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Mini-Grid Design Manual

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Energy
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Management

FILEC11OPY

Assistance
Programme

September 2000

Papers in the ESMAPTechnical Series are discussion


documents, not final project reports. They are subject to the
same copyrights as other ESMAPpublications.

JOINT UNDPI WORLDBANK


ENERGY SECTOR MANAGEMENTASSISTANCE PROGRAMME (ESMAP)
PURPOSE
The Joint UNDP/World Bank Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme
(ESMAP) is a special global technical assistance program run as part of the World Bank's
Energy, Mining and Telecommunications Department. ESMAP provides advice to
governments on sustainable energy development. Established with the support of UNDP
and bilateral official donors in 1983, it focuses on the role of energy in the development
process with the objective of contributing to poverty alleviation, improving living conditions
and preserving the environment in developing countries and transition economies.
ESMAP centers its interventions on three priority areas: sector reform and restructuring;
access to modern energy for the poorest; and promotion of sustainable energy practices.
GOVERNANCE AND OPERATIONS
ESMAP is governed by a Consultative Group (ESMAP CG) composed of representatives
of the UNDP and World Bank, other donors, and development experts from regions
benefiting from ESMAP's assistance. The ESMAP CG is chaired by a World Bank Vice
President, and advised by a Technical Advisory Group (TAG) of four independent energy
experts that reviews the Programme's strategic agenda, its work plan, and its
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from the World Bank to conduct its activities under the guidance of the Manager of
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FUNDING
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An up-to-date listing of completed ESMAP projects is appended to this report. For further
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U.S.A.

Mini-Grid
Design Manual
April 2000

Joint UNDP/World Bank Energy Sector Management Assistance Program


(ESMAP)

Copyright C 1999
The Intemational Bank for Reconstruction
and Development/THE WORLD BANK
1818 H Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America
First printing September 2000
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Table of contents
I. Introduction ......................................
II. Setting the context for low-cost mini-grids ...............

.......................

6
8
9
9
10

Ivory Coast ............................................


Laos ............................................
Irian Jaya ............................................
DominicanRepublic ............................................
Conclusion ............................................

12

III. Preconditions and action plan ......................................


Willingnessand ability to pay ............................................
Identificationof a responsibleindividual/organization ............................................
Adequacyof electricity supply ............................................
Grid extension............................................
Diesel/gasolinegenset ............................................
Hydropowerplant ............................................
Wind turbine............................................
Solar PV station ............................................
Plan of action ............................................

IV. Electricity uses and demand assessment ..............


Types of uses ............................................
Lighting............................................
Entertainment............................................
Motor-based applications............................................
Heat-generatingappliances............................................
Demand assessment ............................................
Demand-sidemanagement ............................................

V. Mapping and system layout ......................................


Mapping ............................................
System layout ............................................
Powerhouselocation............................................
Placingthe lines ............................................
Locatingpoles ............................................

VI. Line configuration ......................................


Options for line configuration............................................
Single-phasesupply ............................................
Three-phasesupply............................................
System grounding ............................................

VII. Conductor ......................................


Types of conductor ............................................
Overheadvs. Underground ............................................
Conductorsizing ............................................

1
5

........................

12
15
16
16
17
18
21
22
23

26
26
26
36
37
43
44
47

49
49
50
50
51
53

54
54
54
59
61

64
64
69
70
i

Rough estimate of voltage drop .....................................


A more accurate estimate.....................................
Spreadsheet estimate.....................................
Effect of conductorsize on power loss .....................................
Generalized equations.....................................
Stringing and saggingthe conductor .....................................
Sag .....................................
Handling and inspecting the conductor .....................................
Preparation for stringing.....................................
Pulling the conductor.....................................
Sagging the conductor.....................................

V1II. Poles ..................................


Pole options .....................................
Wood .....................................
Concrete.....................................
Steel .....................................
Sizing.....................................
Length .....................................
Girth .....................................
Setting poles .....................................

72
72
73
75
76
77
80
81
81
81
83

86

IX. Poletop hardware and connectors .................................


Joining conductors: Connectors .....................................
Twisted connections.....................................
Split-bolt connectors.....................................
Parallel-grooveconnectors .....................................
Compression connectors.....................................
Securing the conductors: Deadend hardware .....................................
Parallel-grooveclamps .....................................
Preformed deadends.....................................
Automatic deadends.....................................
U-bolt-type clamps .....................................
Wedge clamps .....................................
Supportingthe conductor .....................................
Racks......................................
Upset bolts ......................................
Support clevises.....................................
Swinging clevises.....................................
Wireholders.....................................
Other approaches.....................................
Lengthening conductor: splices .....................................
Wrapped/twistedsplices. .....................................
Compression splice.....................................
Preformed splice.....................................
Automatic splice.....................................
Knotting .....................................

86
87
94
96
97
97
99
103

105
105
106
107
107
108
108
108
109
109
109
110
110
11.1
111
112
112
113
113
114
115
115
115
116
116

ii

X. Guys and anchors .........................................


Strength of cable ...............................................
Guy on a deadend pole ...............................................
Guy at a deviation ...............................................
Securing the guy to a pole ...............................................
Types of anchor ...............................................
Sizing an anchor ...............................................

XI. Safety and protection .........................................


Introduction ...............................................
Grounding ...............................................
Theory ...............................................
Types of grounding ...............................................
Ensuring a good ground ...............................................
Protection devices ...............................................
Fuses ...............................................
Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) ...............................................
Residual current devices (RCDs) ...............................................
Protecting the system ...............................................
Protecting against overload currents ...............................................
Protecting against fault currents ...............................................
Protecting against corrosion/oxidation ...............................................
Protecting people ...............................................
Nature of the hazard ...............................................
Origin of body currents ...............................................
Lightning protection ...............................................
Consumer and operator education ...............................................
Summary ...............................................

XII. Service connection and housewiring .........................................


Service connection ...............................................
Service drop ...............................................
Service entrance ...............................................
Metering ...............................................
Conventional metering ...............................................
Alternative "metering": load limiters ...............................................
Housewiring ...............................................
Standardized housewiring packages ...............................................

117
117
117
118
118
119
120

122
122
123
123
124
124
126
126
127
128
130
130
131
132
133
133
134
141
142
142

145
145
146
153
154
155
156
163
166

XIII. Operation,maintenance, and consumer services..................................172


Operator selection and training ...............................................
Regular operation and maintenance ...............................................
Consumer education ...............................................
Financial obligations ...............................................
Disconnection policy ...............................................
Theft of power ...............................................
Awareness of options for electrical end-uses ...............................................
Safety ...............................................

172
173
174
174
174
174
174
175

iii

Consumer agreement.................................................
Consumer services.................................................
End-use promotion.................................................
Sales outlet for electricalcomponents.................................................
Battery charging.................................................

XIV. Tariffs ...........................................


Introduction.................................................
Project costs to be covered.................................................
Options for coveringproject costs.................................................
Calculatingmonthly costs..................................................
Basic tariff types .................................................
Energy-basedtariff .................................................
Power-basedtariff .................................................
Designing a tariff schedule.................................................

175
177
177
178
178

179
179
179
180
181
184
184
187
189

........................................ 192
..
NXV.Appendices
193
Appendix 1. Case study:Ivory Coast .................................................
199
Appendix 2. Case study: Ban Nam Thung, Laos .................................................
205
Jaya
.................................................
Irian
Youngsu,
study:
3.
Case
Appendix
Appendix 4. Case study: El Lim6n,DominicanRepublic...........................................212
221
Appendix 5. Calculatingrequiredpole diameter.................................................
Appendix 6. Some basic electricalconcepts and equations..........................................223
223
Resistance and reactance.................................................
227
Power and power factor.................................................
228
Voltage drop/powerlossalong a line .................................................
233
Appendix 7: Computationalexamples.................................................
233
cost
.................................................
system
on
factor
(1) Impact of power
(2) Impact of configurationon distributionsystem cost ..........................................235
(3) Sizing a distributionline for motor starting................................................. 238
(4) Impact of approachto conductorsizingon accuracy.........................................239
245
Appendix 8. Sag tables for multiplex conductor.................................................
250
Appendix 9. Areas for furtherinquiry.................................................

iv

Acronyms,abbreviations,and definitions
A

Ampere, a measure of electrical current

ABC

Aerial bundled cable

ACSR

Aluminum-conductor,steel-reinforced (a conductor made of aluminum,currentcarrying strands wrapped around a steel core which provides the mechanical
strength)

ac

Altemating current

CCA

Copper chromium arsenate, a popular waterbome preservativethat fixes itself to


the wood fibers once it has been impregnated into the wood

CFL

Compactfluorescent light

coincidentload

The sum of the loads actually on at any instant of time (see p. 44)

conductor

Wire or cable

consumer

A customer (either a household or a commercial establishment)receiving electric


power

consumer ground

A grounding electrode located on the consumer's premises, which is bonded


(connected)to the frame or chassis of all electrical equipment found there. The
consumerground is not bonded to the system neutral unless explicitly stated. See
p. 137.

creep

The elongation of conductor under tension. As tension is applied to the


conductor,it stretches and will continue to stretch until a balance between
tension and the materials strength is reached, usually after several years. See
p. 80.

daN

Deca-newtonor 10 newtons, a metric measure of force nearly equal to the weight


of I kilogram

dc

Direct current

DCS

Development& Consulting Services, a non-profit research and development


organization in Nepal that has been involved for several decades in microhydropower and rural electrification efforts

deadend

The mechanical termination of a conductor against a support

distributionboard

A board or box on or in which are included the necessary items (which might
includeMCBs, fuses, knife and light switches, and outlets) to control and
manage the distribution of electricity within the home. This is located after the
consumer's service entrance. Also referred to as a service panel.

dual phase

Three-wire, single-phase configuration obtained by grounding the center tap of


the generator or transformer supplying the mini-grid. Also known as split phase.

GECO

d'energie, an approach to electrificationfocusing


Groupe electrogene-&onomie
on isolated generation,low-demanduses, and broad-basedaccess to electricity,
seep. 193.

genset

Generating set, a generatorcoupled to a prime mover (typically a diesel engine)

guy wire

A wire to restrain unbalancedforces on a pole, also knows as a "stay"

HDPE

High-density polyethylene(in this case, used as conductor insulation)

hp

Horsepower, a measure of power, equivalentto about 750 W

kWh

Kilowatt-hour,a measureof electrical energy, obtained by multiplyingthe power


consumed (kilowatts)by the length that this power level is consumed (hours)

low voltage

Voltage used to distributeelectricityaround the village or other load center. It is


usually based on a nominalconsumervoltage of 120 V or 230 V, dependingon
the country and is also referredto as a "secondaryvoltage".

LV

Low voltage

MCB

Miniature circuit breaker,a magnetic or thermal device that opens a switchwhen


current exceedsa preset amount

medium voltage

A more efficient voltage to transmit electricityin bulk from source to load center
and usually not found in a mini-grid serving a single village. This voltage is
usually in the range of 1 to 35 kV and is also referred to as a "primary voltage".

micro-hydropower

Related to hydropowerplants generatingup to about 100 kW

mini-grid

A distribution network,usually operating only at a low voltage and providing


electricity supply to a community. It is suppliedby either its own power
generator, such as diesel genset or a micro-hydropowerplant, or by a connection
to a local distributiontransformerconnectedto an extension of the regionalor
national grid.

MOV

Metal-oxide varistor, one type of lightning arrester

MV

Medium voltage

Newton, a measure of force equivalentto kg m/s2 and equal in value to the


weight of about 0.1 kg. To convert from a force measured in kg to one measured
in newtons, multiplyby 9.8.

NESC

National Electrical SafetyCode (U.S-A.)

NGO

Non-governmentalorganization

Ohm's law

R = E I (see Symbols,p. viii)

Pa

Pascal, a metric unit of pressure, equal to a N/m2

peak watts

The output of a solar moduleunder peak outdoor lighting conditions

pico-hydropower

Related to hydropowerplants generating no more than a couple of kilowatts

powerpoint

A light fixture or power outlet

vi

PV

Photovoltaic,generatingelectricity from light, usually sunlight

PVC

Polyvinyl chloride,most popular insulating and sheathing material for lowvoltage conductors

RCD

Residual-currentdevice (a device to protect people from potentially dangerous


electric shock, also known as a "ground-fault circuit interrupter" or GFCI)

service drop

The conductorbringing power to a home from the nearest power pole

SHS

Solar home system (a solar-PV-basedsystem to provide basic lighting and


entertainmentneeds to an individual home, with a capacity typically in the range
of 10 to 100 peak watts)

split phase

Three-wire, single-phaseconfigurationobtained by grounding the center tap of


the generator or transformer supplyingthe mini-grid.

unit

One kilowatt-hour

US$

U.S. dollars (1999) are used in this manual

UV

Ultraviolet (lightwhich is just outside the visible spectrum but which can be
destructive to certainman-made materials such as insulation)

Volts

ground

x -T
or

entranch

gelecutrodde aco
distrbuton board

housewiring

vii

Symbols
A

Conductor area (mm2 )

Capacitance(farad)

Cos

Power factor

Conductor diameter (meters,m)

Voltage (volts, V)

Frequency of power supply (hertz, Hz, or, equivalently, cycle per second)

Horizontalforce on pole due to tension in the conductor (newtons, N)

Current (amperes, A)

Length (meters, m)

Power (kilowatts, kW, or kilovolt-amperes,kVA, unless otherwise indicated)

Resistance(ohms)

Unit resistance of a conductor (ohms/km)

Equivalent spacing of conductors of a distribution line (meters, m), see Eqn. (3) and
accompanyingtext on p. 226

Sag in a conductor (meters, m), see p. 80

WvC

Unit weight of a conductor (newtonsper meter, N/rn)

Unit reactance of a conductor (ohm/km)

%VD

Voltagedrop expressed in percent, e.g., for a voltage drop of 23 V when the supply
voltage is 230 V, %VD = 10 (and not 10 %/o)

Ti

Efficiency

viii

Acknowledgements
The author wishes to extend his appreciation to a number of individuals who have directly contributedto
this manual. These efforts have been especially valued because, while these individuals have often been
preoccupiedwith other demanding matters, they have taken the time to share some of their experiences
gainedover the years.
With over 25 years of experience with the National Rural Electric Cooperative Association (NRECA)
supervisingand managing rural electrificationassignmentsin Latin America and in Asia, MykManon has
brought a dose of practical experience and a usefulperspective. Recognizing the obstacles to costeffectiveelectrification in the more remote rural areas and the need to be flexible in designs, he has
contributedof his experience in several sections of this manual. He was a useful and responsive source of
informationon a variety of issues that arose duringthe preparation of this document.
Dr. Adam Harvey has been involved for a number of years in designing and implementing rural energy
systems, focusingon micro-hydropowertechnology,as well as being involved in a range of overseas
developmentefforts. He made initial contributionsto several chapters of this manual before recognizing
the time and efforts which would be necessary in Laos where he is presently facing the challenge of
implementingan off-grid electrificationproject underthe auspices of the local utility, Electricite du Laos.
Dr. Nigel Smith, presently Managing Director of SustainableControl Systems and Principal Research
Fellow at Nottingham Trent University, has 14 years of experience in R&D, technology transfer and
consultancy for small hydro systems and low-cost electrification around the world. He contributed to the
chapteron service connection and housewiring, which also includes a description of a load limiting
devicehe recently developed to make access to electricityless costly for low-income households.
As a Research Associatefor the Micro Hydro Group at Nottingham Trent University, Phil Maher is
responsiblefor a technology transfer project involvingvillage electrification in Sub-Saharan Africa. He
is also working towards a PhD focusing on the optimizationof stand-alone electrification systems using
pico-hydropower.He has experience in the design of mini-grids from Nepal and Ethiopia. In between his
activities, he has found the time to contribute text for several chapters in this manual and has continued to
contribute by promptly respondingto miscellaneousinquiries as they arose.
Whilenumerous individualsand organizations throughoutthe world have constructed mini-grids to bring
the benefitsof electrificationto rural consumers,few of these experiences have been documented.
Interestedindividualshave thereforenot been able to build on these lessons learned. In light of this
dearth of documentation,the author is appreciativeof the efforts of several individuals to take time to
share some of their experiences.
Jon Katz, working with Ecopartners,a program of the Center for Religion, Ethics, and Social Policy
affiliatedwith CornellUniversity, has been involved in an innovative pico-hydropower grid project as
one componentof a multi-faceted developmenteffort in El Lim6n in the western mountains of the
DominicanRepublicover the past several years. Jon contributed a case study of this effort for this
manual and continued to provide details and photographs of that effort as his work proceeded.
Mike Johnson foundedHydro-TechnologySystems,and his work with the manufacture of microhydropower equipmentin the U.S. eventuallyled to his involvement in the construction of a 170 kW
mini-hydropowermini-grid on the island of Kalimantan. He continued work in that part of the world by
initiatinga technologytransfer program in LrianJaya, Indonesia, where he spent the subsequent 10 years

ix

training local staff and implementingover two dozen hydropower-suppliedmini-grids in the course of
those activities. The project at Youngsu documentedin this manual is his contribution.
For the preparation of the case study from Laos, the villageheadman,Mai Kaen Sengmala,and villagers
from Ban Nam Thung, welcomed and hosted the author on several separateoccasionsand shared details
on the origin,construction, and operation of a self-help village electrificationproject they had themselves
initiated from a shared desire to bring a valuedurban amenityto their community.
Safety is an important issue in the design of mini-grids servicingrural communitiesstill unfamiliarwith
electricity. Frequently, this subject is either given low-priorityin an effort to reduce the cost of
electrificationor used as justification for blindly adhering to standardsprepared for much larger systems,
leading to greater costs than necessary. To ensure a safe system at minimumcost, it is necessaryto return
to basics to question what is actually necessary, when it is, and why. With a firm knowledgeof
conventionalelectrification system design, NRECA's Jim VanCoeveringwas able to clearlyaddress my
inquiries and concems on the type and extent of grounding required for low-power mini-gridsas well as
on a number of other topics as they arose. The thoroughness and the clarityof his responseswere of
considerableassistance in working through these issues.
The author also appreciates the efforts of Jim Carter, wood preservationspecialist with NRECA's Wood
Quality Control program, and a number of other individualswho havepromptly volunteeredinformation
to fill in gaps encounteredin the preparation of this document. The author's appreciationand respect also
goes to all those individualsaround the world who have set examplesthrough their own smallefforts at
electrificationand who have illustrated that such efforts can begin satisfyingthe demandfor basic
electrificationamong those deprived of this amenity simply by virtue of where they were born.
This manual is an expandedupdate of an earlier document preparedunder contract with Electricite du
Laos, with the financial support of the Japanese Policy and Human ResourcesDevelopment(PHDR)
Fund. The project idea and TOR were developedby ESMAPas part of its design of the GEF-financed
decentralizedrural electrificationcomponentof the IDA-financedSouthernProvinces Grid Integration
Project.
Allen R. Inversin
IntemationalPrograms
NationalRural Electric CooperativeAssociation
Email: allen.inversin@nreca.org

1.Introduction
The benefits of electrification are well known and demand for electricityservice is widespread. But,
because establishedutilities have often been preoccupiedwith meeting the needs of the vocal and
economicallyattractive urban areas and with maintaining existingsystems, many have been unable to
address needs of rural villages. Consequently, around the world, in rural areas beyond reach of the
national grid, numerous individuals and communitieshave taken it upon themselves to constructtheir
own rudimentaryelectricity distribution systems supplied by isolatedpower sources, such as hydropower
plants or diesel gensets. These mini-grids hold out the promise of being the lowest-cost means of
providing electricity to neighbors or entire communities. However,they are often improvised, inefficient,
unsafe, and short-lived (Fig. 1). Both national electric utilities and developmentorganizationsare
therefore reluctant to encourage and support such indigenous effortsin spite of their potential benefits.
Furthermore,no guidelines exist for those interested in constructingmini-grids to a higher standard of
service and safety.
This manual has been prepared to encourage and
support the design of improved village electrification
schemes. It presents the theory as well as actual field
experiences. It is anticipated that it will be useful to.
rural developmentagencies and to national and
provincial energy companies and authorities. It is
also hoped that, perhaps through intermediaries who
have some command of basic technical skills, it will
be useful to village entrepreneurs and village
developmentcommittees.
In this publication, a mini-grid refers to a low-voltage
(LV) networkwithin a village or neighborhood
supplied at a single point by, for example, a diesel
genset or micro-hydropowerplant (Fig. 2). It
includes the service connections and housewiring. It
does not refer to the interconnection of two or more
separate village grids into a more extensive area-wide
network. The designs covered in this manual range
from low-costdesigns to serve basic lighting needs to
more conventionaldesigns that may become
interconnectedto the grid within the near future.
This manual assumes the existence of a power supply
and does not deal with details of this supply. It rather
focuses on the design of the system to distribute the

just
Fig. 1. The twothin verticalconductors
to the left of the pole bringpowerup from a
plantat its basein a
350W hydropower

village in Colombia. From this pole, it is


power genratdtthcosumdistributed using bare conductors to several

Mini-grids as discussed in this manual do not involve


the use of any medium voltage (MV). However, it
should be recognized that it may occasionally be
necessary to use MV to reduce overall cost. This

ChapterL. Introduction

homesin threedirections.Twisted
conductorsare used for all connections.
Two guy cablesat the bottomencirclethe
pole.

(Photo credit: Phillip Maher)

may occur when serving two or more discrete


load centers separatedby some distance or when
transmittingpower from a generationsource
plant located at some distance fromthe load
center. In this case, transformerswould be
required. Medium-voltagelines are is outside
the scope of this manual.
This manual includes the following:
*

A summary of several examples of


mini-grids from around the world to
illustrate the context in which such
projects have been implemented. More
detailed case studies are found in the
appendices.

Qualitative descriptionsof the issues to


be addressed in planning for a mini-

grid.
*

Fig.2. A micro-hydropowerplant serving remote


householdsscaftered on the hillsides near

Gotikhel,Nepal.
A range of designoptions for the
various componentsof a mini-grid and
how these are sized and incorporatedinto a mini-grid.

The guiding principles for the designof mini-grid systemsshould be that they be safe, adequate,
expandable,and efficient. Systemsare safe if they presentno greater hazard to the public than standard
urban grid-based systems. This can be achieved by ensuringthat they are designed in compliancewith
the spirit of any electricalcodes or standards in use in the country. The word "spirit" is critical here
because accepted standardsare sometimesdesigned for conditionsnot found in rural areas where minigrids might be found. For example,to reduce cost and thereby increase accessibilityto electricity in rural
areas, small conductorsmay be recommendedas appropriatewhere loads will not, in the foreseeable
future,even approach those found in urban areas. But the same conductor mightbe deemed unsafe
according to the codes adheredto in an urban environmentbecause increased current demand there could
lead to a fire hazard. In such cases,blindly abidingby these standards makes electrification unnecessarily
more expensive and less accessibleto rural populations.
Systemsare adequatewhen they deliver sufficientpower when and where needed, with the required
degree of efficiency and service quality.
System expandabilityimplies the use of designs that minimize life-cycle cost by making provision for a
certaindegree of expansion,obviatingthe need to replaceor rewire portions of the system as the load
increases.
An efficient system is one that provides acceptableelectric service at minimumcost over the expected
life of the installation. It may not be efficient, for example,to use materials that are low-cost but whose
low quality requires that they be frequentlyreplaced or repaired or which present a safety hazard. Neither
may it be efficient to save on costby restricting the capacity at the service entrance or housewiring level
below that which could conceivablybe used or to decreaseconductor size and cost if that leads to
excessivevoltage drop and power losses or to unsatisfiedconsumers.

ChapterI. Introduction

If village power systemsrelying on mini-grids are to be sustainableand therefore widely replicable,


designs specific to the conditionsfound in villages must be prepared. There is a need to break out from
the standard mold, to review specificneeds in a community,to go back to basic principals, and to develop
designs that most cost-effectivelyaddress those needs. Without this approach, complexity and high costs
can quicklyplace mini-gridsbeyond the reach of the typical village. The manual therefore not only
reviews a range of technical designsbut also covers in depth some of the other issues that must be
addressed for successful, affordableelectrificationprograms.
From the four case studies presented in the appendicesand summarizedin the next chapter, the range of
options available is clear. These projects, most serving somewhat more than 100 households, were
specifically designed for bringing electricityto isolatedvillages. However, even under these
circumstances, one finds a wide range of costs and sophistication,from a village mini-grid system costing
about $3,000 in Laos to a number averaging more than $90,000in the Ivory Coast. In addition, a
generating plant is required to supply the mini-grid with electricity. This adds from $1,000 to $9,000 for
diesel gensets in Laos and the Ivory Coast, respectively,to from $4,000 to $20,000for a microhydropower plants in the DominicanRepublic and Irian Jaya, respectively.
Any one of these designs is not necessarilybetter or more appropriatethat any other. Each was simply
designed to meet a particular set of conditionsunder a specific set of constraints. But they do illustrate
that numerous variables must be considered in the design of mini-grid and that it is not simply a case of
using the same design in differentlocations, as is generallydone by national electric utilities around the
world. In addition to describingtechnical designs, an importantobjective of this manual is to increase
awareness of the range of issues that must be addressed in bringing the benefits of electricity to rural
people around the world.
This publication presents graphs, equations,and other quantitativeand qualitative details to provide
guidance for the selectionand sizing of the various componentsthat could be incorporated in an electrical
mini-grid. But for such projects, sizing is relatively straightforward. Of greater importance in
implementing affordable and sustainablemini-gridsis an awareness and understanding of the numerous
other issues that must be addressed and resolved. The basic issues encounteredin the design and
implementation of "standard"electrificationwere resolved long ago, and designs adopted by national
electric utilities vary slightly from country to country around the world. However, if these same designs
were to be adopted for mini-grids,costs would be high, and rural populations would never have a chance
to accessthe benefits of electrification. Alternatively,such projects would require govemment subsidies,
but this is an option to which few countries seem able or willing to commit.
The range of design options is much more varied with mini-grids, driven primarily by the fact that
systems must remain affordable,yet adequate, if electrificationis to be more widespread. Only designs
that achieve this will prove sustainableand replicable. But this requires that numerous issues be resolved.
Examples of such issues includethe following:
*

Most mini-grids are not grounded. What level of grounding is warranted? And how, after going
through the expense and effort of grounding,can the effectivenessof grounds in providing a safe
environment be ensuredin a rural setting?

To ensure safetyyet minimizethe cost of electrification,what minimum components must be


included in the consumer'sresidence?

* What approaches are there to reduce the cost of meters, meter reading, billing and collecting,
because these can often cost more than the cost of the electricityconsumed?

ChapterI. Introduction

What types of conductorare most appropriate and available in the small sizes required for minigrids?
*

Should single- or three-phasedistributionbe used?

* How can adequate service quality be maintainedsuch that user appliances are not damaged?
* While service to urban consumersmust make provision for supplying at least 1,000watts and
often considerablymore, how can mini-grids be redesigned to cater to a maximum domestic
demand of perhaps 20 to 100 watts per household?
*

How can conductorsbe joined when the appropriateconnectors are not available for the sizes
commonlyneeded for mini-grids?

* Adopting conventionaldesigns would result in excess system capacity at a cost that the
communitycould never afford. How does one assess the actual needs of a communityto ensure
that the system is not overbuiltand priced out of range for the community?
These are some of the issues that must be addressed before even embarking on the design and sizing of a
mini-grid. Consequently,while equationsand graphs have been included, much of the manual focuseson
increasingawareness of these and related issues and on providing insights gained to date by those who
have already designed and constructedsuch systems.
Furthermore,while an objective in mini-griddesign is to minimize the cost of electrificationfor rural
consumersso that they may access, and benefit from, this resource, several guiding principles must be
kept in mind:
* Making electrificationmore affordabledoes not simply require minimizing the total cost of
componentsat the time of construction. Rather, the implications of system design on life-cycle
cost and system performance mustbe kept in mind.
For example, while the use of small, locally harvested, untreated wooden poles mayappear an
effective means of reducing the costof one of the most expensive components of a mini-grid,the
labor and materials cost for their subsequentfrequent replacement may not only quickly
overwhelm any initial cost savings,but it can put the sustainabilityof entire system in jeopardy.
As anotherexample, if the potential exists for increased user demandin the future, life-cycle
costs may actually be decreased by initially oversizing the distribution line. If costs are
minimizedby keepingconductor size to the minimum required to meet initial demand,then it will
later have to be replaced with larger conductor. The additional labor to replace the conductoras
well as the additional materials will unnecessarilyincrease project cost.
*

Minimizingsystem cost may not necessarily be achieved by simply minimizing the cost of each
componentmaking up that system. The system designer must realize that the designof one
componentcan have implicationson the designand cost of others. For example, as will be
describedlater, increasingproject cost somewhat by incorporating capacitors in the designof
fluorescentlighting units to correct their power factor can result in net savings by allowing for the
use of smaller and less costly conductorand generator.

Chapter I. Introduction

11.Setting the context for low-cost mini-grids


Electrificationfirst began in the urban centers in the industrialized nations and evolved in the following
context:
*

A geographically compact service area, facilitating the supply of electric power.

A variety of end-uses (from powering lights and radios to heavy industry) leadingto a wide range
of per-consumer demands.

A consumerbase with ready employment and access to financial resources to cover the costs of
installing electrical service (the connection cost), purchasing end-use appliances, and covering the
costs for electric energy (the monthly kWh bill).

Over time, standard technical and institutional designs evolved to most efficiently serve these centers.
When electricitywas later introducedby these nations into cities in areas they had colonizedaround the
world, the natural approach was to utilize these same standard designs. But in this new context,these
designs were still largely appropriate,because comparable conditions were found in urban areas in the
developingas well as in the industrializednations.
But as the demand for electricity spreadbeyond the urban areas, first into the less wealthybut still
densely populated periurban areas and later into the rural areas with poorer, more dispersed populations
with more basic needs, electric utilities simply expanded the systems using designs with whichthey were
most familiar. But gradually, as the electrical network expanded, utilities found this work to be
detrimentalto their economicwell-being: costs of supplying electricity increased and per-consumer
consumption,and associated revenuesreturning to the utilities, decreased. The utility response was either
to avoid serving these areas or, if the central governmental directive to serve the rural populationswas
strong, to request the necessary financial resources to subsidize these efforts in areas beyond the towns
and cities.
But the demand for electricity continued unabated and the more enterprising,unserved areas undertook
their own electrification,relying on locally generatedpower. They also recognized that standarddesigns
which had been used could not always affordably meet their needs. As a consequence, a range of new,
less costly designs evolved. These new designs recognized the new context in which electrificationwas
to evolve:
*

Isolated service areas, often requiring local generation to avoid the high costs of bringingpower
to these areas.

A range of more rudimentaryneeds, often focusing on meeting small energy needs-such as for
lighting, entertainment,and, to a limited extent, the operation of simple handtoolsand
appliances-but at the same time, occasionally considering the limited use of some more
electricity-intensiveuses such as agro-processing or cooking.

A broad range of affordabilityon the part on individual consumers, but with most consumers
having more limited access to financial resources.

Because of their eagemess to get access to electricity, the increased willingness of potential
consumers to be activelyinvolved in the supply of their own electricity rather than being merely
the recipients of services from an outside company.

Chapter II. Setting the context for low-cost mrini-grids

The possibility that mini-grids would be interimmeasures and would not have to be designed to
last the 30 or more years that is (or at least should be) the case with conventional systems.

In conventional electrification around the world, designsthat are fairly standard from country to country
have been developed. But even in these cases, costs can vary broadly. In striving to develop new, less
costly designs to serve individual comrnunities,it is clear that, because of the broad nature of the context
in which electrification is to be undertaken, no single standard design could be developed as was the case
with urban electrification.
Designs developed or adopted for mini-gridsdepend heavily on such factors as the size and nature of load
that is to be imposed; on the design life that is expectedof the system; on the availability and cost of
materials, most notably poles; on the metering system which is to be incorporated; and on the level of
safety felt necessary.
To provide the reader with an idea of how designs evolvedin different contexts to bring electricity to
isolated communities, four case studies from around the world have been summarizedbelow and included
in more detail in the appendices in this manual. These projects have common characteristics:
*

Reliance on an autonomous electricity supply,which is either a diesel or gasoline genset or,


where hydropower resources exist, a micro-hydropowerplant.

Meeting basic, low-power needs which are most efficiently provided by electricity, primarily
high-efficiency fluorescent lighting and entertaimnent(radio and TV).

In cases where fossil fuel is used, restrictingthe hours of generationto early evening hours to
ensure an efficient loading of the powerplant.

Dependence on the local communityto provide sweat equity and local materials and to manage
and operate the schemes.

Reliance on fixed tariffs based on connected load (watts) and not on actual consumption (watthours), obviating the need for energymeters and associated administrative costs.

But in spite of this cornmonality, these case studies illustrate the broad range of designs that have evolved
and the wide range of costs that are possible-from about $3,000 to $90,000 for the mini-grid and
housewiring alone, to serve roughly the same number of consumers.
And while one objective is to adopt designs that can reduce the cost of electrification, another should be
to maximize the benefits which can be derived from electrification. If the cost of fuel is relatively high,
such as with diesel generation, an effort must be madeto use availableenergy efficiently, by reducing
losses to the extent possible and to displaceeven costlier sources of energy, such as dry cells. If the cost
of fuel is low, such as with hydropower generationwhere the "fuel" is free, then as many productive uses
as possible should be considered (Fig. 3).

IvoryCoast
A design developed by a French organizationfor severalwestem African nations, including the Ivory
Coast, is one that might be expected from individualswho have been schooled in conventional designs
but who, at the same time, recognize the new context in which off-grid rural electrification is to be
implemented.
As might be assumed from the relative high project cost, which approaches $650/consumer, each system
incorporates conventional designs and components,although these have been down-sized to cater to the
Chapter II. Setting the context for low-cost mini-grids

new, reduced demand levels. But with the still


high costs of this project come additional
benefits which are not generally associated
with the other case studies presented:
*

To ensure consumer safety, residual


current devices (RCDs, see p. 127) and
more expensive underground
distributionin the vicinity of the
consumers have been used.

While the designs adopted are


considerablycostlier than those of the
plantownerin
Fig.3. This micro-hydropower
otherprojectsdescribedin the
Nepalis sharpeningscissorsusingan electricappendices, they should also have a
planer,jointer,grindstone, andcircumotor-driven
considerably longer life and require
lar sawcombination.In addition to generating
less ongoingmaintenance and
electricity for lighting and to power handtools, he
replacement.
By using
* conventionaldesigns and
usesmechanicalpowerdirectlyfor oil expelling,
components,the objective is to have a
flourgrindings,and ricehulling. The penstock
system that, at minimumcost, can be
pipeto the turbineis locatedin the center
connected directly to the national grid, background.
when it arrives in the village at some
time in the future, and be in accordance with establishednational standards. At the time of gridinterconnection,a distributiontransformer would simply replace the powerplant.

Fluorescentlighting is power-factor corrected. This reduces line losses that are encounteredin
the other cases presented, losses that detract somewhat from the efficiency normally associated
with fluorescentlighting.

What is not clear from the informationavailable on this project is whether, in an attempt to reduce cost,
the conductorhas been sized to meet only the average load the project designers expect (30 to 60 W per
consumer). If this is the case, then reconductoring of the distribution system would be required if, when
the grid arrives, consumers are ready to increase their consumption. This would increase the life-cycle
cost of the system.
While numerous advantagesenumerated above are associated with this project design, the questionthat
remains is whether such a design makes the system too expensive and therefore too heavily reliant on
extemal funding to be replicable in a environment with increasing competition for limited public funds.
On the other hand, the observation was also made that consumerspresently spend more for electricity
than they previously spent on altemative fuels displaced by electricity. Their motivation for doing so
should be probed to determine consumerwillingness to pay and to assess under what circumstances,if
any, they can cover actual system cost.
Further details about this project are found in Appendix 1.

ChapterII. Settingthe contextforlow-costrnini-grids

Laos
Unlikethe design prepared for the Ivory Coast, the design used in the village of Ban Nam Thung in
northwestemLaos was prepared by a young man who had recently completed agriculturaltraining but
who had no formal electrical training. It probably representsthe most basic, minimum-cost,mini-grid
design, requiring only several sizes of conductors and a few componentsin each housewiringcircuit.
Poles are usually one of the more costly componentsof conventionalelectrificationprojects. For this
project, live trees were used if they were in a suitablelocation;at other times, villagerscontributed
hardwoodand bamboo posts, but these were untreatedand had to be periodically replaced.
For the type of mini-grid and housewiring design used,capital costs average about $20 per consumer. A
low-cost Chinese 230-V genset was also used. Project cost was low, and the factor most affecting the
viabilityof this project at present is the cost of diesel fuel which has been rapidly increasingas the Lao
currency devalues.
A visit to the project site revealed several problems,which arose from a lack of knowledge of proper
system design rather than due to an attempt to cut costs. Incorporatingdesign changes to resolve these
problemsmay double the capital cost for the system,but this would still have been a very low-cost
system. Problem areas include the following:
*

Lack of control over consumption. The tariffs were based on total connected load, generallyone
20-W fluorescentlamp per consumer. However,there was no enforcement,and including one to
three power receptacles in each home invited the use of appliances. Over-consumptionby one or
more consumersmay have been one reason for the 10-kWgenerator running hot and eventually
buming out.
Each home has fuses, but at a rating of about 10amps (the smallest size fuse wire available on the
local market),these are more to protect conventionalhousewiringthan to limit consumption. If
outlets are to be included in each home, provision shouldalso have been made to include a
properly sized fuse, circuit breaker, or other form of load limiter (see p. 155).

* Inappropriatelysized conductor. A
7-mm2 aluminum conductor was used

'-C.

for a circuit length in excess of 1 km.


To ensure a suitable voltage at the end
of the main line, the generator was run
at over 250 V. This not only resulted
in reducing the life of lamps near the
generator but also placed an additional
load on the generator, probably
contributingto its eventual failure.hav
The area of this conductor should have

been somewhat more than doubled tokeep voltage drop within the main
village (about 350m long) to within an Fig. 4. Theconductorusedalongthisstretchof
acceptable voltage. But even then, the linebetweentwo villagesis toosmall for the loads
second village of about 20 households anddistancesinvolved.
centered at about 700 m from the
generator would still have been too far to alsobe servedwith the same conductor(Fig. 4).

ChapterII. Settingthe contextfor low-costmini-grids

Lack of power-factor correction for the 20-W fluorescentlamps which were the principal load on
the system. The generator was rated at 3.3 kW per phase at a power factor of 0.8. This means
that while the generator could have produced4.0 kW per phase if the ballasts had been corrected
to a power factor of 1.0, it only had the capacityto produce 2.0 kW with the uncorrected
fluorescent lamps in place (with power factor of 0.5). It is conceivablethat the lack of capacitycorrection contributed to overloading the generator.

Poor phase balance. Only two of the three phases at the generator output were used, permitting
full use of only two-thirds of the generator's10 kW. Furthermore,a considerably greater number
of consumers were served by one phase than by the other. Consequently,unbalancing of the
generator output as well as excessiveloading of one of the phases may also have contributedto
eventual generator failure.

While numerous design problems were encounteredat this site, this project illustrated a basic design that
showed the promise of being very low-cost. Even if the conductor size had been increased to reduce
voltage drop within the main village and breakershad been used in the home to avoid the problem with
the use of incorrectly sized fuse wire, project costs would probably have been roughly $30 to $40 per
household.
Further details about this project are found in Appendix 2.

IrianJaya
Irian Jaya, which forms part of the nation of Indonesia,is a rugged island with isolated population centers.
This, coupled with high precipitation, makes it an area with significant micro-hydropowerpotential. In
this case, the hydropower plant provides 24-hourpower to the community.
As with the project in Laos, this is also a fairly rudimentarysystem. The major difference in cost is
attributableto the significantly increased conductorsize used for the main line. It is instructive to note
that this project had a very similar configurationto the Lao project. They both had a generator of about
the same capacity, generating at the same voltage,and serving roughly the same number of consumers
over about the same geographicalarea. However,rather than using the equivalent of about 2.0 km of
7 mm2 aluminum conductor, the project in Irian Jaya used more than 3.5 km of at least 35 mm2 aluminum
conductor.
Even with its more than adequately sized conductor,per consumer cost for the mini-grid and housewiring
averaged $60 per household. The powerplant averagedanother $130 per consumer. However, because
the provincial govemment covered the capital cost of the mini-grid, villagers were only responsible for
the housewiring at about $22, plus somewhatmore than $2 monthly to cover operating costs.
Further details about this project are found in Appendix3.

DominicanRepublic
The Dominican Republic is a country having one of the broadest experiencesworldwide with hanressing
solar photovoltaic (PV) power and making efficient use of the small amount of low-voltage (12 V) direct
current (dc) energy generatedby such systems. It also makes wide use of the small streamflows found in
its numerous streams, by transporting water long distances in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe for pressure
(gravity) irrigation.

ChapterII. Settingthe contextforlow-costmini-grids

Whilesolar home systems were available, their capital cost and recurring cost (largely for the batteries
whichneeded periodic replacement)would have placed an unacceptable burden on the villagers. When
the idea of using a turbine to convert the energy of the water in the irrigation pipe into electricitywas
proposed,this seemed an attractiveoption. It was clear that only small amounts of power could be
generatedper family (roughly 30 to 40 W) because of the size of the available pipe flows. However,
becauseof cost, the villagers were eager to devote their effortsto building a pico-hydropowerplant and
mini-gridand using the PVC pressure pipe for two purposessimultaneously:irrigation and power
generation.
In the DominicanRepublic, severaladvantageswere associatedwith the use of low-voltage direct current
(dc). Fluorescentlamps run off dc were readily available, and use of dc reduced potential safety and fire
hazards in villagehouseholds with little prior experience with electricity. The brightness of the dc lamps
appearedvery insensitive to voltage. The availabilityof dc in the home held out the promise of batterycharging,permittingsignificantlymore power demandper household. And finally, use of dc power
discouragesthe purchase and use of high-powerappliances and devices, uses which put small systems at
risk. The reducedavailability of dc appliancesand deviceson the local market also reduced this risk.
It was decidedthat each household would have access to dc power in the home but that the mini-grid
would transmitat 240 V alternatingcurrent (ac) to reduce the size and cost of conductor used in the minigrid for transmittingpower from the powerhouseto the village. At the top of the pole nearest each home,
at the beginningof each service drop, a transforrner/rectifierunit with circuit breakers was installed to
provide dc power to each home.
In reality, the transformer/rectifierunit had two disadvantages:it increased the cost and complexity of the
connectionand it resulted in the loss of power. While this loss was estimated at 10 W per household,this
is a fairlysignificantportion of the overall power available. There was the advantage that this unit
limitedthe power that could be used and ensured equitabledistribution of power to all villagers but, in
theory at least, a current limiter could also have been used with an ac system. Time will tell whether
conversionto dc was an effective approachto take.
The rnini-gridsystem, with dc conversionand housewiring,cost on the order of $500 per consumer, with
villager-producedconcrete poles and internationaltransportationof materials accounting for about 40 %
of this cost. The powerplant added the equivalentof another $70 per household and a further $200per
consumerwouldhave been added if the cost of the pressure pipe had not been assumed by the irrigation
project.
Further detailsabout this project are found in Appendix 4.

Conclusion
The project summaries highlightthe wide range of capital costs per consumer possible for mini-gridsupplied electricity. If one were to restrict project designs to those described for the Ivory Coast and the
DominicanRepublic, their high cost would probably precludethe electrification of most villages around
the world. Significantgrants and subsidieswould be required and the question is whether these could be
justified to the donor's satisfactionin light of the benefits derived.
The other two projects presented-those in Laos and Irian Jaya-seem more attractive because they
promise considerablyreduced capital costs. On the other hand, higher recurring costs would be expected
for maintainingand repairing these lower-costand consequentlyless robust systems. One questionthat

ChapterII. Settingthe contextforlow-costmini-grids

10

remains is how much the cost incurred in these ongoingrepairs and replacements adds to project cost?
Would projects with lower capital cost also have lower life-cyclecost?
Another question to ask is whether it is more effective to designand implement a high-cost, welldesigned system at the outset, when all the expertise is on-site, than to build a lower-cost system by using
less durable materials and designs and hoping that proper repairswill be made in subsequentyears as they
are required. An engineer implementing projects in Indonesiawrites:
I've come to the conclusion that "distribution"must be planned with a long term
perspective-it's a nice idea to say we build and use bamboo posts temporarilyand
will gradually replace them with steel or concrete as they rot but how many people
ever get around to doing it?'
The challenge facing those charged with implementing sustainableand affordable mini-grids is to
synthesizesafe designs that meet villager needs while having the lowest life-cycle costs. In the process,
they must keep in mind that, without properly trained local staff and possibly a mechanism for providing
technicalbackstopping, most repairs may not be properly made. Temporary fixes will probably be
undertaken-poles will be temporarily braced if not left to dangle, fuses will be bypassed and no longer
serve their intended purpose, and hooked wire ends will replace broken switches. This will further
increaselife-cycle costs or decrease system life over what was planned. Consumers are put at risk and the
initial investment may not yield the expected benefits.
Once the most appropriate, lowest life-cycle-cost designhas been achieved, the questions that still remain
are whether final project costs will be affordable to the communityand whether the design is.sustainable.
And if the project is a pilot project to be adopted elsewhere,another question is whether the final design is
replicable. If not, the potential impact from the effort expendedon this pilot project will have been
considerably reduced.

ChapterII. Settingthe contextfor low-costmini-grids

11

111.
Preconditionsand action plan
In the enthusiasmto get access to electricity in areas far from the grid, there is often an eagerness to
immediatelyget down to the job-gathering and setting poles; stringing conductor; buying fuses,
housewiring,and lighting fixtures; etc. However, before purchasingthe necessary materials and setting
up a system, the proper design must be established. But even before this, it is critical that the necessary
elements for a successfulproject are in place. While ensuringthis may not guarantee success, omitting to
consider them is a sure recipe for failure. These elements includethe following:
* Widespread interest in accessing electricity and the ability of a sufficiently large portion of the
populationto cover, at the very least, the recurring cost of the project, if not a significant portion
of its capital cost.
*

Identificationof a well-established,suitably qualified local entrepreneur, organization, etc., that is


initiatingthe request for electrification and that will have prime responsibility for managing and
operatingthe project on an ongoing basis.

A potential source of electricityin the vicinity of the community in the quantities and at the times
needed.

Because each of these three elements is critical to project success,a careful assessment of each in a
specific situationmust be made before undertaking any work on the installation of a mini-grid. Failure to
address them would put the entire project at risk.
It should be noted that a precondition that is assumed to be met before initiating a project is that national
laws permitthe generation and sale of electricityby private individuals or by organizations other than the
national utilities. If this is not the case, exceptions to the law must be sought; otherwise those
implementingsuchprojects could be placing themselves, their investment, and their consumers at
financial risk.

