Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

DUET
CE-3003
GEOLOGY & GEOMORPHOLOGY
NOTE NO 01
INTRODUCTION OF GEOLOGY & MINERAL

PREPARED BY:
Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman
Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET), Gazipur.

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

What is Geology? Why do we learn it?

Definition
Geology is the science of the earth and deals with the materials that compose it, the
history of life and the physical events of earth history.
We usually divided the study of Geology into physical and historical geology.
Necessity:
Physical geology covers the nature and properties of materials composing
the earth.
Historical geology is the record of the life, past history, evolution of the
earth.
Advantages:
It gives a systematic knowledge of materials for earth formation.
Foundation problems are directed in geology.
Idea of earth excavation.
A knowledge of ground water occurrence and element of ground water
hydrology is helpful in many branches of engineering practice.
A knowledge of surface water is essential for river control, soil
conservation and other project.
An ability to recognize the nature of geologic problem.
The ability to read interpretation of geologic reports, geologic and
topographic maps and photographs.
Mineral and Identification of the mineral:
Minerals:
Minerals are naturally occurrence substances having a characteristic of
internal structure and of more or less define chemical composition and
displaying more or less definite physical properties.
More than 2000 minerals are known.
Examples are diamond for one element, mineral halite for two element,
mineral pyrite sometimes known as fools gold etc.

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Composition of mineral:
Every mineral is composed of elements in definite or slightly varying
proportions:
Elements:
Name and symbol
Volume (%)
Oxygen (O)
93.77
Potassium (K)
1.83
Sodium (Na)
1.32
Calcium (Ca)
1.03
Silicon (Si)
0.86
Aluminum (Al)
0.47
Iron (Fe)
0.43
Magnesium (Mg)
0.49
100.00%
An occasional replacement by other elements whose atoms are of similar
size need not create a new mineral.
Identification of the minerals or properties of minerals:
All the minerals are identified by the composition and internal atomic
structure.
All the minerals are identified by examine their chemical and physical
properties.
These are as follows:
1. Crystal form.
2. Hardness.
3. Specific gravity.
4. Cleavage.
5. Color.
6. Streak.
7. Striation.
8. Fracture.
9. Magnetism.
10.Luster.

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

11.Solubility and
12.Ductility.
*** First six are the important properties and rests are less important.
Important properties of minerals
1. Crystal form:
When a mineral grows without interference or obstacle, it will be bounded
by plane surfaces symmetrically arranged and will acquire a characteristic
crystal form, which is the external expression of its internal crystalline
structure.
Some crystal form are :
a) Quartz crystals => Six sided prism.
b) Diamond crystals.
c) Graphite crystals. (b) and (c) are eight sided solid called octahedron.
d) Pyrite crystals => A cube.
e) Compound crystals => Several different crystal forms =>The structure
of NaCl.

2. Hardness:

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Hardness is another physical property governed by the internal atomic

arrangement of the minerals elements.
The degree of hardness is determined by the relative case or difficulty with
which one mineral is scratched by another or by a finger nail or knife. It may
be called the minerals Scratchability.
Diamond, the hardest mineral known, cannot be scratched by any other
mineral or substance.
The stronger the binding forces between the atoms, the harder the mineral.
Hardness (H) range from 1 through 10.
According to Mohs scale the hardness (H) is measured:
Range

Scratch ability

H<2.5

will have mark on paper ; can be scratched by finger nail.

(a) Tale -1 (b) Gypsum-2

2.5<H<3

cannot be scratched by finger nail; can be scratched by penny.

(c) Calcite-3.

3<H<5.5

cannot be scratched by penny.can be scratched by knife.

(d) Flourite-4 (e) Apatite-5.

5.5<H<7 cannot be scratched by knife butcan be scratched by quartz.

(f) Orthoclase-6 (g) Quartz-7.
7<H<10

cannot be scratched by quartz.

(h) Topaz-8 (i) Corundum-9 (j) Diamond-10.

Mohs scale:
Mohs scale has linearity from 1 to 9, but above 9 it has no linearity.
Here, 10 is equivalent to 40 because 10 is indicated 40 times hardness.

