpretation of language.
Parietal lobe used for interpreting written language
Occipital lobe processes visual information. It receives and interprets
information from retinas.

Other important areas of the brain include:

Cerebellum plays an important role in motor control; contributes to the
coordination (but not initiation) of movement
Medulla oblongata - located at the base of the brain just above the
spinal cord; deals with involuntary functions of breathing, heart rate and
blood pressure
Perception of light
Optic nerves are the sensory nerves of vision. Fibres form from the retina of the
eye, passing through the skull via an opening in the eye socket. The optic nerves
from each of the eye cross over to provide each visual cortex with the same
image, although each eye receives the image at a slightly different angle. A
visual cortex lies in the occipital lobe of each cerebral hemisphere.
Perception of sound
Auditory nerves arise from the cochlea and equilibrium (vestibule) apparatus
within the inner ear. The two divisions merge to form one nerve known as the
vestibulocochlear nerve. It runs from the organ of Corti to the auditory cortex,
located in the temporal lobe of each cerebral hemisphere.
Explain, using specific examples, the importance of correct
interpretation of sensory signals by the brain for the coordination of
animal behaviour
Sense organs detect changes in the environment and send information to the
brain. The brain then interprets the information and sends an impulse to the
effector organ (e.g. muscle). Hence, it is essential for the brain to correctly
interpret signals from the sense organ, in order for our effector organs to apply
an appropriate response.

For example, walking involves several receptors such as the eyes, gravity
receptors in the ears, pressure sensors in the feet and position receptors in the
joints. These receptors send signals to the brain. The brain must then correctly
interpret signals received, and send appropriate messages to the muscles to coordinate the process of walking.
The importance of the brain in the coordination of animal behaviour is further
highlighted when parts of it are damaged:
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune system in which the immune
system attacks the bodys own myelin protein. The myelin sheaths in the
CNS are gradually destroyed. As the insulating layer becomes nonfunctional, the impulses are short-circuited and eventually conduction of
impulses ceases. Because the brain can no longer correctly interpret
signals, this causes symptoms like: weakness in muscles, clumsiness,
visual disturbances (even blindness)
Alcohol and sedatives can impair transmission of nerve impulses by
reducing the plasma membranes permeability to sodium ions. AS a result,
the brain is unable to correctly interpret sensory signals, causing poor coordination of movements, lack of concentration, blurred vision, slurred
speech

Perform a first-hand investigation to examine an appropriate

mammalian brain or model of a human brain to gather information to
distinguish the cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata and locate
the regions involved in speech, sight and sound perception

Aim: To gather information to distinguish the cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla

oblongata and locate the regions involved in speech, sight and sound perception
Equipment:

Sheep Brain
Scalpel and tweezers
Rubber Gloves
Newspaper

Safety
Risk
There is a hazard using the scalpels.
The blades are extremely sharp and
may cause injury.
Pathogen contamination from organic
remains

Containing risk
Use extreme care when handling the
scalpel blades.
Remains should be wrapped in
newspaper and then given to the
laboratory technician for safe disposal.
Wipe down bench and disinfect after
dissection.

Method:
1
2
3
4

Examine the sheep brain externally noting the appearance and location of
the cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
Make a biological drawing of the external parts of the brain and labelling
the parts.
Cut the brain in half lengthways and identify the areas for speech, sight
and sound perception.
Make a biological drawing of the cross-section labelling that you can
identify for speech, sight and sound perception

Results:
Part of Brain
Cerebrum

Cerebellum

Medulla oblongata

Description
o Front part of the brain
o Folded
o Forms majority of the brain
structure
o Separated into 2 hemispheres
o Located underneath cerebrum
o Highly folded
o Back of the brain
o Smaller than cerebrum
o Base of the brain just above the
spinal cord; not folded and is the
smallest of the major brain
components
o Found between pons and spinal
cord
o White matter outside and grey
matter outside

White matter is composed mainly of myelinated axons. Grey matter is composed

mainly of cell bodies.