Willingness and ability to pay


People in all walks of life are eager to get access to electricity;however, this is clearly not a sufficient
condition for embarking on the implementationof a mini-grid project. Coupled with this must be both
the willingnessand ability to pay for this service.
The cost of serviceincludes the following components:
*

Capitalcost incurred in the implementationof the mini-gridproject, with powerplant

Recurringfuel cost (unless solar, micro-hydropower,or windpower is hamessed)

Recurringoperations, maintenance, and overhauling costs,both labor and materials

Equipmentreplacement costs

These costs can be covered by severalmeans:


*

Grants and subsidies from the government,bilateral aid organizations, or non-governmental


organizations

Villagerup-front contribution(such as through a connection fee)

ChapterIII.Preconditions
and actionplan

12

Loans

A portion of the capital costs may be covered by grants and subsidies. Villagers themselvesmay also
cover part of these costs up front. But while aid donors or governmentsmight cover at least a portion of
the capital costs, they are rarely, if ever, willing to take on the responsibilityof assuming the ongoing
costs incurred in the operation and maintenance of suchprojects. These ongoingcosts, as well as the
balance of the capital cost, must be covered by the consumersthemselvesthrough their electricitybill.
Any tariff schedule used to set consumerbills should thereforebe properly designedto generate the
necessaryrevenues to cover these costs. If the villagersare not willing or able to cover these costs, the
advisabilityof proceedingfurther with the project shouldbe reconsidered.
Precisely establishingthe cost of electrificationis difficultbefore a project has been designed and costed.
However,the case studiespresented in the appendices and summarizedin ChapterII provide an idea of
the broad limits within which the costs will likely be found, depending on the sophisticationof the actual
design adopted.
The most basic mini-grid/housewiringsystem is one requiring a conductordown the main streets, service
drops on either side of the conductor, housewiring, and a basic distributionboard and fluorescentlight in
each home. The cost may average $30 to $60 per household. It would rely on locally availablepoles
donated to the project by the community. (See the case studies for Laos and Irian Jaya as two examples
of such projects.)
On the other hand, by using more permanent concrete or treated wood poles or some underground
construction,greater consumer and systemprotection, and higher-qualitydistributionboards and
components, distributionsystem cost may average closer to $500 per consumer,approachingthe cost of a
more conventionaldistribution system. (See the case studies for the Ivory Coast and the Dominican
Republic for two examples of such projects.)
Note that along with the above, the capital cost of the power supply itself must be added. This cost is
highly variable, especiallyfor small powerplants, and depends on factors such as size, the type of power
being hamessed(e.g., hydropower or thermal power through a diesel plant), site conditions,the
manufacturer and quality of the equipment,and powerhousedesign. In addition, while the initial cost of a
gasoline or diesel gensetmay be low, the cost of repair, overhaul, or replacementcould add considerably
to the life-cycle cost of the plant. This cost, in turn, would have to be recouped by the project owner
through the tariff imposedon the consumers. In addition,the recurring cost of the fuel must be
considered. The initialcost of a smallhydropower plant may be high but recurringcosts for repair,
maintenance, and "fuel"should be considerably lower. This cost would generallyhave to be borne by the
consumersthrough their electricity bill.
Therefore,while electrificationis not inexpensive, costs incurred in the constructionof mini-gridscan
vary widely. The same is true of the monthlypayments expected of the consumers. To assist in assessing
whether a communitycan afford to cover these costs, it is useful to obtain a rough estimate of how a
given project cost is reflected in these consumer payments. This will give those proposinga mini-grid
project an indicationof whether, or under what circumstances, such a project could reasonablybe
expected to succeedfinancially.
As a frame of reference, assume that a proposed, very low-cost, low-power village mini-grid,including of
a small diesel genset,costs $10,000 and is to serve 100 consumers. Assume furtherthat all costs are to be
covered by the communityand that loans are available on reasonable terms (here assumedto be 10 %
annually over 5 years). Using Table 19 (see p. 182) and interpolating,monthlypayments to repay a loan
ChapterIII.Preconditionsandactionplan

13

for the full amount can be calculated as ($10,000)(0.023) = $230 per month or an average of $2.30 per
consumer. This payment is proportional to project cost and inversely proportional to the consumerbase.
For example, if the project were to cost $50,000, the average cost per consumerwould by 5 x $2.30 or
$11.50/month. Or if the consumer base for the original $10,000project were only 50 or half the
consumerbase originally assumed, then the cost per consumerwould be 2 x $2.30 or $4.60/month. If the
project costs $50,000 and serves only 50 consumers, then the average monthlybill would reach
$23.00/consumer.
Since the mini-grid is supplied by a diesel engine, the price of fuel would have to be added to the figures
above. To serve small fluorescent lighting and entertainment loads during the evening,this might cost an
additional $1 to $5 per consumer each month, depending on the cost of diesel fuel and actual
consumption. In addition,the cost of operation, maintenance, and repair for the plant and mini-grid each
contribute to the total cost that must be covered, whatever the source of electricity.
A more detailed derivation of an average tariff can be found in Box 16 near the end of this manual
(p. 191). By assuming a certain project "sophistication" and its associated cost as noted above, assessing
what portion of these costs are to be bome by the consumers themselves as opposed to being covered by
grants, and then establishingthe terms under which the consumers are to cover these costs, it is possible
to estimate the amount each consumer will be required to pay monthly to cover project costs. The next
task is to assess whether the rough cost of electricity suppliedby a mini-grid project of the scale and type
assumed, derived through this process, is affordable to the local community.
One approach to assessingthe villagers' ability to pay is to assess how much they currently spend on
energy that would be offset by electricity, such as kerosene and candles for lighting and dry cells and
automotivebatteries for use with radios and TVs. The term "offset" is importantbecause, even if
electricity is introduced, most villagers will still have to continue to purchase kerosene for times when the
electricity is not being generated or to purchase batteries for flashlights which will continue to be needed
outside the home.
Another approach would be to assess what level of electric service those in other comparablevillagesbut with some access to electricity-currently receive and how much they pay for it. In areas where most
households do not have access to a steady income, understandinghow this affects their ability to afford
mini-grid connection and to regularly pay their bills would also be instructive. This would help in not
only establishing the level of the tariff but also its structure (i.e., possibility of prepayment,periodicity of
payments, bulk payments, etc.).
Note that in the discussionsabove, it has been assumed that the loads are primarily residential. In reality,
this is typically the situation. In this case, reducing the cost of electrification to residential consumers
requires adopting lower-cost designs. However, another complementaryapproach that should alsobe
considered where possible is to actively incorporate income-generatingend-uses amongthe residential
loads. These can include the use of refrigeration or the manufacture of ice to increasethe life of fish,
fruit, or other foodstuffs; wood- or metal-working equipment; battery-charging;agro-processingsuch as
milling grain or hulling rice; irrigation; etc. These not only generate revenues-which can contribute to
covering an important portion of the cost of the energy generated-but they also create or broaden
employment and income-eaming opportunitiesboth for consumers gathering raw materials to be
processed or stored as well as for those directly employed in operating the equipment.
It should also be noted that, with certain end-uses, it may be possible for villagers to more efficiently
process crops than with existing traditional methods. In such cases, they may actuallybe generating more

ChapterIII.Preconditionsandactionplan

14

income than they would otherwisebe receiving. For example,in Nepal, oil is expelled manuallywith
what appears like a large mortar and pestle devicedriven by several women and children,a laborious
process. By having access to a newly introducedmicro-hydropowerplant and an oil press manufactured
in the region, considerablymore oil can be extracted from the same quantity of seed, leavingthe villager
with increased income, even after paying the fee for expellingthe oil, income they would not normally
receive. In such a case, a portionof this additionalrevenuecould be diverted to pay for electricity. The
net effect would be that, in constructinga mini-gridthat is financiallysustainable, villagers would, in
effect, be receiving free electricity. They would also be relieved of a strenuous, time-consumingtask.
Other uses with a similar result mightbe pursued, such a cold storageto permit additional revenues to
villagersby storing fish or fruit for times whenthey are in increased demand and would command a
higher sales price.

Identificationof a responsibleindividual/organization
Typically, each family in a village is itself responsiblefor purchasingkerosene or batteries to meet its
own needs. Its access to energyis not dependenton the actions or commitmentsof other families within
the community. With the introductionof a mini-grid,two other energy supply scenarios are possible,
each of which requires a differentinvolvementon the part of potential consumers.
The first scenario is for a private entrepreneurto install a mini-grid,either as another use for his existing
diesel plant, which he may be using to mill grain or to hull rice, or as an independentbusiness venture. In
any case, he assumes all responsibilitiesand risks-financial, operational,and managerial. This scenario
is the least onerous and presents the least risk both to the potential consumersof electricityas well as to
any institution providing grant or loan fundingfor the project. For its part, each household would see no
major difference in its responsibilities. It would still be responsiblefor paying for its consumption,
paying the electricity supplier rather than the kerosene or battery merchant at the local marketplace.
Depending on arrangements with the entrepreneur,each family mightalso be responsible for covering the
cost of housewiring as well as an up-front "connectionfee" whichcould cover the cost of connecting up
the house to the grid. Beyond this, it couldpurchase whatever amount of power the entrepreneurpermits
and could reduce or terminate its consumptionat any time at no further cost to itself.
The second scenario is for some form of villageownership. This might be a cooperative or a user group.
But in this case, the decision to involveitself in a village electricityproject must originate with the
community members themselves. It should not be driven by someone from outside who may have been
attracted to the village by the presence of an attractive micro-hydropowersite or by some local cottage
industry that could make productiveuse of electricity. And whatever the precise form of the organization,
this second scenario involves a differentlevel of commitmentand risk on the part of the villagers as well
as on the part of any lending agencyand the extemal enablingorganization.if there is one. The success
of this approach requires a unified community,with clear leadershipand, preferably, a history of
successfullyworking together on communalprojects.
It is also essential that individualswith the necessaryskills and long-term commitment be available to
operate the system. It may not be uncommonto find an individual in a village who appears eager and
motivated to fulfill this role. Suitablecandidatesmight seem to be the young unmarried villager who
recently graduated from the local school or a well-respectedschoolteacherfrom outside the community.
And if outside enablers excited about findinga project site are involved,they may well have a tendency to
latch on to such an enthusiasticindividual in their own eagernessto implementa project. This tendency
must be guarded against. The question that must be kept in mind, and the one that may be difficult to

ChapterIII. Preconditionsand actionplan

15

answer definitively, is whether such an arrangementis likely to endure. A young person might easily be
lured away by the amenities and opportunitiesin the city and the place of assignment of a teacher may
easily change from one school year to the next. On the other hand, using a villager who is tied to the
village through familybonds, who has a secure means of making a steady, adequate income within the
village, who may already play an importantpivotalrole in village activities, and who has some initiative
and motivation would probably more likely remain in the village and be committed to the long-term
success of a mini-grid project.
The second scenario is the more difficult of the two because it requires the active involvementand
commitment of most of the individualswithin a communityrather than of a single individual. It must be
clear that some mechanism for organizationalcontinuity exists and that the elements are there for a longterm commitment to the project. In the absenceof a reliable and capable individual and community
organization, it may be best to forego a project; otherwise, this effort will likely be costly, timeconsuming, and frustratingand in the end stagnateand collapse after the outside promoter has departed
the scene.
Any mini-grid project should be expected to last for a number of years and will likely require a long-term
financial commitment. Therefore, whatever mechanismis to be used for the implementationof a minigrid project, it is essential that a committedorganizationbe in place to ensure its continued operation.

Adequacy of electricity supply


The electricity for supplying a mini-grid can come from a number of sources,ranging from the
conventional (diesel and gasoline engine or a distributiontransformersupplied by the national or regional
grid) to the non-conventional (wind, solar, or micro-hydropower). Before constructing a mini-grid,it is
essential that whatever supply of electricityis proposed be availablein the quantities and at the times it is
needed. If not, this will not only reduce the end-uses to which electricity can be put but it may also
complicate the generation of adequate revenuesto cover the costs incurred in electrification. And the
power supply should be located sufficientlynear the load center to minimize costs in transmittingpower
to the village loads.
Several electricity supply options mightbe considered. In probable order of popularity, these are a
distribution transformers fed by a national or regional grid, a diesel/gasolinegenerating set (genset), a
micro-hydropower plant, a wind turbine,and a solar PV (photovoltaic)station. While the purpose of this
guide is not to provide details about these various technologicaloptions, brief descriptionsof issues that
should be considered with each option are reviewed.
Grid extension
In cases where a MV line serving a number of larger load centers passes near a community,this is
generally the cheapest approach to rural electrification. Electrificationinvolves the local utility installing
a distribution transformer of appropriatesize near or in the village and making power available to the
village. Presumably the utility is not interestedin managing a small system within the community;
otherwise, there would be no need for the villagersto consider implementingtheir own system. In this
case, the utility may only be willing to install an energy meter at the transformer location and provide a
connection from which the villagers can extend the line into their community under appropriate
supervision and implement their own distributionsystem. The communitywould then be responsible for
collecting the necessary tariff to pay the utility, based on the consumptionthat has been metered at the
transformer.

ChapterIII. Preconditionsandactionplan

16

Severaladvantages are associatedwith this option:


* Unless the electricitysupply in a country is power-limited,much more power could be made
available at the villagelevel than would be the case with the other options. Electrification could
therefore have a much broader impact on the community, far beyond lighting and entertainment.
With grid extension,employmentgeneration and a much broader range of productive uses of
electricity and social amenities are possible on a 24-hour basis.
* In implementinga project, the communityhas one less burden to address-the power supply. In
this case, the national utility would usually ensurea functioningsupply of electricity.
* Because of economiesof scale in centralizedgeneration, the cost of energy is relatively low.
(However,the communitymay also have to include the cost of bringing the power to the village
in the overall project cost.)
The disadvantagesassociatedwith this options are the following:
* Some countries do not have a reliable supply. In this case, rural areas are usually the first to be
cut off when the load on the entire system exceedsavailable generation capacity. An unreliable
supply may then frustrate consumerswho subsequentlyrefuse to pay because of the poor service
they receive. The system may then fall apart because of the lack of adequate revenues.
* If more conventional,urban-based,higher-costdesign standards to which the utility subscribes
must be adheredto, the distributiondesign adoptedin this case may be more costly than would
otherwise be the case.
In consideringthis option, several questions must be asked:
* Is the existing MV line sufficientlyclose to the community or must it be extended. Is the utility
amenable to extendingthe line and what wouldbe the cost for line extension and transformer
placement?
* Are there provisionswhereby the utility could enter into some agreement with communities
willing to be responsiblefor their own distributionsystem?
* Based on experienceto date, how reliable can the power supply be expected to be and is that
adequate to meet the needs of the community?
In the Philippines, such an approach is routine. Withinremote communities, utilities actually install the
entiredistribution system,with service connectionsand, through a memorandum of understanding,
delegatethe responsibilityfor the metering,billing, and collection to formally formed conimunity groups.
The utility merely reads the meters at the transforrnersit installed in the various community and the
communityis responsiblefor collecting the fees and paying its bill.
Diesel/gasolinegenset
Next to connectingto a grid-connectedtransformer,the use of gensets is the easiest approach to
implement. Advantagesof this technologyare significant:gensets are readily available is all countries
and they are low-costand easy to transportand install (Fig. 5). But several disadvantages must be taken
into consideration:

ChapterIII.Preconditionsandactionplan

17

Fuel must be deliveredto the communityon a


year-aroundbasis (unless it is stockpiledin
the community). Can availability of fuel in
the communitybe guaranteed in light of the
reliability of transportation,accessibility by
road during the rainyseasons, and political
uncertainties?

Whilethe cost of fuel continues to be


relatively low, are there any indications that
cost will rise significantlyor that supply will
diminish sufficientlyto discourage future use
of this fuel?

Fig.5. A low-speed6 kVA dieselgensetin

Gensets require expertise for regular engine

southern Belize.

maintenance and, occasionally,major overhauls.A local source of expertise must be available in


or to the communitybefore this option is considered. Without this intervention, the life of the
equipment may be short and may lead to frequentand costly replacement of equipment.
*

Can environmental pollution commonly associated with internal combustion engines-noise,

disposal of spent oil, and exhaust emissions-be adequately addressed?


While the availability of fuel and its cost may be of concern, it is interesting to note that diesel fuel or
kerosene is already burned in wick lamps as a principal source of lighting in rural homes in many
countries. Therefore, in these countries, fuel is already being purchased and imported into communities
for lighting. Because burning fuel in a wick lamp for lighting is very inefficient, reliance on a diesel
genset for electric lighting means that less fuel would need to be imported into a community to generate
the same amount of lighting as the wick lamps currently use.

Anotherconcem might be that diesel gensets generate carbon dioxide, a gas which is generally thought to
contributeto global warming and its adverse impacts on the world environment. First, it should be
recognizedthat the quantity of carbon dioxide generatedby isolated grids for village electrification is
insignificantin comparison to that generatedby a country's industrial or transportation sector or by its
large powerplants supplying the urban areas. If the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions is truly of

concem, it is in these areas that efforts can be cost-effectivelyfocused, not in off-grid electrification.
However,at the same time, it should be noted that the introduction of diesel gensets for lighting in areas
where wick lamps are being used can actuallyreduce carbon dioxide emissions.
Hydropowerplant
All power systemsharnessingrenewable energy resources (wind, solar, and waterpower) have the
advantage of low energy costs. However, the renewable resource with the lowest capital cost (cost per
kilowatt installed) and possibly the only resource that can generate significant amounts of electricity on a
For example,a typical wick lamp with glassmantel burns fuel at the rate of about 0.04 liters/hour and produces
about 50 lumens. On the other hand, even relying on a very inefficient diesel genset (generating electricity at
I kWh/literrather than the 2 kWh/liter that is more typical for a small genset), a fluorescent unit (lamp and ballast)
rated at about 10 W would consume only 0.01 liters/hour and produce about 400 lumens. So in this comparison,
buming fuel in a genset produces 8 times the light, consumes fuel at the rate of one-quarter that consumed by a wick

lamp(thereforeemittingonlyonequarterthe carbondioxide),andkeepsthe emissionsfrom combustionoutsidethe


home,reducingany respiratory problems that might be caused by one's proximity to wick lanterns in the home.

Chapter III. Preconditionsand action plan

18

24-hour basis to feed into a mini-grid is waterpower. But having said this, the capital or up-frontcost is
still high. Whilethe cost of a diesel genset might run several hundreddollarsper kilowatt,the costof a
micro-hydropowerplant (the equipment, powerhouse,and civil works) is usually five to ten times greater
($2,000 to $4,000per kilowatt). Consequently, for such a plant to be viable, it is necessaryto ensure that
a significantportion of the availablepower is used for income-generatingpurposes (i.e., resultingin a
high load factor). Otherwise, the plant will not generatethe revenue requiredto cover this increased cost
(Fig. 6).
One design option to reduce the cost of the micro-hydropoweroptionis to share the cost of the civil
works and the penstock (pressure pipe) with other uses for the water, such as irrigation or, occasionally,
water supply. As noted in the case study of the project in the DominicanRepublic, for example,the
lengthypipeline was initially purchased to bring water to the villagefor irrigation. It was this irrigation
project that bore the cost of the pipe, resulting in an insignificantadditionalcost for the hydropowerplant
(p. 219). This was not possible in the plant in Youngsu, and in this case, the cost of the hydropowerplant
was a major contributorto total project costs (p. 209).
However,it shouldbe noted that if several types of water projectsare to be integrated to save costs, this
must be knownat the design stage. For example, the diameter of a pipeline designed only to supply a
potable water system would normallybe much smaller in diameterthan one designed for a microhydropowerplant. This results because a potable-water-supplypipeline usuallyhandles a much lower
flow and/or because excess water pressure is not needed to operate the system and can be dissipatedin a
small pipe. A micro-hydropowerplant requires a large diameter to minimizeenergy loss through friction.
If a pipeline is to be used for both purposes, a largediameter pipeline wouldbe required at the outset; it is

Fig. 6. This locallymanufactured 14 kW micro-hydropowerplant in Gotikhelgenerates power for


about 110 householdsduring the nighttime hoursfor a fee of $0.40 /month for a 25 W bulb.
During the day, it can run a range of electrical equipment, includinga bandsaw and planer,as well
as a mechanically-drivenoil expeller. While electricity is an attractiveproduct, it is the
mechanically-drivenoil expeller which generatesmost of the plant'sincome.

Chapter III. Preconditionsand action plan

19

00
CARPENTRY

circular saw
8Planer

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P.1p beate,

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tailrace

Generator

QGrain
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plant
Fig.7. Electricitygenerationis only oneof manyend-usesfor this 13 kW micro-hydropower
at Phaplu,Nepal. Most of the usesare directlydrivenby beltscoupledto the turbine.

not typically possible to incorporate a micro-hydropowerplant in a pipeline for a project that originally
was specificallydesigned to only supply domestic water.
Micro-hydropoweralso has a significant advantage in a village settingin that it first generatesmechanical
power that can easily and very efficiently be directly used to drive agro-processing,sawmilling,
refrigeration,and other productive-use equipment, in additionto driving a generator. In cases where the
generation equipment encounters problems or the grid is not functional,it is still possible for the plant to
serve the community and generate revenues by directly drivingbelt-driven equipment (Fig. 7).
In addition,with the little disposable income in many rural areas and the relatively high cost of
electrification,the sale of electricity for household use usually does not generate adequateincome to
cover costs. Frequently, it is the other equipment that is directly drivenby the turbine that generates the
bulk of the revenues from the operation of a micro-hydropowerplant.
In additionto the relatively high capital cost of micro-hydropower,several other factors must be
considered:
* The mere availability of water or even a fall is no guaranteethat sufficient resource exists. In
addition to needing an adequate combination of flow and fall (head) to generatethe required
power, the terrain must be conducive to a cost-effectivedevelopmentof the hydropower scheme.
Are all these conditions met at the site?
* Actual projects costs are very site-specific, and someonewith considerably experience
developing micro-hydropower sites should be involved in estimatingcost. Furthermore,to ensure
that the investment will yield expected returns, it is generallynecessary to gather streamflow data
for a period of at least one typical year prior to committingto the project, if a significant portion
of the streamflow is to be used.

ChapterIII.Preconditionsand actionplan

20

The locationof the resource determinesthe placement of the powerplant and, with hydropower,
the distancebetweenthis locationand the load may be considerable. Additional costs would be
incurred in transmittingpower over this distance, adding to the cost of the project. The
powerhousemust also be easily accessible at all times to ensure proper operation.

* The availabilityof the water resource-the streamflow-is subjectto the vagaries of the weather.
In countrieswith monsoons or pronouncedrainy seasons, it is quite possible to have insufficient
water for power generation for nearly half the year. The questionthat will then have to be asked
is whether half a year of guaranteedpower is sufficient to justify the project. If the plant can only
be used for half the year, thenthe cost of energy to cover costs must be roughly twice as high.
Storing water originatingduringthe rainy season for use is the dry season is only an option with
large hydropowerplants. However,small but sufficient streamflowmight be available during the
dry season for daily storage, such as for storing water during the late evening and daytime hours
for use duringseveral hours in the early evening. But this is only an option with higher-head sites
with low energy demand. Furthermore,constructingstorage capacity can increase cost
considerablyand create additionaloperationsand maintenanceproblems.
Wind turbine
Like hydropowerplants, wind turbines must be located where the resource is found. In the case of wind,
this may mean on ridges andhilltops, while cornmunitiesare usually found lower down the slopes or in
the valleys. At other times, it may be on the coast, even within a community. But before such an option
is adopted, it is necessaryto ensure that the windregime is adequate,both in terms of wind speed and in
terms of its availabilityover the day and over the year. The turbine, tower, battery bank, and electronics
are costlier yet than the previousoptions, on the order of $6,000/kWfor units in the 5 to 10 kW range.
Because of the variabilityof the energytypically associatedwith wind turbine,other costs are imposed on
this option:
* Possibly the most significantproblem with relying on the wind resource is that, since adequate
wind speedsare not always present, energygenerated when little use is made of the electricity has
to be storedin a battery until it is needed. This battery bank needed to store energy adds
considerablycost to the initialas well as recurring cost of such a system. Also required are
electronics for battery charging and an inverter to convert the stored dc power into ac power as
needed, so that it can then be distributedover the mini-grid to the consumers.
*

Because of the limited availabilityof energy,a special electrical meter is required in the home to
limit the energy(kWh) which each household can consume daily. If this were not included, it
would be possible for a few householdsto consume the entire day's allotment of stored energy
before the otherscan access their share. These meters are not commonlyavailable and introduce
a further cost to this option. Current limiters, such as a simple fuse, cannot be used for this
purpose, because these limit current or power (kW) to the consumersbut do not adequately limit
the energy (kWh)that they consumeover the day.

And, as in the case with hydropower,a knowledgeableindividual is needed,but this time to ensure proper
measurement of the wind resource. This usuallyrequires the collection of data for at least one year before
makinga decision. Data already gatheredin the immediate vicinity should give some indication of this
resource but care must be exercised in extrapolatingthe results because windpower is sensitive to the
local topography.

andactionplan
ChapterIII.Preconditions

21

Solar PVstation
A solar-PV-basedsystem supplying a mini-grid would generate electricityand store it in a battery bank in
a central location and then automatically invert it to alternating current (ac) when it is needed by the grid
to supply consumers.
Solar energy has an advantage over the other renewable options in that this resource is more evenly
distributed throughoutthe world. Furthermore, the amount of solar energyreaching a specificpoint on
the earth over the year-the insolation-is known with a greater certainty than are wind or hydropower
resources. Therefore,a year of data collection is not required to assessthe extent of the resource before
committingto a solar system. However, in areas such as those where buming rice stubble in the field or
slash-and-burnagriculture creates a heavy haze for a month or two each year or in the mountainswhere
fog typically persists until late morning, one has to be cautious about predictionson insolation based on
other areas in the country that may not encounter these conditions.
The principal drawbackto solar power for mini-grid applicationis that this optionrelies on considerably
costlier hardwareto harness this energy and make it usable. A completepower supply, with batteries,
electronic controls,inverters, etc., costs at least $10,000per peak kilowatt. This is equivalentto roughly
$60,000per "real" kilowatt, i.e., a kilowatt that generates 24 kWh daily.'
Another significantdrawback is the fact that solar-PV generated electricityis direct current (dc) and, like
windpower, must be stored in this forn in a costly battery bank until it is needed. In addition to the capital
costs, these battery banks need to be replaced periodically. For example,a 3-kWpsolar array that might
generate 10 kWh daily would require a 3040 kWh bank of deep-dischargebatteries costing at least
$4,000 and having to be replaced every 5 to 10 years. As with windpower,an inverter is also required to
convert dc power to usable ac power when needed by the grid, addingfurther to cost and complexity.
And as with a wind system, where a limited quantity of energy is generateddaily,an electronic metering
device would also be required with a solar-based system to ensure that this energy is equitablyavailable
to all consumers. Some research and development work on such a devicehas been undertaken. This
device is designedto be located in individual homes and measure energy (kWh or Wh) consumed in the
household. In this sense, it is similar to a prepayment meter (see p. 186). However, unlike prepayment
meters used on national-grid-suppliedsystems that can supply an essentiallyunlimited amount of power
and energy, photovoltaic systems have a limit on the energy that can be generatedand used each day.
Consequently,this device allows only a preset amount of energy to be used daily. It shuts off electricity
to the home for the remainder of the day once the limit has been reached. This device automatically
resets at the beginningof every evening.
Because of these added costs, solar energy is usually not generated for distributionover a mini-grid.
Rather individual solar home systems (SHSs: panel, battery, and electronics)are sold for use in individual
homeswhere electricity is generated, stored, and consumed as dc power, doing away with the need for a
grid, inverter, and any kWh-limiting devices. The only advantage of a solar-PV-basedmini-grid over a
project relying on solar home systems would be that use of a mini-grid permits energy not used by one
household to be used by others. But this is rarely, if ever, sufficient rationale for such a system, because
this benefit does not justify the added expense of a grid.
A PVsolar systemratedat I kW (peak)would yieldroughly4 kWh daily. However,a hydropowerplantor diesel
to get accessto the equivalentamountof energy
gensetratedat 1 kWcouldyield24 kWhdaily. For a commnunity
in terms
(i.e.,24kWh),the PV optionwouldhaveabout six timesthe capacitynotedaboveor 6 kW. Consequently,
of "real"energygenerated,the solaroptionwould costsixtimesits costper kW(peak).
ChapterIII. Preconditionsandactionplan

22

Plan of action
Only after all three conditionsnoted in the first part of this chapter-villager ability to pay, presence of a
committed organization and motivatedleadership, and availability of a power supply-have been
determined not to pose any obstaclesto the implementationof a mini-grid should design work be
initiated.
At the beginning of all real-worldprojects, there is a myriad of unanswered questions. Therefore,
assumptions must initially be made. For example, the communitypower demand must be known before
the capacity of the powerplant can be selected and the conductor sizes established. However, the
community demand depends in part on the cost of the electricity, and this is not precisely known until
after the powerplant and conductorhave been sized and costs calculated. Therefore, to begin, a cost must
be assumedbased as much as possible on past experience. Then the project can be sized according to this
estimated demand, and a project price then calculated. With this information in hand, one can then
establish a tariff and go back to the consumers to determninehow this better cost estimate of cost will
affect their consumption. Such an iterative process will occur numerous times throughout a project. As
more experience is gained, the better will be the assumptions made.
The two lists below itemize the stepsrequired to design and construct a rmini-gridafter the three
preconditions described above have been satisfied. It describes in summary fashion each task to be
addressed and refers to appropriatesections in the text that provide additional designand construction
details. However, as explainedabove, some tasks listed in the table cannot be completeduntil later in the
design process. In these cases, approximatevalues must be assumed and will have to be revised as the
design process proceeds.

Mini-GridDesignTasks

ReferenceSections

I . A community-widemeeting shouldbe held to clearly and


carefully present the electricityuse options and constraints
imposed on end-uses by the supply and estimated cost of
electricity. This should be followedby a survey of
potential consumers about their initial level of expected
demand, a realistic projection of growth, and the type of
service (i.e., whether and wherethree-phase distributionis
necessary). Type of power supply and voltage level
should be identified.

See "Demand assessment" (p. 44).


Those assessing demand must have a
understanding of the various end-uses
and their implications for project
design.

2. Estimate an initial tariff structurebased on an estimate of


project-specific costs and proposed consumptionpattems.
If this leads to a tariff which is not affordable, the
implication on this project feasibilityshould be considered
and alternative design options considered.

"Metering" (p. 154)describes various


metering options which rnay affect
how the tariff is set and "Tariffs"
(p. 179) describes how a tariff is
established.

3. Prepare map of area to be served, locate powerhouse,lay


out distribution system, determinelocations of loads, and
include tentative pole locations.

See "Mapping and system layout"


(p. 49)

Chapter III. Preconditions and action plan

23

Mini-GridDesignTasks (cont.)

Reference Sections

4. Determine the line configuration-single-phase, splitphase, or three-phase-required to serve the expected


load.

See "Line configuration" (p. 54)

5. Calculate size and cost of the main conductor to serve


design demand for the different configurations. Finalize
selection of configurationand conductor size. Modify
layout (Item 3 above) if necessary to minimize required
size of conductorif possible.

See "Conductor" (p. 64)

6. Establish minimumline-to-groundclearance.

See "Clearance requirements" (p. 98)

7. Assess pole options that are available and which satisfy


clearance and strength requirements.

See "Poles " (p. 86)

8. Selectpoletop hardwareto be used.

See "Poletop hardware and


connectors" (p. 105)

9. Design pole guys and anchors where required.

See "Guys and anchors" (p. 117)

10. Based on level of servicesto be used by each consumer,


determine level of protection and housewiring
configurationto be adopted.

See "Protectingpeople" (p. 133) and


"Housewiring" (p. 163)

11. Determine what meteringis consistent with encouraging


the desired load profile.

See "Metening"(p. 154)

12. Select conductor type and size for the service drop.

See "Service drop" (p. 146)

Mini-GridConstruction
Tasks

ReferenceSections

1. Procure local and purchasedmaterials.


2. Stake pole positions.

See "Locating poles" (p. 53)

3. Frame poles (i.e., preparepoletop and install poletop


hardware) and set them.

See "Setting poles" (p. 103)

4. Prepare anchors and guy poles as needed.

See "Guys and anchors" (p. 117)

5. Install grounding electrodes,as required.

See "Grounding" (p. 123)

6. String, sag, and tie line conductorsand add lightning


arresters where necessary.

See "Stringing and sagging the


conductor" (p. 77) and then
"Lightningprotection" (p. 141)

7. String, sag, deadend, and connect service drops. Install


poles or other line supports as required to maintain
adequate clearance.

See "Service drop", p. 146.

ChapterIII. Preconditionsandaction plan

24

Mini-Grid ConstructionTasks (cont.)

8. Install distributionboard, housewiring,light points, power


points, ground electrode,breakers, GFCI, etc. as required.

Reference Sections

See "Housewiring",p. 163 and


"Grounding",p. 123.

9. Inspectand check house circuits.


10. Connect service entrance conductorto distributionboard.

ChapterIII.Preconditionsandactionplan

25

IV. Electricity uses and demand assessment


This chapter will first review typical end-uses to which electricity can be put and the constraints that a
mini-grid might place on the type and size of these uses. How does the fact that the generation capacity
of isolated mini-grids is limited affect the types of end-uses that can be used? What impact does the
voltage variation commonly found on isolated mini-gridshave on end-uses? Is three-phasepower
necessary for some end-uses or is single-phasepower adequate?
After this chapter reviews the end-usesthat a mini-grid might supply in a specific community, it will
continue by providing guidelines for assessingpotential consumer demand so that a mini-grid can be
appropriately sized for the expected loads. This step is critical to the success of a mini-grid project
because the mini-grid design adoptedhas a significant impacton project cost. Unnecessarily oversizinga
mini-grid increases the cost that the communitymust cover. Undersizingit will lead to consumer
frustration and dissatisfaction with service quality, a dissatisfactionthat can easily lead to the loss of
consumers and the inabilityof the remaining consumersto cover costs.

Typesof uses
Lighting
Two basic types of lighting are commonlyused: incandescentand fluorescent lighting. Incandescent
lighting relies on passing so much electric current through a resistive filament that it heats and glows,
emitting visible light in the process. Fluorescentlighting relies on the passage of electric current through
a conducting gas, exciting that gas and forcing it to releases light in the process. The light is largely
invisible, ultraviolet light, which is absorbedby the white coating on the inside of the tube (phosphors),
causing it to glow and emit visible light. Each of these two types of lighting has significantlydifferent
characteristics.2
Incandescent lighting
Incandescent bulbs typically used in the home range up to about 100 W and are popular with most rural
consumers with limited means becauseboth the fixtures and the bulbs are low-cost. The working life of
bulbs manufactured in industrializednationswith quality control typically range from 700 to 1,000hours
when used at their rated voltage. Their luminousefficacy is in the range of 8 to 18 lumens/W.
In comparison to fluorescentlamps, incandescentbulbs produce light inefficiently, convertingroughly
10 % of the energy to light and radiatingthe remainder as heat into the environment. To produce the
same light output, an incandescentbulb consumes about four times the power consumedby a fluorescent
unit (i.e., lamp and ballast), at four timesthe cost. Furthermore,while individual incandescent bulbs are
less expensive than fluorescentlamps, their shorter life means a higher life-cycle cost. As can be seen in
Table 1, the life-cycle cost of incandescentlighting is considerablygreater than that of the alternatives.
As is covered in the next section,if there is a need to provide electricity at least cost to a community,
promoting the use of fluorescenttubes would be advantageous.
The life of the incandescent bulb in Table 1 assumes it is operatedat nominal voltage, because the life of
a bulb is heavily dependent on its operatingvoltage (Fig. 8). The lamp cost/hour noted would differ
somewhat at other voltages. For example, operating the bulb below its nominal voltage can significantly
increase its life, reducing its cost on a per-hour basis. But with an overvoltage of only 8 %, bulb life is

Chapter IV. Electricity uses and demand assessment

26

Table 1. A comparativelife-cycle costing of lighting. The light output from the different options is
roughly the same. A cost of energy of $0.10/kWh is assumed.
Incandescentbulb

Fluorescent lamp

Compact Fluorescent Lamp

Life (hours)

750

6000

9000

Demand (W)

100

20

20

Cost of lamp

$0.40

$2.00

$20.00

Lamp cost/hour

$0.0005

$0.0003

Cost of energy used


over its life

$7.50

Total cost/hour

$0.0105

$0.0022

$12.00

$18.00

$0.0023

$0.0042

reduced by half, doubling this cost. However, because the cost of incandescent bulbs is low
($0.0005/hour), its reduced life has little affect on the total cost of using that light ($0.0105/hour). Rather,
the largest drawback of operating at an overvoltage is the hassle of frequently purchasing and replacing
the bulb.
Another drawback of incandescent bulbs is that their
light output is also strongly influenced by their operating
voltage. Excessive voltage drops along a distribution
line can result in significantly reduced lighting levels,
giving rise to consumer dissatisfaction. A 10 % drop in
voltage can result in a 30 % reduction in the light output.
Fluorescentlighting
Fluorescent lighting is available in two forms: the
conventional straight tube and the compact fluorescent

light (CFL). The principal attractive feature of this type

200%
150%

Life

50%

0%
40%

Lumen/p\

60%

80%

100% 120% 140%

of lighting is its high efficiency, generating considerably


Nominal voltage (%/6)
more light (40 to 80 lumens/W) than incandescent bulbs
(8 to 18 lumens/W). This type of lighting has been
incandescent bulbs with variation in
voltage.
especially popular this past decade for solar photovoltaic
systems because it permits about a four- to five-fold
increase in the light output for the same energy consumption. Efficient use of solar electricity is essential
if maximum use is to be made of the costly energy generated by this method.
On the other hand, when more and lower-cost power is available, such as with national or mini-grid
systems, fluorescent lighting has been less popular because of higher up-front costs and, in some cases,
the limited availability of tubes. But especially in the case of mini-grids, it might be in the interest of
both the consumers and the supplier to encourage the use of fluorescent lighting. By so doing, a greater
number of consumers can be served by the same investment in the power supply and mini-grid and for the
same fuel consumption. This can generate additional revenues for the owner and/or reduce the cost to the
consumers. Or each consumer can benefit from more lighting at the same cost.
Because of these advantages associated with the use of more efficient fluorescent lighting, consumers
should be encouraged to use this form of lighting. However, there are circumstances when the

Chapter IV. Electricityuses and demand assessment

27

consumers'disposable income is low and the difference in the initial cost between an incandescentbulb
and fluorescentlamp is significant enough for consumers to purchase the less expensive incandescent
bulb with its lower up-front cost. Or they may not realize that the fluorescentlamp is a less expensive
option over time. As can be seen in Table 1, the unit cost of fluorescent lighting on a life-cycle basis
($0.0023/hour)is only 20 % of the cost of incandescent lighting ($0.0 105/hour).
In addition to the lower cost of fluorescentlighting, the cost of the lamp itself over its long life is
negligible. The same table shows that the relatively high cost of the fluorescentlamp ($2.00) contributes
little to the cost of lighting ($0.0003/hour)when compared to the cost of the energy consumed
($0.0020/hour)by that same lamp. Because the capital cost of the lamp is so small in comparisonto the
costs of operating the lamp over its life, it might be advantageous for the electricity system owner to
encourage the use of fluorescent lampsby covering the capital cost for providing fluorescentlamps (and
possibly even fixtures) to all consumers. This small additional cost could even be recouped over time
through a slightly increased tariff.
By being responsible for supplying the lighting hardware, the owner could also ensure the installationof
quality lighting components, including the use of fluorescent lamps with power-factor correction(p. 32).
This would broaden the benefits that the mini-grid could provide to both the consumers and plant owner.
It might be arguedthat a larger consumerbase would probably result if up-front connection costs (costs of
the serviceconnection, housewiring, and lights) to the consumer are minimized by amortizing all these
costs in the tariff. However, a more useful indication of real consumer interest in electrificationwould
probably be obtained by requiring them to pay a portion of the cost that is large enough to indicatetheir
commitmentto electrification and their ability to find the necessary financial resources. Being forced to
cover a portion of the connection costup front will also more likely ensure that consumershave
considered the implications of their proposed consumption level with greater care. The larger their
consumptionlevel, the greater would be the connection cost they would have to cover (because larger
conductor,a higher level of protection, and more extensive housewiring would be required). Coveringat
least a portion of system cost up front also gives the villagers a sense of ownership and is more likely to
increase the care they take of the system.
One factor increasingthe life-cycle costof fluorescent lamps is the reduction in life caused by utilizing
them frequentlyfor short periods of time. This arises because lamp ignition is the part of the lighting
cycle of the lamps that places the largest stress on the lamp (in particular, its filament). If lamps are only
used for short periods of time (e.g., in bathrooms or cupboards), an incandescent bulb may be most costeffective. Also, as with any light, if the glass bulb or tube is not occasionally cleaned for dust, carbon
black from cooking fires in the home, and insects that may accumulate, light output will decrease. The
bulb should be wiped with a damp clothand dried, but make sure that the bulb is off and cold before it is
removed.
Standard tubes
Fluorescenttubes typically used in the home range from 4 to 20 W and are available at costs ranging from
about $4 to $8 each, including fittings. The working life of tubes manufactured in industrializednations
with quality control typically ranges from 5,000 to 8,000 hours. Reducing tube diameter can significantly
increase light output, and this is the direction in which designs have been heading.
Commonly used fluorescent lamps rely on a glow-type starter and a magnetic choke (a wire coil wrapped
on a iron core) that serves as the ballast. The operation of such a design is explained in Box 1. Use of a

ChapterIV. Electricityusesand demandassessment

28

Box 1. Operation of a fluorescent lamp.


A comparison of the operation of incandescent and fluorescent lighting is shown in Fig. 9. In both cases,
an on-off switch is used to place the operating voltage across the light. During the operation of an
incandescent light, this voltage appears across a filament, pushing current through it and causing it to
glow because of the heat generated. The resistance of the filament restricts the amount of current used.

(a)

on-off(rush) switch

(b)

(norma ly closed)

on-off switch

fluorescent tube
with filament at
each end

ignition(push)
switch
(normallyopen)

icnecn

incandescent
light

choke (ballast)

Fig. 9. Comparison of circuits with (a) fluorescentlighting (with manual start)


and (b) incandescentlighting.
During the operation of a fluorescent light, current passes through the conducting gas within the lamp
from the electrode at one end to that at the other. The current passing through this gas emits light. But
two other components are required for its operation:
1. First, the gas in the lamp initially does not conduct electricity. To get it to do so requires the
temporary closure of the ignition switch. This completes the circuit, permitting current to flow
through both filaments that are connected in series. This heats the filaments as in the case of an
incandescent light and causes the gas in the vicinity of the filaments to become conducting.
However, the resistance of this gas is not yet sufficiently low to conduct electricity and generate
light.
2. A ballast-a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core-is also required. When the ignition switch
is briefly turned on, current flows through the ballast that is in series with the filaments, building up
a magnetic field around it. A moment later, after sufficient time has passed for the gas in the vicinity
of the filaments to have been heated sufficiently to be conducting, the switch is opened. The sudden
stoppage of current through the ballast causes the magnetic field that has built up around the core to
collapse, inducing a high voltage peak in the windings. This voltage peak is sufficiently high to
force a "spark" to jump across the lamp from the conducting gas in the vicinity of one filament to the
other, initiating the flow of current through the lamp.
(Continued on next page)

Chapter IV. Electricity uses and demand assessment

29

(Continued)
As soon as electricity starts flowing across the lamp, this current further ionizes the gas, causing it to
conduct readily and to emit light in the process. But it also causes the resistance across the lamp to
suddenly drop. The ballast must now fulfill its secondrole, limiting the current flowing through the
lamp. It provides "resistance" to the flow of current,
without the losses of energy associated with the use of
Bimetallic
Fixed
0
a resistor. Withouta ballast,the fluorescentlamp
contact--contcc
C
would provide little resistance and would cause a short
(electrode)
(electrode)
circuit. The only losses of energy in a choke are those
Movable
N
caused by (i) heating of the wire in the ballastbecause
contact
of the flow of current and (ii) heating of the iron core
caused from flow of eddy currents created by the
growing and collapsing magnetic field. This is the
Lamp
source of the wattage losses associated with the use of
a ballast and may be several watts.)
Ballast
With the typical lamp, the ignition switch is not manualbut
automatic. A bimetallic strip within a small tube replaces
Line
Fig. 10. "Glow'type starterfor a
the switch (Fig. 10).iVWhen the on-off switch is turned on
fluorescent tube.
to light the lamp (Fig. 9a), the voltage appearingbetween
the electrode and a bimetallic strip within this small starter
tube causes a gas to glow and get warm, heating the
bimetallic strip and causing it to bend and touch the electrode. This turns "on" the switch permitting
current to flow through the filaments of the fluorescentlamp. As soon as these touch, there is no more
current through the gas within the starter tube. The glowingstops and the bimetallic strip then cools
down, disconnecting and turning "off' the switch. This causes the magnetic field in the ballast to
collapse, triggering flow of current through the main fluorescenttube as was describedpreviously. This
starter switch then stays off because, as soon as the fluorescentlamp starts operating, there is almost not
voltage across the lamp and, therefore, no voltage across the glow tube to reheat the gas; it all appears
across the ballast.

choke introduces power (watt) losses in the ballast itself. It also causes the lamp to draw more current
from the electricity supply than is really required, making inefficientuse of available current and
distribution line capacity. This situation can be remedied by adding a capacitor in the circuit for powerfactor correction. This is discussed later (p. 4).
More recently, electronic ballasts using solid-statedeviceshave been developed. These supply a high
frequency current to the lamp (typically 30,000 Hz rather than 50 or 60 Hz). While costlier and more
susceptible to voltage fluctuations, this makes the lamp start quicker; brings the power factor close to
unity; eliminates any flickering of the light; reduces noise,reduces ballast losses, and weight; and
improves lamp efficiency and life. A 30 % saving in energyfor light output comparable to that from a
conventional fluorescent lighting is possible. This technologyis rapidly becoming standard in fluorescent
lighting. Furthermore, if the lamp does not ignite, electrode current ceases to flow. With a magnetic
ballast, if the lamp fails to ignite, the glow tube continuesto retry igniting the lamp until the lamp is
manually switched off. This can damage the starter and ballast.

