Duet CE-3301 Geotechnical Engineering - I

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed
DUET
CE-3301
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING -I
NOTE NO. 07
CONSOLIDATION
PREPARED BY:
Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman
Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET), Gazipur
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur, Bangladesh

2
Consolidation
Definition and general features:
Consolidation of a saturated soil is a time dependent process of volume

reduction that involves a decrease in water, air content of the soil.
So the process, involving a gradual compression occurring simultaneously

with a flow of water out of the mass and with a gradual transfer of the
applied pressure from the pore water to soil Skelton is called consolidation.
The process opposite to consolidation is called swelling, which involves an

increase in the water content due to an increase in the volume voids.
Consolidation may be due to one or more of the following factors:
1)
Due to external static load from structures.
2)
Due to self-weight of the soil such as recently placed fills.
3)
Due to lowering of the ground water table.
4)
Due to desiccation.
The type of total compression / Stage of Consolidation (Fig.- 1) of

saturated clay strata under excess effective pressure may be considered as
the sum of:
1)
Immediate or initial compression Stage -1
2)
Primary consolidation Stage-2
3)
Secondary consolidation Stage-3


3
Fig.- 1 Type of total compression / Stage of Consolidation
The portion of the settlement of a structure which occurs more or less

simultaneously with the applied loads is referred to as initial or immediate
settlement. It occurs under untrained condition and is calculated by
assuming the soil mass to behave as an elastic soil.
If the rate of compression of the soil layer is controlled solely by the

resistance of the flow of water under the induced hydraulic gradients, the
process is referred to as primary consolidation and settlement due to this
is called primary compression.
The compression is supposed to start after the primary compression ceases

that is after the excess pore water pressure approaches zero is called
secondary compression and it proceeds linearly with the logarithm of
time.
Principle of consolidation by Terzaghi:
The principle of consolidation of a clay-soil-water system may be

explained with the help of a mechanical model.
The model consists of a cylinder with a frictionless piston as shown in

Fig.-2.
The piston is supported on one or more helical metallic springs.
The space underneath the piston is completely filled with water.


4
Fig.-2: Mechanical model to explain the principle of consolidation
The model indicates that the springs represent the mineral skeleton in
the actual soil mass and the water below the piston is the pore water
under saturated condition in the soil mass.
When a load per unit area is placed on the piston, this load is fully
transferred to water (water is assumed to be incompressible) and the
water pressure increases.
The pressure in water is u = p i.e. Pore water pressure = External

pressure.
If the whole model is leak-proof without any holes in the piston, there
is no chance for the water to escape.
Such a condition represents a highly impermeable clay-water system

in which there is a very high resistance for the flow of water.


5
If a few holes are made in the piston, the water will immediately
escape through the holes.
With the escape of water through the holes a part of the load carried
by the water is transferred to the springs.
The time required to attain this condition depend upon the number
and size of the hole made in the piston.
After the spring water system attains equilibrium condition under the
imposed load the settlement of the piston is analogous to the
compression of the clay-water system by consolidation under external
pressures.
Consolidometer and the standard one-dimensional consolidation test :-
Fig.-3a:- Consolidometer
The compressibility of saturated, clay-water system is found by

means of the apparatus show diagrammatically in figure and devised
by Terzaghi known as Consolidometer or Oedometer (Fig.-3).
Test performed by a fixed rings from about 5 to 11 cm in diameter

and from about 2 to 4 cm in height.
The soil sample is contained in the brass ring between two porous
stones about 1.25 cm thick. By means of the porous stones water has
free access to and from both surface of the specimen.
The compressive load is applied to the specimen through a piston,

either by means of a hanger and dead weight or a system of levers
(1:10). The compression is measured by a dial gauge.


6
Loads are applied in steps in such a way that the successive load
intensity, P is twice the proceeding one.
The load intensities commonly are used , , 1,2,4,8 and 16 kg/cm2

(25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 and 1600 kN/m2 or kPa).
Each load is allowed to stand until compression has practically

ceased.
The dial readings are taken at elapsed times , , 1,2,4,8, 15, 30, 60,
120, 240 and 1440 minutes from the time the new increment of load
is put on the sample.