3. Specific gravity:

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

The ratio of mass of certain volume of mineral to the mass of water of same
volume is known as specific gravity of mineral.
The specific gravity of a mineral increases roughly with the mass of its
constituent elements and with the closeness with which these elements are
packed together in their crystalline structure.
Most rock forming minerals have a specific gravity of around 2.7.
Although the average sp. Gravity of metallic minerals is 5.
Pure gold has the highest sp. Gravity of 19.3.
4. Cleavage:
Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break in certain preferred direction
along smooth plane surface.
Cleavage planes are governed by the internal arrangement of the atom.
Cleavage is a direction of weakness.
This weakness may be due to a weaker type of atomic bond.
Graphite has platy cleavage because of relatively weak bonds between the
carbon layers.
Quartz has the cleavage in all direction.
5. Color:

Color is not very reliable property in identifying most minerals.

It is used in making certain general distinction.
The different minerals have different color.
For example, mineral that contain iron are usually dark colored.
In geologic uses dark includes dark gray , dark green and black.
Mineral that contain, aluminum as a principal element are usually light
colored, a term that includes purples, deep red and some browns.

6. Streak:
The streak of a mineral is the color, it displays in finely powered form.
The streak may be different from the color of the hand specimen.

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Although the color of a mineral may vary between wide limits, the streak is
usually constant.
One of the simplest ways of determining the streak of a mineral is to rub a
specimen across a piece of unglazed porcelain known as a streak plate.
The color of the powder left behind on the streak plate helps to identify
some minerals.
Because the streak plate has a hardness of 7,it cannot be used to identify
minerals with greater hardness.
For example, specimen of the Hematite (Fe2O3) may brown, green or black
in colors but they always have a distinctive red brown streak.

Less Important properties of minerals

Striation:
A few common minerals have parallel threadlike lines or narrow bonds,
called striation.
Fracture:
The fracture of is the way of the minerals break.
It has no definite direction, rough surface produced during breaking.
It is useful rather than cleavage.
Magnetism:
It is the property of mineral by which attract other iron or steel metal like
magnet.
Luster:
It is the property of mineral by which shining light. Bring lights are given
some of mineral.
Solubility:
It is the property of minerals by which dissolve in solvent like water, alcohol
etc.
Ductility:
It is the metallic property of minerals having a relatively large tensile strain
up to the point of rupture.
Common Rock Forming Minerals
Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

The most common minerals:

Most rock forming minerals or minerals found most abundantly in the rock
of the crust have variable composition caused by ionic substitution of some
element for other elements.
The most common minerals are found in following forms: A. silicates
mineral=>
1) olivine mineral, 2) Augite mineral, 3) Hornblende mineral, 4) Biotite
mineral, 5) Muscovite mineral,
6) Feldspars mineral and 7) Quartz mineral.
Silicate mineral:
More than 90% of the rock forming minerals are silicates compounds containing
silicon, oxygen and more metals.
Si++4O-=(SiO4)-4
Each silicate mineral has silicon-oxygen tetrahedron as its fundamental unit.

Silicate minerals are two types their distinction is given below:

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Ferro magnesiums
1) Olivine, Augite, Hornblende and
Biotite in these four minerals, the
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron are
joined by ions of iron or
magnesium or by both of them, so
these silicate minerals are known
as Ferro magnesium.
2) Feldspar group are not Ferro
magnesium.
3) Al is not common here.

Non Ferro magnesiums

Muscovite, Feldspar and Quartz do not
contain magnesium or iron, so these
silicate minerals are known as non-Ferro
magnesiums.

Though according to definition all the

other material except Fe & Mg contain
but usually the metals are Na, K, Ca, Al,
and this group is known as Feldspar.
Here Al is common, because its atomic
radius is such that it can always
ingredient in the non-ferrous crystal.

Silicates minerals classification with component ratio:

Arrangement of
SiO4tetrahedra
1. Isolated
2. Rings
3. Single chains
4. Double chains
5. Sheets

Si/O ratio
i.e. Si : O
1:4
1:3
1:3
4 : 11
2:5

6. Frameworks

3:8
3:8
1: 2

Rock forming minerals

Olivine.
Beryl (beryllium aluminosilicate).
Augite (Pyroxene family).
Hornblende (amphibole family).
Biotite (Black mica)
Muscovite (White mica).
Orthoclase (Potassium feldspar).
Plagioclase (calcium-sodium feldspar).
Quartz.

Physical properties of silicates mineral:

Olivine:
It is the ferromagnesium silicate minerals.
It has isolated SiO4-.
There is no plane of weakness and the elements are so firmly held together
with ionic bond. Olivine exist no cleavage. It is relatively hard material.