ChapterIV. Electricityuses and demandassessment

30

Low voltage affectsthe operation of fluorescentlamps. However, unlike incandescentbulbs, the light
output from fluorescentlamps is much less sensitive to voltage drops. A 10 % decrease in voltage that
will reduce light output from an incandescentbulb by 30 % will reduce the light output from a fluorescent
lamp by less than 5 %. But while a fluorescentlamp will continueto operate at 10 to 15 % below
nominalrated voltagewith no major change in intensity, it will become increasingly difficult to ignite
(start). Belowthis voltage, the lamp will not light. If the lamp is already operating, flickering will be
more noticeableas voltage decreases. But if voltage drops more than roughly 25 %, the lamp may well
go out. With lamps using magnetic ballasts, any low voltage causesthe lamp to lose its gas discharge
current. This causesthe starter switchto start triggering repeatedlyin an attempt to re-ignite the lamp.
Repeatedrestartingdamages the filament electrodes at each end, reducing their light and visibly
darkeningthe phosphorcoating at the end of the lamp. In designinga distribution system, the design
should strive to prevent the maximum drop at the end of each line from exceeding 10 %, even though
some lampsmight continue working at somewhat lower voltages.
Higher operatingvoltage or reducedpower-line frequencytends to shorten ballast life because of the
increased heating associatedwith the increased currents that these cause.
Compactfluorescent lamps (CFLs)
Somewhatmore than a decade ago, CFLs spearheadedthe movementtoward wider use of energy efficient
lighting. While operating in the same manner as fluorescentlamps and with about the same luminous
efficacy,they havethe advantage that they can be inserted into a socket for an ordinary incandescent bulb
and do not rely on the larger fittings commonlyassociated with fluorescentlamps. The ballast and
electronicsare eitherbuilt into the base of the lamp or are separate and mounted between the bulb socket
and the detachablefolded-tubeassemblyof a CFL. A possible disadvantage of lamps with integral
electronicsin the lamp's base is that they can be costly, in the range of $10 to $15. However, exceptions
exist. For example,CFLs from China are commonly availablein Southeast Asia for as low as $1.30.
Since ballastshaveroughly five times (i.e., 50,000 hours) the life of a CFL, it may be more cost-effective
to use the modular design with a separateballast so that an old tube can be replaced without having to
also replacethe still functionalballast.
Line losses caused by using fluorescent lamps
Especiallyfor isolated mini-gridswhere most efficient use must be made of limited generation capacity,
the increasedefficiencyof fluorescenttubes over incandescentbulbs in terms of their light output for a
given power rating is attractive. However, the full potential of the advantage cannot be tapped without
also ensuringthat the power factor associatedwith the operation of fluorescent tubes has been brought
near unity.
The power factor, cos 4,associatedwith an electric device is a measure of how much the current passing
through that deviceis in phase with the voltage. More practically,it can be regarded as a measure of the
efficiencywith which the current in a circuitit used. For a purely resistive load, the power factor is unity,
i.e., the altemating current is in phase with the voltage driving it. The relationship between the power P
consumed by a device, the current I through the device, and the voltage V drivingthat current is
P(W) = E(V) II(A) -cos 0
For example, an incandescentlamp is a resistive load and has a unity power factor. If a 40 W
incandescentlamp is plugged into a 240 V supply, the current that the line must carry to properly operate
the lamp is simply

ChapterIV. Electricity
uses anddemandassessment

31

I1=

E cos

40 W
=0. l 7 amperes
C(230V) (l.0)

The situationmaybe different with a


fluorescent larnp. If the fluorescentunit
contains a magneticballast that is uncorrected
(i.e., has no capacitor included in the circuit), it

has certain characteristicswhich causes it to


make inefficientuse of the current it draws.

4 X4

J
r

F 22gj\

XT

For fluorescent lamps with uncorrected


magnetic ballasts, cos 4is usually in the range.

of 0.5 to 0.6 (Fig. 11). For example, if a


fluorescentunit has a power factor of 0.5 and
were to consumethe same "real" power of 40
W, it wouldrequire

40W

Fig. 11. Viewof the nameplateof a ballast. This

name plate indicatesthe need for a 3.8 giF capacitor to raise the power factor from 0.54 to 1.0.

-0.34A

(230V)(0.5)
or twice the current to operate. Requiringthis extra current to flow through the distribution line (1)
increases voltage drops and losses along that line and (2) limits furtherthe load that can be served by a
given generator. The following example illustratesthese two drawbacksand how they can be resolved.
For this example, assumethat a single-phasedistributionline stretches 1000 m from the power supply to
the last house and that 50 households are evenly distributed along that line, with each consumer using 40
W. This loading represents a total demandof 2.0 kW along the line, which, for the purpose of calculating
the voltagedrop at the end of the line, is equivalentto a single load of 1.0 kW at the end of the line. Let it
also be assumed that the maximum voltage drop should not exceed 6 %. The following operating
characteristics for this section of the ACSRmini-grid can be calculated using the equations on p. 75.
For this example, the first row of Table 2 indicates that a 21-mm2 ACSR single-phase line can supply
power to light fifty 40-W incandescentlamps distributed along the section of line with an acceptable
5.3 % voltage drop. However, if to get more lighting these are replaced by typical fluorescent lamps with
Table 2. Impact of capacitor correctionon cost of line losses.
Total
current

Conductorsize

Voltage
drop

Line
loss

Conductor
cost

Fifty 40-W incandescentlamps

8.5 A

#4 AWG (21 mm2)

5.3 %

50 W

$560

Fifty 40-W fluorescentlamps


* without capacitorcorrection
* without capacitorcorrection
. with capacitor correction

17 A
17 A
8.5 A

#4 AWG (21 mm2)


#1 AWG (42 mm2 )
#4 AWG (21 mm2 )

8.3 %
5.5 %
5.3 %

210 W
100W
50 W

$560
$1000
$560

Scenario

Chapter IV. Electricity uses and demand assessment

32

no power-factor correction, the current demand of each light would increase from 0.17 to 0.34 A per light
as previous calculated. This would lead to an increased voltage drop of 8.3 % (second row of data). This
would also result in increased energy losses along the line. Because the voltage drop is now outside the
acceptable limit, the conductor size could be increased to 42 mm2 to reduce the voltage drop to an
acceptable value (third row). However, this roughly doubles the cost of the conductorfor that line.
Alternatively,it is possible to modify the fluorescent units so that they use the current more efficiently.
This is referred to a power-factor correction and involves placing a capacitor in parallel with each ballast.
By choosing the proper value of the capacitor, it is possible to raise the power factor and thereby reduce
the current needed to equal that used by the incandescent lamp. With an increased power factor, the
previous equation now becomes

I 40W _

~=
0.17 A

(230 V) (1.0)
In this case, the distributionline with the original conductor size of 21 mm2 could againbe used (fourth
row). Now, although the 40-W incandescent bulb and the 40-W fluorescent lamp both consume 40 W
and the same current, the advantage of converting to the fluorescent lamps is that roughly four times the
light is now available without the need for a distribution line with increased capacity.
The reduced size and cost of a distribution line is not the only benefit that should be considered. The
lower voltage drop is an additional benefit. High voltage drops can give rise to operationalproblems and
frustrations-incandescent lamps which glow too dimly, fluorescentlamps which cannot ignite, or motors
which blow fuses or trip the breaker repeatedly because the voltage is inadequate to properly start them.
Power-factor correction therefore also reduces consumer frustration and operational problems and
increases consumersatisfaction with the electricity service.
The previous paragraphs have illustrated how power-factor correction can reduce the size and cost of a
distributionline and voltage drop and power losses along that line. This is illustratedin Appendix 7
(p. 232). But there are additionalbenefits.
If fluorescent lighting is the principal load on a mini-grid, power-factor correction will permit a greater
number of households to be served with the same generator. The current output of a generator is limited
by the capacity of the wire that makes up the windings to handle that current. A current in excess of the
generator'sdesign capacity causes the windings to overheat, damaging the windings or otherwise
reducing its life. Therefore,because of this limit, it is necessary to make most efficient use of the current
generated. This is illustrated in Box 2 and again in Appendix 7 (p. 232).
Power-factor correction

The power factor can be increased by adding the correct amount of capacitance directly at the source of
the problem, in this case, across the leads to the fluorescent unit. The value of the capacitorthat must be
used with each unit to achieve unity power factor is determined by the followingequation:
C

I x sin 4
6.3xEx

where

Chapter IV. Electricity uses and demand assessment

33

Box2. Impact of power-factorcorrection on the usable outputof a genset.

The problem: A small gasolinegenset that generates single-phasepower at 230 V is rated at 3.0 kVA at
a power factor (cos ) of 0.8.
(1) Can the genset furnish the current necessaryto operate fifty 40-W fluorescentunits (only 2.0 kW
of load) with an uncorrectedpower factor of 0.5?
(2) What impactdoes increasingpower factor to 1.0 have on the number of fluorescentunits the same
genset can supply?
The solution: Fromthe generator specificationsand the fact that P(VA) = E(volts) x I(amperes), the
genset can supply a maximum current of
P 3000 VA
1=-~ =
V =-13A
E
230 V
(1) This limit is set by the size of the wire used in the windings. No matter what the load or how
efficiently the current is used, the maximum current generatedshould not exceed 13 A. Since the
demand from each uncorrectedfluorescentlamps is 0.34 A (Fig. 12) for a total of 17 A (Table2),
this genset has inadequatecapacity to satisfy the demand.
(2) By increasing the power factor and making more efficient use of the current,only 0.17 A is
requires of each lamp for a total of 8.5 A to satisfy the demand. The gensetis nownot only able
to satisfythe demand but it can also increase the load it can serve by 50 %.
I=0.34A

230V

I=0.17A

230V

(a) without power-factor


correction

(b) with capacitor

Fig. 12. With the additionof a capacitor in the circuit to


increase the power factor to 1.0, this 40-W fluorescent unit
can give the same light for half the current consumption.

C = value of capacitorrequired (farads)


E = nominal operating voltage

= power frequency,usually 50 or 60 hertz (cycles per second)

= power-factor angle = cos-'(power factor)

The value of I, the current in amperes drawn by each unit may be indicated on the nameplateon the
fluorescentunit. Altematively,it is possible to connect up one unit and measure its current consumption.
The calculation for the value of capacitanceneeded to increase the power factor from 0.5 to 1.0 for the
fluorescentunit used in the previous example,is as follows:
ChapterIV. Electricityuses anddemandassessment

34

power factor = cos 4


4,
sin 4

0.50
=

60

0.87

so that
c = (6.34)(0.87) = 0 000004= 4106=
(6.3)(230)(0

4 microfarads= 4 pf

In this case, including a capacitance of 4 1ifwould increase the power factor from 0.5 to 1.0 and reduce
current consumption from 0.34 to 0.17 A. Even a capacitance of half this value, 2 p.f, would increase the
power factor from 0.5 to 0.75 and reduce current consumption0.34 to 0.22 A.' The first 2 pf of
capacitance is therefore more effective in reducing current draw than the second.
In this example, the capacitor would have to be connected between the input leads of the fluorescentunit.
It should be placed on the lamp side of the switchso that the capacitordoes not remain in the live circuit
when the light is switched off. It should be rated at least at the working voltage (in this case, 230 V,
although a higher voltage rating would usually increaseits life). Metalized film capacitors for ac
applications should be used.
Is power-factor correction worth it?
While the inclusion of capacitors to increasethe power factor has a number of benefits, the cost of the
capacitors themselves would then be incurred. How does the added cost for the capacitors compare with
the cost savings?
As an example, assume the previous case in whichuncorrected fluorescentlamps are to be used because
they benefit the consumers by providing several times the lighting capacity of incandescentbulbs.
Furthermore, a single-phase distributionline using a #1 AWG conductoris initially considered to satisfy
the requirement of keeping the voltage drop to within 6 %. The alternative being considered is
purchasing and installing capacitors which will permitthe use of smaller,#4 conductor.
What is the cost of this intervention? In the above case, including fifty 4 -pf capacitors would cost about
$200 for materials and some for the labor required for their installation(if the fluorescentunits are not
purchased already corrected).
The benefits from this interventions are the following:
*

Reduced conductor size for the distributionlines. From Table 2, the cost savings obtainedby
being able to use a smaller conductoris about $440 up front.

Reduced energy losses along the line. Table 2 also shows that lines losses would be reduced by
50 W by using capacitors even though the conductor is smaller. What is the cost of generating
this energy which is lost throughresistive heating of the conductor?
If we assume that the mini-grid and all lights operate a total of 5 hours each day, the additional
energy losses in the line each year would equal about 90 kWh. If the fuel costs $0.50per liter and
the genset generates 2 kWh/liter,the costof the energy is roughly $0.25/kWh. Consequently,the
cost of lost energy would amountto about $20 every year.

Notetheselatter figurescannotbe obtaineddirectlyfromthe previousequationsbut requiremore involved


calculations,whichare beyondthe scopeof thispublication.
ChapterIV. Electricityusesand demandassessment

35

Reduced generator cost. As seen in Box 2, by using power-factorcorrection, a generator with


half the kVA capacity would be required. This is an additional savings that dependson the cost
of locally availablegenerators.

All these financial benefits are in additionto increased lightingand improved quality of service from a
system which requires no additionalfuel consumption.
Planning to only use power-factor-correctedballasts from the outset permits the constructionof a more
efficient and thereforeless costly supply and mini-grid. If, on the other hand, the systemis presently
operating with too many fluorescentlamps,the voltage at the end of the line may already appear too low
or the capacity of the generator may be inadequate. In this case, fluorescentfixtures in homes already
corrected to the grid can be retrofittedwith capacitors. This will reduce current demand and subsequent
operational problems due to too low a voltageat the end of the line. It may also permit some additional
lamps to be connected,without havingto replace the conductorsor generator with ones of greater
capacity.
In summary, power-factorcorrection can reduce energylosses in the mini-grid, improve operational
characteristics of the grid, and permitincreaseduse to be made of existing generating capacity. These
benefits should probably convincemost that power-factorcorrection is a worthwhile undertaking when
low power-factor uses are prevalent.
So why are fluorescentunits frequentlysold without the necessarycapacitors? By omittingthe capacitor,
manufacturers are able to noticeablyreduce the cost of the unit without affecting the brightness of the
lamp. The consumer thereby appears to benefit from the lower cost of the unit because of this omission.
However, it is the owner of the mini-grid,which may be the communityitself, that loses. Without powerfactor correction,the energy losses in the distributionsystem would increase,the quality of the voltage
would decrease, and/or fewer householdscould be servedby the same powerplant.
Entertainment

Next to lighting, the most popular end-uses for electricity in a village are typically televisions (TVs),
radios, and cassetteplayers/recorders. In rural areas off the national or regional grid, these are generally
powered by batteries. While the cost of batteries may appear low, this is not the case. Comparedto the
cost of energy from the national grid (about$0.10/kWh) or from a diesel-poweredmini-grid (at perhaps
$0.40 to $0.80/kWhbut dependenton a largenumber of factors),electric energy from dry cells costs
roughly $50.00/kWh(but is stronglydependenton the sourceand age of the batteries). Because of their
somewhat larger power demand, TVs are often powered by automobilebatteries that are regularly carried
to the nearest town for charging. Energyfrom automotivebatteries is also relatively expensive, costing
about $2 to $3/kWh for battery-charging,transportationcosts, and the amortized cost of the battery.
Replacing batteries with ac power from a mini-grid can present a major economic benefit to those
consumers who use batteries. This can be achieved in either of two ways. The first is to purchase
equipment that can be powered by both batteries as well as ac. Using ac is usually accomplished by using
a separate ac/dc converter-an "adapter"-which often comeswith the radio or other dc electronic
equipment and plugs into a power outlet in the home. Then batteries would only be used when the radio
is used away from the outlet.
The second approach is to continueusingbatteries but to use special rechargeable batteries and a battery
charger. This has the additional advantagethat it would be possible to power the radio, flashlights, and
other devices outsidethe home or at timesthe mini-grid is shut down.

ChapterIV. Electricityuses anddemandassessment

36

For small batteries for radios and flashlights, the consumer can purchase a battery charger and
rechargeable batteries, usually nickel-cadmium(nicad) batteries. The major drawback is that
these batteries are considerably more expensive than ordinary batteries. A 1.5-V D-size dry cell
might cost $0.20 each while a similarly sized nicad battery could cost $6. However, the fact that
they can be charged hundreds of times compensates for this shortcoming. If one assumes a life of
300 charging cycles, a chargednicad battery would only cost $0.02 or about one-tenth the cost of
an dry cell of equivalentcapacity. To address the high initial cost for rechargeable batteries,
renting chargedbatteries could be a serviceprovided by the village utility or an entrepreneur (see
"Consumerservices", p. 176).

Larger, lead/acid automotive batteries mightbe preferred by those with greater needs (TVs, small
power tools, etc.) during times when the grid is off or by those who live outside the area served
by the grid. Individual consumers servedby the grid might have their own charger for
automotive batteries belongingto themselves or possibly to others and have access to an adequate
level of power on their premises to charge these batteries. This could also be done by the utility
itself-as a service that families pay for-to make better use of the available capacity of a
generating plant.

Motor-based
applications
The previously mentioned end-uses-lighting and entertainmentare very attractive and are the most popular initialuses of
electricity in most rural settings. However, if a mini-grid project
is to pay for itself and to bring increased socio-economic benefits
to the community, it often is necessaryto judiciously incorporate
productive,income-generatinguses in the load mix. Many such
uses, such as agro-processing equipment,refrigerators, water
pumps, and wood and metalworkingequipment (Fig. 13), require
motors as the source of motive power.
But if such uses are being contemplated at some stage of project
development, operational characteristicsof motors should be
considered at the design stage to ensure that the grid is designed to
accommodatesuch loads:

Individualmotorloads canbe largerthanany othersingle


load on the system and can be the determining factor in
setting the size of the powerplant.

Fig. 13. A planer is a popular

woodworkinghandtoolpowered
by a mini-grid.

Motor starting currents are significant and are an


important consideration in determiningthe maximum size motor that may be powered by a minigrid, in properly sizing of the conductorused for the mini-grid, and in deciding upon the proper
layout of the grid in the community,i.e., the placement of the genset with respect to the location
of the motor loads.

Motor-startingis a critical period because of the torque required to bring the motor up to speed. During
this period, considerablecurrent is required for this purpose, generating heat in the motor windings. The
start-up period should be minimized to reduce the heat buildup and adverse impacts this can have on the
insulation and, therefore, the life of the generator. Normnalstart-up will be ensured if the generator and

ChapterIV. Electricityusesand demandassessment

37

the distribution line to the motor have adequatecapacityto supply this extra current to the motor while
restricting the voltage drop to no more than about 20 % of nominal. If this is not possible, the motor may
stall and will likely be damaged. The capabilityof a generator to start a given motor depends on many
factors, including the designand characteristicsof the motor, as well as the type of voltage regulatorand
exciter used by the generatorand the characteristicsof the line connectingthe motor to the generator.
The followingpages will first identify the types of loads that a motor may experience. This will be
followed by a review of the types of motors that mightbe used for mini-grid applications to supplythose
loads. And finally, the calculationof the nominalcurrent drawn by a running motor will be illustrated
and the implications of the size of a motor's startingcurrent on the maximum size motor that mightbe
used with a particular generator will be explained.
Types of loads
Once operating under a constant load, motors havecurrent requirementsthat are approximately
proportional to the load they are driving and that are straightforwardto calculate (see below). But while
a generator might provide more than adequatepower to run a motor, it is possible that the same generator
and the distribution line between the generator and the motor do not have sufficient capacity to start the
motor. The size of the demand placed on the generatorduring start-up depends on both the nature of the
load to be driven and the type of motor used. For this reason, it is usefulto categorize end-uses for
motors by the type of load they impose on the motor upon starting. Startingloads can be dividedinto
three categories:
1. Applications with low starting torque, such as floor drills and portable tools, food mixersand
blenders, and sewing machines. Fans and centrifugalpumps also fit into this categorybecause
the load each imposes on the system is smallat low startingspeeds and only increase as the speed
increases.
2. Applications with constant torque,such as air compressorsfor running tools or filling tires,
refrigerators and freezers, conveyorbelts, andpositive displacementpumps such as gear pumps.
3. Applications with high inertial startingtorque,where the large mass attached to the shaft makes
it difficult to start it turning. These include some grindstones, grain mills, and woodworking
equipment such as bandsaws.
The last two categories represent more difficultloads to serve because of their startingrequirements.
Types of motors
The principal types of motors that might be found in a small communityare brush type or "universal"
motors and induction motors. Universalmotors are small-typically 1/20 hp or less-and are used in all
types of handheld appliances, such as drills,mixers,blenders, saws, and sewing machines. They are
inefficient,noisy, and require maintenance as their brushes wear. However,they are insensitiveto the
quality of power provided and can operate successfullyunder extremelyadverse conditionsof low or
fluctuating voltage or variable frequency. They are usuallyhigh speed, with the speed droppingrapidly
as load increases.
Inductionmotors are sold as free-standingunits to power pumps, air compressors, fans, conveyors,and
other machines or are incorporated into larger appliancessuch as refrigerators. Their speed remains
relatively constant as load changes. Inductionmotors are mechanicallyrugged, but are sensitiveto power
quality and may be damagedby prolonged operationat low voltage. They also impose significant
burdens on the grid due to their need for extra currentduring the startingprocess.
ChapterIV. Electricityusesanddemnand
assessment

38

Inductionmotors are available as single-phaseand three-phasemotors. Whether a single- or three-phase


motor is used to drive a specific piece of equipment is determined by the size of the demand, the cost of
the motor, and the type of electric service available. Single-phasemotors are available in sizes from
fractionalhorsepower ratings up to approximately 10 hp. Three-phase motors are also available in
fractionalhorsepower ratings,but in sizes below I hp are more expensive than single-phase motors. User
equipmentwith a power demandof less than 1 hp is thereforealmost always driven by a single-phase
motor. Single-phasemotors are used to drive smaller appliances, such as hand-held power tools, mixers
and blenders,as well as larger equipment, such as water pumps, air compressors, fans, grain mills, and
table saws. Single-phasemotors larger than 1/3 hp shouldbe capacitor-start types to reduce starting
currentsand the voltage flicker they cause (see below). Three-phase motors, because of their lower cost
and ruggedness,are preferred for all applications over 10 hp and are often used in smaller sizes if threephase power is available. The cost of extending three-phaseservice sometimes outweighs the savings in
the cost of the motor for applications between 1 and 10 hp.
For typical motor loads that might be found in a small comnmunity,single-phase induction motors are
usually favored. Table 3 illustratestypical operating characteristics for the three common types of
induction motors:
1. Capacitor-run: The limited starting performance of this type of motor makes it most suited to low
starting-torqueapplications which limits its startingcurrent demand. It operates with a high
power factor and efficiency. The capacitor is continuouslyrated and remains in the circuit
permanently.
2. Capacitor-start: This motor has a capacitor that is only included in the circuit to improve the
power factor, and thereforereduce current demand, during the start-up period. It has a good
starting performance. As the motor comes up to speed, a centrifugal switch switches out the
capacitor. During its running, the power factor and efficiency are lower because the capacitance
is no longer in the circuit.

Table 3. Sample operating characteristicsfor a four-pole (about 1400 rpm) single-phase induction
motorsrunning on 240 V, 50 Hz.

run
E)

Y~~~~

1.1
sJ

6.5

~~~~
o
-0

.
0o2-0

)j

U)

~
7
w

IL

C~L.

4-..

Tu

3.5

12 1 if

none

0.98

3.5

3.5

40 gf

none

67 %
77 %

0.72
0.75

5.5
4.5

5.5
4.5

none
none

130 gf
160 1tf

79 %
80 %

0.87
0.93

2.0
2.9

5.6
5.2

30 Rf
40 pf

160/200pLf
200/250,f

65 %

0.95

~~~1.16.5

72 %

Capacitor- 0. 12 - 2.2
start

.75
2.2

6.5
16.5

Capacitor- 0.75 -3.0


start/run

1.5
3.0

9.0
16.4

run

JQ<x

o.5
3.5

5~~~.5-

Capacitor- 0.12 - 1.5

"

L.

0 X0
_

0.72

Capacitor- 2.2

3.

.750.12

6.5

67

.25

1.7

Chapter IV. Electricity uses and demand assessment

oe

13

39

3. Capacitor-start/capacitor-run:This type of motor has a good starting performance and therefore


is suitable for high starting-torqueapplications. It is the most efficient of all single-phase
induction motors and is generallyused with higher-horsepowersingle-phase motors. It includes
both a temporarilyconnected start capacitorand a permanentlyconnected run-capacitor.
In the table, the term "lockedrotor" used by motor manufacturersrefers to the starting condition when
initialcurrents are similar to those one would encounterif the rotor were locked. Note that these currents
are from four to six times the nominal running currents. During start-up, the power factor of the motor is
usuallymuch lower than it is while running. The inefficient use of current that is implied in a low power
factor is one reason for the high currentsrequired. For example, while six times the running current may
be drawn on start-up, the starting power may actuallyonly be twice the running power.
It is importantthat availablevoltage on the mini-gridbe maintained at near its nominal value during startup. A low voltage reduces the starting ability of a motor. Appliancesrequiring a high starting torque,
such as a refrigerator compressor,are in danger of overheatingand not starting under these conditions.
With a high current demand,the voltage availableat the motor is decreased through voltage drops along
the line which supplies the motor if its capacity is inadequate (because it is too long or uses too small a
conductor). Ideally, voltagedrop duringmotor startingshould be limited to no more than about 5 %.
However,if starts are infrequentand thus not likelyto cause complaints from other users, voltage drops
as high as 20 % at the motor terminals during startingcan be tolerated. For these reasons, motors of any
significanceshould preferablybe sited near the powerplant and, if possible, supplied by a separate circuit.
This will provide maximum voltage to the motor andwill also reduce voltage drop witnessed by the
consumersalong the remainder of the line. Since there will still be a voltage dip when the motor starts,
the frequency of this startingand the annoyanceit may cause other consumers (usually through
fluctuatinglight intensity) should be kept in mind when laying out the distribution system.
Motor and line sizing
Running current

A motor is normallyrated and labeledby the maximumcontinuous shaft or mechanical output power it
has availableto drive the equipmentto which it is connected. This is measured in horsepower (hp). The
actual power it deliverswill dependupon the loadimposed by the equipment it drives and is equal to or
less than the rated power. The relationshipbetween the output power of a motor and the power it
consumes(input power) is given by the followingrelationships:

Pi(W)

Po(W)

cos

r xcos

Po(hp)x750
ij x cosS

where
cos 4
l =

power factor
efficiencyof the motor

Pi =

input power

PO =

output power availablefor drivingequipment (expressed in either watts or


horsepower, with the conversion factor, 1.0 hp = 750 W)

ChapterIV. Electricityusesanddemandassessment

40

For example,assume that a flour mill requires a motor with 3 hp (2.3 kW) of shaft power to run at
capacity. A 4-hp motor is found and the motor manufacturer indicatesits efficiency as 70 %, with a
power factor of 0.75 when running. The motor's electricity demandwhile driving the flour mill would be
P (VA) =

0.70 x 0.75

= 4300 VA = 4.3 kVA

If a single-phasemotor running off a 230-V supply were used, the steady-statecurrent drawn from the
mini-grid would be
P,(VA)

4300VA

230V

where E is the voltage imposed across the motor.


If a three-phasemotor running off a 230/400 V supply were used, the steady-statecurrent drawn from the
mini-grid would be
I

Pi
P(VA)
4300 VA
(E
=
=6.2A
-

3E 690 V
where E represents the phase-to-neutral voltage (see Fig. 1Sc).
By knowing the nominal running current associated with a motor and the factor by which this is increased
during start-up, as noted in Table 3, it is possible to size the line conductorsbetween the generator and the
motor to keep voltage drop during start-up to within acceptable limits (such as no more than the 20 %
noted on the previous page). An example can be found in Appendix 7 (see p. 237).
Maximum limit on motor size
For a system supplied by a synchronous generator, which is typically the case with a mini-grid, motorstarting capability will depend on the size of the generator and its design, particularly on the design of the
voltage regulation and excitation system. A good quality synchronousgenerator will be fitted with an
automaticvoltage regulator (AVR) that will maintain the output voltageunder motor starting conditions
by circuitry that can boost the field current for several seconds. This can help supply the high starting
current requirements (up to six times nominal running current) of motors used for high starting-torque
loads. Because of the greater starting torque possible, synchronous generatorsshould be selected where
motor loads are likely.
For direct motor starting, the maximum limit on motor capacity (measuredin hp) typically is numerically
equal to 15 % of the capacity of the generator (measured in kW). If a high quality motor is used, current
should be no more than about four times nominal and the maximum motor capacity may be up to twice
this value.
To reduce the cost of the generator, lower-cost induction motors connected to some capacitors with the
necessary electronics occasionally serve as induction generatorsfor use in isolated locations. These have
become increasinglypopular with micro-hydropower plants that capitalizeon the lower cost and
increasedrobustness associated with the simpler construction of induction motors.
For systemssupplied by such induction generators, motor-startingcapabilityis less than systems supplied
by synchronous generators because the designon induction generationprecludes the possibility of
increasing the field current as is possible with synchronous generators. For a motor starting on a line
suppliedby an induction generator, the maximum limit on motor capacity (measured in hp) typically is
ChapterIV. Electricityusesand demandassessment

41

numericallyequal to 5-10 % of the capacity of the generator (measured in kW). In practice, highercapacity motors than this can often be started,provided that the required starting torque is low. But
significantvoltage dips can occur.
The limits on the size of motors above are valid for both single-phasemotors driven by single-phase
generatorsand three-phasemotors driven by three-phasegenerators. Another case is where single-phase
motors are driven off three-phasegenerators. In this case, if the generator and distribution line are delta
(three-wire)connected,the maximum limit on motor capacity (measured in hp) is again numerically equal
to about 15% the capacity of the generator (measuredin kW). If the generator and distribution line are
wye (four-wire)connected, the maximum limit on motors capacity is about half this value.
Whilethe primary concern above is maintaining a sufficientlyhigh voltage at the motor to ensure its
proper operation,too high a voltage (over 10 % above nominal)can also damage motors because of the
higher currentsassociated with the higher voltage. High frequenciescan cause problems with motors
requiringa high starting torque. If the supply frequency is as much as 10 % above the nominal frequency,
the steady-statemotor speed would be correspondinglyhigherand the additionaltorque requirementsto
get up to this higher speed can be sufficient for the motor to fail to start altogether. Any voltage drop in
the line from the power supply to the load further exacerbatesthis problem. This reinforces the argument
for placing motors as close to the generator as possible.
Over-frequencycan also affect some motors in the runningmode. When driving certain loads, such as
centrifugalpumps and fans, the higher frequencyimplies a high motor speed that in turn implies an
increasedload (since load is proportionalto the square or cubeof the speed). This results in an excessive
current,which can lead to overheatingand possible burn-out. The frequency rise should not exceed 10 %.
Mechanical-drivealternativefor large motors
As explainedearlier, a mini-grid that relies on its own smallpower supply may have a difficult time
supplyinglarge motors. For example, a 7 kW village gensetthat serves the lighting needs of 50 families
in the eveningcannot be used to drive a 4-hp rice mill even duringthe day because the generator has
insufficientpower to start the motor. For this reason, end-useswhich depend on motors can be
consideredto be in either of two broad categories: those whichrequire fractional horsepower motors
which easily can be be run by a smallpowerplant (hand drill and saws, blenders, fans, sewing machines,
some pumps, refrigerators,etc.) and motors (for grain mills,rice hullers, table saws, etc.) which are too
large to be poweredby a small powerplant.
For motors driving the first set of end-uses, a mini-grid can power them, provided that the supply has
sufficientcapacity,as noted earlier. For motors drivingthe second set of end-uses, this may not be the
case. But even in this case, an alternative solution may exist. This would be to select a prime mover
(e.g., a diesel engine or hydropowerplant) to directly drive this equipment, usually by means of flat or
vee belts. Actually, this is often how electricityis introducedinto a community. An entrepreneur first
purchasesa diesel engine to drive his rice or grain mill. Then, perhaps as an afterthought, he or she
considersthe possibilityof also generatingelectricity as an additional source of income and providing a
serviceto the commnunity
as well.
Even when a generator is already installed to provide electricityto community households, using the
prime mover (the engine) to directly (i.e., mechanically)drive the end-use equipment would still have
several importantadvantages.
*

No electric motor need be purchased.

Chapter IV. Electricityuses and demand assessment

42

As mentioned above, a smaller prime mover would be needed because its capacity could be more
closely matched to the steady-state load to be driven; it could be significantly smaller than would
otherwisebe required if it were to also start a motor.

The capacity of the line supplying the motor need not be oversizedsimplyto meet the occasional
supply requirements of that motor.
E

Consumers are not frustrated with poor quality service causedby voltage variations associated
with the operation of the motor.

It is more efficient. A portion of the energy available is lost in using electricityto drive
motorized equipment. If a motor is electricity-driven, the prime mover must generate electricity,
losing energy in the conversion from mechanical to electrical power (80 % efficiency). Further
energy is lost in transmitting the electricity to the motor, although this should not be significant if
the mini-grid has been properly sized (possibly at an additional cost). And finally more energy is
lost in the motor as it reconverts the electrical energy back to mechanical energy (at an efficiency
of perhaps 80 % for small motors being considered). Therefore, the overall efficiency of this
conversion would be about (0.80) x (0.80) or 60 - 70 %. In other words, more than 30 % of the
energy available from the prime mover would be lost if, rather than directly driving the
equipment, electricity is first generated to then drive a motor that in turn powers the equipment.
Still additional losses would be incurred if the generator were belt-driven by the prime mover
rather than being directly coupled. These energy losses represent increased fuel consumption
and, therefore, increased running costs.

The principal advantage of using electricity for motor loads is that it is not always possible to locate these
loads close enough to the prime mover for direct drive. This may be because they cannot be located on
the same property (possibly because they have differentowners); because the powerplant, such as a
hydropower plant, is not located in a convenient location for the end-users;or because more than one
large, motor-drivenend-use is required at different locations in the village. Electricitymay be more
convenientbut unless the capacity of the power supply is sufficiently large and can accommodate electric
motors of adequate capacity to operate all the end-uses, another means will have to be found of driving
them.
Heat-generatingappliances
Another category of end-uses are those which rely on electricity to generateheat. These include such
appliances and equipment as irons, hot plates, cookers, soldering irons, hair dryers, and space heaters.
The unique feature of these end-uses is that they consume considerable power and therefore have a major
impact on the design of a mini-grid. In a village setting, while individual fluorescent lamps might
typically consume up to 20 W, incandescentbulbs up to 100 W, and small motors for power tools up to
several hundred watts,heat-generating appliances can each easily consume 1,000W.
If the capacity of the power supply for a mini-grid is small, as it usually is, the use of these appliances
should not be allowed, especially during times of peak village demand, i.e., in the early evening hours.
Small mini-grids simply do not have the required capacity to permit the widespreaduse of these
appliances.
If cooking needs were to be met, a more costly power supply and mini-grid would be required. Typically,
the peak coincidentdemand for electricity in many villages in developing countries around the world
which have been grid-connected for a number of years is about 250 W. To accommodatethe use of a

ChapterIV. Electricityuses anddemandassessment

43

1 kW hotplateby each consumerwithout increasing the voltage drop, the generator capacity and the area
of the conductor(and its cost) for both the distributionsystem and the service drops may have to be
increasedby up to 400 %. Since the cost of the conductorrepresents a major componentof the cost for a
mini-grid project, such an increase in the investment could significantlydecreasethe attractivenessof a
project, even if adequate power were available.
The argumentis commonlyheard that the availability of electricityfor cooking would displacefuelwood
extracted from forests and reduce the rate of deforestation. While an appealingargument for including
this end-use,this is rarely if ever the case unless the cost of electricityis heavily subsidized. One reason
for the high cost of electricityis the increased capital cost of the project due to the increased size of the
conductorand associated components required, as was just explained. This cost must eventuallybe bome
by the consumer. Another reason is simply the recurring cost of electricity. While energyneeds for
cooking depends on numerous factors, it can easily amount to severalkilowatt-hoursdaily per household
and cost $10 to $20 or more each month. For many rural households,this could add considerablyto the
financial burden they would have to shoulder.
Use of electricityis occasionallypromoted as a source of heat energywhen the supply comes from a
micro-hydropowerplant. In this case, the marginal cost of energy(the extra cost incurred by generating
more energyeach day) is minimal because the fuel is free. This is not the case with a diesel-supplied
mini-grid where each 2 to 3 kWh generated requires the consumptionof another liter of diesel fuel. But
even in the case of a mini-hydropowerplant, the capacity limit is still a problem. Consequently,while
this approachhas been promoted in micro-hydropowerprojectsin Nepal, several types of locally
manufacturedcookers that reduce each family's power demandhave alsobeen developed and promoted
(Figs. 14). Each of these designs places a maximum demand of about 250 W on the system. Some
designs slowly cook with this low power input (i.e., similar to the operation of a rice cooker) while others
use various approaches to store the heat they generate when excesspower is availableduring the day and
then extractthe heat duringthe much shorter cooking times.5
Another circumstanceunder which a micro-hydropowerplant is used to generate heat is when this is used
as a methodfor goveming or controlling the speed of the turbine/generatorunit. To generate at a constant
50 or 60 Hz, a constant load must be imposed on the turbine/generatorunit. To achieve this, any excess
power not used by the consumers is diverted into a water heater to heat water that in turn can be used for
productive purposes (clotheswashing facilities, hot water supply for cooking,etc.).
Heat energyis generatedby passing electricitythrough a resistive element. Consequently,voltage
variations do not affect the operation of these appliances. The major impact is on the heat generatedthat
varies as the square of the applied voltage. A 10 % increase (or decrease)in the voltage will result is
roughly a 20 % increase (or decrease) in heat output. Frequencyhas no impact on this end use.

Demand assessment
A critical step in the initialplanning process is to estimate the maximuminitial coincidentload that the
prospectiveconsumers are to impose on the system and how this load is expected to grow over time. This
is necessaryin order to size both the generating plant (or transformer)and the conductorused in the
The coincidentloadis the sumof the loadsactuallyon at anyinstantof time. Thisis generallydifferentfromthe
sum of allthe individualcommunityloads(called"connectedload")becauseallthese loadsare not generallyon at
the sametime,i.e.,theydo notcoincide. For example,if two 1-kWmotorsmaybe usedat the sametime forsome
daytimehoursand sixty50-Wbulbsare all lightedduringthe earlyeveninghours,the connectedloadis 5 kWbut
the maximumcoincidentloadthat the powerplantmust supplyis 3 kW.
ChapterIV. Electricityusesanddemnand
assessment

44

Fig. 14. At the left, a locally


manufactured low-wattage cooker in
use in a restaurant in Nepal. Above
are visible the two sections of the
cooker just before their lips are
welded together. Four heating
elements are installed beneath the
inner pot. The socket and pilot light
are near the bottom of the outer pot.
(Photocredit,below:LionelMackay)

distribution system (Chapter VII). Investments in each of these components are significant, and
improperly sizing either of these would make it more difficult to cover the capital and/or recurring costs
of the system and thereforeto ensure system viability:
*

Too small a capacity could lead to consumerdissatisfactionwith the service, leading to


frustration on the part of the consumers and their possible hesitancy to pay the electricity bill. It
could also interfere with serving additionalconsumers or additional load growth which would
otherwise increase the consumerbase and thereby reduce cost.

Too large a capacity would mean additionalinvestment costs for the construction and possibly the
operation of the system that could be difficult to recoup without raising the tariff to a point
beyond the consumers'ability to pay.

Making load projectionsthat reflect reality is frequentlya difficult task to accomplish, especially for
perspective consumers who have little experiencewith electrification. Simply asking households what
uses they would makeof electricityin the home and how many 40-W bulbs they would like to use will
not lead to reliable conclusions. Prospective users generallyhave little knowledge of, for example, the
amount of illuminationwould come from a 40-W bulb in a dark room, what the difference is between the
ChapterIV. Electricityuses anddemandassessment

45

light emitted from a 40-W incandescentbulb and a 40-W fluorescentlamp, or what monthly costs they
would actually incur for each.
Another factor affecting the demandof potential consumers is the unit cost of electricity ($/kWh). Project
implementersshould have done sufficientplanning to at least have estimated this cost on the basis of
approximatecosts that the project will incur. (For an idea of the range of costs that might be incurred, see
p. 13.) If a tariff to cover all outstanding and ongoing costs is to be set, the project implementer should
go throughthe exerciseexplainedin the ChapterXIV and illustratedin Boxes 15 and 16 (p. 184 and 190).
This should provide a more realisticcosting of electricity serviceand give potential consumers a better
feel for how much they would have to pay for a certainlevel of service and whetherthis will be
affordable. Of course, it will alsobe necessary to gage the ability of prospectiveconsumers to purchase
the required appliances and makeuse of the electricity.
An indication of the power demandthat would satisfyrural consumersmight be obtained from a
knowledgeof how rural householdsmake use of their disposable income and what end-uses are presently
found in a typical home, end-usesthat could realisticallybe suppliedby grid power.
Probably a more reliableapproachfor assessing future demand than simply askingpotential consumers
would be to survey householdsin adjoining,already-electrifiedareas or in a region with similar economic
activities, disposable income,demographicscharacteristics,etc. This would determine the average initial
loads per household in these areas as well as their historical load growth.
The already-electrifiedregions that would be surveyed shouldpreferably have a similar type of service as
that being proposed in the new community,such as 24-hour power or electricity for 4 hours each evening.
Furtherrnore,it should alsobe clear that the demand servedby these electricity supplieshas not been suppressed because of limitedgenerationcapacity duringhours of operation. Projections of loads in areas to
be electrified made on the basis of loads in regions with suppressed demandwould understate the actual
demandto be met in the new areas. Consumers in the already electrified regions used as the basis for
demandprojections should alsobe paying a similar tariff as the one projected in the new areas to be
electrified.
Any projectionsof load and load growth in an area to be electrified using infornation gathered from
already-electrifiedregions should also consider such factors as the difference in the level of disposable
income in the two areas, the presence of raw materials or industry,the potential for tourism, and access to
outside markets for goodswhich mightbe grown or producedlocally. In surveyingalready-electrified
communities, it is alsoimportantto determineto what extent three-phase serviceis required to serve
typical loads, such as motors for agro-processing.
The load projection must not simplybe that expectedthe day electricityis switchedon. Rather, it must be
sufficientlyhigh to provide adequatecapacity into the future. How far into the future depends on the
specific situation and the size of the required mini-grid investment. For example:
* If a low-cost grid is envisionedsimply for lighting in a communitywhere there is little
opportunity of increasingdisposable income, the load might not be expectedto increase
significantly. In this case the demand when the project begins may be expected to remain largely
unchanged over the life of the mini-grid.
*

If a village is locatedin a fertile region, with road access but with no hope of receiving power
from the extensionof the national grid, the load projected at the end of the expected life of the
distribution system shouldbe used.

ChapterIV. Electricityusesanddemandassessment

46

* If a village is interested in buildingan isolated mini-grid to be used only until it is replaced after
some period of time by a more conventional distribution system to be installed by the national
utility, the load expected over this period of time should be used.
*

If a village is interested in buildingan isolated mini-grid in anticipation of eventuallyconnecting


to the approaching national grid, and if they feel that having a mini-grid that can be directly
interconnectedto the grid once it has arrived, at no additional cost to the utility, providesadded
incentive for the utility to connectthem, a 20- or 30-year planning horizon as is used by the
electric utility might be used.

Demand-sidemanagement
After projecting the peak coincident demandthat is expected at a new project site, it may still be possible
to reduce project cost by either reducing the generation or distribution capacity required to meet this peak
demand or permitting increased consumerload with the same generating and distribution capacity. This
is achieved through demand-sidemanagement, i.e., managing electrical demand on the system in order to
achieve more efficient use of the investment. For example, original plans might call for a 2 kW grain mill
to work during the early evening hours when domestic needs require 8 kW. This would require a genset
with a capacity of at least 10 kW. Demand-side management would attempt to restrict milling to hours
where it does not coincide with lighting, thereby reducing the required maximum generating capacity to
only 8 kW. Box 3 presents other examplesof demand-side management.

ChapterIV. Electricityusesanddemandassessment

47

in Nepal.
management
Box3. Demand-side
In the villages around Aserdi in central Nepal, an isolated system supplied by a 1.0 kV line and small
transformers serves three types of loads:residential lighting mostly in the evening, hulling of rice and
milling of grain generallyduring the day, and water pumping located at the end of the distribution
system. If the pump were to adverselyaffect the quality of electricity (causing brownouts) by
imposingtoo much demand through the existing distribution line, the demand could be managedby
operating the pump during late evening hours when excess line capacity is available. Furthermore,the
water system would not be adversely affected by this scheduling because water is stored in a reservoir
supplying a gravity-fedwater-distributionsystem.
Another effort at demandmanagement was to implement a capacity-based tariff for the small domestic
consumersin the area. This is less costly to administer, because no meter, meter reading, or billing is
required. But another reason was to encourage off-peak uses of electricity-encouraging 25-W and
50-W consumersto run radios during the daytime to save on battery purchases or encouraging250-W
consumersto use off-peak electricity to assist in cooking.
This latter approach to demandmanagementrequires that appropriate electrical end-use equipmentbe
readily available. For example, to encouragethe displacement of increasingly difficult-to-find
fuelwood with electricity without the peaks usually associated with electric cooking, various designs
for low-wattageheat storage cookers have been developed and were promoted. These were designed
to be plugged in most of the day when excess capacity is available in the home, storing heat that can
later be used for cooking or heating whenneeded. In the Aserdi region, the 250-W limit was
specificallyset with this use in mind; it permitted the simultaneous use of the cooker and one light.
With a capacity- or demand-basedtariff, the consumer pays for using up to a pre-selected level of power (e.g.,
25, 50, or 250 watts) but can use this power for whatever period of time. Rather than paying a tariff based on the
actual energy (kWh) consumed that is measuredby an energy meter that periodically must be read and billed by
the utility, the consumerpays a fixed monthlytariff. To ensure that the household consumption does not exceed
its pre-selectedlevel of power, any of several forms of current limiter is used to restrict demand.

Chapter IV. Electricityuses and demand assessment

48

V. Mapping and system layout


After it has been establishedthat potential consumersappear willing and able to cover the costs that will
be incurredaccording to an agreed-upontariff schedule, that an acceptable electricity supply is available,
and that a well-founded and sustainableorganizationalmechanismexists to undertake such a project,
planningcan proceed. This chapter will begin by briefly reviewing steps required in preparing a map of
the area to be electrified, a map that will assist with the planning and design process and provide a
frameworkwithin which to collect the necessary data. This chapter will then review factors affectingthe
placementof the powerhouseand the physical layout of the mini-grid on the map that has been prepared.

Mapping
The mapping effort should begin with a sketch of the community,starting with the general features found
in the village andending with the placement of specifichomes, shops, schools, and other potential village
loads.
The map can begin with a sketch that includes the placementof the larger features, including a rough
layout of the roads, trails, paths, and streams going through the community. Other landmarks such as
villagewells, market areas, meeting halls, schools,paddy land,and large trees can then be added. And
finally,individualhomes shouldbe included.
It will be useful to draw this map somewhatto scale,because distances later will be used to calculate
conductorsize, pole locations,etc. Although the use of a long surveying tape (30 to 100 m) should give
more accurate results, a good first cut should be achievedby simply pacing distances between all the
villagelandmarksand individualshomes. Modem technologysuch as global positioning system (GPS)
receiverscan alsobe used but this requires that another set of skills be developed. Furthermore, the
accuracyover small distancesuch as are found within a communitymay be less than can be obtainedby
simplypacing distances.
If distancesare to be paced, all individualsinvolved in gatheringdata to prepare the map should first
calibratetheir standardpace. They should decidewhat feels like their "standard"pace over the actual
type of terrain they will be crossing. They should each walk a fixed number of standard paces (e.g., 20)
and measure the distance with a tape. From this, they can each estimate the average length of a single
pace (e.g., 0.65 m). By doingthis several times in differentplaces, they should also be able to get an idea
of the accuracyof their pacing. As the village survey proceeds,it would be a good idea to occasionally
use a tape to verify the length of these average paces. From this, they can get a feeling for the variation in
this averagelength from place to place and day to day.
Once paces havebeen calibrated,measurement should start from a specific landmark. Although the
finishedmap should be the same independentof where pacingbegins, it would be preferable to start at the
locationof the proposed powerhouse(see the followingsectionfor guidelines in placing the powerhouse).
Then pacing can proceed along what might be the eventual alignmentof the distribution system.
Once all measurementshave been made on the first sketchedmap, the map can be redrawn closer to scale.
This map shouldbe adequate for designpurposes. Alternatively,once a map has been redrawn based on
paces and the initial distributionsystem laid out, another iteration can be made using a surveyor'stape,
but distances can be rounded to the nearest meter. Greater accuracy is not necessary.