7
Fig.-3b:- Setting Steps the Soil Sample in Consolidometer
The sandy samples get compressed in relatively short time as

compared to clay samples and the use of one day duration is for the
letter.
The following data should be obtained:
i.
Moisture content and weight of the soil sample before the commencement
of the test.
ii.
Moisture content and weight of the sample after the completion of test.
iii. The specific gravity of the soils.

iv. The temperature of the room where test is conducted.
Pressure-void ratio curves :
The pressure-void ratio curve can be obtained if the void ratio of the
sample at the end of each increment of load is determined.
Void ratios are calculated as follows:
Calculate the height of solids in the soil sample = Hs, where Ws = dry wet
of the sample, A = area of the sample, Gs = specific gravity of soil solids
and
= unit wt of water.
Hv
Hs
H
Hs


8
Calculate the initial height of voids = Hv

Hv = H - Hs, where H = initial height of sample.
Calculate the initial void ratio of the sample = eo

eo = (Vv /Vs) = (HvA/HsA) = (Hv/Hs)
For the first increment loading P1 (total load/unit area of sample ) causing a
deformation H1, calculate the change of void ratio e1,
e1 = ( H1/Hs)
The quantity e1 is obtained from the initial and final dial readings from the
loading.
Calculate the new void ratio e1 after consolidation by the pressure

increment P1,
e1 = eo - e1
For the next loading P2 (the cumulative load per unit area of sample)
causing additional deformation of H2 , the void ratio e2 at the area of
consolidation can be calculated as e2 = e1 - ( H2/Hs)
Proceeding similarly, the void ratio e1, e2, e3, e4 and e5 at the end of
consolidation for each load increment P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 respectively can be
obtained and can be plotted as is figure:


9
Determination of Preconsolidation Pressure ( Pc) :
The maximum pressure to which a soil (clay) was subjected in the past is
called the Preconsolidation Pressure (Pc or c).
Casagrande suggested a simple graphic construction to determine the

preconsolidation pressure (Pc or c) from the laboratory e-logP or e-log
plot for curve ABCD.
The procedure is as follows:
By visual observation, establish point E at which the e-logP or e-log plot

has minimum radius of curvature for curve ABCD.
Draw horizontal line EG.
Draw line tangent at E from EF.
Draw line EH that bisects angle GEF.
Project the straight line portion CD of e-logP plot back to intersect EH at P.
Draw the perpendicular KJ from P on abscissa at point J.
Then the Pressure at J is called the preconsolidation pressure (Pc or c).


10
Figure shows preconsolidation pressure (Pc or c) determination

Determination of Compression Index and Swelling Index :
The compression index, Cc is the slope of the linear portion of the e`

versus logP curve and is dimensionless parameter.
Numerically, Cc is equal to the change in void ratio for one log cycle of
pressure change.
The slope of tail straight portion of e-logP curve is designated as the

compression index, Cc.
The swelling index, Cs is equal to the slope of expansion or unloading

curve of 'e' plotted against log P curve and is dimensionless parameter.


11
The swelling index or expansion index or recompression index, Cr is

usually taken as the average slope of expansion recompression is called
hysteresis loop,
Normally consolidated (NC) clay, Over consolidated (OC) clay and Over
consolidation ratio (OCR) :OC clay
e
NC clay
Poc
logP Pc
PNC
NC clay: Whose present effective pressure (PNC) is greater than the

preconsolidation pressure (Pc) that the soil has been subjected to in the past .
NC clay in the field are similar to the straight portions of the curve.
i.e. PNC
Pc
OC clay: Whose present effective overburden pressure (POC) is less than

preconsolidation pressure (Pc) that the soil has been subjected to in the past .
OC clay in the field are similar to the curved portions of the curve.
i.e. POC
Pc
OCR: The ratio of the preconsolidation pressure (Pc ) to the present effective
overburden pressure (Po) is called over consolidated ratio (OCR) .
So OCR =
Thus OCR >1 , indicates an OC clay and OCR
1 indicates an NC clay.