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

It is a mineral that undergoes composition may be changed. Its formula (Mg,

Fe)SiO4. Fe and Mg substitute each other freely.
PropertyColor-greenish to green, sometimes brown.
Hardness-relatively hard mineral, usually hardness is 6.5 to 7.0.
Specific gravity (sp.gr.)-3.27 to 4.37 are shown on graph-.1

Fig: Graph-.1
Augite:
It has crystalline structure based on single chains of tetrahedral as shown in
figure.
It is joined by ions of iron , magnesium, calcium, sodium and aluminum.
It is dark green to black, with a colorless streak.
Its hardness is 5 to 6.
Its sp. Gravity range from 3.2 to 3.4.
It has rather poor cleavage along two planes almost at right angles to each
other.
The cleavage results from the contrast between the stronger covalent
bonding between adjacent chains and the intervening cations.
Its family name pyroxenes.

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Hornblende:
It has a crystalline structure based on doubles chain of tetrahedral as shown
in figure.
It is joined by iron and magnesium ions common to all ferro-magnesiums
and by ions
ofcalcium, sodium and aluminum.
Hornblendes color is dark green to black, its streak is colorless.
Two direction cleavage meet at angles of approximately 56o to 124o,
which helps distinguish hornblende from augite.
Its family name amphiboles.

Biotite:
It is Ferro-magnesium silicate minerals, also called black mica.

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Its formula is K[Mg.Fe]3[AlSi3O10(OH)2].

Its crystalline structure is based on silicon oxygen tetrahedron in sheets as
shown in figure.
Each silicon ions shares three oxygen ions with adjacent silicon ions to form
a pattern like wire netting. The fourth, unshared oxygen ion of each
tetrahedron stands above the plane of all the others. the basic structural unit
of mica consists of two of these sheets of tetrahedral with their flat surfaces
facing outward and their inner surfaces held together by + ve ions. In biotite
the ions are magnesium and iron. These basic double sheets of mica, in turn,
are loosely joined together by + ve ions of potassium.
It is usually dark green to brown to black.
Its hardness is 2.5 to 3.
Its specific gravity is 2.8 to 3.2.
Muscovite:

It is named according to a getting place Moscow.

It is a non Ferro magnesium silicate also called white mica.
Its formula is KAl2[AlSi3O10(OH)2].
It has same basic crystalline structure as biotite but in muscovite the
tetrahedron sheets are held together by Al+++.
The double sheets are held together by a loosely bond by ion of K (K+) along
where cleavage take place.
PropertiesColor-light yellow, brown, green, red.
Hardness-2 to 2.5.
Sp.gr.-2.8 to 3.1.

Feldspar:
They are non-ferrous magnesium, silicate of Al with Na, K, Ca.
Its formula of Anorthite, orthoclase, albite are Ca[Al2Si2O8], K[AlSi3O8],
Na[AlSi3O8] respectively.

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

It show a good cleavage in two direction at right angle with each other.
In feldspar all oxygen ion in the tetrahedron are shared by joining silicon ion
in three dimensional network.
PropertyColor-Commonly white, gray.
Hardness-About 6.
Sp.gr.-2.55 to 2.76.
Comparison of formula, hardness, sp. gravity, color of various types of silicate
minerals.
Name of the
Hardness
Sp.
Color
minerals/Formula
Gravity
Ferro magnesium
Olivine
6.5 to 7
3.27 to
Greenish to green,
(MgFe)2SiO4
4.37
sometimes brown.
Augtite, Single chain of
5 to 6
3.2 to 3.4 Dark green to black.
-4
(SiO4)
Hornblende, double chain
5 to 6
3.2
Dark green to black.
-4
of (SiO4)
Biotite
2.5 to 3
2.8 to 3.2 Dark green or brown to
K[Mg.Fe]3[AlSi3O10(OH)2].
black.
Non-ferro Magnesium
Muscovite
2 to 2.5
2.8 to 3.1 Light yellow, brown,
KAl2[AlSi3O10(OH)2].
green,red.
Feldspar
AnorthiteCa[Al2Si2O8],
6
2.76
Colorless, white, blue-gray
Orthoclase K[AlSi3O8],
6
2.76
or black.
Albite Na[AlSi3O8]
6
2.62
White, gray or pinkish.
Colorless, white, blue-gray
or black.
Quartz,SiO2
7
2.56
Purple or violet,rose red or
pink rose, smoky yellow to
brown.
(B) Oxide minerals:
Oxide minerals are formed by the direct union of an element with oxygen.
These have relatively simple formulas compared to the complicated silicates.