ChapterV. Mappingand systemlayout

49

System layout
The principal use for the map will be to provide a base on which to lay out the distributionlines for the
mini-grid so that detaileddesign work can be initiated (sizing of the power system, conductor, and poles).
For this purpose, the next step will be to visit each potential consumer, to assess what design load is to be
used during the systempeak (the daily coincident peakdemand) for that consumer(p. 43), and to indicate
this at the proper location on the map. If a motor or other load with atypicalcharacteristicsis to be used
by any consumer, this should also be indicated.
In addition to assessinginitial consumer load, the growth in this load into the future must be estimatedas
realistically as possible. Also to be included is the expected growth in demandfrom new consumers,
either from existingvillagers who are yet unwilling to commit to being electrifiedor from new
households that haveyet to establish themselves. And finally, some thought may already have been given
to the establishmentof new shops and commercial loads in the near future or new institutional loads like a
clinic, school, or governmentoffice that are under consideration. The size and location of these new
loads must also be considered in planning for a mini-grid if it is expectedthat this grid will serve them.
Once all the design loads to be servedhave been estimated,the distributionsystem can be laid out. This
requires finalizing the location of the powerhouse, the placement of the lines, and the pole locations. In
large part, these are determined by the layout of the village and the generalnature of the loads to be
served. Factors affectingthis aspect of project design are explained in the followingsections.
Once the nature of the power demand and the layout of the distribution system are known, the next steps
will be to determinethe line configuration(Chapter VI), the conductortype and sizes to adequately
supply that demand(Chapter VII), and available pole options and size to ensureadequate line clearance
and a safe system (Chapter VIII). While a few comments are made below on the placementof poles, this
only serves as initialguidance. Final pole placement can be determined after the stepsjust mentioned
have been completed.
Powerhouselocation
The location of the powerhouse will be affected by several factors, but this task is simplified by the fact
that there are usuallya very limited number of optons. These factors include the following:
* Voltage drop. As with much of the design planning for a mini-grid,the location of the
powerhouseis determined, to the extent possible, by the need to ensurethat voltage drop at the
end of each line remains within acceptable limits at minimumcost. To achieve this, the optimum
generator location is in the center of the load it is to serve.
* Location of the energy source to be harnessed. If the powerplantrelies on hydropower, it must
be located at the most efficient location for power-generationpurposes. A very limited number of
options usuallyexist. Power must be transmitted from that point to the mini-grid. While this will
increase the cost of the distributionsystem somewhat, this is offset by the other advantages
implicit in relying on low-cost hydropower-generatedelectricity. If the power source is windbased, the powerplant must usually be located on a ridge or other high point to tap the largest
wind resource, even though this may also be outside the load center. If the source of energyis
diesel, the powerplant could be located in the center of the load. However,even in this case, if
the village is on the flank of a hill on one side of a valley, with the main road below, it might be
more advantageousto generate power just off the road, where fuel drums can be more easily
delivered,eventhough it may be on the outskirtsof the village.

ChapterV. Mappingandsystemlayout

50

It is often the casethat a mini-grid is privately owned, as a smallbusiness. In such cases, the
location of the powerplant owner'sproperty may determine the powerplant location.
*

Size and nature of the end-use. Irrespectiveof who owns the mini-grid, if a large load such as a
grain mill is to be supplied, it may be most efficient to place the powerplant near that mill to
reduce the costs of the heavier line that would otherwisebe required to serve that load.

Noise. Diesel-basedelectricity generation can be a noisy undertaking. If effective silencing of


the exhaust is not possible, this might also force the genset to be located at a more isolated part of
the village.

Placing the lines


Once the powerhousehas been located, the distributionline is required to bring the electricity to the
vicinity of the consumers.The best layout for the distributionsystem will be one that meets the criteria
for voltage drop while minimizingcost and keeping safety and reliability in mind. In general, the shortest
line will minimize cost, because this will reduce the cost of both the conductor and poles. Poles are often
the most expensivecomponentof a distributionsystem, and an importantpart of the design process is to
be economicalin their use.
Depending on the layout of the consumersrelative to the location of the powerhouse, the best layout may
be to extend lines in severaldirections from the powerhouse. Severalfactors must be taken into
consideration in decidingwhere these lines are to be placed. The relative importance of each must be
decided in each situation. These factors include the following:
*

Location of roads, trails, and paths. The principal reason for locating lines along such arteries
is that most present and future consumers typically build their homes along road or trails and
these permit easy access for line constructionand maintenance. Should street lighting also be a
priority, this is facilitatedby locating poles along the principal arteries.
Care shouldbe taken if roads carry vehicular traffic. Sufficient clearance under the conductor is
required wheneverthe possibilityexists that vehicles will pass undemeath. Road crossing should
be avoidedor minimized wheneverpossible. The alternativeis to use higher, more robust, and
therefore costlier poles on either side of the road at each crossing to provide this greater
clearance.

In some countries,crossing property lines also causes problems,as many are not eager to have
power poles, especiallywith guys, in the "middle" of their yards, rice paddy, or coconut
plantation. Followingwell-establishedpaths and trails known to be open to the general public
minimizesthis problem. At other times, in some communities,there is sufficient esprit de corps
and interest in electrificationfor all to join together and accept such inconveniences as one of the
costs of electrification.
* Presence of trees. When conventionallines are built, trees are often the first casualties. The
right-of-wayalong lines is generallycleared of trees to prevent them from interfering with the
operation of the line: to prevent branches from fallingand breaking conductors or from shorting
the lines. In some areas, trees represent a source of income for the villagers (from the sale of fruit
and nuts) who are loath to destroy them for this reason.
On the other hand, depending of the strength, flexibility, amountof foliage, and age of a tree, they
are sometimesused as living power poles that have already withstood the test of time. These

ChapterV. Mappingand systemlayout

51

"poles" have the advantage of requiring no treatment to prevent decay, especiallyof the buried
portion at andjust below the ground line that is the most susceptible. Lines are sometimesdraped
over branches, while at other times, they are properly fixed to spool insulatorsmounted on the
main trunk.
* Religious buildings/areas. Buildings or areas of religious or cultural significancemust be
identified and a clear understandingof what constraints these impose on line routingshould be
established.
* Topography. Certain areas should be avoided if they will complicatethe constructionor
ongoing upkeep and maintenance of a line. These includes steep slopes, areas susceptibleto
erosion, swampy areas, and areas prone to flooding.
* Line length. Because poles and conductorare the most costly componentof a mini-gridproject,
the alignmentof the line should be selected to minimize their number and length, respectively.
* Minimizing changes in alignment. Whenever there is a bend in the line, the conductorunder
tension imposes a lateral force on the pole tending to tip it. Depending on the changein
alignment at a pole and the tension of the conductor, this lateral force mighthave to be
counteractedby a guy and anchor.' This adds to the cost and effort required in installingthe
mini-grid. They also pose a safety hazard, as they may be difficult to see, especiallyin the
evening, or simply get in the way. For this reason, where conductortension is sufficientlylarge,
an effort should be madeto minimize deviations of adjacent spans for as long a distanceas
possible, "concentrating"bends at as few points as possible..
*

Loading. If several lines radiate from the powerhouse, the aim should be to equalizethe kW-km
loading on each line duringpeak demandtimes, to the extentpossible. This will permit the use of
the same size conductor,reducing its cost through quantity discounts and possiblyreducing the
selection of connection hardware required. This will also make most efficient use of the lines.
However, with three-phasepower, another more critical requirement for the proper operation of
the generator is that loads on all three phases be as balanced as possible. This requirement
becomes more critical as generator capacity is approached and should receive high priority.

* Planning horizon. In laying out and designing a mini-grid, an adequate planning horizon should
be used and, to the extentpossible, the mini-grid should be designed to pernit it to be efficiently
used over this period. Both new areas into which the grid might expand or existing customers
who might expand their use of electricity should be considered.
The focus of the present effort is to lay out the lines that are part of the distributionsystem itself and will
bring electricity to points relatively close to each consumer. Separate from the distributionline are the
servicedrops that are used to bring the power the remainder of the way from the nearest pole to the
consumer. Details for the designof the servicedrops will be discussed separately in ChapterXII.
Dependingon the layout of the village, one question that may need to be answered at this stage is how
close the main distributionline must approach each consumer. This answer depends on the peak demand
or current required by the consumer(s) servedby a service drop, the sizes of the conductorthat can be
used for the service drop, and the maximum allowable voltage drop. At this point, Fig. 101 (p. 148) can
Whenelectricutilitiesbuilddistributionlines,guysare typicallyused onpoleswheneverthe changein direction
of the line exceeds 5 '.

ChapterV. Mappingand systemlayout

52

be used to derive the maximum distance for any given values for these parameters. If too many home are
off in one direction fromthe distributionline, then one branch of the distributionline may have to be
extendedin that directionto bring power closer to those consumers and permit shorter service drops.
Once an initial layout for the distributionline has been established, selectingline configuration(Chapter
VI) and the size of the conductor for the distribution system (Chapter VII) can proceed.
Locatingpoles
Once the general layout for the distributionline has been prepared, poles must be placed along that line to
support the conductors with adequate clearance to ensure a line that does not pose any hazard to people or
vehiculartraffic passingbeneath it. Factors affecting pole location include the following:
*

At bends in the line. As noted in the discussion of line placement, guyingmay be needed at
each bend in the line. Therefore,to minimize the need for guys and anchorsand associated costs,
hassles, and safetyissues, any significant bends along the line shouldbe concentratedat as few
points as possible. Poles must then be located at each of these bends.

Location of load clusters. As is explained later (p. 149), it is recommendedthat each service
drop supplying a consumer takes off from a pole rather than from mid-span. For this reason, at
least one pole will have to be located near each cluster of homes within a certainradius of the
pole. In this case,the location of home clusters determinespole location.

Adequate groundclearance. In areas where homes are less denselylocated, the type and size of
conductorused, the length of available poles, and the required ground clearancewill determine
the maximum span that is possible. For this reason, pole locations can only be finalized once
these parametershave been established.

Pole strength. Mechanical loading caused by wind on the conductoris transferred to the poles
(as is described in Chapter VIII). The poles have to be strong enough to supportthis load, and the
strength of the poles available for the project may limit the maximumspans achievable.

ChapterV. Mappingandsystemlayout

53

VI. Lineconfiguration
To distributepower around a load center, four basic distribution line configurationsare possible:two
single-phaseconfigurationsand two three-phase configurations. These are illustrated in Fig. 15. All
configurationsuse similar materials and constructiontechniques. On some occasions, a combinationof
these configurationscan be used to achieve a more cost-effectivedistributionsystem design.
For a particular village situation, the attributes of each configurations and a rough sizing and costingof
the conductorand poletop hardware for each configuration should be assessed to determinewhich line
configurationis the most cost-effective. The sizing of the conductor for each configurationcan be found
using Table 8 or Box 5 after an acceptable voltage drop has been established. An exampleof conductor
sizing for a sample line and the impact on line configuration on conductor size are illustratedin Chapter
VII and in Appendix 7 (beginning on p. 234).

Optionsfor lineconfiguration
Single-phasesupply
Single-phase,two-wire
For this configuration,two conductorsfrom the powerhouse serve the entire commnunityat a voltage that
is usuallynominally set at 120 or 230 V. To ensure a system that can easily be maintainedand for which
constructionmaterials and consumerappliances can readily be found locally, this voltage shouldcoincide
with the standard in use in the country.
If the powerhouseis located in the middle of the load center, single-phaselines mighttake off from the
powerhousein severaldirections. Consumer connections to this system are straightforward:the mini-grid
is comprisedof a pair of conductorsthat pass by each consumer and the service drop simplytaps both of
these lines (Fig. 15a). From this point of view, this is the simplest option to design and is thereforethe
most conmmonly
used for mini-grids. But it is not the most efficient option. System design forthe other
options is somewhat less straightforwardbecause the distribution lines include at least three conductors,
and the system designer is faced with a choice of which pair of these conductors each consumershould
tap so that the loads are balanced. Balancing loads along a distributionmeans that, as one proceedsalong
that line, loads are connected to eachphase conductorin a such way that the currents in these conductors
are as close to equal as possible.
A pair of single-phaselines can also be used with a single-phase,three-wire configurationas well as with
both three-phaseconfigurations,when a small load off in some direction does not warrant stringinga
split-phaseor three-phaseline in that direction (Fig. 15b, 15c, and 15d). It should be noted that even
under circumstanceswhere three-phasepower is generated, three-phasepower may not be used or needed
by any one consumer. Rather, pairs of single-phaselines leave the three-phase generator in various
directionsto serve the different portionsof the comrnunity.
It is possible to ground one of the conductors of a single-phase system (as shown by the dottedground in
Fig. 15a). This is discussed at the end of this chapter.
While mini-gridsfrequentlyuse this basic configurationbecause it lends itself to being easily understood,
this is the most costly configuration(as is illustrated in Table 4 below). However, two commentsabout
single-phasedistributionshould be made at this point:
Chapter VI. Line configuration

54

(a) Single-phase
= domestic consumer

No E2Z0v
E
E

JJ41

~~~~~~~~~~230
V
~~~~~~~~~~~(120
V)

230 V

(120V)

( commercialconsumer

b
UN=

;
d 210eY)

1V

230v
(120V)

120V

(b) Split-phase(primarilyused with 120/240V systems)


V
120/240

(neutral)

120 v

11

(c) Three-phase,wye
E

EX

1E

1t

o
-~~-

(neutral)

.__

230 V

(120V)

V
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~400/230
(208/120V)
~30

____=

230v

(120V)
2v230

230 V

400v
(208V)
30

(120V)

(d) Three-phase,delta
E

23
V)
(120

30

230

2 30V

(120V)
V
2230
20V)

230V
(120V)
V

Fig. 15. The four basic distribution line configurations that may have application for a village
mini-grid. The supply (on the left) can be either a generator or transformer. E represents the
commonly used voltage in the country (generally 120 V or 230 V).

Chapter VI. Line configuration

55

In theory, the three other configurationsdescribed in this chapter are all cheaper for serving a
specific load than the basic single-phase,two-wire configurationin terms of conductorcost.
However, for lightly loaded lines, minimumconductor size is set by mechanical constraints, i.e.,
the need for strength in tension. Therefore,the capacity of the smallest acceptable conductor
selected on the basis of strengthmay, when used in a simple, single-phasetwo-wire
configuration, still be more than adequateto serve the load, within acceptable voltage drop limits.
In this case, reverting to the use of a more efficient, split-phase or three-phase configuration
would unnecessarily increase cost, because the added value of the increased current-carrying
capacity associated with the other configurationswould not be needed. The precise point where
split- or three-phase configurationsare more economic is site-specific;it depends on the size and
locations of the loads along the line andthe size of the smallest usable conductor.

In those countries where the nominal consumervoltage is 120 V, this configuration has another
advantage. If a three-phaseline serves a communitywhich, after some time, begins to place
excessive demand on the line (basedon voltage-dropcriteria), the line would have to be
reconductored. This means that the existingconductorwould have to be removed and replaced
with a larger one, incurring increased material and labor costs. However, if a single-phase,twowire, 120 V configurationsuppliedby a single-phasegenerator had been used, it would have been
possible to capitalize on the higher initialinvestment by simplyadding a single conductor. If the
loads were perfectly balanced along the line, adding this conductorwould increase line capacity
by four. Even if there were a 50 % loadunbalance, adding this single conductor would still more
than double line capacity. (Themeaningof the load unbalance is discussed in the following
section).
The following interventions to a single-phase,two-wire line would have to be made to transform
it into the more efficient split-phasethree-wire configurationdiscussed in the followingsection:
Add a third conductorto the existingline.
Reconnect the powerplant so that its full output voltage is split, e.g., 120-0-120V rather than
120 V.
Move the existing service drop connectionsto the new conductor as necessary to ensure
balanced loading on both phase conductors.
If this configuration seems advantageous,the adequacy of line-to-groundclearance after adding
the third conductor must be verified.
-

Single-phase, three-wire (split-phase)


This single-phase configuration,whichrequires the use of three rather than two conductors, is primarily
used with systems operated at a nominal consumervoltage of 120 V (Fig. 15b). In this case, the
Three-phasedistributionis generallymoreefficientthansingle-phasedistributionandis commonlyusedaround
the world. In North America,a significantportionof LatinAmerica,anda fewother countriesinfluencedby the
U.S. (suchas the Philippines,Japan,andLiberia)whereconsumersuse electricityat 120V, three-phasepoweris
availableprimarilyin the moreheavilypopulatedareas. Whenfacedwiththe taskof servingsparselypopulated
ruralareasin the U.S. in the firsthalfof the twentiethcentury,engineersdecidedthat single-phasedistributionat the
medium-voltagelevelwas fullyadequateandless expensive.Butat the low-voltagelevel,distributingsingle-phase
powerto individualconsumersat 120V is not efficient.The altemativethatwas developedwasto relyon a singlepower almostas efficiently
phase,three-wiresystem(120-0-120V), whichpermittedthe distributionof single-phase
as three-phasepower (Table4). Onthe otherhand,in Europeandin parts of the worldinfluencedby European
countries,systemssupplyingthe consumerwith230V havetraditionallybeenthree-phaseeverywhere,in both rural
ChapterVI. Line configuration

56

generator is connected to generate twice the nominal voltage (at 240 V rather than at 120 V). The two
phase-conductorsare connected at the ends of the generator winding. The neutral conductor, which may
be grounded as is explained at the end of this chapter, is connected to the center-tap of that winding. This
configurationis also referred to as a split-phase or, in some countries, a dual-phase configuration.
In countries where the nominal consumervoltage is 230 V, a single-phase,two-wire system that has
outgrownits capacity can also be converted to the more advantageous single-phase, three-wire system.
However,because generators to generate 230-0-230V are not commonly available, converting to a threewire system to make use of its increased capacity would require connecting the 230 V generator output to
a 230/460 V transformer,with a center-tappedsecondary. This secondary would be connected to the
three-wireline as described in the previous paragraph.
As is shownin Fig. 15b, one of the two conductors serving each of the typical residential consumers
alwaystaps the neutral conductor of the distributionline. The other always taps one of the two phaseconductors. In selecting which phase conductor to tap, it is important-both to minimize voltage drop as
well as to ensure proper operation of the generator-that the maximum coincident loading on each of the
two phase-conductorsbe balanced.
If the consumer loads located off in some direction are too small to justify stringing all three conductors,a
single-phase,two-wire line can be drawn to serve those loads. As before, the phase-conductor to be
tappedby the line extending in that direction should be selected with the objective always in mind of
balancingthe loads on the main (three-wire) line(s).
The split-phase configurationprovides a couple of advantages over the previous configuration:
*

Reduced cost: This configurationcan result in savings in the cost of the conductor because a
smaller conductorcan serve the same load. Alternatively, with the same size conductor, either a
greater load can be served or the same load can be served with a smaller voltage drop and line
loss.

If loads are properly balanced along the line, the neutral conductor would carry much less current
than the phase conductors (zero current if the line were perfectly balanced) and negligible voltage
drop would appear along the return or neutral line. This approach is more effective because each
of the smaller single-phaseloads is thereforeonly affected by the voltage drop along one
conductor instead of two. Also, by operating a balanced line at twice the voltage, half the current
is required to serve the same total load. The percentage voltage drop and the power loss are
therefore both reduced to a quarter of those in the single-phase, two-wire configuration described
above for the same size conductor. Alternatively,with a properly balanced load, this
configuration can use a conductor with one quarter the area (i.e., four times the resistance) and
still have the same voltage drop and power loss as in the first case. While it does require three
lengths of conductorrather than two, these conductors are smaller and less costly.
Table 4 indicates the relative cost for the four possible configurations discussed in this chapter. A
cost of 4.0 has been assigned as the cost for the single-phase, two-wire system. In preparing this
table, the followingare assumed:

andurbanareas. Therefore,underthesecircumstances,
adoptinga single-phase,three-wirevariant(230-0-230V)
wouldhaveno advantageoverthree-phasepowerthat wasalreadycommonlyavailable. As a result,230-Vsinglephasegenerators are typically available only with a maximum output of 230 V, while 120-V generators can be
connectedto have a maximum output of 240 V in a I20-0-120 V configuration.

Chapter VI. Line configuration

57

Table 4. Relative conductorcosts for distribution systems serving


both balancedand unbalanced loadswith the same percentage
voltage drop. Note that the cost of labor and poletop hardware,
which can be significant,has not been included in this comparison.

Line configuration

Relative conductor cost


Balanced loads
50 % unbalance

Single-phase, two-wire

4.0

4.0

Single-phase,three-wire

1.5

2.0

Three-phase,four wire

1.3

2.0

Three-phase,three-wire

3.0

3.2

Noteassumptions
in accompanying
text.

The conductor size for each configurationin the table is selected to result in the same line
performance for all cases, i.e., the same percent voltage drop along the line while servingthe
same size load.
The neutral conductor(in those cases where there is one, see Fig. 15bc) has the same size as
the phase conductors,as is often the case (even in the case where, with a properly balanced
system, the neutral would handle a much smaller current and the conductor could be
correspondinglysmaller).
Conductor cost is proportionalto its cross-sectional area, which is approximatelythe case.
Conductorsare available in a continuousrange of sizes. In reality, conductors come in a few
discrete sizes.

If loads are properly balanced, the relative cost for the two single-phase configurations described
above can be seen in the first two rows in Table 4. The split-phase configurationrequires onequarter the conductor size (and cost) of the single-phase,two-wire configurationbut 50 % must
be added to that because three rather than two conductors are now required (assuming conductors
of equivalentsize).
If loads are not perfectly balanced,which is typically the case, cost savingsstill exist but are
somewhat reduced, dependingon the degree of unbalance. Table 4 also indicates the relativecost
for circuits designedto serve an assumedunbalanced load of 50 % with the same voltage drop.
While the cost of the conductor associatedwith the split-phase configuration would be reduced,
this saving mightbe slightly offset by the increased cost of the poletop hardware associatedwith

Given the situation with a single-phase(three-wire)or a three-phase system where one load is less than the other
one or other two equal loads, respectively. The percentage unbalance of these loads served by these lines is defined
as 100 times the different in the magnitude of these two different size loadings divided by the average of all two (or
three) loads. For example, for a single-phase(three-wire)system with loads of 3 kW and 5 kW, the unbalance is
50 % (a differenceof 2 kW dividedby an averageload of 4 kW). Similarly, for a three-phase system where the
loads are 7 kW, 7 kW, and 4 kW, the unbalanceis again 50 % (a difference of 3 kW dividedby an average loadof

6 kW).
Chapter VI. Line configuration

58

stringingthe third conductor. However, if aerial bundled cable (ABC) or multiplexwere used for
the distributionline, the poletop hardware would remain unchanged (see Box 4, p. 65).
It should also be noted that, while three-phase,four-wiredistributionis the most efficient means
of transmittingpower, the difference in costbetween this configuration and the simpler splitphase configuration,when only conductor costsare considered,is small. The inclusion of labor
and poletop hardware costs can change the relativecosting.
A case study in Appendix 7 calculates the costof usinga variety of configurationsto serve a
given load. It also illustrates that, while considerablysmaller and less costly conductormight be
possible with some configurations as noted above,increased labor and poletop hardware costs
may be incurred. (p. 234).
*

Increasedefficiency for runninglarger motors(this advantageis generallyrestricted to


systemswhich are nominally 120 V): If a larger motor load is to be run in the village, it can be
served more efficiently by tapping the two phase-conductorsto take advantage of the higher
voltage of 240 V.

Three-phase supply
In addition to being able to provide single-phaseservice(e.g., at 120 or 230 V) as with the two previous
options,this supply option also provides three-phaseservice(i.e., 208/120 V wye or 120 V delta and
400/230V wye or 230 V delta, respectively)for consumerswho need larger quantitiesof power to run
larger motors or other industrial processes. However, while three-phasepower has some advantages over
single-phasepower, the reality is that even in areas where three-phasepower is distributed,use is
typically only made of "simpler" single-phasepower, whichadequately supplies all appliancesand enduses commonlyfound in a rural home.
However,the layout of the community,the location of the powerhousein relation to the village center,
and/orthe need for three-phase power along the mainroad for commercialpurposes in the vicinity of the
powerhousemay suggest that an initial length of line from the powerhouse use a three-phase
configuration. It would then divide into individual single-phaselines to supply the remainder of the
village. If this is the case, when tapping the three-phaseline, loads on each of the threephase-conductors
shouldbe as balanced as possible to minimize voltage drop and ensure proper operation of the generator.
Several disadvantagesare associated with three-phase,and evensplit-phase, distributionover the singlephase,two-wire configuration:
*

Using three or four conductorsrather than two means that a higher pole may be required to
maintain the same ground clearance, and more poletophardware would be required (unless some
form of bundled insulated cable is used).

Making most efficient use of these two optionsrequires that some additionalcare be taken to
balance peak-time loads on the different phaseconductors.

* If the load served by a mini-grid expands to exceed its design value, the only way of increasing
its capacity is by reconductoring, i.e., replacingall the conductors with ones of larger size, a
costly and time-consuming undertaking.
* For systems with low electricitydemand, mechanicalstrength determines the minimumsize of
the conductor. Consequently, it is possible that the excesscapacity available from the three phase

Chapter VI. Line configuration

59

configurationwith this smallestusable conductoris not necessary and that a single-phase line
would suffice.
Three-phasegeneratorscan be connected in two differentconfigurations,either as four-wire delta or as
three-wirewye (or star). One point in common with both configurations is that generator manufacturers
generallyrequire the user to derate the generator in caseswhere the outputs are not balanced. If this is not
done, load unbalance can result in excessive generatorheating and eventual failure of the unit. This may
well havebeen one of the contributingfactors to the generator burning out in the case of the mini-grid in
Laos, presented in the Appendix 2 (p. 198).
Three-phase,four-wire (wye)
This is the configuration commonlyused for low-voltagethree-phase distribution networks designedby
national electric utilities and can be the least expensive. As illustrated in Fig. 15c, this configurationcan
supplyboth single-phaseconsumers as well as larger end-uses requiring three-phase power. As noted in
Table 4, this configurationis generallymore efficient than the infrequently used three-phase, three-wire
(delta)alternative. The increased efficiency of the wye configuration arises because current is transmitted
at about 1.7 times the voltage associatedwith the delta configuration. This means less current is required,
which reduces percentage voltage drop and power lossesin the distribution line by factor of three for a
balanced system.
The neutral conductormay be groundedbut this is not essential, especially in the case of mini-grids, as
will be discussed below.
Three-phase,
three-wire(delta)
This configurationis less frequentlyused for electricitydistribution. While Table 4 indicates that this is a
costlieroption than the three-phasewye
configuration,it also indicatesthat unbalanced
loadingon a delta-connecteddistribution
(a)
systemhas a smaller impact on voltage drop
with this configurationthan with the splitA
phase or three-phase, four-wireconfiguration.
B
This is explained in the followingparagraphs.
_
_
_
_
_
_
For the sake of simplicity assume that only one
phase is loaded (Fig. 16). In the case of a wye
configuration(a), the entire current is supplied
by a single generator winding(A). The
windingssupplying the other two phase
conductors(B and C) supply nothing to this
load becausethose circuits are open.
Consequently,if a 6 kW generator is used, the
maximumload that could be servedwithout
exceedingthe rating of the generatorunder
these circumstanceswould be 2 kW. In the
case of the delta configuration(b), winding A
suppliestwo-thirds of the necessary current,
with the remaining two windings each

ChapterVI. Lineconfiguration

(b)

4
generatorwindings loads

Fig. 16. While the wye-connected load is only


supplied by one winding, all three windings
contributeto supplying each delta-connected
load.

60

supplying one-third of the required current.


Consequently,the maximum load that can be
imposed on any one of the three output circuits
of a delta-connected generator can exceed the
maximum load associated with the wye system
by 50 % before reaching the maximum current

(a)

___

rating of one of the three generator windings.


Therefore, for example, the 6 kW generator
connected in a delta configuration could now

(b)

serve a maximum single load of 3 kW.


However, if one of the output circuits is
overloaded,the other outputs must accordingly
be loaded below capacity.
In actual operation, loads would be placed on
all phase conductors, but each phase conductor
would share in serving two loads in the case of
a delta configuration (Fig. 17b) rather than in
only serving one (Fig. 17a). Altematively, this
can be seen as each winding sharing in the
supply of each load. It is therefore possible for
one or two loads to each exceed the rating of
one winding as long as the remaining loads are
less.

generator
windings

loads

Fig. 17. Each phase conductorsupplies one wyeconnected load while each delta-connected

phasesuppliestwo.

In summary,while the delta configuration is not the cheapest option in terms of conductor cost for the
line it supplies,it does have the advantage that unbalanced kW loading increases voltage drop by a
smaller amount. Furthermnore,because loading is shared by the generatorcoils, a delta-connected
generator can accept about twice the load imbalance than can a wye-connectedgenerator. These facts can
prove to be advantageous in cases were balancing the kW loadingon the various circuits leaving the
powerhouse cannot be achieved because of the layout of the village loads.

Systemgrounding
One more issue to consider at this point is whether or not to ground the neutral conductor for those three
configurationsmarked with dashed grounding symbolsin Fig. 15. At medium voltages, system
groundingis typically used to protect the electrical system and ensure safe and reliable service. With one
conductor firmly bonded to the ground, it permits economies in the construction and use of various line
equipment-such as transformers and insulators-by permitting a reduction in the required insulation
levels. It increases the effectiveness of lightning arresters by providing a low-resistance path to ground
and also somewhatreduces voltage drop along a line by allowing some of the return currents to flow
through the earth. It increases worker and public safety, in part by facilitatingthe detection and
subsequentisolation of any fault to ground that might occur. An exampleof a fault to ground would be
one caused by a phase conductor breaking and falling down to earth. The system ground(s)would
provide a return path for the fault current, completing the circuit. If groundresistance is sufficiently low,
Theseseemto add to morethanthe required current.This is notthe casebecausethe windingsdo notsupplyall
the currentsat the same time (i.e.,the currentsare out of phase).
ChapterVI. Lineconfiguration

61

current through the ground loop would trip a breaker. Multi-groundedneutrals attempt to minimize
ground resistance and thereby maximize fault currents by providing multiplelow-resistance return paths.
However, detectinga fault current even on a medium-voltagesystem may still be difficult because of the
relatively high resistance commonlyfound between the conductor that has fallen on the ground and the
ground itself, even though a fallen conductor can still prove lethal to the touch. It is even more difficult
on a secondary system because, from Ohm's law, the considerablylower voltage implies a considerably
lower fault current. Two additionalfactors reduce the effectivenessof groundingfor small systems
commonly associatedwith mini-grids:
*

The fault current that can be supplied by a small generator is limited.

Those installing mini-grids often do not put in the effort required to ensure reliable low-resistance
grounds.

For these reasons, fault currents associated with low-voltage mini-grids can be too small to trigger
miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) or blow fuses. Therefore, the neutral conductor should not
automaticallybe grounded in the hope that this affords added protection. Grounded mini-gridsmay
actually prove more dangerous. For example, when a person touches an appliance with an intemal short
to its metal housing, a ground provides a direct path for any fault currentthrough the body to return to the
generator. This current may be too small to trigger an MCB or blow a fuse but can be more than
sufficient to place the person at risk. This is discussed in detail in ChapterXI on safety.
Generally, littlejustification can be found to ground the neutral conductorof an isolated low-voltage
mini-grid. More detailed descriptions of grounding and safety are found in Chapter XI. In the case of a
mini-grid supplied by a transformer connected to a regional or national grid, the approach to grounding
will probably be determined by the national standards in force in the country. And in these cases,the
neutral conductormay well be grounded.
The followingapproaches are suggested for an isolated mini-grid:
For low-cost, unsophisticated systems, with primarily lighting and entertainment loads that
present the user with little chance for touching an energizedportion of the circuit, a floating (i.e.,
ungrounded) system can simply be used. This is safer and less costlythan groundingboth the
system neutral and consumer grounds and bonding the latter to the neutral conductor. And a
system ground, even with a properly installed consumer ground,will not give a person
accidentallytouching the live conductor any protection. Under this latter condition, a floating
system at least reduces the magnitude of the current that might flow through someone touching a
live component.
* For the occasional consumerwho is using other equipment with a metal housing or frame, fault
currents through the body can be reduced through the use of a consumerground. Or for an
additionalfinancial outlay, a properly installed and operating RCD will immediatelyopen the
consumercircuit when it senses a fault current. But in these cases, the system neutral should
nowherebe grounded.

Depending on whether or not the system is grounded,the followingactions must be taken:


*

If the system (i.e., the neutral conductor used in the system) is not grounded, then all conductors
should be treated as live phase conductors. While a neutral conductormight be no more than a
few volts above ground, an accidental grounding of any of the phase conductors would raise the
voltage of the neutral conductor to the system voltage. Therefore for a floating system, all

Chapter VI. Line configuration

62

conductors should be treated as phase conductors and be adequately insulated. In addition, multipole MCBs, which automaticallyopen all conductorswhen a fault occurs on any one phase,
should be used. Fuses might also be used. In this case, these must be used in conjunction with a
multi-pole (e.g., a knife) switchmounted on the supply side of the fuse to permit the consumer's
circuit, including the fuse, to be isolated manually. This removes the threat from any voltage that
might otherwise be presenton the line(s) with any fuse still intact and permits the household
circuit to be repaired and fuse replaced without fear of shock.
* If a grounded system neutralis used, then multiple grounds should be used along the system. It is
also important that all metal surfaces associatedwith the generating and electrical system in the
powerhouse alsobe bonded to the system ground. Consumers who utilize equipment or
appliances with metal housings should also ground equipment on their premises by bonding it to
the grounded neutral conductoron the supply side of the distributionboard. Placing a ground rod
at the consumer's service entrance would provide an additional margin of safety.

ChapterVI. Line configuration

63

VIl. Conductor
Once the nature of the loading has been determined, the selection of a conductor to most effectivelyserve
consumerload and load growth at minimumcost can be assured by followingthe standard approachfor
properly sizing the conductor. In this process,both the voltage drop at the end of the line as well as
energy (kWh) losses along the line-both of which dependon conductor size-must be kept within
acceptablebounds. This chapter will firstbriefly review the types of conductorthat mightbe used for the
distributionof electricityaround a load center and some of their attributes. It will then describehow
conductorsare sized and installed.

Typesof conductor
For electricitydistribution, two materialsare generally used: copper and aluminum.
Copper is availablein several forms. Hard-drawn copper is used as a conductorbecause of its higher
strength. Annealed copper is used as a ground wire and for other applicationswhere it is necessaryto
bend and shape the conductor. Annealingcopper-heating it to a red heat after drawing it throughthe
drawing die-softens it and reduces its strength from about 390 MPa for hard-drawn copperto about
240 MPa. For this reason, it is also not good practiceto use soldered spliceswith hard-drawncopper
when its full strength must be utilized. Solderinganneals the wire near the joint, reducing its strength.
Splicingsleevesshould be used for joining lengths of conductors.
Aluminumis presently widely used but it only has two-thirds the conductivity of copper. Comparingtwo
conductorswith the same resistance per unit length, an aluminum conductor requires 1.6 timesthe area of
a copper conductor. Suchan aluminumconductor would have 75 % the tensile strength but only 55 % of
the weightsof the equivalentcopper conductor. Aluminumis preferred in many cases becauseits smaller
weight-to-strengthratio permits longer spans and potentially fewer poles. But pure aluminum conductor
stretches easily in high winds or if objects fall on it. Therefore, to increase its strength, aluminumstrands
can be wrappedaround a steel core to obtain steel-reinforced,aluminum conductor (ACSR). ACSRis the
most widely used conductorfor lines constructedby conventional utilities.
Steel conductorhas also been used, because its low cost can, under certain circumstances,compensatefor
its relativelyhigh resistance. An exampleof using steel conductor for making low-capacity servicedrops
is describedin Box 8 (p. 147).
Below are describedthe basic conductortypes that might be used in mini-grids and some of their
characteristics:
1. Bare conductor. This is one of the most common types of conductorused with conventional
low-voltagedistributionsystemsaround the world. Conmmonly,ACSR is used.
*

Because this conductoris bare, it provides an increased safety hazard either to people
working on the line or to villagers who may come into contact with a conductor,eitherby
touching a fallen line or by touching an installed line either directly, with a tool or long poles
they may be carrying, or by riding in a vehicle that is too high. Maintaining sufficient
clearance is essential, as is abidingby strict construction standards; otherwise,bare conductor
should not be used.

ChapterVII. Conductor

64

ACSR is only commonly available in sizes down to about 13 mm2 (AWG #6). Smaller
uninsulated aluminum or copper conductorcan more easily break and present a safety hazard
to villagers.

Because no insulation is used, these conductorsmust be individually strung on separate spool


insulators. This requires the used of additionalhardware and time to install.

2. Single insulated conductor (Fig. 18). This type of conductor consists of copper or aluminum
over which a layer of plastic insulation, most commonlypolyvinyl chloride (PVC), is laid. The
conductor may be stranded or solid, with solid conductorpredominately in the smaller sizes
(under 13 mm2 .) This type of conductor is manufacturedalmost everywhere and is commonly
used for housewiring.
*

The installation of this type of conductoris


usually done in areas far from any
regulatory body, and installers tend to be
untrained. It is therefore difficult to
maintain acceptable safety standards.

This conductor is convenient in that it can


be deadended by simple wrapping.

Least expensive as an initial investmentand readily available.

UV protection may be a problem with certaintypes of insulation.

Fig. 18. Single-core, insulated conductors.

3. Non-metallic-sheathed multi-conductor. Two or more insulated conductors overlaid with an


outer sheath or jacket (Fig. 19).
i

Deadending is done by wrapping or knotting


since no specific hardware has adapted for
exterior deadending.
Because of availability, ease of installation,
and safety, this conductor is commonlyused
for informal minigrids.

* Because of the weight to strength ratio of this


conductor, spans are generally limited to less
than about 10 meters.
*

iI4oK

cABLe

304

70C

Fig. 19. Non-metallic,


sheathedmulticonductors.

UV protection may be a problem with certaintypes of insulation.

4. Multiplex and aerial bundled cable (ABC). This cable is composed of one or more insulated
stranded conductors, which are commonlyaluminum,wrapped around a messenger conductor.
The messenger, which serves as a conductoras well as the member which supports the weight of
the entire bundle of conductors, can be either insulatedor bare. ABC is designed specifically for
use with distribution lines, whereas multiplexhas been specificallymanufactured for use as a
conductor for secondary drops. However, as explained in Box 4, multiplex can also be used for
distribution lines.

ChapterVII. Conductor

65

Box 4. Use of multiplexfor distributionlines


For conventionallow-voltagedistributionlines, two, three, or four separate bare ACSR conductorsare
typically used for the distributionline, and duplex, triplex, or quadruplex is used as the conductorfor the
service drop, for which it is specificallymanufactured. This box describes an alternative approachthat
uses multiplex conductorfor the main line, exploiting the advantages of using insulated conductorfor this
purpose, as is detailedearlier. Multiplex could then also be used as the service drop, although
considerablysmaller and less expensive conductor
would likely be used with mini-grids.
This approach basicallyinvolves raising the multiplex
and then saggingit span by span. But only the
messenger cable is supported at each pole; the other
conductors are wrapped around the messenger, which

U-

is deadendedon a spool insulator at the end of each


span or up to once every 5-6 spans.

If deadendedat eachspoolinsulator,themultiplexand

other conductor form loops (between the two deadends


on opposing spans) (Fig. 20). It is from this loop that
Fig. 20. A loop betweentwo adjacent
all household connectionsfor the individual service
deadended spans of triplex. (Photo credit:
drops are made (Fig. 21). These connectionsare most
Myk Manon)
effectivelymade by removing the insulation at the loop
and using ordinary split-boltor compressionconnectors. While there are special connectors to tap multiplex line by piercingthe insulation,these are more costly than ordinary connectors and may be difficultto
procure after the initialline has been strung and additionalconsumers would like to be connected.
Since the other conductorsdo not need to be supported at the pole, hardware and labor savings are
realized throughthe eliminationof this additionalhardware and the time required for their installation.
The use of multiplexin this manner is similar to the use of ABC, which, unlike multiplex, has been
designed specificallyfor this application. However,ABC is somewhat more expensive and uses special,
more costly connectors.For installation of the multiplex,the same standard hardware (upset bolts,
clevises, spool insulators,and brackets) is used as is used with the installation of the more conventional
multiple uninsulatedconductors. No
expensive separatorsor covered conpreformed
deadend
nectors are required.
(oneon each side)
pole
To take full advantageof long spans
where ground clearancepermits, ACSR
should be used as the messenger
conductor.

conductors
together

spool insulator

,.

neutral messenger
cnnector (insulated
or taped)

distribution

line
(Continued on next page)

-service

drop (duplex)

Fig. 21. A duplex service connection to a triplex


distributionline, similar to that shown in Fig. 22.

ChapterVII. Conductor

66

(Continuedfrom previous page)


If each span is deadended, an initial concern may be the assumed additionaltime that would be required
to deadend the secondary multiplex conductorat each pole. However, experience has shown that the time
to deadend each span over some distance is less than the time to sag a multi-span length of conductor over
the same distance, especially if preformed deadends are used. In El Salvador, where this design has been
implemented, installing a preformed deadend takes no more than half a minute. Bolted deadends, on the
other hand, take several minutes to secure and are about five times as expensive.
Installationguidelines
For installation, the conductor is deadended on a spool insulator at the first pole. The lineman then brings
the conductor up to the proper sag from the adjacent downlinepole and deadends that span on a spool
insulator. (Appendix 8 gives one example of sag tables for duplex and triplex with ACSR messenger.
Methods for measuring sag are found beginning with p. 82). He then makes a connection loop on that
pole and deadends the beginning of the next span. The linemanproceeds to the next pole to raise the
conductorfor that span to its proper sag, deadends the other end, makes a loop, and proceeds sequentially
down the line. Figure 22 illustrates one poletop connection with a duplex tap to a household.
Along spans that are inclined, the insulated conductormust be served (secured together) to the messenger
to preventthe insulated conductor from slipping down along the messenger. This is standard practice
with multiplex service drops. This is most effectively accomplishedthrough the use of nylon cable ties,
althoughtaping the conductors together with electrical tape is also commonly done.

Fig. 22. A #2 triplexline comingfrom the centerleft,is deadendedon a spool


insulator,and then continuesto the lowerright. At the loop,a #6 duplexservice
connectionis made and leavestowardthe upperleft.The neutralconductorat the
loop is splicedto the nextsection.Oneof the insulatedconductorsat the loopis
also spliced.On the other insulatedconductor,a tapedcompressionconnection
has beenmadeto the insulatedduplexservicedrop. (Photocredit: MykManon)

ChapterVII' Conductor

67

Multiplex with one, two, or three conductorswrappedaround the messenger conductor is called
duplex, triplex, and quadruplex,respectively. The messenger is commonlyACSR to provide the
necessary strength.
*

Maintenance costs associated with these types of cable are reducedbecause clearing tree
branches from the lines need not be as frequent. In addition, the size of the cleared area
around the conductors may be reduced,lesseningthe adverse visual and environmental
impact associated with overhead conductors.

These types of conductorsare safer than uninsulatedconductor. Branches falling on


uninsulated lines present a hazard. This hazard is more to persons coming into contact with
the branches when they try to remove them (especiallyif the systemneutral is grounded)than
to the system itself. Even though resistanceto current flow throughthe branches is
sufficiently high that breakers or fuse protectionwill often not trip, the system will not be
damaged. However, if a person forms a parallelpath to earth, sufficient current may pass
through that person to present a hazard. Insulatedconductors do not pose this hazard.

The danger to individualswho might comeinto contact with the lines (caused by individuals
carrying sticks or other long objects,childrenflying kites, or linesmenworking on the line) is
reduced because of the insulation. Furthermore,when new buildings are constructed,owners
rarely consult the electric utility about necessaryclearancesbetween the lines and the
structure. In these cases, this type of conductoris more forgiving.

Linemen working on the lines prefer the added insulation. While electrical shocksat 120 or
230 V are not always fatal, they are a nuisance. Furthermore, adequateprotective equipment
and training is often not given to those working on energizedlines.

A problem common to many countriesis the theft of electricity by individualstapping the


secondary conductors, especially in more denselypopulated areas where narrow streets
compel the lines to run close to buildings. With ABC, it is difficult to tap the line without
special piercing connectors becauseof the insulation and the fact that the conductors are
bundled. With multiplex conductorused as the main distributionline, taps can only easily be
made at the loops at each pole, reducing the length over which the line can be illegally
tapped.

Only a single conductorrather than multipleconductorshas to be strung, reducing time and


labor costs.

Because of the greater weight per unit length of the bundled cable, total sag of a single
multiplex or ABC will be greater than that for a single conductor. However, except for long
spans, the total sag associated with multiplexor ABC will usually be less than the sag
associated either the two (for single-phaseservice)to four (for three-phaseservice)
conductors that would otherwisebe used,affixedto the pole in a vertical configuration (i.e.,
not on cross-arms). The added groundclearancegives the advantage of longer spans on the
same size poles and can provide an increasedline-to-groundsafety margin.

Stranded conductors are preferred over solid aluminum. Strandedconductor is more flexible
to work with when making connections.

Phase and neutral conductors can be clearlyidentified.

Chapter VII. Conductor

68

Self-supportingcable can be used for spans of up to 150 meters, with significant sag, but it is
more commonly used for shorter spans.

Unlike copper or aluminum, single-conductorinsulatedwire that can be found in most


hardware stores, aluminum multiplex and ABC must be procured from electric utility
suppliers.

The need for ultraviolet (UV)-resistantinsulation should be made explicit.

* Electro-chemically,aluminum multiplex is compatiblewith the aluminum conductor


commonlyused for conventionaldistributionsystems.
*

Aluminummultiplex is less expensive that copper conductor.

5. Concentricneutral. One central conductor, stranded or solid, is insulated and overlaid with a
layer of bare neutral stranded wire and jacketed with another
layer of insulation (Fig. 23). More commonly used as a service
drop.
*

This cable provides excellentmechanical protection to the


energizedconductor becausethe neutral is woven around the
insulatedphase conductor. If there is any mechanical
damageto the conductor,the neutral will short against the
phase conductor, opening a path to ground which should
provide sufficient fault current to trigger the circuit breaker.

__

__

Fig.23. Concentricneutral
conductor.

Expensiveand hard to handle.


*

Deadendingand making a connection are difficult unless used with specifically designed
deadend grips and connectors.

Overheadvs. Underground
Secondarydistributionlines and servicedrops can be installed either overhead or underground.
Underground distributionseems an attractive option for a number of reasons:
*

It eliminates the need for poles, which can be one of most costly components of a LV distribution
system. In its place, it requires digging trenches in which the conductor is laid, a task that can
easily be undertakenby the villagers themselvesas one of their sweat-equity contributions to their
electrification.