12
CO-efficient of compressibility
) and co-efficient of volume compressibility
: The co-efficient of compressibility,

is equal to the change in void ratio,
for a particular pressure increment

for that increment, divided by the
incremental pressure,
e f e0
i ,e
Where
and
are the void ratios at the beginning and end of consolidation
under the pressure increment. The negative sign indicates that e decreases as
increases.
The co-efficient of volume compressibility or modulus of volume change
is defined as the volume change per unit volume per unit increase in pressurre .
The volume change may be expressed in terms of either void ratio or specimen
height .
e f e0
1 e0
Or
.
Terzaghis Theory of one dimensional consolidation :The assumptions made in the theory are:
(1) The soil is homogeneous .
(2) The soil is fully saturated .
(3) The soil particles and water are in compressible .
(4) Compression and flow are one dimensional (vertical).
(5) Strains are small.

13
(6) Darcys law is valid at all hydraulic gradient .

(7) The co-efficient of permeability and co-efficient of volume compressibility
remain constant through out the process.
(8) There is a unique relationship, independent of time between void ratio and
effective stress if
= constant.
Figure (a) shows a layer of clay of thickness, 2H that is located between two
highly permeable sand layer. If the clay layer is subjected to an increased
pressure of
, the pore water pressure at any point A in the clay layer will
increase. For one dimensional consolidation water will be squeezed out in the
vertical direction toward the sand layers.
Figure (b) shows the flow of water through a prismatic element at A with
velocity in z-direction is Vz and having total volume is V = dx.dy.dz.
For the soil element,
(the rate of out flow) - (rate of in flow of water) = rate of volume change.
-
dxdydz
_ _ _ _ _ _(1)
Darcys Law
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (2)
(-ve indicated that bcauses an upward flow but z increases direction)

Where u = wh, Excess pore water pressure due to increase pressure.
i
h
z
and h
From equation (1) and (2)


14
( ) dxdydz =
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _(3)
Since the grains and water are in compressible for all practical purpose and for
the pressure involved the change in soil volume must be due to a change in the
volume of soil voids.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _(4)
h=
sand
2
H
clay
dz
dz
z
sand
dx
(a)
dy


15
(b)
v
v
From definition of void ratio, e v or
=e ,
Differentiating with respect to time
since there is no change in the volume of soil grains ,
So,
----------------- (5)
From equation (3), (4) and (5)
=
The change in void ratio is due to the increase of effective stress and assuming
that they are linearly related.

16
=>
Where
= change in effective stress =
pressure and
= co-efficient of compressibility.
pore water
, where the co-efficient of
volume compressibility ,
So
=>
=>
is known as the differential equation of consolidation for one
dimensional flow. Where the co-efficent of consolidation ,

Co-efficient of consolidation ( ), Degree of consolidation (
.
,
Time factor ( ) and Drainage path (d):
: co-efficient of consolidation,
is a constant where
K= Permeability of soil, mv = co-efficient of volume compressibility and

unit weight of water .
: Degree of consolidation,
t.


17
100
: Time factor,
and
is a constant where
= co-efficient of consolidation of consolidation

t
= time for settlement has been taking place.
= drainage path.
depend on distribution of load and drainage path.
Drainage Path d:
The drainage path may be loosely defined as the longest distance that the
water would have to travel to exit from the soil.
It depends on soil bounding impervious stratum.
If the soil can drain at one face only, then d equals the full thickness of the
stratum, d = H .
If drainage is at both faces of the soil then d equals half the thickness of the
stratum, d =
Solution of the consolidation equation

Consolidation equation,
, can be solved for u , a function of Z and
t. The solution must satisfy the hydraulic boundary conditions of the problem.
These conditions are:
I.
The excess pore water pressure u is equal to
at any depth Z for t=
time.
II.
III.
The excess pore water pressure U = 0 at any time t at the drainage

surfaces Z= 0 and Z=2H.
At any time t , the hydraulic gradient , I is zero at depth Z= H .