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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The oxide minerals are usually harder than any other class except the
silicates.
They are heavier than any other except sulfides.
Common oxide minerals are ice (H2O), corundum (Al2O3),hematite (Fe2O3) ,
magnetite (Fe3O4) and cassiferite (SnO2).
(C) Sulfide minerals:
Sulfide minerals are formed by direct union of an metal element with sulfur.
The metal elements that occur most commonly in combination with sulfur
are iron, copper, lead, zinc and mercury.
Some of these sulfide minerals occur as valuable ores such as pyrite (FeS2),
chalcocite (Cu2S), galena (PbS) and sphalerite, ZnS.

(D) Carbonate and sulfate minerals:

Carbonate minerals are builds around the complex ion (CO3)-2and as for
example calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Sulfate minerals are builds around the complex ion (SO4)-2and as for
example calcium sulfates (CaSO4), the minerals anhydrite and its hydrous
form CaSO4.nH2O, the minerals gypsum.
(E) Halides:
Halides form from combination of positive ions with chlorine, iodine,
bromine and fluorine.
So the common rock salt of halides forms are halite (NaCl), sylvyte (KCl)
etc.

Mineraloids:
Mineraloids:

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Some substances do not yield definite chemical formulas upon analysis and
show no sign of crystallinity. There are said to be amorphous (shapeless) and
have been called mineraloids.
A mineral may exist in a crystalline phase with a definite composition and
crystalline structure or under certain conditions of formation practically the
same substance may occur as a mineraloid.
Mineraloids are formed under conditions of low pressure and temperature
and are commonly substances originating during the process of weathering
of the materials of the earths crush with similar shaped masses.
Their ability to absorb other substances accounts for their wide variations in
chemical composition.
Bauxite, limonite and opal are example of mineraloids.
Organization of minerals:
Organization of mineral has in naturally occurring combination of elements or
compounds in all solid state, each with diagnostic composition and unique
crystalline structure as well as certain common physical properties.
Association of minerals:
Association of minerals commonly occurs in specific geologic settings and reflect
the condition of temperature, pressure or chemical environment at the time of their
origin or when recombined into new minerals.

Mineral structure:
Mineral structure is the internal orderly arrangement of atoms, which is
unique for each mineral.
Compounds are combinations of atoms of different elements of organic
compound are those in which the carbon atom plays a large role that is those
mostly formed by life processes.
The methods by which the atoms are bounded are:
(a) Ionic bond (b) Covalent bond and (c) Metallic bond.

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

(a) Ionic bond:

Ionic compound mineral occurs when electrons are lost or added to atoms.
When electrons are lost or added to form ions, electrical force between the
nucleus and the electrons are thrown at of balance.
Example: Na+ + Cl- =NaCl
(b)Covalent bond:
Covalent bonding results from sharing electrons rather than from gaining or
losing them.
Example:

(c) Metallic bond:

Metallic bonds are response for metals being such good conductors of heat
and electricity.
Their outermost electrons are not shared or exchanged but are free to move
around

Question on Introduction of Geology & Minerals

1. What is geology? Why do you learn it?
2. Define geology. What are the advantages of geology study?
3. What is mineral? What are the amount of compositions for minerals?

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

4. What is mineral? Mention the identifying properties of mineral and discuss in

details. (DUET-2012).
5. What is fundamental unit of silicate minerals? Classify the silicate minerals
with respect to arrangement and component ratio. (DUET-2012).
6. What is Mohs scale? Explain its charcteristics.
7. What is hardness of minerals? How will it be determined? Explain by
examples. (DUET-2012).
8. What is cleavage? What are the difference between the cleavage and fracture
of of the minerals?
9. What are the difference between the non-ferromagnesiums and
ferromagnesiums group of minerals?
10. Discuss the difference between streak and colour of minerals with
examples. (DUET-2012).
11. Who are the members of feldspar group? Mention the physical properties of
such minerals. (DUET-2012).
12. Write short notes on the following most common rock forming minerals:
(i) Augite, (ii) Olivine and (iii) Feldspar. (DUET-2012).
13. Write short notes on the following most common rock forming minerals:
(i) Biotite, (ii) Mascovite and (iii) Hornblende. (DUET-2012).
14. Give the comparison of formula, hardness, specific gravity, color of various
types of silicate minerals.
15. Show and explain the major classification of common rock forming minerals.
(DUET-2012).
16. What are differences between association of minerals and organigation of
minerals? (DUET-2012).
17. Explain the moneraloids with examples. (DUET-2012).
18. Define the mineral structure. Explain the various structures of mineral.

Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur

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