* It is aestheticallymore pleasing, doing away with wires and poles scattered around the village.
* In areas susceptibleto storms such as typhoons or cyclones, an underground distribution system
is less exposed to the elements-winds, ice, and tree branches-and therefore less vulnerable to
outages. Because of the increased life-cycle cost associatedwith using poles (if they have to be
occasionallyreplaced), this cost might exceed the cost of underground construction.
Undergroundlines are also less susceptibleto tampering or to presenting a hazard to individuals.
*

Overheadlines require removingtrees along a sufficientlywide right-of-way to avoid their


possibly damaging the line. This task can be even costlier if the line passes through plantations of,
for example,coconut trees because trees that are removed represent a loss of food and/or income

ChapterVII. Conductor

69

to their owners. In addition, vegetation growing in the vicinity of the lines must periodically be
trimmed. Use of underground line eliminates these problems.
But there are also disadvantagesassociated with the use of undergroundconstruction:
* Locating and repairing underground faults, should they occur,requires specializedequipment and
training.
*

If additional capacity will be required to meet increased consumerloads in the future, the capacity
of underground lines cannot easily be increased either by adding another phase conductor to a
single-phase line or by upgrading the conductor size.

When new homes are built along an existing line, makingjoints along this line to serve these new
consumers is considerably more difficult and requires specializedtraining.

* Because underground conductors are exposed to moisture, rodents and insects, damage from
construction of other underground facilities such as water lines, it is essential that only high
quality materials, specifically designed for undergroundelectrical distributionbe used. This
increases cost and can slow project construction.
*

If the village is located in rocky terrain, digging trenches will be difficult and slow.

But in the end, it is usually the cost argument that holds sway: undermost circumstances,underground is
still considerablycostlier than overhead distribution because of the need for reliable insulation. And
because as high a connection rate as possible is needed to maximizethe potential impacts of
electrificationand ensure the maximum number of connectionsto reduce unit costs, reducing cost of
electrificationassumes a high priority. It is for this reason that overhead lines are still the most
commonlyused option for rural electrification.

Conductor sizing
For consumersto benefit from electrification, electricity must be transmitted over distributionlines from
the power supply to these consumers. And because the conductorused for these lines is one of the more
expensivecomponents of a mini-grid, there is an incentive to make electrification more affordableby
using a smaller, cheaper conductor. However, in the process of transmittingelectricity, resistance in the
conductor leads to a drop in voltage along the line and to an associatedloss of power. Reducing
conductorsize can result in (1) poor quality of power at the consumerend of the line (low voltage and
more pronounced voltage fluctuations) and (2) loss of power (due to resistive losses in the conductor). As
is discussedin Chapter IV, low voltage can result in poor service (e.g., decreasing the light output of
incandescentbulbs, making it difficult to ignite fluorescenttubes, or buming out electric motors). Loss of
power along the line means extra power must be generatedand paid for, if there is sufficient excess
generatingcapacity in the first place; otherwise, fewer consumerscould be served by that supply.
Assuming that the power supply is operating to specification,the size and type of conductorused for the
mini-grid and, to a lesser extent, the power factor are the sole factorsthat determine whether an
acceptablevoltage can be maintained. The purpose for this section is to show how to calculate the
required conductor size. But before this issue can be addressed,the following data is required:
*

The first requirement for ensuring properly sized conductoris to establish the expected load the
mini-grid is to serve. This is described in the section on demandassessment (p. 43) in Chapter
IV. The proper performance of this task is important. Underestimatingload will mean that the

Chapter VII. Conductor

70

200

numberrefers
to bothpole
and span

powerhouse

F2E]0-

200
servicedrop

600

400
consumer(withcoincident
peak load in watts)

Fig. 24. A portion of a village mini-gridfor which the maximum voltage drop is to be calculated.

grid is undersized,leading to problemsmentioned above. Overestimatingthe expected load will


unnecessarilyincrease the cost of the system. An estimate should also be made for the power
factor, ranging from 1.0 for only resistive loading like incandescentlighting to roughly 0.6 for
cases where the principal load is uncorrectedfluorescentlighting.
*

The secondrequirement is to have mappedthe conmmunity


to be served and, on the map, to have
laid out the distributionlines and indicated the locations and expectedpeak coincident demand of
all the envisionedloads, as explainedin Chapter V.

The third requirementis that the desired option for line configurationexplained in Chapter VI has
been identifiedor the options at least reduced.

To introduce the various ways of calculatingvoltage drop along a conductor, the case shown in Fig. 24
will be used. A 2-wiresingle-phase ACSR line is envisioned, with a 0.30 m spacing between conductors
and twelve 25-m spans. It is to be supplied by a 230-V, 50-Hz generator. A major use of the electricity
in this example is a mixture of incandescentand fluorescent lighting with an average power factor of 0.9.
The peak coincidentdemand, which occurs duringthe early evening hours, expected over the life of the
project, is indicated in watts in the figure. (Notethat the assumed values for loads are higher than might
be the case in a typical mini-grid. They were only selected for the purpose of illustrating the procedures
described.)
For this example, it is assumedthat the maximum
acceptable voltage drop is 6 %. A 13 mm2 aluminum
conductor has been tentatively selected and the first
task is to determine whether this conductor is suitable.
The basic equations that will be used are reviewed in
Appendix 6. The properties of available ACSR

conductors under the conditions spacing noted


previously are shown in Table 5.
Several approachesto determniningvoltage drop will
be illustrated, beginningwith what is usuallythe
roughest estimate but the easiest to make and ending

ChapterVII. Conductor

Table 5. Resistanceand reactance for


ACSR conductor.

Conductor
area

Resistance

Reactance*

(ohm/km)

(ohm/km)

13 mm2

2.26

0.32

1.41

0.32

21 rmm

34 m

0.87
0.31

* At 0.30 m conductor spacing served by 50 Hz.

71

with a more involvedprocedurerelying on the use of a spreadsheetand considerably more calculations,


although it lends itselfeasily to computerization. With two of these approaches, it is also possible to
estimate the power losses that will be incurred along the conductor.
Rough estimate of voltage drop
While considerabletime may be required to obtain a precise estimateof the voltage drop at the end of a
line, this first methodpermits a very good approximationwith little effort. Detailed calculations might
seem worth the effort,but it should be kept in mind that estimates of load used to calculate the voltage
drop are very approximatein the first place, regardless of the care with which this load estimates are
made. Performingunduly accurate calculations with estimated numbers is not worth the effort. If
carefullyapplied, both of the first two approaches describedhere should be sufficient to make a
sufficiently accuratedeterminationof the conductor size which would meet the conditions set for voltage
drop.
This first method assumes that the load is more or less evenly distributedalong the line. The more reality
diverges from this assumption,the less accurate will this method be. For this approach, the maximum
peak coincidentloads for all consumers are simply summed and this value used in Eqn. (12) in
Appendix 6. For the case illustratedin Fig. 24, the total load P = 5.8 kW. This equation leads to the
following:
%VD = ((2.26)(0.9)+ (0.32)(0.44))(5.8) (0730)'
(230)2 (0.9)

9%

Because this is too high, the next larger conductor size (21 mm2 ) must be tried:

%VD = ((1.41) (0.9) + (0.32) (0.44)) (

)(

) 105

(230)2(0.9)

2%

This maximum voltagedrop of 5.2 % is acceptable.


The dependenceof power loss on actual currentin each span varies as the square of that current. If the
load seems more or less uniformlydistributed along the line, Eqn. 13 can be used of give a rough estimate
of power loss in the line:

PI =-2(0.30)(1.41)(
l3

103

((230)(0.9)

=0.22kW

A more accurate estimate


This second methodcan be used whether or not the distributionof customer load along a line is uniform.
In this case,rather than simply summingthe loads along the line, the product of the power taken off at
each point along the line and the distance from the beginningof the distribution line to that point must be
summed. This is done in the Table 6. Once this total has been obtained,it is substitutedin Eqn. (15) to
derive the voltage drop:
%VD=2((1.41)(0.9)+

(0.32)(0.44))

(0.2)

(230)2(0.9)

10 =5.4%

This voltage drop remainswithin the acceptablerange.


Chapter VII. Conductor

72

Table 6. A good estimatecan be obtained


by derivingthe weightedloadingof the

This approach assumes that the voltage drop along this


distributionline is small and that each consumer
actually received close to the supply voltage. In reality,
the voltage decreases slightly as one proceeds away
from the power supply. Slight changes in consumer
voltage in turn imply slightly increased or decreased
current demand by each consumer, depending on the
nature of the end-use, and this modified current would
mean increased or decreased voltage drop due to these
current changes. However, with a properly designed
system with limited voltage drop, the error introduced is
negligible for purposes of line design.

distribution line.
Node Pn(kW)
12
0.60
11
0.20
10
0.60
9
0.40
8
0.60
7
0.60
6
0.20
5
0.80
4
0.00
3
0.40
2
1.00
1
0.40

While this approach will calculate the voltage drop for a


given conductor size, it is also possible to derive an
equation to calculate the (aluminum) conductor size for
a given voltage drop:

A= -Q

Q 2 +39000 COS

Ln(km)

Pn x L,

0.300
0.275
0.250
0.225
0.200
0.175
0.150
0.125
0.000
0.075
0.050
0.025

0 180
0.055
0.150
0.090
0.120
0.105
0.030
0.100
0.000
0.030
0.050
0.010

Total:

0.92 kW-km

rn2

sin +

where
Q

%VD E2 cos4

-242

300 P(kW) L(lan) sin +

If copper conductor were used, the required area would be A as calculated above dividedby 1.6.
While the precise conductor size depends on conductor reactance that in turn depends on the frequencyof
the supply and equivalentseparation of the conductors, the above equation represents an estimate with an
assumed frequency of 55 Hz and equivalentseparation of 0.30 m. Errors introduced for sizing mini-grids
are minimal. Applying this equation to the previous case gives a minimum conductorsize of 18 mm2 ,
verifying once more that 2 1-mM2 conductor is the proper size to use.
Unlike the initial approach which assumed a uniform distributionof loading along the line, there is not an
easy way of estimatingmore accurately the power loss using the above approach. Use of a spreadsheet as
is described below would have to be used for this purpose.

Spreadsheet estimate
This approach is an alternative to that just covered and gives the same results for voltage drop. It also
permits the calculation of the power loss along a line. It relies on dividing up the entire line into separate
spans and calculating the line current, voltage drop, and power loss in each span.t For a single-phase line,
Theseequationsare obtainedby usingEqn.(10) in Appendix6, substitutingEqn. (1)for r, substitutinga linear
approximnation
forx atf = 55 Hz as x = 0.363-0.00075A
(see Fig. 137)and solvingthe resultingquadraticequation
forA.
t If the causalrelationshipbetweenvoltageand the currentdemandof each consumeris known,thiscan alsobe
included in this model. However, one should not blindly use Eqn. (4) for this purpose. A decrease in the

Chapter VII. Conductor

73

Eqns. (4), (9), and (11) in Appendix 6 would be used, respectively. (For other configurations, the
equations in Table 8 would be used.) Then the total voltage drop and loss would be obtained by summing
the individual drops and losses. While basically a simple technique, it requires the use of a spreadsheet
either completed manually or, preferably, by computer. However, while reliance on a computer can
greatly facilitate determination of the voltage drop and power loss at any point in the system under a
number of different scenarios, extreme care must be taken to ensure that all embedded equations in the
spreadsheet are correct. Results obtained by the computer should always be checked against the estimates
obtained using the very simple methods noted above, as there should always be close agreement if all
equations have been properly applied.
The contents of each column included in the spreadsheet in Table 7 are explained below:
*

Column (1): The number of each span, starting with the remotest pole, in this case span #12 that
ends on pole #12. Spans are numbered consecutively outward from the supply, but with the
furthest pole listed first.

Column (2): The power taken off by spurs (i.e., service connections) originating from the pole at
the end of that span.

Column (3): The total load served by that span. This is the sum of the total load served by the
spur(s) shown in the previous column plus the total load served by the next span(s) in the outward
direction (the value found in the position located immediately above it, or "O" in the case of the
first row).

Column (4): The voltage at the end of that span. As an approximation, this is always set to the
generation voltage.

Colurn (5): The current flowing in that span equals the current in the next span(s) in the outward
direction (found in the previous row) plus the current needed to serve the load in the spurs at the
end of that span as calculated using Eqn. (4) in Appendix 6.

Column (6): The length of that span.

Column (7): The voltage drop in that span, calculated using the first part of Eqn. (9) in
Appendix 6. The values inserted into that equation are those found in the same row, columns (5)
and (6), along with the average power factor for the loads on that line and the values of r and x for
the conductor being used along that span (which are shown at the end of Table 7).

Colurnn (8): The power loss in that span, calculated using the first part of Eqn. (1 1) in
Appendix 6. The values inserted into that equation are the same as those used in column (7),
except for reactance that does not affect power loss.

consumervoltage (due to voltage drop in the line from the supply) can cause eitheran increased or decreased
demand for current,depending on the nature of the end-use. For example, at a lowervoltage, a light bulb would
draw less current while a motor might draw more current. Furthermore, the size and direction of the current change
may not be as straightforwardto calculate as may first appear. If the voltage suppliedto a light bulb decreases
1O%, Eqn. (4) impliesthe current would increase 1O%. However, in real life, because a bulb is considereda
resistive load, the current demand would be proportional to the voltage, e.g., a 10 O/ lowervoltage would imply a
current decrease of 10%. To complicatematters further, at a lower voltage,the filamenttemperature is lower and
its resistanceincreases, further decreasingthe current. As a bottom line, no general approach exists that can be used
to calculate actual current drawn by the consumer based on the nominal power drawnby the consumer.
Fortunately,all these variation in current with changes in voltage are minimal,and assuming a constant
voltage in the analysisdoes not introducesignificant errors in conclusionsdrawnwhen sizing mini-grids.
Chapter VII. Conductor

74

Table7. This spreadsheet


layoutis anotherapproachfor calculatingvoltagedrop
and powerlossalonga lengthof distributionline. The spanis identifiedby the
same numberas the poleat the endof that span.
(1)
Pole(or
span)no.

(2)
(3)
Demand(kW)
Spurs
Main

(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Voltage Current Length Voltdrop Powerloss
(V)
(A)
(km)
(V)
(kW)

12
11

0.600
0.200

0.600
0.800

230
230

2.9
3.9

0.025
0.025

0.2
0.3

0.001
0.001

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

0.600
0.400
0.600
0.600
0.200
0.800
0.000
0.400
1.000
0.400

1.400
1.800
2.400
3.000
3.200
4.000
4.000
4.400
5.400
5.800

230
230
230
230
230
230
230
230
230
230

6.8
8.7
11.6
14.5
15.5
19.3
19.3
21.3
26.1
28.0

0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025

0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.8
2.0

0.003
0.005
0.009
0.015
0.017
0.026
0.026
0.032
0.048
0.055

TOTALS:

5.80

28.0

0.300

12.5

0.239

Assumptions:
Powerfactor=

Resistance
=
Reactance

0.9
1.41ohm/km
0.32ohm/km

Each row is completed down to the first span. This is very quickly done using a computerized
spreadsheet after the equations have been inputted. This spreadsheet indicates a voltage drop along the
entire line of 12.5 V or 5.4 %, confirmingthe results of the previous approaches. The power loss during
times of peak demand is more preciselycalculated to be 240 W, confirming that the estimate made earlier
was fairly close.

Effect of conductorsizeonpowerloss
While limiting the voltage drop is importantin order for electrical appliances to operate as they are
intended to, power losses can be importantbecause they represent lost revenues to the system owner. In
the example above, energy loss at peak times is about 250 W. If the system operates for only four hours
each night and the load remains constant,this will, for example, consume 1.0 kWh nightly or about
360 kWh annually. If the system is supplied by a small diesel genset, this will mean that about 180 liters
of fuel costing perhaps $50 is wasted annually.
If one is trying to minimize cost, the question that must next be asked is whether spendingmore for a
large conductor with fewer losses generates savings that are more than the cost of the larger conductor
required to achieve this. For example,what would be the effect of selecting the next larger conductor size
(34 mm2 )?
Placing the new values for resistance and reactance for this new conductor into the spreadsheet in Table 7
will show a power loss of 150 W and a reduction in the voltage drop to 4 %. Supplyingthis power loss
would require about 220 kWh, a reduction of about 100 W or 140 kWh annually. This would cost about
ChapterVII. Conductor

75

Table 8. Equationsfor maximum percentvoltage drop (%VD) and total power loss (PI) along a
conductorfor different line configurationsand load distributions.

Line
Configuration

Balanced load of P
concentratedat the
end of the line
%VD
P,(kW)

Balanced load of P
uniformly distributed

Voltagedrop factorfor
a 50 % unbalanced

along the line


%VD
P,(kW)

load that totals P

Single-phase

Y/2

Z/3

Y/4

Z/4

Y/8

Z/12

1.8

Three-wire, delta

Y12

Z/2

Y14

Z/6

1.1

Four-wire,wye

Y16

Z/6

Y/12

Z/18

1.5

Two-wire

Three-wire
Three-phase

$30, resulting in an annual savingsof $20 from the previous scenario. However, increasingconductor
size would increasethe cost of that 300 m of conductor by perhaps $40. Therefore,if the plant operates
for more than two years underthe assumed conditions, it would be cheaper to use the larger conductor.
In this case, using the larger conductor would not only be cheaper over a couple of years. It would also
permit an increasein the size of the load in the future while still maintaining the voltage drop within
acceptable limits (althoughwith somewhat increased losses).
Generalized equations
The equations used in the previous example are for a 2-wire, single-phaseline. But as was mentioned in
ChapterVI, several other configurationsare possible and phases will likely not be balanced. The
approachesfor calculatingvoltage drop and power loss above can be applied in the same fashion to the
other common configurationsbut with the slight modifications to the govemingequationas shown in
Table 8.

To use Table 8, the variables Yand Z must first be calculated as follows:

Y=2(rcos>+xsin

E2 cost

.105

and

Z=2rLi
Z=

) .13o

ErcosJ

where
P

= total loading on line (kW), either located entirely at end or unifornly distributedalong line

= length of the line (km)

r, x = resistance and reactance (ohm/kn, see paragraphs beginning on p. 223)

ChapterVII. Conductor

76

nominal consumer voltage, i.e., 120 or 230 V


(for single-phase, three-wire:phase-neutralvoltage)
(for delta configuration: phase-phasevoltage)
(for wye configuration: phase-neutralvoltage)

The percentage voltage drop and power loss in the first four column of data in Table 8 are for a balanced
3-wire, single-phase configuration and for balancedthree-phase configurations. As an example of how
voltage drop changes if loads are not balanced, the last column in Table 8 includes factors that must
multiply the voltage drops for balanced loads (the first or third column of data) to obtain the maximum
voltage drop for a 50 % unbalance in loading (for the meaning of a 50 % unbalance, see the footnote on
p. 57).'
Using these equations, Box 5 provides a graphicalsolution for conductor size under the conditionsnoted.

Stringing and sagging the conductor


After the most appropriate type and size of conductor,pole, and poletop hardware have been selected for
a specific application and the poles, poletop hardware,and any necessary guys have been properly
installed, the conductor must be
strung. This involves placing the
conductor in position, tensioning the
H
H
conductor so that the tension does not
s
exceed a certain percentage of its
ultimate strength, and then fixing the
WC
conductor at each pole. Tensioning
the conductor is referred to a "sagging"
because tension and sag are directly
L
related to each other; the proper
horizontal tension "H" is generally
Fig. 25. Basic terms associated with sagging a
determined by measuring sag "S"
:conductor.
(Fig. 25).
Before any work on stringing and sagging the conductor can commence, the appropriate sag tables must
be obtained. For the more conventionaltypes of conductor (ACSR, multiplex or ABC, etc.), the
conductormanufacturer should be able to provide these. Examples are found in Appendix 8. If other
conductor is used, it is necessary to establish the maximum tension that should not be exceeded and to
calculate the sag associated with that tension (see next section). For example, in the U.S., the NESC
limits the tension on ACSR conductor to 35 % of ultimate strength at 16 C when it is initially strung and
carrying no ice or wind loading.
Placing the conductor in place can be fairly straightforwardwith small conductor. However, as larger and
heavier conductor is used, more care must be exercised. This section deals primarily with such
conductor, although some points are common for all conductors.

Trying to balance loads along a distribution line means that, as one proceeds along that line, loads are connected to
each phase conductor in such a way that the currents in these conductorsat each point along the line are as close to
equal as possible. This leads to negligible current in the neutral conductor (in cases when there is such a conductor,
see Fig. 14b and 14c) and mninimizesvoltage drop along the line.

Chapter VII. Conductor

77

Box 5. Estimating conductorsize.

In the initial planning process, it is often necessaryto obtain an initial estimate of conductorsize for a
specific project. The graphs below provide a quick way for using equationsfound in Table 8 to
determinethe conductor size required to keep the maximum voltage drop to within a desired range.
To estimate conductor size for a stretch of distribution line operating at a nominal consumer voltage of

230 V (see p. 76 for definition)with loads balancedalong the line, a conductor equivalentspacing
of 0.30 m, and a frequency of 50 Hz , either of the following three numbers will be required, depending

on the actual situation:


4. If the load is concentrated at the end of the line, multiplythe peak load (kW) by the length of the
line (kim)to get the kW-km loading,k'.
5. If the load is relatively evenly distributedover the entire length of the line, sum all the peak
coincident loads (kW) and multiplythis by half the length of line to get the kW-km loading,k'.
6. If the load is unevenly spread, sum the productsof each load (kW) and its distance (km) from the
beginning of the line to get the kW-kmloading,k'.
To determnineconductor size for a single-phase,two-wiresystem under the conditionsmentionedabove,
look up the value k = k' on the appropriategraph(determinedby the average power factor of the loads
served),move vertically until the desiredvoltage drop is reached, and then move horizontally left (for aluminum conductor) or right (for copper conductor)to determine the value.
For perfectly balanced systems:
For a single-phase, three-wire system,use the value k = k'/4 and followthe steps noted in the
previous paragraph. For a three-phase,delta system, use the valuek = k'/2 and follow the same
steps. For a three-phase,wye system, use the value k = k'/6 and followthe same steps.
For systemswith a 50 % load unbalance:
For a single-phase, three-wire system,use the value k = k'/2.3 and follow the steps noted in the
previous paragraph. For a three-phase,delta system, use the valuek =k '1.8 and followthe same
steps. For a three-phase,wye system, use the value k = k'/4 and followthe same steps.
In preparing the graphs below, a distributionvoltageof 230 V was assumed. To determineconductorsize
for anotheroperating voltage, first determinethe value of k as describedabove. Take this value of k and
multiply it by (230/E)2, where E is the nominal voltagebeing used by a single-phaseconsumer(defined
on p. 76). Use this modifiedvalue of k and proceedto use the appropriategraph to determinenecessary
conductor size. Note that, for a given conductor,if the distributionvoltage were reduced by half to
115 V, the load that could be served by this same line would be reducedto one quarter of the originalload
served at 230 V.
In preparing the graphs below, an equivalentspacingof distributionconductorsof 0.30 and a frequencyof
50 Hz were assumed. If either of these parametersare different for a specific situation, the impedanceof
the line x changes somewhat,but this will generallychange the graphsonly slightly. If a more precise
value is desired, the equations in Table 8 can be used. The resistanceand reactance for a specific
conductor can be obtainedfor the graphs and equationsfound in Appendix 6 (beginning with p. 223).

ChapterVII. Conductor

78

| ~~~~~~~Power
factor=1.|

?
100.

63

80

50E

60

<

3
10 %~~~~~~~~.

04

20

13=

0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0
k (kW km)i

4.0

5.0

4.0

5.0 3

{Po~~~~~~~~~wer
factor=0.

80 -.

3.

2%

L.25

L.40

0
0

.0

E60 0.0
-

1.0

2.0

3.0

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Chapter VII. Conductor

79

In planning for the stringing and sagging of larger conductor,it is necessarythat saggingbe done within
several hours of pulling the conductor. This is because the conductorwill begin creeping as soon as it is
off the ground and the required sag will start to change. Creepingis the elongation of conductorunder
tension. As tension is applied to the conductor,it stretchesand will continueto stretch until a balance
between tension and the materials strength is reached. This processmay take several years. With new
conductor,if sagging is not completed within the reconimendedtime period, it becomes impossibleto
accurately calculate the sag from sag charts, which only indicate"initial" sag and "final" sag. For
example, it can be seen from Appendix 8 that, while the proper sag for a 70-m span of #2 ACSRtriplex at
25 C is 0.53 meters for new conductor, it increasesto 0.75 m after creepinghas completed. If there is
too much time between pulling the conductor and tensioningor saggingthis conductor,the required sag
will be at some unknown value somewherebetween these two sag values.
Sag
The sag in a conductor is determined by the weight and tensionof the conductor and its span. The
relation between these three parameters for a given conductoris illustratedin Fig. 26. If one assumes that
under a given tension, a conductor with a span of "L" has a sag of "S" (Fig. 26a), then keepingthe same
sag (and therefore ground clearance) while increasing the span will require placing the conductorunder
increased tension (Fig. 26b). If the tension then exceedsthe allowablevalue, it can be decreasedfor this
increased span by increasing the sag (Fig. 26c). If this reduces clearanceto too low a value and the longer
span is necessary, then a longer pole would be required.
For a given conductor type and size, the sag depends on the span accordingto the followingrelationship:

2H

(a)

2H

(b)

same sag
doubling span

same span
doubling tension

4H

(c)

I-

4H

2L

Fig. 26. For the same span, the sag is inversely proportionalto the tension, see
(a) and (b). To maintain the same sag, the tension in a conductor is proportional
to the square of the span, see (a) and (c).

ChapterVII. Conductor

80

8.0H
where
S=
w,C
=
L, =
H=

sag (m)
weight of the conductorper unit length (kg/m or N/m)
span (m)
horizontalforce at pole (either kg or N but must be the same as used in weight of conductor
above). This is approximatelyequalto the tension in the conductor.

Handlingand inspecting
theconductor
Whenreceiving conductorto be used on a project, the reel and any protectivecovering on the conductor
shouldbe inspected for damage. A broken reel or damagedcovering may indicate improper handling and
possibledamage to the conductor. When handling larger reels manually,they should be kept in an
uprightposition and rolled. If necessary, ramps should be used to facilitate loading and unloading.
Duringwarehousingand transport,reels should be kept in an uprightposition at all times; otherwise, the
lays of the conductor may overlap,causing possible damageto the conductoror delays in the stringing
process.

Preparationforstringing
Priorto stringing the conductor,the route of the line should
be inspected to ensure all is ready for the pull. The right of
way should be inspected forobstacles that may damagethe
conductoror complicatethe stringing. If any obstacles
cannotbe removed, riggingmay be required to ensurethat
the conductor is not damagedduring the pulling process.
For larger conductorthat is heavier and bulkier and involves
handling greater forcesin the stringingand saggingprocess,
pulleysshould be temporarilyinstalled on each pole and
inspected to ensure that surfacesare smooth and roll freely.The reel should be properlylocated with a stable base and
positionedon the reel stand so that the conductorwill unwind
from the bottom. A leaderline (rope) several dozen meters
long is attached to the beginningof the conductor,usuallyby
means of a wire mesh grip(Fig. 27), and threaded throughthe
firstpulley. This providesadded safety to the pullingteam,
facilitatesthreading the conductorthrough the pulleys, and
helpsprotect the conductorduringthe installationprocess.
All guys should be installedand checked and poles inspected
for properpositioning beforepulling the conductor.

Fig. 27. Theseflexiblegripsare


comprised
of a tubularsteelmesh
that is fit over the end of the cable.
Undertension,the meshtightenson
the cable, increasingits gripas tensionis increased.But it is easily
removedoncethe tensionis relieved.

Pullingthe conductor
The conductor should not be payed out (removed)from a reel or coil that is not free to rotate; otherwise,
eachturn removed will leave one completetwist in the conductorthat could eventuallycause kinks. In all

ChapterVII. Conductor

81

cases, the reel shouldbe mounted so that it is free to rotate. But it should not be allowed to spin freely,
because this can cause the conductor to tangle on the reel, possibly damagingthe conductor and delaying
the process. It is also important to make sure the insulation is not damagedby dragging the multiplex
over the ground or sharp objects, to avoid having vehicles cross or animals walk over the conductor,and
to avoid kinks while paying out the conductor.
A couple of approaches for paying out the conductor from a reel are possible:
* The conductorcan be paid out along the ground from a rotating reel that is moved down along the
line, carried either by a vehicle or by a group a individuals, dependingon access to the
distributionline and the weight of the reel. Alternatively,the reel can be placed in the most
accessible point nearest the section being constructedand the conductorpulled along the line. To
avoid any damage to the insulator or conductor by dragging it across the countryside, villagers
can hold on to the conductor at appropriate intervals, each carrying his or her section until it can
be place under its final resting place along the line. The conductorwould then be carefullyraised
onto the insulators for final tensioning.
*

With conventionaldistributionlines, pulleys are hung from the locationon each pole where the
conductor is to be mounted. A rope would then be passed through the pulleys and the end tied to
the conductoron a fixed but rotating reel locatedat the end of the sectionbeing worked on. This
rope would then be pulled over consecutive pulleys toward the beginningof the section,pulling
the conductoralong with it.

Once the conductor has been pulled, it should be deadendedat one end so that sagging can begin with
minimum delay. To minimize delay, the specific spanto be sagged within the entire sectionbeing pulled
should have been selectedbefore pulling the conductor and measuringthe temperature. In this way, the
sag is known and work on getting the proper sag can proceed inmmediately.
To facilitate temporarilyholding the conductor along its length, any of a variety of grips can be used.
These hold the conductorwhile tension is
applied,but they are easily removed once the
tension is released (Figs. 28 and 29).
Before the conductoris tensioned, any pole that
would be subjected to an unbalanced force must
be suitablyguyed to counteractthe tension in the
conductorthat may cause the pole to otherwise
bend over and break. This may be accomplished

Fig. 28. Grips of a wide variety of designs


are used to temporarilyhold a conductor.

ChapterVII. Conductor

A-"k

Fig. 29. A grip is being used to tension a


conductor passingthrougha pulley in a system in
rural Nepal.

82

deadend

pulley
.pulley

;
l

7itiming
i_9rope

cable reel

span being sagged

Fig. 30. Once a section of line has been pulled over pulley, properly sagging one span properly
sags the entire section. Timed saggingis one methodfor sagging longer spans. In stringing the
conductor in this case, the rightmostpole should be temporarily guyed toward the right because
the conductor under tension tends to force that pole to the left.
by placing permanent guy wires and anchors in cases where this unbalanced force remains after the line
has been fully strung. In cases where unbalanced conductor forces on a pole will disappear once the
entire length of the line has been completed, a temporary guy wire firmly fixed to the bottom of a trees, a
fence post, etc., can be used.

Sagging the conductor


The correct tensioning or sagging of the conductor is one of the most important phases of distribution line
construction, especially for larger conductorsizes, and effects its reliability and longevity. If a conductor
is sagged too tightly, it will cause the structure and conductorto fatigue. If all the conductorsalong a
span do not have the same sag, the wind can cause them to slap together, causing outages and damage to
the conductors. If it is sagged too loosely, it can become a hazard to the public because of the reduced
clearance.
To determine the proper sag for a given span, it will be necessaryto measure both the span and the
temperature of the conductor at the time of sagging. To measure the temperature of the conductor, a
thermometer should be placed directly against a piece of the conductorraised to poletop level. It should
not be placed in direct sunlight as this will give a false reading. The temperature should be noted after the
readings no longer change significantly.
As can be seen by referring to typical sag tables in Appendix 8, the temperature is important. Sag can
change considerably with changes in temperaturebecause the conductor expands and contracts as the
temperature increase or decreases. For example, at an early moming temperature of 16 C, a 70-m span
of #2 ACSR triplex should have a sag of 0.48 m. But should conductortemperature rise to 32 C in the
middle of the day, this sag will increase about 20 % to 0.58 m. Close attention must be paid to the
conductor temperature at the time of sagging.
For a given span and temperature, referenceto saggingtables such as the ones in Appendix 8 will give the
required sag under these conditions. The initial sag chart should only be used with new conductor that
has never crept. (The final sag chart is to be used on conductorthat has been removed from other lines
and reinstalled. This chart is also used to check sag on existingline.)
After one span of a section of conductorhas been sagged, it is not necessary to sag every span. Assume
that the conductor has been pulled over freely rotating pulleys. Then, if the conductor is one span is

ChapterVII. Conductor

83

properly tensioned (as determinedby its sag), the tensionwill be the same in every span in that section
(Fig. 30). (Note that if the pulleysare freely rotating,the tensionof the conductor in each span will be
the same, but the sag will be differentif the spans are of differentlengths.)
As noted above, properlytensioningthe conductoris necessary. Tensioningthe conductor is more easily
done indirectly by measuringthe conductor's sag "S" in meters rather than directly measuring its tension
"T". The two methods for doingthis are the (1) sightingmethod and (2) the timing method.
Sightingmethod
This directmethod of saggingis the easiest,
especiallyfor multiplexand short spans. It
requires nailing a lath or smallboard horizontally
Ls sag
to the pole at either end of the spanbeing sagged.
These are nailed below the finalresting place of
lineofsight
the conductor (on insulators)at a distance equal to
lath
lath
the required sag for that conductor,span, and
temperature. Someoneon the pole sights from one
m
lath to the next and the tensionof the conductoris
Fig. 31. Usingtwowoodenstrips(laths)to
adjusted so that the lowest point along the
sight low point of span.
conductorcoincides to the person's line of sight
(Fig. 31). This is usuallymore easily accomplishedif the person sighting the sag is back one span and is
not on the same pole as the lath.
Timing method
If a conductor is struckat one endof a span, a wave is initiated and travels down the span, bounces off the
far supportand retums back to the beginning. The time that this takes depends only on the sag in the
conductorand not on other variables,such as span length, conductortype or size, and temperature. This
fact can therefore be used to indirectlymeasure the sag of a conductor.
Assume that the sectionshown in Fig. 30 is to be sagged. For this purpose, a light rope is thrown over the
conductor,a meter or so from the end of the span. If a section of several spans are being sagged, a middle
span shouldbe sagged. A waveis createdby brisklyjerking once on the rope, at the same time that the
stopwatchis started. Each returnwaves can be felt as it passes the lightly held rope and is reflected back
for its next trip down the span. This continuesuntil the wave dampsout sufficientlyso that it can no
longer be felt. The time for 3, 5, or 10 return waves is measured. The larger the number of retums that
are clearly discemible, the betterthe accuracy. With longer conductors,the wave may dissipate more
quickly, in which casea fewer number of returns mightbe timed.
From the recorded time for the wave to complete a given number of return trips, the existing sag can then
be calculated:
S=0. 31jIiN)
where
t = time for N return waves(s)
N= number of return waves
A graphical solution to this equationis found in Fig. 32.
ChapterVII. Conductor

84

For the above equation to be correct, the


conductor must be still, not be touching any

object such as a branch, and have no joints along

the span. In selecting a span to sag, the deadend

4
6

l/

thesedampenthewave.
To calculate the required time for a properly
sagged line, the actual measurement of the span
to be sagged and the temperature of the conductor
are applied to the sag charts such as those in

zii

2E

4,

Xn

10

___|_

1/

Appendix 8. Then, from Fig. 32, the sag is

converted to the time required for a certain


number of return waves. The rope installed near

0
0

12

16

20

24

the end of the span to be sagged is jerked to


Totaltimefor returnof waves(s)
induce a wave and the time for that number of
Fig. 32. Chartfor calculatingsagfromtiming
return waves is measured several timesto ensure
measurements.The numbernextto each
a reproducibleresult. If the time is too short or
curverepresentsthe numberof returnwaves
too long, the tension in the conductor must be
includedin the totaltime measurement.
reduced or increased, respectively. This process
is repeated until the correct time (and therefore sag) is achieved.
Once all the conductors along one sectionof the distribution have all been sagged, the section can be
deadended and the conductor secured to each insulator on the intermediate poles.

Chapter VII. Conductor

85

Vill. Poles
If the distribution line and servicedrops are not placed underground(see p. 68), they must be supported
sufficiently high off the ground to keep them out of the way of vehiculartraffic and out of reach of
pedestrians. This is necessaryboth to maintainthe integrityof the line as well as to preventthe risk of
shock to individuals who might otherwiseaccidentallycome into contact with the conductors. These are
the principal reasons for using poles and are the main factors determiningtheir length.
In satisfying this purpose, it is necessarythat these poles be strong enough to resist forces-such as those
due to wind or the tension in the conductor-that would tend to bring them down, againaffecting the
integrity of the line and presentinga safetyrisk to villagers. Someof these forces, such as those
associated with the tension in the conductorsat a bend in the line, are permanent forces and are
counterbalanced through the use of guys. The design and installationof guys is describedin ChapterX.
Other forces, primarily those arising fromwind acting on the pole itself and on the conductorssupported
by the poles, change in direction and magnitudeand are typicallyresisted by the strength of the pole
itself.
To minimize project costs and safetyhazards,poles must alsobe durable. While qualitypoles are likely
to be costlier, their use will reduce the necessityof purchasing additionalreplacementpoles and of
reinstalling these and transferring the line from the old to the new poles. In short, more durable poles that
will reduce life-cycle costs shouldbe selected. Anotherreality to face is that, while considerableeffort
will be placed by the communityin constructinga new mini-gridproject, there will usuallybe less
commitment to regular upkeep; the attitudewill be that, unless it is really broken, there is no need to fix
it. Meanwhile, safety may be compromisedas poles degrade.
Poles of wood, concrete, and steelare commonlyused to supportthe conductors, although other structures
such as trees or supports constructedof angleiron and bars are occasionallyused.
This chapter will cover the followingtopics:
*

Types and attributes of poles commonlyused to supportdistributionlines

A review of clearance requirements,as this determinesthe required length of these poles


A review of the forces that these structuresshould resist, as this determinesthe required strength
of these poles

Methods for setting poles

Pole options
Poles are made from a variety of materials,with the most frequentlyused being of wood, concrete, and
steel. None of these has a clear advantagein all situations;rather, the selection process should include the
consideration of several criteria under site-specificconditions. These include availability,cost, weight
and ease of handling, strength, and durability. Note also that in a single project, it mightbe advisable to
use several types of poles. At the end of a span that has to be raised to provide sufficient access to
vehicular traffic or that has to extend across a wide river or ravine, taller and stronger poles of concrete or
steel construction mightbe more suitable. On the other hand, poles to support shorter servicedrops might
be shorter wood or bamboo poles. At other places, if suitable live trees are found, these can be used.

ChapterVIII. Poles

86

Beforeproceeding with a review of pole options, one word of caution about poles in general should be
noted. Because they can be the most expensive component of a distribution system, there is an incentive
to minimize project costs by selecting the least expensive pole option. However, a less costly pole
usuallyimplies reduced strength and/or quality. This has several implications:
*

Weaker, poorer quality poles and the conductorsthey support are more likely to fall under stress,
resulting in a greater safety hazard to the population.

Shorter life implies the need for additionalinvestments when poles later will need to be replaced.
In addition to the cost of new replacementpoles, the community will incur the additional cost of
removing the old poles, resetting the new ones, and reconnecting the conductors, guys, etc., all of
which contribute to additional cost and hassle. It is also likely that the manpower and expertise
will no longer be on-site when poles need to be replaced.

Wood
Woodpoles are widely used for electrificationworldwide because they exhibit a variety of advantages:
*

These are lighter than the equivalentconcrete pole, the common altemative, and easier to handle
in the field.

Wood poles are not as susceptible to breakage during transport and handling.

Wood poles can usually be field-drilled,permitting greater flexibility in the placement of


mounting bolts and facilitating later modification.

Wood poles are not adversely affected by airborne salt in coastal zones that can cause corrosion
of the reinforcing steel in concrete poles.

Local plantationspermit self-sufficiencyin the production of one of the costliest components of


an RE program, creating employment,reducing the need for foreign exchange, and lowering the
cost of RE.

Larger, conventionalwooden poles are easier to climb directly (with gaffs, sharp metal spurs
affixed to the inside edge of a boot).

Properly managed, wood is a renewable resource, requiring much less energy in the manufacture
of poles and contributingno net carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases, unlike those
associated with the production of cementor steel for poles.

Numerous environmentalbenefits are associated with increasing forest cover for pole production
in marginal areas-reduced erosion of land and sedimentationthat leads to the destruction of
riverine habitats, improved ground water quality and quantity, more abundant and diverse
wildlife, and opportunities for increased employment opportunities from processing a range of
forest products. Forests also serves as a sink for carbon dioxide, a gas increasinglyrecognized as
contributingto global warming and its adverse implications.

In a number of countries, rural householdshave little disposable income and the problem facing
an RE program is the inability of these households to cover the cost of connection as well as the
cost of energy. Growing trees for poles may be one option requiring few financial and labor
inputs that can reduce the cost of electrification. Although growing suitable trees requires
perhaps a dozen years, it can eventuallyprovide a regular income to rural households that, in part,
can be used to cover the cost of their electric service.

Chapter VIII. Poles

87

Offsetting these advantagesis the fact that untreated wood poles are susceptible to decay and insect
damage. Tree species that are decay and insect resistant do exist but are not common. Local inhabitants
should be able to identify resistant local species, but it needs to be verified whether this apparent
resistance is for wood under ground-contact conditions and exposed to the weather. The inspectionof
fence posts or building timbers of the allegedly resistant species should be able to verify this.
In Bolivia, for example, a tropical species called cuchi (Austronium Urundera)is stripped of its sapwood
and widely used for posts, poles, and building timbers. The heartwood of this species is extremely
resistant to decay and insect attack but is, unfortunately,crooked. Some old-timers see this as an
advantage and call them "balcony poles"because they can be located beneath a balcony since the crook
will still place the conductors at a safe distance from the front of the balcony. A certain speciesof palms
with a very hard outer shell has also beenused as poles on the Altiplano.
The altemative to findingresistant trees is to chemically treat wood poles. This is discussed below.
In countries where the electric utility uses wood poles, criteria have usually been developed to provide
guidance as to what specific characteristicsto look for when selecting suitable poles. Generally, poles
with the followingcharacteristics are preferred:
*

straightpoles with little twist or spiral grain

* poles without large and/or numerousknots, as these weaken the pole


*

adequatewood density as indicatedby tree ring count (The width of the tree rings is an indication
of the rate of growth of the tree, with wider spacing indicative of lower strength. In the U.S., with
pine which is treated, rings spacingin the outer growth which average greater than about 4 mm
indicates wood which has grown too quickly.)

In addition to the above, it is clear that poles should have sufficient girth to give them the required
strength. This is further explained later in this chapter (p. 98).
Wood pole production

An obstacle facing the widespread use of wood poles is that, in a growing number of countries,forests are
disappearing or do not have suitable trees. It is possible to plant trees specifically for pole production,but
adequate lead-time is required until newly planted trees can be harvested for this purpose. Tropical pines
can produce a 9-m pole in about 15 years but have limited strength. Faster growing soft wood species
exist but these tend to be weaker. More commonly found hardwood species such as eucalyptus,are
another option,but these do not get very good preservative penetration and retention. However,because
wood poles will continueto be in demandfor expanding rural electrification as well as for replacing
existing damagedpoles, the need for poles will continue decades into the future, well after any tree
plantation starts yielding trees of adequatedimensions.
On the national level, the advantages of wood poles and their production should be sufficientincentive for
a national commitmentto the creation of local tree plantations, possibly in collaboration with other government departments, non-govemmentalorganizations, or private entrepreneurs.

An exampleof pole specificationsare thoseutilized by the rural cooperatives in the United States. These canbe

foundin the section"Electricprogramregulationsandbulletins"locatedon the Webat


<http://www.usda.gov/rus/regs.shtml>.
Thisis the document"Specificationfor WoodPoles,StubsandAnchor
Logs" referred to as Bulletin 1728F-700(formerlyBulletin 50-24).
Chapter VIII. Poles

88

For example, in the Philippines, the National ElectrificationAdministration(NEA) recognized the


numerous advantages of using wood poles in rural areas. It also realized the dwindling source of forest
resources in its own country and the high cost in importingpoles from overseas. Consequently, the
Power Use Development Division of the CooperativeServicesDepartment of the NEA initiated a treeplanting program in 1993. Nearly half of the 119 rural electric cooperatives in the country are now
involved in this program.
These rural electric cooperatives raise seedlings that they donate to their consumers (either individualsor
users groups) or sell under contract to large landowners.A condition for membership in some cooperatives is planting a couple of trees on the member's own land. The largest single area under cultivation
presently is 400 ha. Upon maturity, the co-op agrees to purchase these trees for their eventual chemical
treatment and use as wood poles.
Specifically for the Philippines, the NEA recommendsplanting Gmelina Arborea, Eucalyptus Deglupta,
and Acacia Mangium which all can adapt to the varied climaticregimes in the country.6 It is expected
that a 35-foot (10.5 m) pole with a diameter of 8 inches(0.20 m) would be available after about 8 years
following the planting of the seedling. The planting density is at least 500 trees per hectare. It is
expected that the co-op will save roughly 50 % over the current price of imported poles. At an estimated
development cost of roughly $1,000 per hectare, NEA projectsa 50-fold return on investment after 10
years.
Wood pole treatment
One of the most characteristic features of wood speciesused for poles is the presence of two distinctly
different types of wood within each stem: sapwoodand heartwood. Sapwood,normally much lighter in
color than heartwood, forms the outer periphery of poles, a layer which can range from a couple of
centimeters to more than 10 cm in thickness, dependingon the species. In living trees, the outer sapwood
zone is where nutrient transport and storage occurs. Heartwoodis found in the center of the stem. It is
composed of wood cells that have ceased any active function and have gradually been filled with organic
substances known as extractives. These extractives tend to darkenthe wood in this portion of the stem.
Heartwood is generally more durable than sapwood due to the presence of these extractives, many of
which are toxic, to some degree, to the organisms which cause wood to deteriorate. Sapwood,in the
absence of these extractives, is readily degraded by any number of wood deteriorating organisms,
including fungi, molds, stains, and insects such as termites and certain beetle species. For this reason, it is
essential to the longevity of wood poles that the outer, susceptiblesapwood layer is protected from these
organisms by the addition of preservative chemicalsthat make the sapwoodunavailable as a food source.
Proper application of these chemicals in the sapwood will enablethe treated pole to last for an extended
time in service.
Before poles can be treated, they must be properly dried. Greentrees have a very high moisture content,
often well above 100%. After fellingand peeling, they gradually dry until their moisture content comes
into equilibrium with the environment (at which time their moisture content is usually down to less than
30 %). This drying process is called seasoning. As the pole dries during seasoning,the wood shrinks and
develops longitudinal "checks" on its surface. Dependingon the character of the species, such checking
can be very limited or quite extensive.