18
H
2H
IV.
i
i=o
After very long time, u= 0, at all depths.
The solution for the preceding boundary conditions may be expressed by the
following relationship:
=
Where
= Time factor (dimension less )

= f ( Pore water pressure unit distribution)
= co-efficient of consolidation
t = time corresponding to
d= the thickness of layer.
Only t and H vary and
is constant.
For a particular type of soil having same degree

of consolidation from one side drainage layer .

19
,d=H
H
Impervious stratum
=>
For a particular type of soil having same degree of consolidation from both side
drainage layer .
=
, d=
= 4 times of one side drainage.
=>
determination:Casagrandes logarithm of time method

Two method
Taylors square root of time method.
Casagrandes Logarithm of Time method
The following constructions are needed to determine
from deformation vs
logt curve.

20
I.
II.
Select the point of inflection D of the experimental curve and draw a

tangent downward from this point. We then draw to the left a tangent to the
lower straight line part of the experimental curve. The two tangents
intersect at F, at a dial reading, R 100 corresponding to U = 100 percent
primary consolidation.
For u = 0 % , we select any time
at which less than half the
consolidation for the entire load increment has taken place. Locate the
corresponding point C on the curve and then establish point d
corresponding to a time
. The vertical distance between C and B is a .We
then lay off a horizontal line is R O corresponding to U = 0 percent

consolidation.
III.
The ordinate of point F on the consolidation curve represents the

deformation at 50% primary consolidation, R50 =
IV.
RO R100
2
For 50% average degree of consolidation, R50 corresponding to point M.

Now draw the perpendicular from M to y-axis (abscissa) and cut y-axis at


21
t50 is the required time for 50% primary consolidation and we have
0.197
or
= 0.197
= average longest drainage path during consolidation

= H for one side drainage;
=
for both side drainage.
Taylors square-root of time method:-
Following steps are followed to determine,

I.
II.
Draw a line AB through the early portion of the curve.

Draw a line AC such that OC = 1.15(OB) . The perpendicular on abscissa
from point D, which is the intersection of AC on the consolidation curve,
gives the square root of time of 90% consolidation (
III.
For 90% consolidation
or
).
= 0.848


22
= H for one side drainage of sample.
IV.
i. =
for both side drainage of sample.
Computations of ultimate settlement

Settlement calculation from e-log p curve:
For computing the ultimate of a structure founded on clay the following data are
required
I.
The thickness of the clay strata , H.
II.
The initial void ratio,
, = water content ,
= specific gravity of
soil .The consolidation pressure ,

a
Void ratio
e
c
log P
iii. The field consolidation curve,


23
The slope of the field curve
on the semi-logarthmic diagram is designated as
compression index,
From the above
curve,
_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _(1)
Hs
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _(2)
In one dimensional compression, we have Considering a unit section area of the

clay strata, i.e. A = 1 Sq. unit.
Volume, V = H ,


24
=V-
=H-
(1+
)-
(1+
)=
Therefore ,
=
Substituting for
in Eq. (2)
Impervious layer
=H
If we designated the compression
of the clay layer as the total settlement,
of the structure build on it , we here ,

= H _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _(3)
Putting the value of
We have,
from equation (1)
If the thickness of the clay strata is too large, the strata may be divided into
smaller thickness not exceeding 3m. The net change in pressure
at the middle
of each layer will have to be calculated. The equation for the total consolidation
settlement may be written as


25
Where subscript i refers to each layer in the
sub-division.
Settlement calculation from
From above equation (3) , we have ,
= H
- - - - - -(3)
From the field e-log p curves , the corresponding void ratio decreases
hence for the range in pressure from
to
to e ,
).
we may write ,
Or
So ,
Where
=
Now,
So,
, Putting the value of
= H
is called as the co-efficient of compressibility .
. Where
in equation (3)
= co-efficient of volume compressibility =
Relationship between U and

1. For values of U% between 0 and 53%, the curve can be represented almost
exactly by the equation
=
2. For values of U% greater than 53%, the curve may be represented by an
equation