Althoughtheyare of useful size,whatis left unclearis thestrengthof these polesafteronly 8 yearsof growth.
Chapter VIII. Poles

89

It is very important that drvingbe done properly, so that normal checkingtakes place before treatment.
During treatment, all wood surfaces exposedin openchecks are well treated. Subsequentdryingof the
treated pole in storage may open the original checks,but will not expose untreated wood. In a dry
climate, poles can be adequately seasonedby naturalair circulation,but care must be taken to avoid the
onset of incipient decay or insect attack duringthe air drying process. Significantstrength loss can occur
with little visible outward sign of decay in such material. Poles can also be seasonedby artificial means,
including kiln drying or steam conditioning,both of which, when done properly, sterilize the wood and
kill any decay fungi present.
Three basic groups of wood preservatives are used to treat wood poles: oil-borne preservatives,and
water-bome preservatives, and creosote. The major oil-borne preservativeis pentachlorophenol,
commonlyreferred to as "penta". The major water-bomepreservativesare chromated copper arsenate,
commonlyreferred to as CCA-C, and ammoniacalcopper zinc arsenate,also known as ACZA.'
Creosote,a constituent of coal tar and a by-productof producing coke from the destructivedistillationof
coal for the steel-making industry, is normallyusedto treat poles through a controlled pressure/vacuum
process. However, depending on the speciesbeing treated and the amount of sapwood present, some
poles can be creosote-treatedwith an extendedhot/coldsoak.
Penta, a man-made chemical, is dissolved in a mixtureof petroleum solventsand then impregnatedin the
pole by either a pressure treating process or in somecases, an extendedhot/cold soak.
CCA-C and ACZA are comprisedof severaldifferentwater-solublechemicalsthat are combined and then
forced into the sapwood layer of poles during a pressure-treatingprocess. The preservativeis then
chemicallybound to the wood fibers, and once fixed,it cannot leach out into the ground. Due to the
chemicalnature of the water-borne preservatives,pressure treating is the only method than can be used
with these chemicals to properly treat poles.
Without chemical treatment,many poles may not last beyond one year, especiallyin the warmer, moist
climates. Their frequent replacementis costly and places an additionalburden on those operating and
maintaining a mini-grid. Furthermore,systemreliabilityis reduced. However, with the proper chemical
treatment and with careful quality control,poles can last for decades, evenin wet environments. With a
ground-linetreatment procedure incorporatedin a line inspection and maintenanceprogram, this can be
increased considerably.
The followingparagraphs described the most commonmethods for treating poles.
Pressure cylinders
Conventionally,wood poles are treatedin large, centrallylocated treatmentplants. They are first properly
dried and then, when the moisture content has decreasedsufficiently,they are treated in a pressure
cylinder. Several procedures are possible:
Empty cell method: In the pressure method,the flooded cylinder is placed under considerable
pressure to force the preservativeinto the wood. This provides deeper and more uniform
penetration of the preservative, higher absorptionof the preservative,and more effective
protection than obtained with other methods. After penetration, a vacuum can also be drawn to

Thesevariantsof the arsenatepreservativeare preferredbecausetheyexhibitlessconductivitywhenthepolegets


wet.
ChapterVIII. Poles

90

recover some of the preservative. This still leaves the cell walls coated, but the cells only
partially filled.
*

Full cell method: In the double-vacuummethod, the timber to be treated is placed in a sealed
cylinder and a vacuum is drawn. The cylinder is then flooded. As the vacuum is released and
the pressure within the cylinder increases, usually to atmospheric, preservation is sucked up in the
wood. After a period of soaking, the preservative is withdrawn, and a final vacuum is drawn to
recover some of the preservative that had been absorbedby the timber.

Althoughtypically large, small units have also been built.7 Being smaller in size, they might be built at
scatteredpoints in the country whererural electrificationprojects are being implemented. For
electrificationin more remote areas, the advantage of growingtrees locally is largely defeated if these
then have to be transported long distances to these centrally located plants. Other options are required.
Hot/cold soak
One method that is probably the
more readily available in less-

developed countries is the hot/cold

soak approach(Fig. 33).' Rather


than applying pressure to force
preservativeinto the poles or

50-mm

drawing a vacuum to draw the

an

.sriI
oildrums
welded

barslodged

underledg

preservativeinto the wood, it relies


on a partial vacuum within the wood
inducedby varying the temperature
of the preservative in an open tank.
However, this method must be used

supportingblockwork

with caution as one is dealing with


hot, toxic preservativesand subject
fire
to exposureto large volumes of
vapor from these heated
preservatives. Pollution of the local
Fig. 33. The hoticoldsoak method for treating poles.
environmentis also possible if care
is not taken in handling the preservative, the treatment process,and the treated poles. Because of the
nature of the process and the inabilityto carefully monitor all the variables, the results are inconsistent.
Seasonedwood contains minute air spaces that usually amountto slightly more than half the volume of
the wood. When wood is placed in a preservative that is then heated, the expansion of the air that
accompaniesits increased temperature forces some of it to be expelled. Then on cooling, the remaining
air contractsand the preservativeis drawn into the wood. Typically, the preservative is heated to 85 0 to
95 C, maintained for about an hour and then let to cool before the poles are withdrawn.
The amountof preservative absorbeddepends on the speciesand size of wood being treated and is
controlledby the difference in these temperatures used for the treatment. As with the other methods
describedabove, after penetration,excessive preservativecan be recovered by removing the poles before
the preservativehas completed cooled. Or heat can be applied a second time and then removing the poles
I to 3 hours after it has been in the hot preservative.

ChapterVIII. Poles

91

This process can be used with any preservativethat will remain stable when heated, with creosote-type
preservativesbeing the most commonlyused. The arsenatewater-bornepreservativescannot be used
with this method because the salts precipitate out underhigh temperatures. For other preservativeswhich
contain inflammable solvents or are liable to decomposeon heating, a variation of this method is used
wherebythe heating of the wood and the absorptionof the preservativeare performedseparately. First
the wood is heated for I to 2 hours using hot air, steam, or water. The wood is then quickly transferred to
a tank of cold preservative where it is absorbed while cooling. Arsenate preservativeswould again not
work in this situation, because the salts would precipitate on touching the hot exterior of the wood,
preventingthe absorption of the preservative.
The plant required for this treatment can be easily made locally. Oil drums are cut longitudinallyand
weldedto form a long trough as shownin the figure. These tanks must be suitablystiffened and
supported to prevent bulging under the weight of the preservativeand poles and the action of the heat.
Somebars must also be used to ensurethat the polesremain submergedduring the entire process. Two
disadvantagesof this process are that it can consumeconsiderablefuelwood and that contaminationof the
treatment area can occur if care is not exercised.
High pressure sap displacement

In the Philippines where rural electric cooperativesare growingtheir own poles, the Forest Products
Research and DevelopmentInstitute in Laguna has developedanother device for the in situ treatment of
wood poles through high-pressure sap displacement.

te

A cylindricalpressure cap is fitted over the base of a


newly felled tree (Fig. 34). A water-bornepreservative
solutionis then introducedinto this cap and forcedup
throughthe bottom of the tree. This forces the sap out,
leavingthe preservativebehind. Up to two poles can be
treatedsimultaneously,with treatment times of up to
severalhours, dependingon a range of variables. The
treating equipmentcost $5,500with a 1/3-hpelectric
motor and $8,200 with a 2-hp diesel engine.9

Fig.34. Adjustablesteelfingersmounted
onthe pressurecaprestraintherubber

Presently,several dozen rural electric cooperatives and


entrepreneursare using this treatment plant in the
Philippines,each plant having a production capacity of
a~bout10poles daily. Gmelina arborea,a light, rapidly

seal when the preservativewithin the cap is

growing hardwood, is commonly used and harvested

pressurized.

after sevenyears. By this time, poles have attaineda


height of about 10 m length and a diameter of 220 mm.
Treatment is with CCA, with a retention of 12 to 17kg per cubicmeter and full penetration of the
sapwood. To minimize environmental problems and ensurequality treatment,the operation should be
carefullymanaged.
A small version of this device that is hand-poweredhas been developedwhich is used to specificallytreat
bamboo. It is still not too labor-intensive,as two or three people are sufficientto do the treatment.
Treating time is I to 2 hours, depending on the moisture content of the bamboo.

ChapterVIII. Poles

92

Other approaches

As opposed to sap displacementdescribedin the previousparagraphs, a


sap-replacementoption is also possible. This treatment has been applied
to freshly-felledbamboo. The butt end of the pole is soaked in a
container of preservative,allowing the preservativeto diffuse from the
base of the bamboo to the tip of the leaves via transpiration. This
treatment takes about 4 to 5 days, dependingon the sunlight that will
help in the transpiration.

pole
straps

It is also possible to immerse dried bamboo in the preservative solution


and let the preservativesoak in over a certainperiod of time.
A commonapproach to increasing the life of buried poles is to paint the
base with bitumen. Another approach is to soak in sumpoil the portion
of the pole to be buried. However, it is not clear how effective these
approaches are, if at all.
Because the principalproblem of insect damage and decay occurs around
the ground line of the pole, where moisture and oxygen provide optimal
conditions, another solution sometimes used is to prepare concrete
foundationspoured on-site or carried in. Poles are then clamped to this
base (Fig. 35).

Fig. 35. A concretepost


supportinga wood pole
eliminatesthe problemof
decay and insect damage
at and below the ground

Poles first decay at the ground line, while the above portion it is usually
line.
much less affected by decay. Therefore, at several sites, once poles
started decayingaround the ground line, the solution was to simply cut
off the decayedportion and rebury the remainder. The disadvantage of this stop-gap approach is that,
unless poles were previously oversized, line-to-groundclearance may be reduced to below what is needed
to provide for adequate safety to pedestrians.
Use of trees

To properly support lines, wood poles must be adequately treated to prevent decay and insect damage;
properly guyed to counteractpermanent forces acting on the line; and adequately sized and properly set in
the ground to offset temporal forces acting on the poles, arising primarily from the wind. Living polestrees-can be an option that transfers on to nature the cost and effort of guying, setting, and protecting
against decay.
It is necessaryto use healthy trees, with no dead branches, for this purpose. Since trees with abundant
foliage can easily catch the wind, the trees should have sufficient rigidity to prevent large displacements
when the wind is blowing. Line insulators can be mounted on the main trunk and branches and foliage
around the line cleared. The tree's lower branches should be trimnmedto discourage children from
climbing and playing on the tree.
Around the world, various trees are used as "living fenceposts". Cuttings are placed in a row and grow
into fence posts that can periodically be trimmed. This raises the questions of why "living power poles"
cannot also be planted. In Laos, for example, teak trees are being grown throughout the country (Fig. 36).
It would appear that, while poles can be installed for a mini-grid project, it may also be possible to plant
suitable trees at strategic locations under the lines. When these trees have grown to a suitable size, the

ChapterVIII. Poles

93

lines could be transferredto these trees. If mini-grid is superceded,


the poles can then be used as a source of timber.

Concrete
Where wood poles are not an option because suitablepoles are not
grown or availablelocally,steel-reinforcedconcrete is an alternative.
This permits local manufacturewith relatively inexpensive,readily
available materials-cement and reinforcing steel. However, the
manufacture of concretepoles is subject to the need for good design,
quality materials,and competentexecution. And a major disadvantage of concrete poles is their weight and the subsequent
difficulty in handling, moving, and installing them,especially in areas
with no vehicularaccess. They are more susceptibleto cracking or
breaking than wood poles.
Because concrete has little strength in tension, steel is embedded in
the concrete to provide this strength. Forces imposed by external
loads are transferred from the concreteto the steel through a bond
between the two. This bond is formed by the chemicaladhesion
which developsat the concrete-steelinterface, by the natural
roughness of the surfaceof hot-rolled reinforcingbars, and by the
closely spaced,rib-shaped surface deformationson the bars which
provide a high degree of interlockingof the two
materials.

-L
X

@
iV

Fig. 36. Straight,well-formed


teak treesseemto clearly
suggesttheirsuitabilityas
powerpoles.

If poles are cast in the village, simple reinforced concrete


poles are the most commonlymade. Prestressedconcrete
poles are preferred becausethey are lighter and are
almost always used commercially. However,because
their manufacturerequires prestressing the reinforcing
steel, this is more difficultto do in a rural setting where
the appropriateequipmentand quality control are not
available.
*

Cast reinforcedconcrete: This is the easiest


and least costly design but one that yields the
poorest strength characteristics. Reinforcing
steel or "rebar" is simply placed in the forms
prior to pouringthe concrete (Fig. 37).
Reinforcingsteel has no initial stresses; these
stresses only developas the structure is placed
under load. As the structure begins to deflect,a
portion of the concrete is placed under tension
and can begin to develop hairline cracksbefore
the steel beginsto provide the necessarytension
to counteractthe imposed load. This designmay
also be subjectto voids or variationsin density,

ChapterVIII. Poles

^
:

'

Fig. 37. Steel reinforcementplacedin a


mold ready for castingat an isolatedsite
in Indonesia. Completed polesatthe
left are curing. (Photo credit: Mark Hayton)

94

depending on the actual manufacturing process used.


*

Cast prestressed concrete: In this design, the reinforcing steel is prestressed and is under
tension even before the structure is placed in use. However, special prestressing steel-in the
form of either wire, cable, or bars-with several times the tensile strength of reinforcing steel
must be used.
Pre-tensioning and post-tensioning represent two altematives for prestressing the steel. However,
only pre-tensioning reinforcement is used in the production of poles. In this case, the prestressing
strands are tensioned between well-anchored abutments in the casting yard prior to placing
concrete in the beam forms. The concrete is then poured around the tensioned strands. After the
concrete has attained sufficient strength, the strands are cut. As they try to collapse back to their
original length, the prestressing forces are transferred to the concrete through the bond and
friction along the strands, chiefly at the outer ends.

Development & Consulting Services (DCS) in Butwal, Nepal, has researched and developed utility poles
made both of reinforced and prestressed concrete for manufacture in remote locations. Because timber is
increasinglydifficult to find in the country, concrete seems an attractive substitute.
Trheirreinforced concrete poles are 7 m long, with a 200-mm square
cross -section at the base, tapering to a 130-mm section at the top.
They weigh about 540 daN (a deca-newton is approximately equal
to 1.0kilogram-force) and are designed to accommodate the
equivalentof about 200 daN applied near the top.' On-site
manufacture of these poles was attempted in at least two locations
with mixed results because of quality of the poles. In one case, field
results seemed satisfactory; in the other, on-site manufacture was
abandoned (Fig. 38).
DCS also developed a mechanism to manufacture prestressed poles
in the field. The poles made in a lab setting with this device were
8.0 m long, with a 100 mm x 260 rmmcross-section at the base,
tapering to a 100 mm x 120 mm section at the top. They weighed
about 340 daN and were designed to accommodate the equivalent to
a force of 140 daN applied near the top of the pole. The prestressed
poles had some weight and cost reductions in comparison to similar
reinforced concrete poles of about 30 % and 15 %, respectively.

Fig.38. In additionalto weight,


weakpolesdue to the lack of
properlygradedaggregateand

While every effort was made to design prestressing equipment that


poorcompaction of the
concretewereotherreasons
was as light as possible, the estimated mass of the mould and
that discouraged
theirusein
tensioning frame was still 750 kg. This is due to the fact that the
Gotikhel, Nepal.
frame must be sufficientlyrigid to withstand the force associated
with prestressing or stretching 36 reinforcing wires running the
length of the mould or a total force of about 50 tons. The equipment could be partially dismantled,but
this still represented a considerable weight to carry to remote villages. Maintaininggood control over the
aggregatetype and size distribution, water content, curing rate, degree of vibration, and grade of concrete
to make full use of the prestressing are also expected to be difficult under village conditions. Prestressing
the wire itself is not difficult but would also require personnel who are adequately trained, able to follow
technicalinstruction, and capable of making accurate measurements. Because each device only permitted

ChapterVIII. Poles

95

the construction of one pole at a time and a


good part of a week was required for the
pole to cure before detensioningthe wires,
considerable time and staff wouldbe tied
up in the field making poles for a project.
In short, while concrete poles are an
option, they are clearly not an easy option.
One of the biggest problems even after
poles have been manufacturedis that they
are difficult to carry in areas off the road.
Furthermore,raising poles is also difficult
and can represent a real risk to those
involved in this process (Fig. 39). Few
=;
-=V
who have been through the processwould
like to repeat it. However, in cases where
Fig. 39. A gin pole being used to raise a concrete pole.
no clear altemative exists, those who have (Photocredit:Jon Katz)
to make and use concrete poles eventuallyfind a way of managingthe tasks of transportingand raising
the poles.
Steel

When the grid has to be constructedin an area without vehicularaccess,where suitable trees pannot found
and where concrete poles cannot easilybe madeor transported,an altemative has been to use steel poles.
Their construction permits a pole to be fabricatedof smaller sectionsthat can be easily transported,by
porter if necessary, and assembledon-site. Strength of
steel is predictable and steel poles can be designedand
manufactured to more exacting tolerance. It is susceptible to corrosion (rusting) and appropriateprecautions
NO
must be taken, including galvanizingor painting.
One design for such poles originatedfrom the work of
Nepal Hydro & electric Pvt. Ltd. of Butwal (Fig.40):.
Slightlytapered tubular poles are madeup of sections
fabricated of 1.5- and 2-mm plate, each with a length
of 1.25 or 2.5 m, and galvanized with a zinc coating of
about 600 g/m2 . For transport and storage,sections are
placed inside each other. Each sectionweighs from 4
to 60 kg, permitting one or more pole sectionsto be
carried by a single individual. Assembled,these
become poles with lengths of 5 through 17 m. Cost are
about $1.30/kg. For example, a lighter-weight(i.e.,
1.5 mm construction except for the base section) 10 m
pole costing $130 can handle a maximumpermissible
transverse poletop load of 130 kg without guys. A
heavier-weight and slightly longer, 10.6-mpole costing
$310 can handle a maximum load of 540 kg.

Chapter VIII. Poles

Fig.40. Poles fabricated in Nepalcan be


easily carried by portersin sectionsto
isolatedvillages. (Photocredit:DaleNafziger)

96

Anotherapproach to designis utilized for 11 kV and


LV lines in India. Poles with a length of 7.5 or 8.0 m
are assembled from two rectangular steel sections of
differentcross-section inserted about 0.2 m into each
other. They are joined by bolts as shown in Fig. 41.
The larger section weighs no more than 60 kg. These
poles are designed for a maximum working poletop
load of up to 200 kg and are painted with red oxide
primercoating to prevent rusting. 12

PVCcap

guide cap

---------_
m bots

A simple variant of this that has been adopted in several


projects is to use 6-m lengths of standard galvanized
pipe at least 50 mm in diameter. In areas with difficult
access,6-m lengths are cut in half to facilitate
transportation. On-site, a standard pipe bushing or
couplingis then used to join the threaded end of each of

thetwo sectionstogether.The portionof thepoleto be


buriedis painted in bituminous paint. To prevent
rainwater from entering through the top of the pipe and
leading to corrosion inside at the base of the pole, a pipe
cap can be screwed at the top end of the pipe (but this
requires that end to be threaded). An easier option is to
invert an aluminum soft drink can over the top of the
pole.

weld

ular
secgon

NOTE:A suitablebaseplateofsteelshallbe

weldedat bottom. (Drawing


notto scale.)
Fig. 41. A steel pole designpreparedby
the RuralElectrificationCorporationof
India.

Sizing
The two basic parametersneeded to specify a wood
pole are its length (deternined primarily by clearance
requirements)and its girth (determinedby its strength
requirements).

erallconductor
spacing

Length
As illustrated in Fig. 42, the minimum length of a pole
is determined as the sum of the followinglengths,
orderedby their relative contributionto the overall
length:
*

Ground clearancerequirements to protect both


the line and people.

sag
pole
]en th

groundclearance

* Depththat thepoleis set in thegroundto


ensure a stable structure.

* Sag required to keep the tension within the


conductor within acceptable limits within the
typical temperature range encountered in the
area.

ChapterVIII. Poles

m
J

C
S

~~ polesetting(depth
of embedment)

Fig.42. Factorsenteringinto the determinationof pole length.

97

Table 9. Minimum vertical


clearancesfor low-voltage
distribution lines, set by the
NESC in the U.S.A.

Clearancecategory

Neutral
conductor

Insulated
phase
Conductor

Bare
phase
conductor

4.7 m

4.8 m

5.0 m

2.9 m

3.6 m

3.8 m

Areas traversedby
vehicular traffic
Areas accessibleon to
pedestrians

Top insulator to bottom insulator spacing at the pole (equivalentto the upper conductor to lower
conductor spacing).

Upper insulator to peak of pole.

The first three.factors above, which generally figure predominantlyin setting the length of the pole, are
described in greater detail below.
Clearance requirements
To ensure that the integrity of power lines is not compromisedand that the lines do not present a hazardto
people nearby, minimum clearances under various conditions are established. For example, as a point of
reference, Table 9 indicated the minimum vertical clearancesfor low-voltagelines in the U.S.
In the case of a mini-grid, three categories might be suggested:
*

The greatest clearances and therefore the longestpoles are required where the line is located over
road or trails where large vehicles are expectedto pass. Such vehicles can have significant
height. These include trucks that can be heavily loaded with produce from the field or busses
carrying people and cargo on the roof. There are presumably national regulations conceming
clearances under these circumstancesand mini-griddesigns should comply with these.

Most poles used for the distributionline fall in the medium-height category. These often follow
the roads, main trails, and paths within the community.

The shortest poles or those requiring the least strength are those along the service drops,
supporting small conductors where the lateral force on the pole is small. The selection and
installation of these poles can be the responsibilityof the consumersthemselves, subject to
certain safety requirements and verificationbefore connection.

Setting depth
As is discussed in more detail toward the end of this chapter (p. 102),a rule a thumb that is widely used
for the depth a pole should be set into the ground is that this equal 0.6 m plus 10 % of the length of the
pole.
Sag
The amount of sag associated with a given conductordepends on the length of the specific span under
consideration, the temperature of the conductor,the mechanicalloading (i.e., wind and ice) on the line,
and the factor of safety that has been adopted. This is described in Chapter VII (p. 79).
For a given conductor, the minimum sag that leads to minimumpole length can be obtainedby increasing
conductor tension as much as possible. But each conductorhas an ultimate strength that cannot be

ChapterVIII. Poles

98

exceeded. In reality, to ensure that the capability of the conductor is not exceeded, the tension in the
conductoris limited to some percentage (a safety factor) of its ultimate strength that is set by the electric
utility (or a national electricitycode if such exists).
For example,in the rural U.S., the NESC guidelinesspecify this percentage as 35 % of ultimate strength
for ACSRconductor under "normal" conditions (at 16 C with no wind). While this might seem like a
large safety factor, it has been selected because actual maximum expected loading on the conductor and
low temperatureswould increasethe tension to which the conductoris subjected. For example, under
maximum loadingconditions in areas without ice (i.e., with a conductor temperature of -1 C, subject to a
wind pressure of 440 N/M2 , equivalentto a windspeed approaching 80 kph), the tension of the conductor
should not exceed 60 % of its ultimate strength (equivalent to a safety factor of 1.7). Values for sag (and
correspondingtensions) for a specific conductor for a given span should be obtained from the conductor
manufacturer. Examples, specificallyfor multiplex, are those values given in Appendix 8. The values in
this appendix are dependent on safety factors, mechanical loading,type of materials, weight of conductor,
etc. Values of sag for the specific conductorand safety factors being assumed should be obtained from
the manufacturerof that conductor.
Poles are one of the costliest componentsof a distributionsystem. This cost can be reduced by reducing
the number of poles required; this would require increasing the spans. However, increased spans result in
increased sag that reduces line-to-groundclearance. Therefore, longer poles may then be required to
ensureadequateclearance. Therefore, there is a trade-off between pole length and number in order to get
the least expensiveline. But in densely populated areas in a village, pole spacing is typically determined
by the location of the individual homesthat are served from each pole (since mid-span taps for service
drops are not recommended). These given spans would, in turn, set the minimum sags.
Girth
There are three forces that may typically act on a power pole:
*

The longitudinal (i.e., in the direction of the line) forces resulting from the unbalanced pull of the
conductors.

The lateral (i.e., sideways) forces due to two factors:the pull of the conductor on those poles
where there is a change in the direction of the line and the force of the wind that, from time to
time, acts on both the pole and adjacent conductors.

Vertical forces resulting from the weight of the pole itself, the weight of the conductors, and the
downwardpull of any guy wires.

Longitudinalforces are best handledby balancing the tension in the conductors of either side of the pole
when sagging (tensioning) the lines. Where conductors end on a deadend structure, guys are used to
counteractthis unbalanced force.
One componentof the lateral force is caused by the tension in the conductor acting on the pole at those
points where the line changes direction. This force component is permanent and, if it is more than the
pole can handle, is counteracted by the use of a guy wire (ChapterX). The other principal component of
lateral force is caused by the wind and is usually temporary in nature. The strength of the pole itself must
be relied upon to counteract this force. This sets the required strength of the poles. If the pole were not
sufficientlystrong, two guys would be required, even along straight stretches of line, because the wind
could blow in any direction. Because the strength of the pole alone is used to counteract this last force
due to wind, this is the componentthat has to be calculated so that a pole of adequate strength is selected.
ChapterVIII. Poles

99

If poles are sufficiently strong to counter the lateral


forces they will encounter, they are usually strong
enough with regards to the vertical forces.

The forcesarising from the pressure of the wind


againstthe conductors and poles depends on the speed
of the wind. For objects of cylindricalcross-section,a
wind with the speedof V(km/h)results in a force per
unit interceptedarea of the following:'

Table 10. Design wind speeds (kmlhr) used


in a couple of countries for deriving the
design forces acting on conductors and

poles.
Country

Light wind

Lh
i
regime

Hv
n
Heavy wind
regime

82
52

95
77

Tunisia
United States
Bangladesh

100

- = 0.05 V2 N/M2 = 0.0010 V2 lbs/ft2


A

The maximumdesignwind speed for several countriesis shown in Table 10. Note that these maximum
wind speedsare commonlyfound in flat, open areas. As applied to mini-grid distribution within a
village,poles are often shelteredby homes and trees and generally experience reduced wind speeds.
Figure43 shows both the forces from the wind pushingagainst the pole as well as the forces acting on a
portionof the conductor,forcesthat are in
turntransmittedto the pole through its
df
connectionat the poletop.
The simplifiedequationbelow can be
used to estimate the maximum average
span whichcan be obtainedwhen using a
woodenpole of given type and

ctor

dimensions. The complete equation as

well as the derivation of the equation


below are found in Appendix 5. The
more completeequation in the appendix
forrnsthe basis for the designof
conventionalmedium-voltagelines.

winu

on pole

L2
=nt
oM

due to force
oindon
conductors)

(momentdue to force
Pof windon pole)

Mini-gridsusually make use of shorter


and smaller diameter poles, and the

Mr

(resisting moment from ground on pole)

conductorsare relatively more closely


spacedon the pole than for mediumvoltagelines. The moment due to the
wind forceson the pole are smaller than
Fig. 43. Forces on a pole due to the wind acting on both
those arising from forceson the conductor the pole and the conductors. For simplicity,only one
conductor
is shown.
and canbe overlooked. This permits a
simplificationof the final equationthat is,
in most cases, accurate enough to
determinethe maximumallowable span for a given pole:

Thisassumes a drag coefficientof CD= 1.2.

ChapterVIII. Poles

100

L (L;L

+2

0.06f cg3

)SFnd,

hV2

where
L

= average span (in) as defined in the


equation above

LI, L2
f
cg

spans lengths (m) of either side of pole


as showniFig. 43
= ultimate fiber stress of wood poles (see
Table I11)
= circumference (m) of the pole at the
ground line
=

Table11. Ultimatefiberstresses(NIm2
or Pa)for typical woodspecies
Species
Southernyellow pine
Eucalyptus
Teak
Mangrove

Fiberstress
50.106
70.106
70.106
90106

SF = safety factor (usually 2 to 2.5)


n

= number of conductors (or, when used as subscript, represents the number of the
conductor)

dc = diameter of the conductor (m), with insulation


h

= exposed height (m) of pole

= design wind speed (knm/hr)

If ABC or multiplex conductor is used, let n = 1 in the equation above and let d, equal the cross-sectional
diameter of the bundled conductor.
In a typical village situation, homes are relatively densely placed and spans will be fairly short if the
service drop to each consumer is to take off from a pole. This coupledwith the small size conductor
which is needed to serve a typical load imply that, based on this equationalone, a fairly small diameter
pole would be required. This is illustrated in Box 6.
While the applicationof the commonly used equation implies that a smallpole will frequently seem
sufficient, several words of caution are warranted, with two of these illustratedin Box 6:
*

Any decay or insect infestation that attacks the outer portion of the pole will have much more
impact on the strength of small poles. Poles should be somewhatoversized to make allowance
for this.

A more important factor is sizing small poles under these circumstancesmay well be the need for
adequatestrength if the pole is to support the lateral force on it due to both the ladder and the
technician fixing the secondary conductors to the poletop and then connecting the service drops.

And finally, as is suggested in Appendix 9, it is not clear to what extent the strength of poles
noted in Table 11 remains valid for small diameter poles.

Consequently,care must be exercised in using both the equationabove as well as its more complete
version in Appendix 5.

Chapter VIII. Poles

101

Box 6. Calculatingrequired pole diameter.


Assuming that 50-m single-phase, two-wire spans of single insulated 25-mm2 conductor with an overall
diameter of 8 mm are to be supported on a southem yellow pine pole 6 m above the ground and that a
maximum wind speed is set at 60 krm/hr. A safety factor of 2.0 is selected. The equation relating average
span to pole dimensions can be solved for the pole circumference and from there pole diameter at the
ground line dg can be determined:

L SF n d h V2

(50)(2)(2)(0.008)(6)(60)2 0 011

0.06f

(0.06)(50 106)

cg = 0.2 2 m = r dg
dg = 0.070 m
One concem with such small poles is that any decay or deterioration of the outer portion of the pole has a
significant affect on strength. For example, if the outer 1 cm of this pole loses strength from decay or
insect damage, the 7-cm pole would effectively be reduced to 5 cm of useful wood. With a reduction in
its diameter to 70 % (i.e., 5/7) of its original value, the pole retains only (0.70)3 or one-third of its original
strength. (As is shown in Appendix 5, the strength of a pole varies as the cube of its diameter or
circumference.)

Another concem is that the pole may not be sufficiently strong to handle the force of a technician working
at the poletop. For example, if a technician working on the line has a weight of 80 kg and a light-weight
ladder is installed as shown below, the lateral force F acting on the pole would be at least
F =1(g)3(m)
6.0 m

=13kg = 130 N
F

This implies that the resisting moment of the pole must be


(130 N)(6.0 m) or 780 N m. Reverting to the original
equation for a pole's resisting moment in Appendix 5, the
pole's resisting moment is expressed as:

M,

0.0031

Cg3

SF

6.0 m

and the required dimensions would be


80 kg \\
3

Mr SF
(0.0031)f

ladder

(780)(2)
-0 010l\\
(0.0031)(50-106)

cg = 0.22 m
dg = 0.070mm

1.o m

This happens to be the same diameter as that required to


restrain maximum wind forces on the conductor. If the pole had been sized for a smaller conductor, the
calculated pole diameter would be even less than that required to support the technician on the ladder.
This situation would have posed a safety hazard for the technician.

ChapterVIII. Poles

102

Settingpoles
Because it can be a costly component of a mini-grid and because it affects the operation and safety of a
distributionsystem, the proper installation of poles is important. Two factors influencingthe integrity of
pole installation are the setting depth and the technique used for setting the pole.
The pole must be properly set in the ground to counteract two basic forcesacting on the pole:
*

Permanent but small lateral forces caused by conductor tension at small deviations in the
direction of the main line (usually less than 50) or by service drops off to either side. Permanent
but large lateral forces caused by conductor tension at large deviations are countered by guys (see
Chapter X).

Temporary but potentially large lateral forces caused by the wind

The purpose for setting the pole is to distribute these forces over a sufficient area of soil to keep pressure
within the soil to withinwhat is allowable for the soil encountered. If this condition is not met, the pole
will "kick out" of the ground. Greater resistance to overturning can be obtainedby increasing setting
depth. However, for a given line-to-ground clearance, this also requires a longer, more costly or more
difficult-to-findpole. Altematively, as is described below, cribbing or pole keys might be used.
The size of each pole is determined by the maximum forces it is designed to withstand. And each pole
has an optimum setting depth. If the setting is too shallow, the pole would tip over and fall under these
forces and the design girth (and strength) of the pole itself would not be used to full advantage, i.e., a
smaller-diameterpole could have been used. If the setting is too great, this providesno additional
strength; the pole will break before it can tip over and fall. Setting the pole too deep is therefore also
counterproductive. Excavating the hole would require an additional effort, and the extra depth reduces
line-to-groundclearance for a pole of given length.
Unfortunately, the precise depth for setting a pole is difficult to predict and is often determined by
experience. Many uncertainties are associated with the effect of the soil on the pole and the wide
variations in the capacity of a given soil.
A rule a thumb that is widely used for setting depth is that it should be 0.6 m (2.0 feet), plus 10 % of the
length of the pole. A six-meter pole would therefore require a depth of 1.2m. This depth may be
increased somewhat in soft soil or if the poles are set on a slope. Research conductedat the beginning of
the rural electrificationperiod in the U.S. indicated that the diameter of the pole had negligible, if any,
effect on the stability of the pole. This is because overturning of the pole is caused by the failure of the
soil in shear and the areas of the shearing surfaces are largely independent of pole diameter.'3 (This was
found to be true for the sizes of poles used on conventional systems. To what extent this is true for
considerablysmaller diameter poles is unclear. See Appendix 9.)
The diameter of the hole should be such that there is sufficient clearance all around the pole and all the
way down to permit unfettered tamping of the backfill. If the hole is too narrow, backfilling cannot be
properly done, leaving voids around the pole which will reduced its ability to withstand lateral forces.
The diameter of the hole should be fairly uniform from top to bottom. Once the pole has been placed in
position, small amounts of soil are placed back into the hole in layers and thoroughlytamped. Any
standing water in the hole should be removed. Dry fill should be used and should not include any grasses,
roots, pieces of wood, or other organic matter. It is important to stress that proper tamping is essential, as
a poorly tamped pole will not stay in alignment. As a rule of thumb, if the tamping has been properly

ChapterVIII. Poles

103

done, little of the excavated soil should be left over.

This ensuresthata highlycompactedvolumeof soil

directionof strain

is locatedaround the base of the pole.


In sandy or swampy ground, the pole should either be
set deeper or supported by guys, braces, or cribbing.
One form of cribbing uses a empty oil drum into
which the pole is set. The drum is then filled with
concrete or small stones to secure the pole. Another
simple method of crib bracing is shown in Fig. 44.

|
about0m

In those few cases where greater stability may be


required, concrete can be placed around the pole. In

this case,theholeshouldbe somewhatlarger andthe

2-rnlogabou

concrete should extend a little above ground level,


with the surfacebeveled to encourage any rainwater
to run away from the pole. Proportions for a good
mix would be roughly 1:2.5:5by volume
(cement:sand:gravel)and this should be just fluid
enough not to require tamping. To ensure proper
setting, the pole should be well braced and not
touched for up to a week after the pour.

diameter

about0.6 m

larqestones,welltamped

Fig.44. An simpleformof cribbing.

If poles are subjected to slightly lateraf forces as noted at the


beginning of this section, pole keys can be used (Fig. 45).
In hard soil, only the upper key may be needed; in soft soil,
both keys would be used.

directionof strain

aboutOS
. m

polekeyzs

Fig.45. An exampleof the useof pole


keysto counteractsmalllateralforces
actingon a pole.

Chapter VIII. Poles

104

IX. Poletop hardware and connectors


Poles and conductorsare typically the costliest elements for most mini-grids. However, miscellaneous
hardware, while costingrelatively little, plays a critical role in ensuringthe integrity of the entire system.
This includes the hardwarenecessary to ensure proper electrical continuitybetween the various
conductors used in the system and the clamps or other hardware for securingthe conductors to the poles
or to other structures, such as to the homes being electrified. Poor use of this hardware can place the
entire system in jeopardy. This chapter describes this various hardware as well as the proper procedures
for using it.
Before proceeding further,one componentthat can generallybe
eliminated from considerationis the crossarm, often seen as an
intrinsic part of a power line. These are commonlyused with
medium-voltagelines to provide the necessaryspacing between
conductors to prevent clashing or shortingbetween conductors.
While it is not rare to see crossarmsbeing used for low-voltage
mini-grids (Fig. 46), this is generally done more as a reflex
action-power poles are simply expected to have crossarms.
With mini-grids, not only is a voltage of 120 V or 230 V rather
than 11,000 V or 20,000V much less dangerous,but insulated
conductors are generallyused. Furthermore,because crossarms
associated with mini-gridsare often poorly constructed,their
inclusion merely decreasessystem reliability, as poorly designed
crossarms and braces fail. Therefore, instead of using crossarms
for low-voltage distributionsystems, a vertical conductor
configurationis typically used, with the conductors secured to

, j _.
i

N
.

the pole using spool insulators. !

Joining conductors:Connectors
Connectors are necessaryto ensure a good electricalbond
between the conductorsbeing joined. These conductorsare
usually either of aluminum or copper. Before embarking on a
discussion of connectors,it is necessary to briefly describe the
characteristicsof these two metals that affect the quality of
connections made.

Fig.46. Polewith crossarmfor a


distributionsystemin San Felipe,
Belize.

The surfaces of both copper and aluminum oxidize. This oxidized layer acts as an insulator and must be
broken to achieve adequatemetal-to-metalcontact for a good electrical connection. Copper oxide is
generallybroken down by applying relatively low contactpressure. Unless copper is badly oxidized,
good contact can be obtainedwith very little or no cleaning. However, aluminum oxide is a hard,
tenacious, resistive film that forms rapidly on the surface of aluminum exposed to air. This is one reason
for aluminum'sgood resistance to corrosion in a normal environmnent. The oxide film that forms after no
more than a few hours is too thick and tough to permit a low resistance contact without cleaning. Even a
bright and clean appearanceof an aluminum connector is no assurancethat low contact resistance can be
obtained without cleaning.
ChapterIX. Poletophardwareandconnectors

105

In addition to cleaning, the surface should be covered with a good connector compound to prevent the
oxide from reforming. Commonpractice is to clear the surface with a wire brush or emery cloth. The
compound should be applied immediately after cleaning. Some of these oxide-inhibitingcompounds
contain suspended metal particles to assist in penetrating thin oxide films and as an aid in gripping the
conductor. They also seal out air and moisture, preventing further oxidation or corrosion.
If a connection has to be made between aluminum and copper conductors, bimetallic connectors designed
for this purpose must be used. These provide adequate separation between the conductors to prevent
electrolyticattack on the aluminum conductor. Even then, it is good practice to install the aluminum
conductorabove the copper conductor if possible. This will prevent pitting of the aluminumconductor
due to copper salts being washed over the aluminum.
Twisted connections
An all too commonly seen connectionwith all kinds of conductors, whether for low- or evenmediumvoltage lines, is the twisted connection,where the incoming conductor is simply wrapped around the
existing conductor. This results in a poor, high resistance connection that can lead to voltage drop and
power loss, especially when used along the main line which handles larger currents than the typical
service drop. This resistance, and accompanying losses, can increase over time, as oxidation and
corrosion of the conductor continue.
Because loads served by mini-grids are often smaller than those typically encounteredon the national
grid, smaller conductor is required. Smaller mechanical connectors for this conductormay simply not be
available. Therefore, twisted connectionsmay, at times, be the only option for small conductors.
However, this small conductor is frequently copper and the drawback associated with twisted connections
can be resolved by soldering the connection. Twisted, soldered, and sealed connections are more of an art
in today's world where quality electrical craftsmanship and apprenticeships are dying traditions. A single
fashionedcopper connection madeby carefully wrapping two cleaned conductors and then applying
solder to ensure the electrical bond may take up to 20 minutes. In today's fast-pacedindustrializedworld
that is too long. Neverthelessin remote rural settings, time and pride still abound and the "old ways" may
still have a place in isolated electrification.
A twistedjoint with copper conductors is made as follows.
After the conductor has been mechanically secured to a spool
insulator or equivalent, a portion of the insulation where the
joint is to be made is stripped. The second conductor,that to be
joined, is tightly wrapped around the first at this place and
soldered (Fig. 47).

mainline

6/

tapwire

An electrical or thermal soldering iron can be used. If there is


no electricity,an electrical solderingiron is of little use. In any Fig. 47. A variationon a simple
case, soldering conductors larger than 10 mm2 is almost
twistedconnection.
impossibleeven with a 500-watt iron. What might be used is
either a 0.5 kg thermal mass solderingiron or a plumber's kerosene blowtorch. The type of fluxto be
used is not as important as cleaningthe conductors before soldering. Resin core solder is safer but does
not clean the conductors as well as acid flux. But more care must be exercised with the latter. Eye
protection and adequate clothing is recommended.

ChapterIX. Poletophardwareandconnectors

106

Once completed, the joint and uninsulatedportion of the conductor should be tightly wrapped with
electrical tape to protect anyonewho might be working in the vicinity of the connection as well as to
protect against possible shorts.

Split-boltconnectors
This split bolt was one of the earliestdeveloped connectors specificallyfor
making electrical connections between two conductors. Its design has
changed little over the past century. The connector, as its name implies, is
a split-shank bolt where the conductorsto be connected are placed in the
open groove of the connector (Fig. 48). Some split-boltconnectors will
have a separating spacer that is intendedto be placed between the
connecting conductors. This spacerperforms two primary functions:
*

It provides more surfacecontactbetween the conductors.

If tin-plated, it will serve as a bimetallic inert separator for


dissimilar conductors such as aluminum and copper.

Fig. 48. A split-bolt


connector,with

spacer.(Source:Burndy
The advantages of this connector are that it is widely availablein the local
New
Corp.,Manchester,
Hampshiae)
marketplace and may be installed with simple wrenches. Insulated splitbolt covers are available, but this type of connector is usually insulated
using electrical tape. Problems associatedwith the split-boltconnectors are
due to their misapplicationor improperinstallation. Two wrenches or spanners are required when
installing this connector, one to hold the head of the connector and the other to tighten the compression
nut. Because this is a two-handedoperation,the installer can find it uncomfortableto make a proper
connection.
A word of caution: Although somewhatsimilar in appearance,U-bolt clamps should not be interchanged
with split-bolt connectors because tightening a U-bolt can damage the conductor.
Split-bolt connectors are not availablefor conductors smaller than about 3 mm2 or AWG #12.

Parallel-grooveconnectors
Parallel-groove connectors may be used for all-aluminumand all-copper or for bimetallic connections
(Fig. 49). They can be used to provide electrical continuity from one conductor to the next; they are not
to be used to mechanically connecttwo conductors under opposing tension. Some parallel-groove
connectors may be provided with square-neckcarriage bolts which will allow single-wrenchinstallation.
However, with small conductors,a second wrench may be used to avoid kinking of the conductor when
tightening the connector. The advantageof this connector is its simple installation; only a wrench is
required. Problems associated with this connector are also due to misapplicationor improper installation

Fig. 49. Parallelgroove connector.


(Source: BurndyCorp.,

Yr

____

Manchester, New
Hampshire)

ChapterIX. Poletophardwareandconnectors

107

of the connector. It is also difficult to insulatethis type of connector due to its size and the exposed bolt
threads. For small conductor,this type of connector is more expensive that other types that cover the
same range of conductor sizes.
This type of connector is typically availablefor conductor no smaller than about 8 mm2 (AWG #8).
Compressionconnectors
Compressionconnectors provide excellent electric and mechanical
connectingproperties. The compression connector, with its wide range of
applications, has become the most widely used and least problematic
connectoravailable in the market today. Compressiontap connectors can
accept a wide range of conductors sizes and can accommodate copper,
aluminum, and ACSR (Fig. 50).
This type of connector requires a special compression tool, which frequently
uses custom dies that are placed in the jaw of the tool and match the
compression connector being used. However,some standardized dies can
cover a range of conductor sizes. A drawbackassociated with using this
type of connector is that nothing can be done without the proper tool and
proper die. If this tool has been misplaced or damaged, then the use of
generic tools like pliers or vise grips might be attempted. But these will
normallyresult in an improper connection. Another drawbackto these
connectors is that they can only be used once;they cannot be opened and
reused elsewhere.

Fig. 50. A compression


largerdistributionline
to a smallerservice
drop. (Source: Burndy
Crop., Manchester, New
Hampshire)

These connectors are typically available to handle conductor begirming at about 3 mm2 (AWG #12). The
connector shown in Fig. 50 can handle a range of conductor sizes. Before the connector is crimped,the
upper portion is hung over the main conductorand the end of the smaller service drop is passed through
the opening at the bottom.

Securingthe conductors:Deadendhardware
Parallel-grooveclamps
The parallel-grooveclamp can appear similar to the parallel-groove connector described previously but is
more robust and usually has more bolts to clamp down on the conductor (Fig. 51). Designs are available
that can be used to clamp either bare or insulatedconductor. These operate by crushing somewhat the
cable and slightlydeforming it. As a deadend clamp, the conductor is passed around an insulator and the
tail is folded back on itself and clamped. The same procedure is also commonly used for deadendingguy
wires. As with all bolted hardware, if the bolts and nuts are not tightened according to the manufacturer's

Fig. 51. Parallelgrooveclamp.

(Source: Burndy Corp.,


Manchester,

New

Chapter IX. Poletop hardware and connectors

108

specifications,the deadend may fail. Anotherdrawback is


cost, and as a deadendingsolution, parallel-grooveclamps are
not the most cost-effectivesolution.
A parallel-grooveclamp can also be used to secure a pair of
insulated conductors to a wire loop (a bail) that is in turn
hooked to the pole or other support as is shownin Fig. 52.
The clamp used in this figure was fabricated locally in Nepal.
But a common problem was that, because considerableforce
is required to tighten the clamp, it would eventuallycut into
the insulated conductorsand create a short.
Preformeddeadends
The most popular and cost-effective deadendinghardware for
the conmmonsizes of conductorused by electric utilities (#6
to 4/0 or from 13 to 110 mm2 ) is the preformed deadend
(Fig. 53). The preformeddeadend requires no special tools
and, for small conductors,no tool whatsoever for installation.
The preformed deadend is
inserted around the insulator or
deadend clevis and then
wrapped around the conductor

t
u
A
.
ABC is
pole and the two-conductor
deadendedon bothsidesof the
tree.

LV

(which can be either insulated or

bare). The few drawbacks to


this deadendingdevice are that
the preformed grip must be

specificallymatchedto the
spcnductrysiz

heand
its reuse is

Fig. 53. Preformed deadends installedoverthe end of a length


of conductor. (Source: Preformed Line Products,Cleveland, Ohio)

conductor size and its reuse


not recommended. However, in the real world, this is of
little concern, because deadends are rarely replaced.
IS

Automatic deadends

-4,

Automaticdeadendsareavailablefor copper,aluminum,
and ACSR conductors. A machinedjaw insideof a
tapered cylinder adjusts and holds the conductorin place
(Fig. 54). This type of deadend is the easiest of all
deadendsto install and some manufacturerswill allow
the deadend to be reused. The main drawbackis the cost.
For small conductor sizes, the automatic deadend
solution may not be the most economical option. This
deadend is available for conductors beginning at 8 mm2
(AWG #8).
U-bolt-type clamps

Specialty clamps which utilize a U-bolt along with a cap


and a spacer to confinethe conductor are available
Chapter IX. Poletop hardware and connectors

Fig. 54. An automaticdeadendcanbe


used at each end of a guy wire.
109

(Fig. 55). These should not be confused


with standard U-bolts that are commonly

available. These latter are to be used only


with steel cable. If a U-bolt is tightened on
copperor alurminum,it will compress into
the softer metal, damage the conductor, and
possibly cause premature failure.
Fig. 55. U-bolt-typeclamp. (Source:BurndyCrop.,

Wedgeclamps

Manchester,
NewHampshire)

Wedge clamps can be used for deadending

self-supporting service drop wire. A wedge clamp


commercially available for this purpose is shown in
Fig. 56. In its operation, the conductor is slipped
between the wedge and the sleeve (Fig. 57). Placing the
conductor under tension forces the wedge into the
sleeve, compressing the conductor against the sleeve.