26
= 1.781 - 0.933
(100 - U%)
0
20
U%
40
50
60
80
0.003 0.01
0.03
0.1
0.3
1.0
3.0
10
Tv (log scale )
Empirical formula for
calculation
For NC clay , skempoton modified relation given by Terzaghi and Peck ,

Compression index =
= 0.009(
-10), Where
= liquid limit
Example-1: - A stratum of normally loaded clay of 7m thick is located at a

depth 12m below ground level. The natural moisture content of the clay is 43%
and its liquid limit is 48%. The Sp gravity of the solid particles is 2.76. The
water table is located at a depth 5m below ground surface. The soil is sand
above the clay stratum. The submerged unit weight of sand is 1.1 tones per
and the same weighs 1.8tones/
above water table .The average increase in
pressure at the center of the clay stratum is 12 tones per
due to the weight of
a building that will be constructed on the sand above the clay stratum. Estimate
the expected settlement of the structure.
: Determination of e and .
=1
= 43% =0.43

27
=>
W=
=0.43
=2.76+1.19=3.95
h3
Sand
h2
Clay
h1
Gs =0.43
=
=1.8gm/
= 1.8 T/
0.8gm/
(2) Determination of overburden pressure,
=0.8
(3)Compression index,


28
= 0.009(
-10) = 0.009
=48%
) Change in pressure = 12 T/
III.
Total settlement
=
= 22.6 cm
Estimated settlement = 22.6cm.
Ex -2: A 2.5cm thick sample of the clay was taken from field for predicting the
time of settlement for a proposed building which exerts a uniform pressure of
10 tones/
over the clay stratum. The sample was loaded100Kn/
and paper
drainage was allowed from top and bottom. It was seen that 50percent of the
total settlement occurred in 3 minutes. Find the time required for 50% of total
settlement of the building if it is to stand on 6m thick layer of clay which
extends from ground surface and is underlain by sand.
:
U =50% ,
=0.197
The sample is drained on both sides
= 0.197
= 10.25
The data applied to field ,
U = 50% ,
=0.197 ,
= 10.25


29
The time , t for 50% consolidation is t =
t=
= 120 days (Ans)
Ex -3: A strata of normally consolidated clay of thickness 3m is drained on

both sides. It have a co-efficient of permeability, k = 5
efficient of volume compressibility
=125
cm/sec and a co/kg. Determine the
ultimate value of the compression of the strata by assuming a uniformly

distributed load of 25 T/
and also determine the time required for 20% and
80% consolidation.
: Total compression,
=
Where,
= 125
= 9.4 cm
= 125
/kg, H = 3m = 300cm,
= 25 T/
= 2.5kg/

=
= 0.0314

= 1.781 0.933
= 1.781- 0.933
(100-U%)
(100-80%)
=0.57
The co-efficient of consolidation is
=
Where, k =
= 410-3 cm2/sec
=
and
/gm


30
The time required for 20% and 80% consolidation are,
, t20 =
Where,
, t80 =
=2.04day,
=1.5m =150cm
= 39 days
MORE PRACTICAL Example


31


32


33


34


35


36
Exercise
1.
A large of normally loaded clay is 7m thick and lies under recently

constructed building .The weight of sand overlying the clay layer is 30 T/
and the new construction increases the overburden pressure by 10 T/
.If the compression index is 0.5 , compute the final settlement by assuming
and
2.
=2.70
During a consolidation test, a simple of fully saturated clay 3cm thick is

consolidated under a pressure increment of 2 kg/c
. When the
equilibrium is reached, the sample thickness gets reduced to 2.60cm. The

pressure is then rumored and the sample is allowed to expand and take
water. The final thickness is observed as 2.8cm and the final moisture
content is determined as 24%. If the specific gravity of the soil solids is
2.70, find the void ratio of the sample before and after consolidation.
3.
A 6m thick layer of NC clay is sandwiched between sand at top and

bottom. The top sand layer is 12m thick. The groundwater table is currently
at the ground surface, but is to be lowered permanently by 4m over a
period of 6 months .For sand ,
= 1.83g/ c
above lower WT = 8% . For clay,