Fig. 56. WedgeclaMp. (Source:Thomas


&

The clamping force increases as tension on the


conductoris increased.
conductor IS increased.

~~~~~Betts,
Memphis,
Tennessee)

The wedge clamp grips both ACSR and aluminum conductorand is available with a rigid or flexible bail
(the loops at the end of the clamp from which it is supported). Single clamps may accommodate a range
of conductor sizes. The wedge clamp has a large surface area that grips the conductor with or without
insulation and minimizes crushing damage to the conductorand/or insulation. An advantage is that no
special tools are required for installation and the wedge clamp may be reused.
This clamp is not readily available in most local marketsand is a more expensive type of deadending
device. Sizes are available for conductors beginning at 13 Mm2 (AWG #6).
Wedgeclamps are also available for deadending insulatedconductorsuch as ABC (Fig. 58).

Supportingthe conductor
Racks, upset bolts, and clevises are used to support spool insulatorsthat are in turn used to support
conductors on the pole. For all these options, the conductorshould be tied to the spool as shownin
Fig. 59. If there is a deviation in the direction of the line at the pole, the conductor should be placed on
the side of the spool insulator so that the conductor pushes against
it (the first two illustrations in Fig. 60). If the angle of deviationof
the line is greater than 600, then the conductor shouldbe deadended
in each line direction (Fig. 60, last illustration); otherwise,
conductor

Fig. 57. Basic configuration of a wedge clamp.

ChapterIX. Poletophardwareand connectors

Fig. 58. This wedge clamp for


insulatedABC conductor is
fabricated of plastic.

110

excessive force is placed on the rack or clevis support.


Racks
For multiple-wirelow-voltage installations,spool
insulatorsare typically fitted to racks that are fastened to
the pole with two or more machine bolts (Fig. 61). The
racks can be fitted with multiple insulatorsat fixed
spacings, thus providingflexibility in different
configurationsof low voltage-lines. The advantage is

Fig. 59. Tyinga conductorto a spool

insulator

Fig. 60. Proper


placement of the
conductoron a
spool insulator.

that a single standardizedrack can accommodatealmost all the open low-voltage applications, thereby
simplifyingwarehousing and purchasing. This approach can alsolead to the main disadvantages of the
racks. The full use of the multiple spools may not be necessary and the rack becomes an expensive piece
of hardwarewhere a single upset bolt or support clevis would suffice. There is also a tendency to
overstressthe rack when it is used in deadend applications with larger conductor (i.e., because of the
greater tension involved). The bolt pattem of the rack may not conform to the deadend spacing of the
conductors and the rack will bend and eventually fail. Another disadvantage is that if a bare conductor is
not correctlytied to the vertically installed spool insulator, it can move down onto the metallic support
and cause a short to ground.
Upset bolts
Single and double upset bolts are used for single conductor
installation (Fig. 62). The upset bolt is a modified machine bolt
with an extension for installinga single spool insulator. The single

Fig. 61. Spoolinsulators

________

and used here to deadend a


line. In this case, the bolt
patterncoincideswith the

Fig. 62. Spool bolts (single- and double-upset).

spoolpositions.

(Source: Joslyn Manufacturing Co., Franklin Park, Illinois)

ChapterIX. Poletophardwareandconnectors

ill

upset bolt is for mounting the neutral and the spool is mounted
next to the pole. The doubleupset bolt is used for energized
conductors and provides spacing between the pole and the spool
insulator. The upset bolts are used in tangent applications (i.e.,
no lateral angular change in the direction of the conductor as it
passes the pole) and for angles up to 50 (Fig. 63). The
advantage of the upset bolt is that it is an inexpensive support
for a spool insulator and spacing between conductors is not
fixed as with the fixed spacing of the rack.
Support clevises

Support clevises are fixed, single-insulator supports that are


fastened directly to the pole with a machine bolt. These look

'

4==K

K 49

like single-spoolinsulatorracks (Fig.64). Theadvantageof a


support clevis is that a single hardware item can be used for all
applications. However, a support clevis with a machine bolt is

costlier than an upset bolt. Also, an improperly tied bare


conductor can drop down onto the metal support can and cause a
short to ground, depending on the type of pole. Clevis supports
are used for line angles from 50 to 30.

Fig. 63. Comparisonof the


installationof a single upset bolt
and a clevis. The former is only
used for angles less than about 50.

Swinging clevises

Spool-insulatorswingingclevises (Fig. 65) are used to provide a flexible swinging support for the
conductor. Swinging clevises are use in deadending applicationsand angles from 300 to 60 where a
certain amount of freedom of movement is desired for attaching the conductorto the pole. This freedom
of movement is desirable at angle structures and deadends to absorb mechanical stresses caused by wind
and span length variations. The advantage to the swinging clevis is that it provides a shock absorbing
point for the conductorand provides a greater distance between the pole and the conductor. The
disadvantage is that this unit is relatively expensive compared to the fixed clevis supportand requires an
increased inventory of hardware.

I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~B
,

it, WE4
-

Fig. 64. Support clevis.

(Source: Joslyn

Manufacturing
Co.,FranklinPark,Illinois)

ChapterIX. Poletophardwareand connectors

Fig. 65. Swinging

clevis. (Source:Joslyn

Manufacturing
Co.,FranklinPark,Illinois)

112

Wireholders
A wireholder is a porcelaininsulator fitted with a
heavy wood screw or clampingdevice in order to
secure it to a woodenbeam or pipe conduit,
respectively (Fig. 66). Wireholdersare designed
for service drop (Fig. 67) applicationsbut have
found use in small conductorapplications for main
lines. The advantagesare ease of installationand
low cost. Their disadvantageis their relatively low
mechanical strength to supportthe conductor. Over
time, the wireholder may loosenand fall from the
pole as the pole deteriorates.
Other approaches

Otherapproacheshavebeenadoptedto support

.'-'

(Source:JoslynManufacturing
Fig. 66. Wireholders.
Co.,FranklinPark,Illinois)

conductor. One such approachis the use of


suspension clamps that are availableto supportbare or insulated conductor(Fig. 68). Locally-made Jshaped clamps have also been used. However,in this case, care must be taken when used to support
insulated conductor or bare aluminum conductorbecause, over time, the support can pierce the insulation
or cut into the conductor. Commercially,clamps are available which are coated with heat- and WVresistant plastic. Nepal fabricatedits own clamps with a flexible insert to protect the insulation (Fig. 69).
Other less conventionalapproachesto supportingconductorare found in low-cost schemes that use
insulated conductor(Fig. 70). This can be either multiple lengths of single-coreinsulated conductor or
non-metallic sheathedmulti-conductor. In these cases, the conductoris either looped once around the
pole (Fig. 71) and held in place with a staple or is supportedby a loop of insulatedwire also held in place

Fig.67. A wireholderusedto deadenda service


dropmustbe securedto a solidpartof the
home.

ChapterIX. Poletophardwareandconnectors

qNW

Fig. 68. A commercially made


suspension clamp for bare
messenger conductor. To
supportinsulatedconductor,
the sameclampis availablewith
a plasticcoating.

113

to prevent its slipping down the pole. While all these approaches
can initially work, a major concern is how long it will be before
the conductor breaks or the insulation wears through from rubbing
due to movement of the conductor and due to the concentration of
force over a small area. This can then cause a potential threat to
the safety of people in the vicinity and requires further repair
which might be even more makeshift and dangerous. Therefore,
while this results in an initially cheaper system, it will result in a
system that is less reliable and less safe and, over the long term,
possibly costlier.

Lengtheningconductor:splices
When long lengths of conductor are required, it may be necessary
to splice or join two pieces end to end. Splicing should serve two
purposes: to maintain electrical conductivity and to maintain the
physical strength of the conductor through the splice,

Fig. 69. A locally-fabricated Jhook with a flexible insert to


support insulatedABC in Nepal.

Where the conductor is small and relatively inexpensive, it may be advisable to avoid splices altogether.
In the case of a distribution line, this would be done by simply deadending the conductor to the pole
nearest its end and cutting off the remainder, except for a short tail. The next length of conductor used to
continue the line would also be deadended at that pole. A connector (p. 104) would then be used to join
together the two loose tails, providing the electrical continuity.
For copper and steel conductor, splices can be made by
properly twisting the conductors together and soldering. But
special hardware is typically used for this purpose. Four
basic types of acceptable splices are described below. Parallel
clamps should not be used to splice two conductor together
under tension because this can damage the conductor.
However, parallel connectors can be used when the

(a)

(b)

. 4.

staples

pole

Fig. 70. Several rudimentaryapproaches for fixing an


insulatedconductorto a pole.

Chapter IX. Poletop hardwareand connectors

Fig. 71. Insulatedcopper line


secured to a distribution pole by
wrapping once. Stapling the conductor prevents movementdown the
pole.

114

conductors are not under tension, such as between the loose ends of two deadended conductors on the
same pole.

Wrapped/twistedsplices.
This splice is used on small solid
conductors made of copper or steel.
The two wires are laid parallel and
one conductor is wrapped over the
other in reverse turns. Such a splice Fig. 72. A twisted splice before soldering.
is shown in Fig. 72. To improve the
conductivity and strength the splice
is soldered. This type of splice requires discipline and an appreciation for quality workmanship if it is to
be used successfully.
Twisted splices should not be used with ACSR, AAAC, and other aluminum multiple-wire conductor
because these do not provide any mechanical strength and would introduce line loss due to poor
conductivity across the splice.

Compressionsplice
This type of splice is very reliable and now commonplace. For small size conductors, the cost of this
splice is very attractive. A compressible splice is a metal tube that slides over the ends of the conductors
to be spliced and is squeezed or crimped onto the conductor by a compression tool. The compression
sleeve should only be used for the size of conductor for which it has been specified. Furthermore, the
compression tool must be fitted with the dies for that particular sleeve. If properly installed, the sleeve
should be able to support the full tension of the conductor. A disadvantage of this splice is that is cannot
or should not be made without the proper compression tool and die.
For multi-layered ACSR transmission conductors, a couple of sleeves are installed over each other. The
inner steel sleeve is used to secure the two ends of the steel core and the outer sleeve is used over the
outer aluminum strands and the inner sleeve. However, for the ACSR commonly used for distribution
line, this type of splice is increasingly being replaced by a single sleeve placed over the entire conductor.
Sizes range from solid #8 AWG (8 mm2 ) copper conductor and #4 AWG (21 mm2 ) ACSR on up.
For small solid-core conductors, a compression splice would be the best recommendation. This splice
will offer both good mechanical strength and optimum electrical conductive properties. Hand operated
mechanical presses are reasonably priced and can provide years of service if cleaned and maintained
periodically.

Preformedsplice
This splice is made up of preformed tempered wire that is installed by hand over the conductor as in the
case of preformed deadends. The splice principal is based on the "Chinese finger puzzle". As tension is
applied to the splice the covered preformned wires will grip the spliced conductor firmer. As in the case of
preformed deadends, preformed splices should not be reused. These types of splices do not require
special tools like the press for the compression splices. Splices for small sizes are not readily available
below #6 AWG and the splices may not accept full tension.

Chapter IX. Poletop hardwareand connectors

115

Automatic splice
This splice is based on griping wedges
inside of a tapered tube (Fig. 73). The
- -bared end of each conductor to be
'
spliced is inserted into the tube with the
gripping jaws. When the ends are fully Fig. 73. An explodedviewof an automatic splice. (Source:
inserted and then placedundertension, FargoMfg.Co.,Poughkeepsie,
NY.)
the gripping wedges are pulled toward
each end, further tightening their grip on the conductor. The advantage of this splice is that its application
requires no special tools. It is the easiest and most trouble-free method of splicing conductor. On the
other hand, this type of splice is usuallythe most expensive of all the mechanical splices available,
although prices have been going down as they have gained in popularity. These splices cannot be reused.
Automatics splices are commonly availablefor solid copper conductor down to AWG #8 (8 mm2 ) and for
ACSR down to AWG #4 (21 mm2 ).
-

Knotting
An unconventional but fairly common practicefor some low-cost schemes that use smaller insulated
conductor is to join the conductors by knottingtogether their ends. In this manner, it is the knot that
provides the strength in tension. The insulationon the free ends of the knot is partially removed and the
ends should then be connected using one of the techniques described earlier (p. 104). This is not a
conventionally accepted splice and it is not clear how durable it is, what type of knot least compromises
on the strength of the line, etc.

ChapterIX. Poletophardwareand connectors

116

X. Guys and anchors


When a line deadendson a pole or when there is a deviationin the directionof the conductor at a pole, it
places a permanent force on the pole. If significant,this force must be counteractedby a guy wire that
transfersthe force to an anchor in the ground. Guy wires are usually made of stranded steel that is
heavily galvanized. However, where guysare near chemicalplants or in mining districts, galvanizedwire
will not stand up, and copper-cladcable may be used under such conditions.
While guy wires are commonlyused with conventionalmedium- and low-voltage lines, mini-gridsmay
use considerablysmaller conductor. When this is the case, these smaller conductors can be placedunder
less tension, and forceswhich are in turn transferred to the poles at bends or at dead ends are
correspondinglysmaller and may not require guys to counteract. Furthermore,if ground clearanceis
more than adequate,lines can have considerable sag, further reducing the tension (see sag-tension
relationship,p. 80).
In some countries, guy wire can be useful and tends to "disappear", placing the system at risk. Therefore,
if a guy is essential to ensure the proper operationof the system, all member of the communitymust be
aware of this to avoid tampering or theft. The guy must also be protected vehicles and pedestrians from
accidentallyrunning across it.

Strength of cable
Guy on a deadendpole
Fig. 74 illustrates two cases in which guys are used. In the case of a simple deadend at the end of a line

(a), the tensionin each of the conductorsexerts an unbalanced force on the pole. H represents the sum of
the horizontal forces on the pole due to the tensions in the two or more conductors. In most cases,this is
approximatelythe same as the sum of the tensions in the conductor. A guy is required to counterbalance
this force. However,because the
guy is anchored in the ground and
makes an angle 0 to the horizontal,
(a)
fbI
the tensionin the guy is greater
(b)
than H. It is also increased by a
factor SF, a safety factor of
perhaps 2. With a total force of H
imposed by all the conductors, the

guy must be able to resist the force


Tgof the following value:
T H -SF
cost)

---------

2Hsin/

2H sing/2)

The tensionin each conductorcan


be obtained oncethe sag and
weight of that conductor has been
established (p. 79).

Chapter X. Guys and anchors

Fig.74. Calculatingguy tensions (a) at a deadend structure


and (b) at a deviation along a line.

117

Guy at a deviation
If there is a deviation in the line equal
to an angle of a, the conductors exert
anunbalanced force i
n direction
the
that bisectsthe angles between
the twon
conductors of a value shown in
Fig. 74. Here, His the sum of the
horizontal forces of all the conductors
in any one direction and is again
approximatelyequalto the sum of the
tensions in all the conductors in that
direction. All the forces originating
with the conductors must again be
resisted by the guy, resulting in a
tension in the guy of the following
value:
2H. SF sinS-I
g

(a)

(b)

pformed

eadend

J-clamp

===

parallel-groove
cdamp

_
Fig.75. Optionsfor securinga guywire to a pole.

cos=

Securing the guy to a pole


Fig. 75 illustrates two conventional ways of securinga guy wire to a pole. The first (a) requires a guy
hook of any one of numerous designs (Fig. 76) mountedwith a through bolt. With a wrapped type design
(b), the guy wire encircles the pole over curved sheet metal plates to prevent the guy from biting into the
grain of the wood. A J-clamp (Fig. 77) on each side of the pole prevents the guy wire from traveling
down the pole. The guy wire is deadended by using eitherpreformed deadends(p. 108), parallel groove
clamps (p. 107), automatic deadends (p. 108) or U-bolts (Fig. 78).

_.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~*

Fig. 76. Guy hook


attachment.(Source:
JoslynManufacturing
Co.,
FranklinPark,Illinois)

ChapterX. Guysandanchors

Fig. 77. J-hook.(Source:


JoslynManufacturing
Co.,
FranklinPark,Illinois)

Fig.78. U-boltclamp.(Source:
JoslynManufacturing
Co.,Franklin
Park,Illinois)

118

Types of anchor
Several approaches to anchoring can be applied in
less accessible areas. The least expensiveanchoris
probably the deadman anchor. It has the advantage

that its holdingpowercansurpassthatof other

excavated

A
--- 1

trench

_E-_

types of anchors because this can be changed by


PlanView
changing its size, in addition to its depth. Anchors
of this type are commonlymade of a section of a
anchorro
log. Even untreated logs can last a long time if
adequately buried. At times, sections of concrete
un sturbed
that have broken in transport have been used as
go
/
anchors. This type of anchor is installedas shown
in Fig. 79. The anchor rod is laid in an area which
log
has been trenched out. As with all buried anchors,
it is preferable to tie into them using threaded
SectionViewAA
anchor rods that connects to the guy wire above
ground because they are less susceptibleto
Fig. 79. Installationof a deadmananchor.
corrosion damage. A hole should be drilledthrough
the log and a washer of adequate size used under
the nut. As a less costly although possibly less durable alternativeto using an anchor rod, the guy wire is
sometimes painted with bitumen, placedaround the anchor, and tied together with a guy (parallel groove)
clamp.
A second type of anchor is the plate anchor.
Its installation is illustrated in Fig. 80.
Because this anchor bears completely
against undisturbed earth, it develops a large
undisturbed
holding power in most soil. Where the cost
round
of labor is high, the disadvantage with both
plate
of these types of anchors is that considerable
anchorrod
labor could be required to dig a hole of
driveninground
adequate size and depth. In areas with
vehicular access, this can sometimesbe
avoidedthrough the use of screw anchors
Fig.80. Installation
of a plateanchor.
that are screwed into the ground. Power
equipment is generally used for this purposebecause considerable torque is required.
Each of these anchors should be installed so that it rests beneath undisturbed earth as much as possible.
The entire length of the anchor rod and the guy cable should be set in a straight line between the
attachment on the pole and the point where the rod attaches to the anchor. If the rod is out of alignment, it
will eventually pull into alignment, causing a lengtheningof the guy-anchor assembly and permittingthe
pole to lean in the opposite direction.
A third alternative is an anchor rod cast into a circular block of concrete (Fig. 81). But this type of anchor
most effectively works with a mechanizedpole auger slightly larger than the diameter of the concrete
block.

Chapter X. Guys and anchors

119

In solid rock, a rock anchor (Fig. 82) can


be used. A hole the size of the anchor
(and not larger) must be drilled in the rock.
Once inserted, this anchor stays in place
by drivingit over a wedge that opens the
end of the anchor, wedging it is place. A
variety of rock anchors are available.

Sizingan anchor

h f anho

Without extensive and costly soil tests, it


is difficultto precisely determine the
required size and depth of an anchor. It is
more economicalto oversize these. To size
an anchor,it can be conservatively
Fig.81. Concreteblockanchor.
assumedthat the anchor is held in the
ground solely by the weight Wof the soil
directly above it (Fig. 83). And for an
anchor to function properly, this weight must be at least equal to the
componentof the force in the guy wire pulling vertically.
Tg sin8O=W=wwA.D
In this equation, A represents the area of the anchor (m2 )as seen from above.
An averagevalue for the unit weight of soil (w) is 1,300kg/m3 or 13 kN/m3 .
This is a value for undisturbedsoil, which should be the case if the anchor
has been properly installed (as described earlier). To calculate the minimum
depth at which the anchor must be buried, the above equation is solved for D:
T sin0E

D= g

w A

tren
anchorrod

gyre
rack
anchor
bedrock
Fig. 82. Installationof
a rockanchor.

From an earlier equation, it can be seen that the value of Tg,already includes
a safety factor SF. The value of D can be altered somewhat if it is felt that a modification of the safety
factor is required.

ChapterX. Guysand anchors

120

tension
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~guy

,_
anchor rod

'-'
'.I

>'

sin E

anchor

Sj

'Tg

Fig. 83. An anchor is assumed to be restrained by the weight of the soil above it.

ChapterX. Guys and anchors

121

XI. Safetyand protection


Introduction
This chapter is concerned with the reliability and the safety of the distribution and housewiring systems.
One concern is to ensure protection of appliances and end-use equipment. These can be damaged by
incorrect installation and poor-quality electricity supply. These factors in turn can lead to safety risks as
well as to needless expenses. This concem extends to the protection of distribution cables, housewiring,
and devices from degradation and damage; otherwise, these present similar risks.
Risks to appliances and equipment that should be protected against can be caused by the following:
*

Incorrectly installed or sized components causing internal heating (such as poor electrical
connections, undersized conductor, or motors that are not properly matched to the speed of the
load they are driving)

Excessive currents, caused either by overloading the circuit or by contact between two or more
conductors (generating heat and/or sparks which could lead to fire)

Undervoltage and overvoltage (which can prevent motors from properly starting, in turn leading
to excessive currents; prematurely age fluorescent lamps and ballasts; or burn out light bulbs)

Underfrequency and overfrequency (both factors which can cause some appliances to run hotter)

Mechanical stress (for instance, dropping a heavy or sharp object on a cable, a tight bend forced
on an inflexible cable, or a conductor connection failing due to fatigue caused by repetitious
flexing)

Temperature stress (external overheating caused by, for example, placing a cable too close to a
fire, cookstove, or lamp)

Chemical stress (such as corrosion caused by joining of two dissimilar metals such as aluminum
and copper or the degradation of insulation material causing embrittlement and cracking)

Lightning

Ingress of dust and liquids (such as rains and condensation)

Another closely related concern is human safety. Electricity can be dangerous, particularly for villagers
to whom it is largely unfamiliar. Every effort should be made to minimize the risk to those using
electricity. In addition to threats to safety caused by the factors mentioned above, other risks to humans
include the following:
*

Shocks due to direct contact with live conductors.

Shocks due to indirect contact with live conductors, by touching liquids or exposed metallic parts
which have inadvertently become electrically live (or by touching other people who are
inadvertently live)

Fires started by sparking or overheating of damaged or degraded or wrongly installed electrical


components

Shocks due to lightning conducted to exposed parts or liquids.

Chapter XI. Safety and protection

122

The need to ensurea safe and reliable system should be a concern at each step of the project as it
progresses, from design stage through to construction. This concern for safety should continue through to
the operation and maintenance of the system. Each time any action has to be taken-whether repairing a
fallen conductor, extending the distribution system, or adding outlets in a home-the normal reflex action
should to be to ponder the safety implications of each design or procedurebeing considered.
In designing and constructing a mini-grid, the objective should be to strive to address all these potential
risks. This can be done through a variety of actions:
*

Incorporatingand correctly installing the following:


-

Overcurrent circuit devices

Residual-currentdevices (ground-fault circuit interrupters)

Grounding electrodes

Lightning arresters

Voltageand frequency limiters (these are considered as part of the design of the electricity
supply rather than of the distribution system and not consideredherein)
Properlymaintaining the installation

Periodicallytesting installed safety devices and replacing them as necessary

Taking precautions against mechanical, thermal, and chemicalstress

Consumerand operator education

Because the concept of grounding (or earthing) of an electrical system is commonlyreferred to in


discussionsabout protection and safety,, this chapter will begin by reviewingthis topic. It will then
describe the various devices used to protect both equipment and people from electrical shock. This will
be followed by explanations of various electrical faults that must be protected against and how proper
grounding and the use of these devices can be used to guard against hazards posed by these faults.

Grounding
Theory
While the resistance of soil is generally high, it is frequently a fairly good conductor from one point on
the earth to another simply by virtue of the large cross-sectionalarea of this "conductor". An example of
how the earth can be used as a conductor is the method of transmitting electricityover long distances,
called single-wireearth-retum (SWER). Early telegraphy systems also used the ground as a return
conductor. In these cases, instead of using two conductors to transmit electricityas is conventionally
done, the electricityis transmitted to the load in one conductor and returns back to the source through
earth or the ground(Fig. 84). The electricity enters and leave the earth through grounding electrodes that
can be in the form of a long metal rod, a sheet or ribbon of metal, or a matrix of reinforcing bar embedded
in the concrete floor of a building.
While it was previously noted that most of the ground "conductor"has a low resistance because of its
large cross-sectionalarea, this may not be true in the immediate vicinity of the grounding electrodes. In
this area, the current must pass through the soil that has a relatively small cross-sectionalarea. This
increases resistance to the flow of current. If grounding electrodes are used as protective measures with
mini-grids, it is necessary to ensure that the resistance in the vicinity of these electrodes is sufficiently

ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

123

low. This is requisite for the proper operation of


some electrical componentssuch as lightning
arresters and, dependingon system design, circuit
breakers, and for the protection of individuals
using the system. Several approaches for reducing
resistance in the vicinity of a groundingelectrode
are discussedbelow (p. 123).

outgoing
current

power_

load

supply

w:j;
Z~~~~///

g
g~~~~~~lectroden

Typesof grounding
Rod: Groundingrods are the most economical
returning
cu
rret
means of grounding,require no excavation, and
can be more easily driven deeper into the ground,
Fig. 84. Using the earthas a conductor.
where resistivity is less because of increased
moisture. Deep groundrods are much less sensitive to seasonal variationsthan grounding systems
installed near the surfacethat dries out during the dry season. Drivingthe rod into the ground also
ensures a close, definite contact with the soil.
There are several types of ground rods. Solid copper gives excellentconductivityand is highly resistant
to corrosion. But it is expensive and, being a soft metal, it is not ideally suited for driving deep in heavy
soils. Steelrods, galvanized to reduce the chance of corrosion, are inexpensiveand strong but the life of
the galvanizingcan be short in acidic soil. The best choice is a steel core with a copper cladding. The
steel gives it strengthwhile the copper exterior offers good conductivityand resistance to corrosion. Care
shouldbe taken to ensure that the copper exterior is more than a thin copper plating which mnightgivethe
appearance of being a quality product but may be scrapeoff as the rod is driven,exposing the steel to
corrosion.
When installinga groundrod, if it is too long and cannot be driven further,the top should not be bent
over. Bending the rod can break the protective layer and encourage corrosion. This will in turn reduce
the cross-sectionalarea at the bend, increase the resistance at that point, and eventuallycause the rod to
rust through.
However,contrary to what might appear intuitively, the diameter of the rod has little impact on the
ground resistance. Larger-diameterrod should only be considered when it has to be driven in hard
terrain.
Plate: Plate electrodesare normally of cast-iron or copperburied vertically,with the center about a meter
below the surface. These provide a large surface area and are used mainly wherethe ground is shallow.
Disadvantagesincludethe need for considerable excavation and susceptibilityof variations in ground
resistance as the water content of the soil changes over the year. With this type of electrode, the
connectionbetween the grounding lead and the electrode is located undergroundand is thereforesubject
to corrosion through cathodic action. Painting the connectionwith bitumen can protect this from
happening.

Ensuringa goodground
Going through the motions of installingground electrodes does not ensurethat these serve their intended
purpose. This may actually be dangerous if it gives the false impressionof safetywhere there is none. If
a ground is made by inserting a short rod in dry soil, for example, it is possiblefor a "grounded"objectto

ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

124

still be energized with 240 V, whichcould be fatal if touched. It is thereforeimportantthat a good ground
is assured when it is installedand that it be maintainedover its life.
To ensure proper operationof the groundrod, ground resistance should be low. One way of doing this is
to extend the rod deeper into the ground. Researchundertakenby the U.S. National Bureau of Standards
concluded that doubling the length of the ground rod reduces resistance by 40 %.
Another option is to simply increasethe surface area of the grounding electrode. Whileit would appear
that this can be done by increasingthe diameter of an individual electrode,research with grounding rods
has shown that this only has a marginaleffect. For example, increasingrod diameter (and its surface
area) by a factor of 300 % only decreasesresistance by about 20 %. (The only reason for considering
increased rod diameter is when strengthis required to penetrate hard terrain.)
While increasingrod diameterhas little effect, increasingarea by using a number of interconnected,but
adequately spaced, electrodes seemsmore effective. However, resistance does not vary in inverse
proportion as the number used,as mightbe expected. In addition,multiplegrounds rods should be
spaced apart further than their depth of penetrationto be effective.14 In this case, increasingeffective
surface area by 300 % by using threeadequately spacedgrounding rods of the original size decreases
resistance by about 60 %.

In areas servedby a municipalwater system, anotherway of increasing the surface of the grounding
electrode is to use an existingcold water pipe on the consumer's premises. This is effective in cases
where the entire water system is metallic. However,with the increasingusage of PVC pipe for water
systems, the continuity is broken and this groundingmay not be as effective as assumed.
A second approach is to reduce the resistance of the soil in the vicinity of the electrode. One way is to
increase the moisture content of the soil in the vicinity of the electrode. Since the moisture of the soil
usually increases with depth,this can be accomplishedby drivingthe electrode deeper into the soil.
Another way is to chemicallytreat the soil in the vicinity of the electrodes (Fig. 85). This is also a useful
approach when ground resistanceis too high and groundrods cannot be driven deeper into the ground
because of hard underlying rock that has more
resistance than soil. Care must be takento ensure
SOIL TREA71NG MATERIAL IS
that the treatment does not corrode the electrode.
PLACED IN CIRCULAR TRENCH
AND COVERED WITH EARTH
Magnesium sulfate, coppersulfate, and ordinary
rock salt are suitable non-corrosivematerials.
Magnesium sulfate is the least corrosive, but rock
salt is cheap and does the job if applied in a

-;i

...

..

.*.

trench dug around the electrode. This method is


not permanent as the chemicals are gradually
leached away by rainfall. Depending on several

APPROX
0

oM.

factors, it maybe several years before another


treatrnent will be required. Chemicaltreatment
also reduces the seasonal variation of resistance

EARTH ELECTRODE

of the soil..
In areas of bedrock, with little soil cover, making
good grounds is difficult. Drillinga hole into
bedrock is necessary and generallyrequires
access to a pneumatic drill. In this case,to

Chapter XI. Safety and protection

Fig. 85. Trench methodof soiltreatment.'4

125

reduce groundresistance, an oversized hole is drilled, a grounding rod inserted, and the hole backfilled
with concretemortar or a sodium bentonite slurry. Bentonite is a clay mineral of volcanic origin mined in
most continents and ground to various sizes. Like concrete, it is hygroscopic, i.e., it attracts moistureby
chemicallybonding with water. For this reason, these materials form a good conducting mediumbetween
the groundingelectrode and the sides of the hole and a good bond to these two surfaces. It also increases
the effective area of contactbetween the electrode and the surrounding rock. Sodium bentonite absorbs
roughly five times its weight of water and expands to occupy more than 10 times its dry volume. It is
applied in granular form so that it can be poured in place before swelling begins. In a borehole, the
bentonite/watermixture should swell in less than a day. This material continues to draw moisture from
the soil and air around it, thus maintaining its volume and low resistivity. However, in a very dry, desertlike environment,it will dry and shrink, drawing away form the embedded rod and increasingresistance
rather than reducing it.
As noted earlier, a grounding electrode is usually more effective if it is installed in depth than if the same
electrode is laid horizontally closer to the surface. However, under the latter circumstances,grounding
can be improvedby embedding somewhat more than 5 m of 5-mm diameter, bare copper conductoror the
equivalentlength of 12-mmdiameter reinforcingbar (or properly bonded lengths of rebar) within or near
the bottom of a concrete slab or footingin direct contact with earth. In this case, a conductor would have
to be bonded to the steel or copper and brought out for connection. Concrete is not as conductiveas
bentonite,but it does improve electrical conductivity between the small diameter electrode and the earth.

Protectiondevices
Fuses

A fuse is a device for opening a circuit by means of a conductor


designed to melt when an excessive current flows through it.
Two types are commonly used: the rewirable fuse (Fig. 86) and
the cartridge fuse.
The principal feature of a rewirable fuse is that, once the fuse
has blown, the fusing element or wire can be easily replaced at
minimumcost. While these fuses may be convenient, low-cost,
and popular, a principal disadvantageis that any inexperienced
person can replace the blown fuse wire with one of incorrect
size or one made of ordinary wire. Such an action completely
negates the purpose of the fuse to open the circuit when current
reaches an unsafe level and places the system in jeopardy. In
one site visited, the continually blowing fuse was replaced by
progressivelylarger fuse wire. In the end, the generator
overheated and burned from the overload (p. 201).

i
s

Fig. 86. A rewirablefuse is screwed


to the ceramiccoverthat is then
snappedover the ceramicbase,
completingthe circuit.

Another disadvantageis that this type of fuse does not discriminate between a momentary high current
that is acceptable(e.g., due to a motor starting) and a continuous overload current that must be
interrupted. It also is not precise, because the actual fusing current depends on the ambient temperature
and the length of the fusing element. Furthermore,the minimum current for the fuse to blow might be
considerably(e.g,, two times) higher than its current rating, making it possible for the line being protected

ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

126

to operate at a considerably higher current than it was designedfor. The fuse can also deteriorateover
time, causing nuisance interruptions of the circuit.
To address some of these drawbacks,the cartridgefuse was developed. In this design, the fusing element
or wire is enclosed within a cartridgemade of ceramicor glass and is less susceptibleto deteriorationin
service. By being manufactured under controlled conditions,its current rating is more preciselyknown.
Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs)
A circuit breaker is an electro-mechanicaldevice that is
designed primarily to automatically open a circuit when
currents in excess of its design rating pass through (Fig. 87).
Under normal conditions, a mechanismwithin the breaker
holds the contacts in the closed position. The contactsare
automaticallyseparated when the release mechanismin the
breaker is operatedby magnetic and/or thermal means.
A magnetic breaker is tripped when excess current activatesa
solenoid. This pulls an iron slug into the solenoid'scoil and
collapses the attached tripping linkage to open the contacts.
Such breakers have a very quick reaction time. A therTnal
breaker is tripped with excess current heats a bimetallicstrip.

Theresultantdeflectiontrips thereleasemechanism.Because

-i

4W :F

of the time required to heat the bimetallic strip, reaction times


tend to be slower. This might be more appropriateon a circuit
Fig. 87. A selection of circuit
with a motor, because a brief initial peak current demandin
excess of the breaker's rated current is part of the normal
breakers. (Source:Airpax Protector Group,
operating cycle of a motor. A magnetic breaker used under
Cambridge,MD)
these circumstances might trip each time an attemptis made to
start the motor. Some breakers can contain both types of activation.
An ordinary switch is designed to makeor break a currentnot greatly in excessto its normal rated current.
A breaker can also be used to open a circuit manually,such as when work is undertakenon the circuit it
controls (e.g., the housewiring). However,a breaker is capableof disconnectinga much larger fault
current. Ordinaryswitches would sparkexcessivelyunder similar conditions,possibly damaging the
switch or even starting a fire.
While it is costlier than a fuse, a circuit breaker providesnumerous advantages:
*

It is easy to use and considerablymore precise and more sensitive than a fuse.

It can also be quicker acting;when small overload currentsoccur, the circuit breaker is likely to
operate before the fuse blows.

It can be tripped by a small sustainedoverload currentbut not by a harmless transient overcurrent


such as due to the switching surge which accompaniesthe ignition of a fluorescent lamp.

The breaker on a faulty circuit is easy to detect,becausethis is indicatedby the position of the
switch, and the breaker cannot be switched on as long as the fault conditionremains.

It can more conveniently be used as a switchwhenrepairs have to be done to the circuit. It can
be reset manually after a fault has been corrected,andno stock of fuses is necessary.

ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

127

It is factory-calibratedand cannotreadily be changed.

Under fault conditions, breakers positively disconnect all poles of the circuit it controls

The required capacity of the circuit breaker (or fuse) depends on its function. An overcurrent device at
the powerhouse (or transformer, if the mini-grid is connected to a larger network) would be used.to
protect the generator or transformer from being overloaded. The capacity of an overcurrent device placed
on the consumer's premises would depend on its function. If it is to ensure that the current does not
exceedthe capacity of the housewiring, then the size of the device would be set by this capacity. If it is to
limitconsumer-drawnpower to a specific limit that determines his tariff, then the device would be sized
accordingto this limit. For example, a household that has subscribed to a 50 W service would have a
breakerthat would trip if the demand goes significantlybeyond this limit.
Residual current devices (RCDs)
As is discussed below (p. 132), even very small currents can prove fatal. These currents are much smaller
than those that can be detected by the standard fuses and MCBs discussed above. The RCD is a
specializedform of circuit breaker developed to detect small fault currents that can pose a threat to
humans.

protected
circuit

An RCD, also called a ground-fault


circuit interrupter (GFCI), is a device
that is inserted in the circuit and
locatedbetween the power supply and
the circuit along which protection is
sought,usually on the premises of the
consumer(Fig. 88). This device is an
automaticswitch that senses the
currentinto the circuit to be protected
(Ij)and compares it with the current
out of this circuit (I). Under normal

RCD

supply

operatingconditions, these two

currents should be equal, and the

I
_

_I_B_

switchmaintains the supply.


Fig. 88. Potentially dangerouscurrentsleakingthrougha
However, under fault conditions, such
person(IB)will causethe currentin (I;)andcurrentout(la)
as when a person touches the live
of the circuitto be unequal,forcingthe RCDto openthe
current
of
the
conductor,a portion
circuit,
passingthrough the RCD into the
protectedcircuit would then pass
through that person (I,), leak into the ground, circumventthe RCD, and return through the ground back to
the supply either through a system ground if there is one, through any fault, or simply through capacitive
couplingbetween the circuit and the ground (p. 134). As soon as the RCD senses a difference (A)
between the incoming and outgoing currents, it trips and isolates the protected circuit.
An RCD operates by detecting the difference in current flowing into and out of the protected circuit,
independentlyof how well the generator is grounded or whether it is grounded at all. But incorrectly
groundingthe consumercircuit can prevent an RCD from detecting fault currents.

ChapterXI. Safety and protection

128

For example,if the neutral


conductorwere grounded on the
consumerside of the RCD
(Fig. 89a) and the generator ground
is poor or nonexistent, a lethal fault
current could flow through a
person and return to the neutral
conductorthrough this consumer
ground. Since current both in and
out of the RCD could then be
roughly equal, the RCD may not
detect the fault. If a consumer

(a) RCD may not trip


RCD

4E

I 0
poror

ground is used and if this is

nonexistent

connectedto the neutral conductor,


this connectionmust be on the
supply side of the RCD (Fig. 89b).
Actually, the neutral conductor can
be groundedany number of times
between the RCD and the power
supply and not adversely affect the
operation of the RCD.

ground
(b) RCD trips
RCD

If the metal frame of a piece of


electrical equipment is bonded to
the consumer ground (represented
by the dashed line in Fig. 89b), any
leakage current to the frame caused
by an internal fault would also

Iconsumerground

cause the RCD to trip before it is


even touched by an person.

Fig. 89. Proper placement of the RCDs is critical if these


devices are to operate properly. Incorrect placement of the

While an RCD is always a useful


device for protecting household

consumer ground may preventthe RCD from detecting a fatal


body current (a). If the consumer ground is bonded to the
system ground (larger dashed line), this should be done on

members against accidental shock,


h upysd
fteRD()
this can be a relatively expensive
device. In the U.S., single-pole
RCDs incorporated in dual power outlets are available for about $10. These are preset to trip at 4 to
6 mA. In the U.K., two-pole RCDs rated to trip at 10 mA cost roughly $70. The least expensiveunits are
those trippingat 30 mA but still cost about $40. Because the danger from shock is minimal if loads are
limited to lights and double-insulated appliances, RCDs for individual households are not essential. For
more affluent consumers who are likely to use other appliances such as refrigerators, cookers,and
machine tools, the use of RCDs should be considered, especiallysince these individuals can probably
easily cover the additional cost involved.

Double-insulatedappliances are those where the wires inside the appliance are insulated, where terminals are
normally not in contact with the inside of any metal casing, and where any metal casing in enclosed in a plastic
housing. These include appliances such as radios, TVs, and some power tools.

Chapter XI. Safety and protection

129

Tripping of an RCD indicates a fault condition that must be corrected in order to remove the hazard that it
will likely continue to present to equipment or people.
If the RCD resets and the person in the household knows what caused the tripping, the mini-grid operator
can then be infonned, isolate the supply for that premise only, and repair or remove the faulty appliance.
If the cause for the tripping is unknown, this must be investigatedfurther by the system operator:
*

If an RCD can be reset, this implies a fault that is temporaryin nature, possibly caused by
someone touching a faulty appliance. If the consumerdoes not know which appliance is causing
that tripping, the system operator must investigate further. One way to accomplish this is to
install a (temporary) consumer ground electrodeif one is not already installed. All appliances
should be disconnected from the protected circuitbeing checked. Each appliance is then
connected, one at a time, to the circuit, the chassisis grounded through the consumer ground
electrode, and then the appliance is switched on. If the RCD trips either when the appliance is
connected or when it is switched on, the culprit load has been found.

If the RCD still does not reset, the fault is probablypermanent in nature and located in the
equipment or cabling. The technician would first disconnectboth output leads from the RCD. If
the device can be reset, the problem is probablynot a faulty device. He would then reconnectthe
RCD and progressively isolate further sections of the circuit, by temporarily disconnectingboth
conductors to those sections being checked until disconnectingone section or appliance allows
the RCD to be reset. This indicates that the fault is located in the last disconnected section.

In both cases above, once the culprit has been found, it is necessaryto find the source of the problem so
that it can be repaired. A close inspection of the wiring and insulation may locate the cause of the fault.
An ohmmeter might also be of some use.

Protecting the system


Protecting against overload currents
Overload currents occur when too much load is placed on the circuit or generator. This type of
overcurrent can be caused by connecting too many lights or appliancesto the supply or by connecting up
appliances, such as hot plates or irons, that draw too much current. Overload currents can be caused
when switching on a motor, until it comes up to speed,especiallyif it starts under a load. During this
period, additional current is required until the motor comesup to speed. If the motor is starting up with
no load, e.g., the motor is connected to a rice mill but no rice has yet been placed in the hopper, the motor
will start fairly quickly and the period of overload andthe overcurrentwill be minimal. If, on the other
hand, the motor starts under load, e.g., a motor is connected to a pump at the bottom of a well, then the
motor is pushing against the pressure of a full pipe of water as soon as it starts. It will take it longer to
come up to speed, and the duration of the period of overcurrentwill increase. Overload currents also can
be caused by placing too much load on a motor after it has comeup to speed, causing it to slow down or
stall, such as a saw binding and stalling because the wood being cut is too wet and/or thick or the blade is
too dull.
Impact
Overload currents can be inconvenient and merely affect the performance of lights or appliances. For
example, if in the evening too many lights have been turned on, the excess current causes an increased
voltage drop in the distribution system, reducing the voltagethat is availablein the home or workplace.
ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

130

As a consequence,light bulbs will dim and this lower voltage maymake it impossible to even start a
fluorescentlamp until the total load on the system has been reduced.
Overloadcurrents can be dangerousas well, especiallyif they are sustained for long periods. The
increased voltage drop that results can prevent a motor from gettingthe power it needs to start. It then
comes up to speed slowly,drawing excess current in the process and exposing the wires to high
temperaturesdue to this excess current. Overheatingcan cause an accelerated deterioration of the
housewiring,generator,or motor insulationand its eventual breakdown,or even generate sufficient heat
to cause a fire. It can cause sparks in a switchwhen the appliance drawing the excess current is switched
off, damagingthe switch. Without any protection, it can also damagethe generator, inverter, or
transformerprovidingpower to the mini-grid.
Protection
To protect the system against overload currents, either of two devices are commonly used: fuses or
MCBs. These should be placed at the beginning of the mini-grid, i.e., in the powerhouse or at the
transformner,to protect the supply from being forced to supply more power than it has been designed to
generate and to protect the consumers from the effects of low voltage. These should also be placed on the
premises of the customers themselves, primarily to protect them from drawing too much current and

putting themselvesat risk of fire or electricalshock that may result. This protection also protects the
other consumersby isolatingthe offendingconsumerfrom the remainder of the mini-grid, permitting it to
operate normally oncethe offendingload has been automaticallyremoved. Depending on the size of the
mini-grid,additionalbreakers mightbe locatedat the beginning of each long branch of the grid. In case
of an overcurrenton one branch, the MCB would open, isolatingthat branch until the problem is resolved
but maintainingpower to the remainder of the community.
Overloadcurrents are not as large as short-circuitcurrents. Becausethe rating of fuses is not precisely
known, it is possible for fuses not to blow even if overload currents exceed the fuse rating. For this

reason, MCBsare often preferred to protect against overcurrents.


Protecting againstfault currents
Fault currentsbetween two conductors are caused under abnornal conditions when the close proximity or
accidental contact of one conductor to another causes current to flow between the two. Fault currents

which could prove hazardous to the system include the following:


*

Short circuits between conductors. These could be transient, high-level currents such as would be
caused by shorts within the system, when bare portions of the conductors supplying a load come

directly into contact with each other. This could be causedby a falling branch or tree pulling
down the distributionlines, causinguninsulatedportions of the conductor to touch each other; a
wire from a loose connectionwithin an appliancetouching the other wire; or a heavy object
fallingacross a wire, cutting through its insulation.
*

Leakagesthrough insulation. These are sustained,lower-levelcurrents causedby the leakage of


currentthrough degraded insulation. These currents can occur due to the breakdown of the
insulation used with conductors, such as housewiring, or with insulation within an appliance, such
as in the winding of a motor.

Chapter XI. Safety and protection

131

Impact
Short-circuit faults can damage both line and equipment because of the potentially large currents involved
and the heat that is generated. It may also cause fires. On the other hand, smaller leakage currents in
themselvesare not an immediate hazard. But even small currentscan heat the insulation, further
aggravatingthe situation over time, until a short circuit may eventuallydevelop.
Protection
Fuses and MCBs, installed in the powerhouse as well as on the premisesof the consumers, are generally
used to provide protection against short-circuit currents. These devices should already have been
included in the system and sized to protect against overload currents (see previous section). Because
short-circuitcurrents are considerably greater than overload currents,these devices will also serve to
protect against the former. However, because of the large currents that short circuits can create, these
devices must be designed to be able to safely accommodatethese high currents as they open, without
damage to themselves.
'Leakage faults involving small currents flowing
through degrading insulation along a conductor
cannot readily be detected unless the problem is
sufficientlyadvanced to generate the additional
currents needed to trigger a fuse or MCB. The best
protection is to use good quality insulated conductor
of adequate size, taking precautions in the use of
electrical equipment, and installing the housewiring
in areas where it is not exposed to conditions that

could initiate the deterioration of the insulation. It is


important to note that short-circuit and leakage faults
cannot be detected by RCDs. This is because, in this
case, the incoming and outgoing currents through
the RCD are equal (Fig. 90).

RCD

---

Fig. 90. With a short circuit or leakage


across wiring insulation,the current in and
out of the RCD remain equal and the RCD

will not trigger.

Leakage faults involving currents flowing through the insulationto the frame of a piece of equipment
could worsenover time if that equipment has been grounded through a consumerground (as shown in
Fig. 94). In this case, fault currents can flow back to the power supply through the ground, generating
heat and causing the insulation to deteriorate further. Depending on the resistance of the ground, fault
currents mightbe sufficient to trip a breaker on the consumer's premises. Chances for detecting such a
fault would be considerably improved if an RCD were includedon the consumer's distributionboard (see
Fig. 98b) and even better if the consumer ground were bonded to a multi-grounded system neutral (see
Fig. 98c).
On the other hand, if that equipment is not grounded, the leakage problem may not worsen and cause the
equipment to bum or otherwise fail. But in this case, it could prove a safety hazard to persons touching it.
This is coveredlater in this chapter.

Protectingagainstcorrosion/oxidation