/min and
= 2.66 ,moisture content
, G = 2.7 , average
= 2.5 m
= 0.33. Predict the settlement by lowering WT. Also
calculate the settlement 2 years after the start of lowering the WT.
4.
A 2.5cm thick sample of clay was taken from field for predicting the time
of settlement for a proposed building which exerts a uniform pressure of 10
T/
over the clay stratum. The sample was loaded to 100 kN/
and
proper drainage was allowed form top to bottom. It was seen that 50% of
the total settlement occurred in 3 months. Find the time required for 50%
of the total settlement of the building it is to stand on 6m thick layer of clay
which extends form ground and is underlain by sand.
5.
In an odometer test a specimen of saturated clay 19mm thick reaches 60%

consolidation in 20 minutes. How long would it take a layer of this clay 5m
thick to reach the same degree of consolidation under the same stress and


37
drainage conditions? How long would it take the layer to reach 30%
consolidation? (Ans: 962 days, 347 days .)
6.
The average natural water content of the NC deposit is 40%, unit weight is
2.8 gm/cc and compression index is 0.36. If the co-efficient of
consolidation is 6
Sq.ft/min and clay deposit is 20ft thick. Find the
settlement if drained top and bottom. The existing effective overburden

pressure at the centre of clay layer is 2.0 Ton/
and the increment of
pressure causing the expected settlement is 0.289 Ton/
. (Ans:
=2.39
inch)


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Duet CE-3301 Geotechnical Engineering - I

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Consolidation of a saturated soil is a time dependent process of volume

So the process, involving a gradual compression occurring simultaneously

The process opposite to consolidation is called swelling, which involves an

Consolidation may be due to one or more of the following factors:

Due to external static load from structures.

Due to self-weight of the soil such as recently placed fills.

Due to lowering of the ground water table.

The type of total compression / Stage of Consolidation (Fig.- 1) of

Immediate or initial compression Stage -1

Primary consolidation Stage-2

Secondary consolidation Stage-3

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Fig.- 1 Type of total compression / Stage of Consolidation

The portion of the settlement of a structure which occurs more or less

If the rate of compression of the soil layer is controlled solely by the

The compression is supposed to start after the primary compression ceases

Principle of consolidation by Terzaghi:

The principle of consolidation of a clay-soil-water system may be

The model consists of a cylinder with a frictionless piston as shown in

The piston is supported on one or more helical metallic springs.

The space underneath the piston is completely filled with water.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Fig.-2: Mechanical model to explain the principle of consolidation

The pressure in water is u = p i.e. Pore water pressure = External

Such a condition represents a highly impermeable clay-water system

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Consolidometer and the standard one-dimensional consolidation test :-

The compressibility of saturated, clay-water system is found by

Test performed by a fixed rings from about 5 to 11 cm in diameter

The compressive load is applied to the specimen through a piston,

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

The load intensities commonly are used , , 1,2,4,8 and 16 kg/cm2

Each load is allowed to stand until compression has practically

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Fig.-3b:- Setting Steps the Soil Sample in Consolidometer

The sandy samples get compressed in relatively short time as

The following data should be obtained:

iii. The specific gravity of the soils.

Void ratios are calculated as follows:

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Calculate the initial height of voids = Hv

Calculate the initial void ratio of the sample = eo

Calculate the new void ratio e1 after consolidation by the pressure

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Determination of Preconsolidation Pressure ( Pc) :

Casagrande suggested a simple graphic construction to determine the

The procedure is as follows:

By visual observation, establish point E at which the e-logP or e-log plot

Draw horizontal line EG.

Draw line tangent at E from EF.

Draw line EH that bisects angle GEF.

Project the straight line portion CD of e-logP plot back to intersect EH at P.

Draw the perpendicular KJ from P on abscissa at point J.

Then the Pressure at J is called the preconsolidation pressure (Pc or c).