Whenever different metals are in contact, especially in a damp environment,corrosion can occur, the rate
of corrosionsbeing dependent on the type of metal, the dampnesspresent, and the any contamination
(such as salt spray from the ocean or contaminants in industrial emissions). This problem occurs

Chapter XI. Safety and protection

132

primarily at any connections between


aluminum and copper conductors, such as
between an aluminum distribution line and
a copper service drop.
When exposed to air, the surface of
aluminum rapidly oxidizes. The thin
resistive film of aluminum oxide which
results can prevent a good contact between
it and another conductor, decreasing quality
of service.

)
(a)
Y

1)

(b)
1,

Impact
If conductors of different materials are
connected together, any corrosion which
appears at their points of contactwill lead
to the gradual deterioration of the surface,
increasing resistance and leading to an
increased voltage drop at the interface. It is
for this reason that special care must be
exercised with working with connections

(c)
A

between alurninum and copper.

(d)

Oxidation is mostly a problem at


aluminum-aluminum connections where it
forms a layer on the surface of a conductor
that increases the resistance at the
connection. Copper also oxidizes forming
a resistive layer, but this is easily cleaned or
simply broken down under the pressure of a

___
B

l
-

RC

- - - - I - -

connector.
Protection

Fig. 91. A person can complete a circuit just like any


other electrical component.

When making aluminum-aluminum or


aluminum-copper connections, special care
must be exercised, because the resistive oxide layer that forms on the surfaces of the conductor can result
in poor connections. The section on joining conductors (p. 104) explains the techniques involved in
making such connections and the precautions that must be taken into account.

Protectingpeople
Nature of the hazard
The generator in Fig. 91a generates 23 0 V and supplies a two-wire circuit that goes around the village.
For any appliance such as a TV to work, electric current must flow through the TV from one side of the
power supply (A) to the other side (B), thereby completing a circuit. The bulb is not lighted because the
switch is open, preventing electric current from flowing around the circuit from point A through the bulb
back to point B. As soon as the switch is closed, the circuit is completed, permitting the light to glow.

ChapterXI. Safety and protection

133

Now if a person accidentallytouches each of the two wires as shown in Fig. 91b, that person also
completes the circuit,and electric current will flow from point A to point B through him or her. The
amount of current dependson the electrical resistance of the body at that time, which, in turn, determines
the risk he or she faces. Human skin is quite resistant to electric currentwhen it is dry, but when wet, its
resistance is very low and fatal shocks can more easily occur.
Table 12 shows how much current flows through the body under differentcircumstances and the effects
of that current on the human body. The threat posed by these currents through the body depends on both
the magnitude of the currentand the length of time contact has been made. The larger the current, the
shorter the time it will take to do harm. The following sections explain several conditions that pose a
hazard to people and how these can be protected against.

Originof bodycurrents
Contact with both conductors
Description

The largest body currentsare caused by a person directly touching both sides of a circuit with different
parts of the body (Fig 91b). It might happen as someone is making repairs on the housewiring, without
disconnectingthe MCB or switch on the distributionboard. This action can easily lead to fatal currents.
Protection

Fuses or MCBs cannot be counted on to open the circuit during this type of fault condition. While
someone touching both conductors will increase somewhat the current drawn from the generator and
possible get a fatal jolt, this increased current is generallynot large enough to trigger these devices. Even
RCDs, which are designedto protect people from electric shock (p. 127),can offer no protection. The
best methods of protection against this type of fault are proper housewiring,correct wiring of appliance
fittings, goodmaintenance of insulation, and avoiding tampering with any part of the electrical circuit or
appliances. Protectionthen essentiallybecomes a matter for consumereducation and occasional
inspections of the consumers'premises by a technician or system operator. There is no reason for this
type of fault to occur unless one is playing with the housewiring or connections to electrical equipment
Table12. An estimateof the amountof currentflowthroughthe bodyunderdifferentcircumstanceswhencontactis madewithwiresat a standarddistributionvoltage. The effectof the currentflowingthroughthebodyis alsonoted.
Conditions

Effect

Bodycurrent

Dry skin

3 mA - 10 mA

Tingling sensation,slight shock.

Damp conditions, sweaty skin

10 mA - 20 mA

Tightening muscles, acute discomfort, and


difficulty in separating from electrical contact.
Prolonged contactharmful.

Damp conditions, sweaty skin,


electrical contact with water

20 mA - 50 mA

Harmful, sometimesseverely. Acute tightening of


muscles, especiallyin the chest area.

Damp conditions, sweaty skin,

50 mA and up

electrical contact with water

ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

Usually fatal. Irregular contraction of heart


muscles (fibrillation).

134

(such as sticking bare ends of wire in an outlet rather than using a proper plug).
Contact with a live conductor of a grounded system
Description

If the system neutral conductor is grounded, body currents can also result when someonetouches only
one side of the circuit (Fig. 91c). This is similar to the previous case because, while only one hand may
be touching one side of the circuit, another part of the body (e.g., the foot) is touching the earth that in
tum conducts current through to the system grounding electrode to the other side of the circuit. This
completes the circuit through the person. The only difference is that the current passing through the
person standing on the ground must also pass through his or her footwear as well as passing through the
ground. This would generally offer somewhat greater resistance to current flow than in the case
mentioned above, reducing somewhat the fault current through the person. But it can still prove fatal.
And if the person is barefooted and/or if the ground is wet, the resistance is much reduced, significantly
increasing the risk of shock.
Protection

This condition should not normally occur if the housewiring and the wiring of applianceshas been
correctly installed, if quality materials have been used, and if one does not tamper with the wiring or
appliances.
With this type of fault, protection can be afforded by using an RCD placed between the power supply and
the points that could be touched. When the RCD senses a current imbalance because some of the current
is passing through a person, it will open the circuit. However, for an RCD to function, the neutral
conductor should only be grounded on the supply side of the RCD (see Fig. 98c at the end of this chapter
illustrateswhere the system neutral should be grounded).
Contact with a live conductor of a floating system
Description

Even if no system ground is used, as is typically the case with mini-grids (i.e., the system is floating),
body currents can still be generatedwhen only one side of the circuit in touched. While there may be no
physical connection between any part of a floating system and ground, capacitance between the various
components of the systems (such as the generator and the distributionline) and the groundconstitutes a
return path for alternating current, although one with considerable reactance (i.e., resistanceto current
flow) depicted by Rc in Fig. 91d. Consequently, this is similar to the previous case, exceptthat in this
case, there is yet greater resistance in series with the person, furtherreducing the size of the fault current.
But a dangerous current can still exist, dependingon actual reactance to ground and body resistance.
Protection

The same means of protection can be used as were used as protection against the previous type of faultproper design with quality materials and an RCD.
Contactwith live appliance
Description

The discussionabove has focused on body currents caused by touching a live conductor. This situation
should rarely if ever occur under normal circumstances. However, a potentially more hazardous
situation-more hazardous because it might be encountered more frequently-occurs when a person in

ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

135

contact with the ground touches an electrical


appliance, such as a radio, refrigerator, or cooker
with an energized metal housing (Fig.92). This
may prove an unexpectedhazard because the
appliance is designed to be handled (a
refrigerator door to be opened or a power tool to
be held), but it is usuallynot possible to visually
determine whether or not this appliance is

energized.

--

Fig. 92. A fault in an appliance can lead to a

fault currentpassingthrougha persontouching


An appliance may become energized when a
it.
the
breakdown of the insulation occurs within
equipment or when a wire used internally
becomes frayed. This fault places a voltage on the housing of the appliance. Whilethis in itself may not
place the appliance at risk, someone touching this appliance and standing on the ground would completea
circuit, as in the casesjust discussed. The return path for the current would be through the system ground
(see dashed line in Fig. 92), whether it is through a physical connection between the ground and the
neutral conductor or through capacitive coupling between the two.

If the fault has a high resistance, resulting in very low body currents, this mightjust cause a tingling
sensation. But even this could prove of nuisance value as it may, for example,make the system operator
apprehensiveabout touching the powerhouse equipment that he should be adjusting during the operation
of the plant. On the other hand, under certain circumstances it could lead to a fatal current.
Protection

As with several of the other fault currents, these currents are usually relatively small (but could still prove
fatal) and cannot be detected by fuses or MCBs used to protect against shorts or overcurrents. Several
options for protecting against this hazard are possible. To avoid unnecessarilyincreasingthe cost of
electrification,the system designer must select the option that is the least expensiveand involved, yet one
that does not compromise on safety.
The most appropriate option depends on such factors as where protection is sought (i.e., on the
consumers' premises or in the powerhouse), what end-uses are envisioned,and whether the system is
floating or grounded.
Consumer protection: The protection required is determinedby the potential hazard that each end-use
might pose:
*

Lighting and entertainment. If the appliances being used do not have a metal housing that can
become live or energized, then this threat does not present itself and there is no need for
additional protection. This is the case in many rural homes, where end-uses are limited to light
bulbs with plastic light switches and to TVs and radios with plastichousings. In this case, RCDs,
consumer grounds, or the grounding of the system neutral are not necessary. The system should
be left floating (ungrounded).

Other end-uses. More sophisticated end-uses, especially applianceswith housings that can
conduct electricity,such as some power tools, rice cookers, motors, or refrigerators,are more
likely to present a threat to personal safety. Three approaches for protecting against this threat

ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

136

are described below. Each of


these approaches can be used
alone; together they provide an
increase safety factor (at a
financial cost).
Using double-insulated
appliances. A fault current
through the housing cannot
occur if it is entirely

manufacturedof an
insulating material, such as
plastic. Double-insulated
appliances should be
purchased when available;
these use properly insulated
internal wiring and have a
non-conducting extenor.
-

consumercircuit

housin

persontouching
standingon ground

to circuit

capacitive
bcouping
circuit
and
ground

consume
R

WI

oounsume

ron
R

T'

--

-----

and reactanceencountered
Fig. 93. The resistances
when an individualcomes into contact with a faulty
appliance. This circuit is floating but includes a
rud
cnue
s~~~onsumer
ground.

Using a consumer ground. If


the svstem is floating as is shown in Fig. 92, no physical connection exists between the
conductors and ground; the only connection is through capacitive coupling (shown by the
dashed grounding symbol). If a person comes into contact with the housing of a piece of
equipment in which a fault has occurred, the entire fault current would pass through the body.
What happens in this case is illustrated in Fig. 93 (leaving out the consumer ground for the
time being). The magnitude of this fault current I1 is calculated by dividing the impedance of
this portion of the circuit (equal to the vector sum of body resistance, RB;ground resistance,
RGI;and capacitive "resistance", Rc) into the total voltage that appears across this impedance.
These variables are defined in Fig. 93 which is a representation of what is happening in
Fig. 92, except for the addition of a consumer ground. (Fig. 95a in Box 7 presents a
quantitative example). Because the capacitive "resistance" (properly referred to as reactance)
is relatively high for a small system, the amount of fault current flowing through this circuit
and, therefore, through the person is largely limited by this reactance.
Now, adding a consumer ground provides a parallel path for this current; however, it does not
significantly decrease the total impedance and therefore does not noticeably increase the total
fault current, IF (compare the first equation in Fig. 95a and 95b). But what is important is that
the consumer ground provides a lower resistance path to ground, diverting most of the fault
current that would otherwise pass through the person and reducing the current through the
body (IB) to a safer level, depending on the effectiveness of this consumer ground (compare
the second equations in Figs. 95a and 95b).
If the neutral conductor were grounded, then the entire fault voltage would appear across the
person and the ground, independent of whether or not a consumer ground were used
(Fig. 94a). Unlike the previous case, the low-resistance connection(s) between the neutral
conductor and the ground would lead to a high fault current, and the consumer ground
generally would not reduce body currents to acceptable levels as in the previous case
described above. It might only succeed in doing this if the consumer ground has a very low
ground resistance, something frequently difficult to achieve in practice.

Chapter XI. Safety and protection

137

The required protection in this


case would be to bond the housing
to the system (neutral) ground
(Fig. 94b). This would place the
housing at the same voltage as the
neutral conductor that is already
grounded and reduce any body
currents. Furthermore,if any short
should occur within the housing,
the ensuing high currents through
this bonded ground (because of the
low resistance) will more likely be
sufficient to trip the MCB or blow
a fuse on the distributionboard,
isolating the faulty circuit and
removing the threat to a person.
But even if the fault current were
inadequate to accomplishthis, the
bonded circuit would place the
housing at ground potential,
removing any voltage difference
across the person and, therefore,-_-

reducing any body current to zero.


Therefore, to ensurea safe system
when the system neutral is well-

ground, a consumerground should


be included on the premises and

(a)

(b)
bondto ground

Fig. 94. For a system with a grounded neutral,


also bonding the consumer ground on his or her
premises to the grounded neutral conductor
ensures a safe environment.

also bonded to the neutral.


In this case, this consumer ground is redundant if the system neutral remains correctly
grounded. However, if for some reason the system grounds fail or the neutral conductor
breaks, the consumerground will again resume its role of diverting a portion of any fault
currents from the equipment frame to ground, thereby reducing potential fault currents
through the person touching the equipment. But depending on actual groundingresistances,
adequately lowering fault currents to completely eliminatethe threat of shock cannotbe
guaranteed.
-

Using an RCD. While each of the options described above would reduce the threat of
electrical shock to individuals on the premises due to faulty appliances,a properly installed
and functioningRCD can always ensure a safe environment. The only drawbackis cost. If
an RCD is included in the household circuit served by a grounded system, with metal
surfaces of electrical appliances bonded to the system neutral, it is essentialthat such bonding
is only located between the supply and the RCD (see Fig. 98c). Otherwise,the RCD may not
function because any fault current may return to the supplyby first going back through the
RCD rather than through the system ground.
If consumer grounds are used, it is also possible to use a single RCD to provide some
protection from equipment faults to a number of consumers who are locatedbetween the

ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

138

Box 7. Operation of a consumer ground


For this example, it is assumed that Fig. 93 representsa simple single-phasecircuit suppliedby a floating,
three-phase240 V power supply (i.e., the neutral conductoris not grounded). It supplies electricityto an
appliance whose wiring is shorted to its metal framenear the live end of the appliance.
Fig. 95a describes what is happening in Fig. 93 withouta consumer ground. If an individual touches this
frame, current will flow through his or her body, encounteringbody resistance (RB,perhaps 1500 ohm), a
resistance into the ground in the vicinity of his or her feet (RG
0 , perhaps 500 ohms), and a capacitive
reactance (Rc, perhaps 6000 ohm). Then, if the voltageacross this total resistance is 240 V, the total fault
current that would all pass through the person will be about 240/6300 = 38 mA, which could prove
harmful.* Note that the fault current throughthe person's body (IB) is most prominently affected by the
high capacitive reactance and is not significantlyaffectedby resistance through the person. For example,
if the person were standing on wet ground
with zero resistance (RGI= 0), the current
totalfault
would then increase only marginally to
current, IF
(a)
240/6200 = 39 mA
If a consumer ground is installed, with a
ground resistance of perhaps 300 ohms,
this would, as before, have little effect on
the total fault current (Fig. 95b). This
would now increase slightly to 240/6000 =
40 mA. But more important is the fact
that this current now has two paths to
followto ground (through the consumer
ground and through the person). Because
of the lower resistant path through the

/
\

load

useful
current

* Note that total resistance is the vector sum of

resistanceand reactance,that is,

1500 ohms

5 ohms

_______(_

6000 ohms

V = 38 mA
6300Q
IB= IF= 38 mA

IF =

consumer

consumer ground, most of this current

(35 mA) will pass through that path,


leaving only 5 mA to flow through the
person. This significantly decreases the
threat to the person. This threat can be
reduced further if, for example, the person
is wearing shoes with rubber soles.
Because rubber is an insulator, this would
further increase grounding resistance
between the body and ground and further
decreasethe portion of the current passing
through the body.

RB

240V

totalfault

(b)

ground

grun

load
useful

240 V

III7

IIj

1500ohms

RG2
Rcut

300 ohms

500 ohms

.
6000 ohms

40 mA
240 V
6000Q
n (40 mA) = 5 mA
I = 26000
m
2000 (4m)
1

Fig. 95. Calculationof currentslI passing throughan


individual(a) without and (b) with a consumerground.

RT= V(1500 + 500) 2 + 60002 = 6300 ohm

ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

139

RCD
to
supply

i i

neutral

Fig. 96. Using an RCD to protect against leakagecurrents caused by faults within equipment
which is grounded through a consumerground.

RCD and the end of the line (Fig. 96). For this approach to work, the neutral on the
consumer side of the RCD should neitherbe bonded to the consumer ground nor be
grounded. When used in this manner,the current difference sensed by the RCD will arise
both from equipment faults being consideredhere as well as from miscellaneous leakage
currents elsewhere on this protected part of the system. Therefore, the rating of the RCD has
to be sufficiently high to avoid nuisance trippingyet low enoughto sense the fault currents
being protected against. While an RCD used in this manner could detect the larger currents
arising from faults within the various equipment,it should not be relied upon to detect the
smaller fault currents that might pass through an individual. In using this design, individuals
are protected only insofar as the RCD trips due to a housing-to-groundfault sensed before an
individual touches the faulty equipment.
Powerhouse operator protection: While, in many cases, no ground may be necessary on the consumers'
premises because no uses beyond lighting and entertainmentare contemplated,the powerhouse clearly
does contain several points that might accidentallybecome energizedand prove hazardous to operating
staff. These include the housing for the generator,the diesel engine, and the breaker box and/or
distribution board (if constructed of metal). An RCD cannot be used to protect from faults or stray
voltages in the generating equipment.
* If the system is floating, a powerhouseground to the generating equipment can be used to reduce
fault currents in the same manner as was achievedwith the independentconsumer ground
described previously. This providesan altemative, lower resistance path for a fault current
around the person touching the equipment.
Since concrete conducts electricity as does earth,the concrete foundation on which a generator is
mounted might serve as part of this groundingsystem for a villagepower station (if the generator
is firmly bolted to this foundation). Its effectivenesscan be increased by welding the anchors of
the generator to the rebar before the foundationblock is cast. The effectiveness and area of
influence of this "mat" to provide protection to the operating staff can be supplementedby
placing a 5 to 10 mm2 bare copper conductorin a firmly packed trench perhaps 0.10 m deep. (A
larger conductor is not necessary because a conductorthat is used solely to provide protection to
the operating staff need not be designed to handle a large current.) This conductor could be in the
ChapterXI. Safetyand protection

140

form of a loop perhaps 0.30 m beyond the base of the genset, immediatelybelow the area where
the powerhouseoperator might be standing. This loop should also be firmly connected to the
generatorhousing, perhaps at the generatormounting bolts and the other end can be connected to
a groundingelectrode. This electrode should be installed in a protected (i.e., little traveled) area
just beyond the perimeter of the powerhouse to reduce possible tampering as well as increase the
chancethat it is in more moist, and thereforemore conductive, ground. It is important that the
integrityof this groundingsystem be maintainedand that it is not possible, for example,for
someoneto trip over the grounding wire and pull it out of the ground, breaking the connection.
Any other metal surface orjunction boxes that are associated with the electrical system in the
powerhouseshould also be well interconnectedto this grounding mat.
If the system is well grounded,then as in the case of the consumer circuit, the equipment ground
and system ground should be securely bonded together.

Lightningprotection
When lightningdischarges in the vicinity of a distributionline, a high voltage is induced in the line which
can break down the insulation on the windings of transformersor generators connected to the line or
damageelectronicequipment in the home or powerhouse. The associated high currents may also generate
large amountsof heat and release considerablemechanicalforce. The purpose of a protective system is to
divert these very high transient voltages and currents into the earth where they can be safely dissipated or
to shunt these around rather than through devices that need protection.
Commerciallyavailable lightningarresters comewith a
weatherproofenclosure,connectionleads, and a mounting
stud or bracket. They should be connectedto the distribution
line, close to the equipment or accessoryrequiring protection,
such as just outsidethe powerhouseor the service entrance
(Fig. 97). At each of these locations, an arrestershould be
connectedbetween each of the phase conductors and a
common groundelectrode, whether or not the system neutral ,
is grounded. When the lightning-inducedhigh-voltagepeak
on the distributionline reaches the arrester,it acts as a switchl

permittingthepassageof thecurrentand voltagepeaksdown

-i

-i

into the groundthrough a groundrod. The voltage


a
differentialsbetween the phase conductors are thereby
reducedto safer levels. Once the voltage peak has passed, the
arrester automaticallyshuts off any further current flow.
v
Furthermore,the leads to and from a lightningarrester must
'$2
tngae
ro
be as short as possibleand not coiled as shownin Fig. 97,
97 Tre
Fig. 97. Threelightning arresterson
because these factorsincrease impedance (oppositionto
a three-phase,four-wirelinejust
current flow) to ground. With a large,rapid, lightningoutsidethe powerhouse.
induced currentsurge through arrester and the leads, any
voltage drop dueto current flow through this impedanceadds
furtherto the line-to-groundvoltage and the net voltage could remain at troublesome levels.
-

For applicationon a distribution line, two types of arrester are commonly used: metal-oxide varistors
(MOVs)and spark-gaptype surgearresters. The first is madeof a metal which temporarily loses most of

ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

141

its resistancewhen a large voltage is imposed across it and then shuts off when the voltage peak has
passed. The second is comprised of an air gap across which a current surgejumps when sufficient
voltage is applied, with the spark extinguishing itself after the voltage peak passes.
Lightning is usually of less concem with low-voltage lines than with medium-voltagelines because the
former tend to be lower to the ground and located among dwellingsand trees where exposureto lighting
is reduced. However, in areas where lightning is a frequent occurrence,low-voltage arresters can be
installed at the service entrance.
Because solid-state electronics are sensitive to voltage surges, furtherprotection is recommendedfor
radios, TVs, or other electronic equipment is used in the home where lighting is a problem.. Unless
grounding resistances are very low, i.e., less than an ohm, higher than normal voltages may still appear
between the phase conductors in the home. To address this problem, surge suppressors are used and
should be installed either just before the leads enter the equipmentor in the equipment itself.
Consumer and operator education
One of the best ways of preventing people from receiving electrical shock is to ensure that system
operators, and the consumers themselves, have a good understandingof how shocks occur. They will
then be in a better position to avoid this type of danger. A program of consumereducation on the safe use
of electricityis essential at the time of system commissioning and at periodic intervals after
commissioning(p. 173). A well-illustrated maintenance and safety manual for system operators should
accompanyevery distribution system. And periodic visits should be made to individual consumersto
observe how they are using the system and to observe any dangeroussituations, e.g., hooking clothes
hangers on wiring, unauthorized connections, faulty plugs, wire insulationdamaged by proximity to the
cooking fire, etc.

Summary
Fuses, MCBs, and RCDs are generally used for protecting the system from excess currents that can
damage the system or provide a safety hazard to people. Groundingcan alsoplay an importantrole.
However, because incorrectly installed grounding can pose an increased hazard, it is importantthat
groundingnot be installed as an afterthought, in the hope that it will automaticallymake the system safer;
it could have the opposite effect.
The final section in Chapter VI provides guidance as to when a mini-grid can be floating and when it
should be grounded (p. 60). The following summarizes options for protection under these two scenarios:
1. Powerhouse: In all cases, a groand should be included in the powerhouse as protection for
operatorswithin the powerhouse (Fig. 98abc). This is in part accomplished by bolting the
generatingequipment to a concrete foundation block, if one is included. A grounding loop also
connectedto this equipment should be buried a short distancebelow ground level around this
equipmentand firmly bonded to a grounding rod. In addition, all metal housings within the
powerhouse that contain electrical equipment should be tied into this ground. If the system is
floating and a fault arises in the generator, this ground will provide a low-resistance path for most
of the fault current to follow, reducing current through anyonetouching the equipment
(parallelingthe operation of a consumer ground,p. 136). If the neutral conductor is also
grounded,then the powerhouse ground should be bonded to the neutral conductor. This will

ChapterXI. Safetyand protection

142

reduce the voltage across people touching the


generating and controlequipment and largely
eliminate any fault currentsthrough that
person.
2. Consumer: The consumerprotection required
depends on the sophisticationof the users.
Note that in all cases summarizedbelow, a
RCD can be used to protect the user, whether
the system neutral is grounded (Fig. 98c) or not
(Figs. 98a and 98b). However,because the
relatively cost of an RCD can make
electrification less accessiblein cases where
disposable income is limited,it should be used
where necessaryand no cheaper alternative
exists.
-

RCD(optaonaI)E
(a)r

H
i

(b)
r

(c)

For a basic system commonlyfound, which


mostly serves lightingand entertainment
end-uses, no specialprotection is necessary
consumer
*
e
in the home becausethe threat of touching
ground
yrstend
any energizedconductoror metal surface
which may be live is minimal. Radios and
televisions are generallyhoused in plastic
and double-insulated.A floating system is
Fig. 98. Groundingoptions for a mini-grid.
adequate.
If one or more power outlets are includedin the home, there is increased danger from either
children playingwith these outlets or adultstrying to energize appliances without the proper
plugs (e.g., slippingbare ends of wiresinto the outlet). RCD could provide some protection
(Fig. 98a), unless the person places himself across both openingsof the outlet, effectively
shorting the conductors. Placing outlets out of reach of smaller children is another action that
could be taken.

/-

For the occasionalconsumerswho mighthave more sophisticatedend-uses (refrigeration,


power tools, pumps, cookers, etc.), a fault within the equipment can energize the equipment
housing or frame, creatinga fault currentthrough anyonetouching this equipment. (Even if
the system is floatingand no part of the system is physically connectedto a ground electrode,
the system is groundedthrough capacitancebetween the generator and conductor and the
ground.) As illustratedin Box 7, a consumerground on those premises will reduce any fault
currents througha person that might arise due to his or her touching faulty equipment
(Fig. 98b). Altematively,an RCD can be included on the premises to isolate the consumer
circuit if a fault occurswithin the equipment. Then, if resistance to ground through this
capacitance is sufficientlylow to provide a current that can be of danger to people touching
the housing, the faultcurrent within the equipment should then be sufficient to trigger the
RCD and insolatethe offending circuituntil the fault is found.
-

For a system that is supplied by a medium-voltagegrid extensionthrough a distribution


transformer,a groundedneutral system may be used if this is acceptedpractice. A conductor

ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

143

should be used to connect all metallic housings on the premises and this should be bonded to
the systemneutral conductor. Multiple grounds along that neutral will ensure a safer system
by providingredundancy and reducing system resistance to ground. Currents originating
from a fault in the equipment housing would go directly to the system neutral and encounter
minimumresistance. This encourages high fault currents that may trip the MCB or fuses on
the distributionboard and isolate the circuit. Even if this does not happen, the low resistance
path from housingto ground would remove any voltage across a person touching the faulty
equipment,removing the threat of a fault current. An RCD could provide added security
provided it is properly positioned (Fig. 98c)

ChapterXI. Safetyandprotection

144

Xii. Serviceconnectionand housewiring


Serviceconnection
The service connection consistsof two components:
*

The service drop. This includes usually two, but occasionallythree or four, conductors between
the consumer and the distributionline; their connectionsto the distributionlines; and their
connections to the entranceof the consumer'sresidence or business (Fig. 99).
In most cases, the service drop is comprised of overhead conductors. This implies easier and
lower-cost constructionand permits more flexibility if that is needed after construction of the
mini-grid, such as to accommodatea change in the location of the residence on the property or a
replacement of a temporarystructure locatedon one part of the property with a more permanent
one elsewhere on that property. For these reasons, an overhead service drop is what is assumed
in this section. Occasionally,an undergroundservice connectionis used, as in the case of the
GECO projects implementedby the French in several countries in Africa (see p. 192).

The service entrance.The service entrance is comprised of the elements necessary to take the
electricity from the service drop to inside the customer's premises. Conventionally, the service
entrance includes the conductorsand associated hardware from the service drop to the meter, the
meter, and in some places a disconnectingdevice. For mini-grids, the meter may be omitted and
the service entrancemay lead directly indoors to the customer's distributionboard or junction

f~~~~~~~

servicedrop

distributionline

service
entrance:

serviceconnection

housewiring

to deliverpowerfromthe distributionline to the


Fig. 99. The basiccomponents
user.

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

145

box, which might then include a current-limiting


device as an alternative mechanism to a meter
for controlling/monitoring electricity use (see
"Metering", p. 153). Or the meter and the
customer's distribution board may both be
replaced by a single device, such as the
prepayment meters being widely promoted in
the Republic of South Africa.
In some countries, the meters or current-limiting
devices are placed on the power pole itself,
before rather than after the service drop
(Figs.l00 and 132). Access to these for meter
reading or repair may even require the use of ai
chair or even a ladder. While such a placement
minimizes the chances of tampering, this option
is not recommended because it makes accurate
meter-reading difficult. If current limiting
devices are affixed to the pole, this makes
replacing or resetting the fuse element or breaker
difficult. Furthermore, a consumer might be
tempted to climb up the pole to reset the currentlimiting device to turn on his power and thereby
puts himself at risk by coming into contact with
energized lines.

-*

1,
-$;
Fig. 100. In Thailand, meters are
commonly mounted at all heightson the
nearest pole.
-

Service drop

Conductortype
While bare conductor can be used for a properly designed main distribution grid, it should not be used for
service drops for mini-grid systems. Bare energized conductors connected directly to a consumer's
dwelling pose a high risk to electrical hazards to the general public.
Of the conductors described in Chapter VII, multiplex conductor is specifically designed for service drop
installation, and hardware exists for deadending, splicing, and connections. When available, it should be
used in cases with the level of consumption found in industrialized nations, i.e., hundreds of kWh per
month.
However, such high usage is unusual on mini-grids. Therefore, smaller insulated, single-core copper
conductor is the most commonly used for service drops. This is especially so in unregulated installations
because the installation is inexpensive and literally can be done by anyone who can connect wires.
Unfortunately, these individuals may also have little concern for, or knowledge of, the safety hazards or
electrical or mechanical limitations involved.
This type of service drop has the highest failure rate. Because of the conductivity of copper, a fairly small
conductor is required to serve the purpose if it is selected on the basis of limiting the voltage drop along
the service drop to a specific value. This is even more the case for mini-grids, where consumer demand is
typically very low, further reducing the required conductor size. For example, if the voltage drop along a
230-V single-phase service drop were restricted to only 1 % and if several inefficient incandescent lights

Chapter XII. Serviceconnectionand housewiring

146

and a TV were the only end-uses, then 1-ampereservice would provide 230 W which would be more than
adequate. A copper conductor as small as 0.5 mm2 in area would transmit this power a distance of about
30 m and still satisfythese conditions. Alternatively,if each home had only one capacitor-corrected
2
fluorescent lamp which each consumeda total of 30 W (i.e., with losses), a 0.5 mm service drop could
serve 4 homes evenly distributed along 100 m length of service drop strung from house to house. For this
reason, the minimum size conductor is restrictedmore by physical strength requirements than by its
2
current-carrying capacity. Due to the small size of conductorsinvolved (usually less than about 3 MM ),
the installations overstress the cable for what it was intended. Long spans will break at the fastening
point due to fatigue of the copper as a result of movement caused by wind and mechanical stress.
When compared with copper, aluminum conductoris less expensivebut has 60 % more resistance than a
copper conductor of comparable size. Furthermore,when used for service drops to meet smallpower
demands, small aluminum conductor faces the same problemsnoted previously for copper.
In summary, for the typical mini-grid project, individual consumer loads are often very small.
Furthermore, costs must be minimized in order to make electricity more accessible to households in the
community. Based on the good conductivityof copper, small conductorcould be used but, as mentioned
above, the conductor is susceptibleto breakingthrough fatigue. Larger copper conductor might be used
simply because of the increased strengththat it offers, at an additional cost. One approach for making use
of the large current-carrying capacity of copperconductorwhile avoiding the need to purchase large
conductor simply to satisfy strengthrequirements is to use a homemade duplex option describedin Box 8.
This capitalizes on the use of good conductivityof copperconductor and the strength of steel conductor to
come up with a cost-effectivehybrid. But becausethe steel wire would be bare, use of this option should
be restricted to systems where the neutral conductoris properly grounded. Altematively, PVC-coated
steel fencing wire might be used.
Conductor Sizing
In various countries, national electrical codeshave been establishedto serve as guidelines to be adhered
to in order to ensurethe design of a safe electricalsystem. But one has to apply such codesjudiciously
because they have generally been designedto address conventionalneeds found in urban areas where
constraints are often different from those foundin rural areas. For example, minimum conductorsizes
have been establishedby the need to ensure that adequate capacity is availableto meet the load that might
be expected in urban areas. This is often well in excess of what is found in rural areas and, in these cases,
abiding by these guidelines unnecessarilyincreasesthe cost of electrification,making it less accessible to
rural communities.
As with the sizing of conductors used for the main distributionline, one important factor affectingthe
size of the conductorused for the service drop is the acceptable voltage drop along this section of line.
This is usually set at no more than I to 3 % under maximum consumerload. The acceptable value is
somewhat affected by the actual size of the voltage drop already incurred through the distributionline
from the powerhouse up to that point.
The size of the service drop conductor required so that the voltage drop at the end of the line does not
exceed the desired value (see above)is calculatedwith the same equations used to calculate the size of the

It mightbe notedherethat, evenin ruralhomesconnectedto thenationalgrid,a peakcoincidentpowerdemandof


about250 W per householdis commonin manypartsof the world(unlessthe electricityis so heavilysubsidized
andwaste).
that it encouragesunnecessaryover-consumption
ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

147

Box 8. Homemadeduplex service drops for householdswith small power demands.


The principal justification for using a conductor that is larger than that required to achieve an acceptable
voltage drop is to ensure its structural integrity over its lifetime. An alternative approach is to use a much
stronger galvanized steel conductor as a messenger wire to provide all the tensioning strength and to
support the much smaller insulated copper conductor that is required to serve the small loads typically
encountered. In this case, the steel messenger wire would serve two purposes: in addition to supporting
one length of copper conductor, it would also serve as the second conductor (the grounded neutral) for
this single-phase service drop.
The usual argument against using steel as a conductor is that steel has 11 times the resistance of copper.
Therefore, a steel conductor must have a diameter of slightly more than 3 times that of a copper conductor
to have the same resistance. However, this presents no real obstacle because it is still cheaper than the
copper conductor it replaces. Furthermore, the principal cost savings from using this homemade duplex is
the much smaller and cheaper copper conductor that can be used to serve small loads.
Because of its limited current-carrying capacity, this small duplex conductor should only be used if the
supply is current-limited and uses a device such as a PTC thermistor, fuse, or miniature circuit breaker
(see alternative approaches to metering, p. 155). Otherwise the current-carrying capacity of the conductor
might be exceeded or excessive voltage drops might adversely affect the performnance of the consumers'
loads.
The preferred insulation for the copper conductor is cross-linked, carbon-impregnated polyethylene
(XLP). Otherwise, conventional carbon-impregnated polyethylene would be a very good second choice.
Polyvinyl cloride (PVC) insulation may or may not provide long-term insulation because of the adverse
effects of exposure to the UV, rubbing, etc., on this material.
To prepare this duplex conductor for use only with systems with a properly grounded neutral, the steel
wire and insulated copper conductor are twisted together either by hand for smaller lengths (perhaps less
than 10 m) or perhaps by using a modified twine winder for longer lengths. The copper winds over the
steel because the steel is
Table 13. Electricalspecifications for copper and steel wire.
stiffer. Simply wrapping
plastic insulating tape at both
Diameter
Area
Capacity Resistance
ends of the drop is adequate
2
(mm )
(amperes) (ohmslkm)
Wire type/size
(mm)
to keep the wires together.
Steel wire
The steel messenger is
deadended at each end of the
drop by passing it around the
30
6.25
2.3
#9 AWG
2.82
insulator, tensioning as much
Copper wire
as possible by hand, and then
22
4
0.79
1.00
#18 AWG
wrapping the end of the steel
wire around itself.
#16AWG
1.29
1.31
8
14
Table 13 provides the
2.08
15
8.6
1.63
#14 AWG
information necessary for
Note: The resistivityof standard annealed copper wire is 0.018 ohrn-mm2/m
voltage drop and power loss
2
/m. The resistance
while that of zinc-coatedsteel-core wire is 0.19 ohminmm
calculations.
of a specificconductoris obtained by multiplying the appropriate figurejust
given by the lengthof the conductor and dividing it by its cross-sectionalarea.

Chapter XII. Service connectionand housewiring

148

0.5 mm2

1.0 mm2
I

0I
-t

for copper

CD2

conductor _

2.5mm2

2
4.0mm

6.0ml

(3)

0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0m
U

0
0.001

0.010
P(kW)x L(km)

0.100

Fig. 101. A graph to calculate the voltage drop at the end of a copper 230-V
single-phaseservice drop servingone or more homes. The area of the conductor
associatedwith each curve is indicatedat the top and right of the graph.

main distribution conductor (see Table 8, p. 75). However, if small conductors are used (i.e., less than
about 10 mm2 ), the value of inductance x for the conductor is much smaller than its resistance r and the
terms "x sin 4"can therefore be neglected. The equation for voltage drop for a single-phase service, then
simplifies to the following:

Percent voltage drop = %VD _ 2 r

P(kW) L(kmn)
2

o10

Note that, for these small conductor sizes, the solution to the simplified equation is independent of the
power factor. To facilitate solving this equation for a service voltage of 230 V, the graph in Fig. 101 was
prepared. To use this graph to size a specific service drop, sum the products of the peak coincident load
in each home (in watts) along that drop and its distance from the beginning of that service drop (in
meters). Look for this value on the horizontal axis and then move up to the point where the line for the
desired percentage voltage drop is reached. The required size for a copper conductor is determined by the
curve closest to that point. Multiply the area by 1.6 if an aluminum conductor is to be used.
As an example, assume that a home with a peak coincident demand of 200 W is located at 40 m from the
beginning of the service drop and a second home with a peak demand of 400 W is located at the end of
this 70 m service drop. The value of P x L is (0.20)(0.040) + (0.40)(0.070) is 0.036 kW-km. Referring to
the table or equation, a copper service drop of 2.5 mm2 (or aluminum service drop of about 4.0 mm2)
would be required for the voltage drop not to exceed about 1 %.
As can be seen from the equations for power loss (p. 75 and Table 8),power loss is dependent on the power factor.
The power loss along servicedrops is inversely proportional to the square of the power factor. For example,
doubling the power factor from 0.5 to 1.0 throughpower-factor correction reduces power loss in the line by a factor
of four.
Chapter XI1. Service connectionand housewiring

149

Table 14. Minimum allowable size for various materialsfor service drops.

Size for overhead in air*


2

Aluminum (5 mm )

Copper (5 mm )

Copper (0.8 mm2 ) plus steel


neutral messenger (2.0 MM2 )

(%)

Length of run
(120 V service)
(meters)

Length of run
(230 V service)
(meters)

22

42

43

83

65

125

35

67

71

133

104

200

1
1

1
2

10
21

20
40

31

59

Load
(A)

Voltage drop

Service drops for most mini-grids tend to be limited to less than a 5-ampere demand per user. As noted
earlier, because the current along a service drop is so small, it becomes the mechanical strength of the
conductor rather than voltage drop that becomes the more important factor affecting conductor size, as
was mentioned earlier. In addition to withstanding the tension in the conductor, the service drop
conductor must have sufficient strength to prevent physical damage from falling tree limbs, the occasional
abandoned set of shoes thrown over the line, or even people carrying long sections of bamboo poles.
Over time, the action of the wind swaying the conductor back and forth can also work-harden the
conductor, making it more brittle and susceptible to fatigue and breaking at the point it is fastened. For
these reasons, while smaller conductor might be adequate electrically, some recommend a minimum
diameter, such as 5 mm2 , for a self-supporting copper conductor. Assuming the recommendation,
Table 14 provides guidance for the maximum permissible length of service drops for different voltage
drops using this diameter conductor. For comparative purpose, the characteristics of the hybrid conductor
proposed in Box 8 have also been included.
Connections
Service drop connections with the main low-voltage distribution line should preferably be made at the
pole rather than along the span, because mid-span taps have only been used with limited success. They
are the principal source of service drop failure where these are used without expensive attachment
hardware, because the service drop is subject to wind-initiated motion and metal fatigue at the
unsupported joint. Once the conductor has been strung, it also becomes more difficult to make a midspan connection or disconnection.
When consumers are densely grouped, several configurations are possible. One is to connect each
consumer to the main line in a maypole arrangement (Fig. 102). This requires more conductor but
minimizes the voltage drop along the service drop and makes each consumer independent of the others.
Another option is to run the service drop from consumer to consumer (Fig. 103). This requires less
conductor but increases the voltage drop along the line and possibly reduces the quality of power for the

ChapterXII. Service connection and housewiring

150

remoter consumers. If an
intermediate consumer is
disconnected for whatever reason, it
makes it easier for that consumer to
steal power since the line still runs
"though" his premises.
Both ends of a service drop which
does not use multiplex should usually
be deadended on smooth-faced
insulators or other hardware
specifically provided to insure a solid
support (Fig. 104). However, if a
multiplex conductor is used, then
only the messenger conductor needs
to be deadended,because the other
conductors, which are wrapped

P.

'7-

l"

Fig. 102. Maypolearrangement for service drops supplying

of homesin Davaoin the Philippines.


a densegrouping
around the messenger, are supported
by the messenger conductor. In both
of these cases, the conductors are
mechanically secured. These approaches remove any strain that might otherwisebe placed on the
electrical connection by the tension in the conductorand minimize any adverse effect the movement of
the conductor caused by wind might have on the connection. In short, it reduces the possibility that the
integrity of the electrical circuit is placed in jeopardy. This practice is more critical for village grid
designs because the conductor size is usually small and of limited strength.

For solid insulated conductors less than 25 mm2 (or #4 AWG), wrapped deadends as illustrated in
Fig. 105 are common practice for service drop installations. The conductor is tensioned to hand strength
by the installer without the use of mechanicaltensioningdevices. The conductor is deadended at one end
and then drawn up and deadended at the other end and simplywrapped several times, leaving enough of a

Fig. 103. An arrangement used in Bangladeshto serve a row of stores in a bazaar. Feeding the
center of each section of service drop reduces the voltage drop along this line.

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionand housewiring

151

Fig. 105. A wrapped deadend for a service


drop using a solid insulated copper.

tail at each end to connect to the distribution line


and the consumer's service entrance.
For stranded uninsulatedor insulated conductors,
Fig. 104. The service drop fixed to the eave of

mechanical deadending devices designed for this

the roofwithwireholders.

particularapplication should be used. If a


wrappeddeadend is attempted with stranded
wire, the individualstrands displace unequallydue to the sharpbends and may damage adjacent strands
or the insulation. Therefore,stranded conductorsare best deadended with hardware such as preformed
wire deadends,wedge clamp deadends,and parallel groove clamps (see Chapter IX). Care must be
exercisedto ensurethat clamps are properly tightenedto preventthe deadend from failing. If clamps such
as parallel groove or U-bolt clamps rely on nuts and bolts that have to be tightened, two wrenches should
be used. One wrench should be used on the nut while the other is used to hold the bolt head to ensure that
these two are tightenedagainst each other.
Once the servicedrop has been mechanicallysecured at either end, electrical connections must be made
to the distributionline at one end and to the conductorused at the service entrance at the other. The two
basic ways of makinga good connectionare by using a connector or by soldering. The first approach is
quickerbut requires the necessary connectors,clamps, wrenches,and crimping tools. The second only
requires a simple skinningknife, pliers, and solderingiron but can only be used for copper-to-copper
connections(Fig. 106) and is more time consuming.
These approachesare covered in ChapterIX. As mentioned there, twisted connection should be avoided,
except in the caseof connecting copperconductorwhere the connection can be soldered. Also,
copper/aluminumconnections can be a source of
problemsdue to oxidation and corrosion,and care
must be taken with these connections. Once
completed, all connections should be taped with

electricaltape.

|wreholder

_n|to

Figure 107 illustrates a connection between a

duplexaluminumconductorused as a service drop


and the cable enteringthe consumerpremises. In
this case, a preformed deadend is used to connect
the service drop to the residence. An uninsulated
connector is used to connect the neutral conductors

while an insulatedconnector is used to connect the


live conductor. A drip loop follows each

ChapterXII. Serviceconnection and housewiring

oe

soldenng
iron

Fig. 106. Soldering a twisted copper-to-copper


connection.

152

connection to lead any water away from the


connectors.

wireholder

bareneutralwire
wireinsulatecd

-.

preformed
deadend

If ABC conductor is used for the service


drop, Fig. 108 illustrateshow this cable is

usuallydeadendedon a distributionpole. In
this case, a single-phaseline passes from the
lowerleft to the upper right and the
insulatedneutral conductor is supported by a
suspensionclamp. One compression clamp
on the distribution line (lower left) connects

the phaseconductorto eachof the three

connector

Iastic

insulated
connector
driploops

service drops, while the clamp next to it


Fig. 107. A connectionbetweena duplex
connectsthe neutral to the drops. The
conductorand the residence.
~~service
.
compression clamp on the upper nrght is
used to connect the distribution line neutral
to the grounded steel distribution pole.
Figure 109 illustrates how a wedge clampis used to deadend the other end of a service drop to a home
build of concrete. The cable passes through conduit to prevent damage to its insulation that might occur
by rubbing against the concrete.
Serviceentrance
The service entrance serves the function of connecting the consumer(the housewiring)to the electric
utility (the service drop) and, usually, includes a mechanismfor monitoringand/or controlling the power
(kW) or energy (kWh) used.
In all cases where an overhead service drop is used, the service entrancebrings the electricity from the
service drop which is normally at an elevation unreachableby a person down to a height that can be

Fig. 108. Wedge clamps deadending

servicedropson a fabricatedmetal
distributionDolein Tunisia.

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

Fig. 109. A wedge clamp deadending a service

dropfoundin a concretehomein the Tunisia.

153

touched by an adult. Therefore, it is important that the service entrance provide adequate protection
against electrical shocks for the general population. The service entrance should provide sufficient
mechanical protection for the conductor so that an objectrubbing or striking the service entrance will not
damage the conductorsor cause a short circuit. At times, a metal service mast, possibly extending above
the roof, leads the conductordown the outside of the home. At other times, a heavy shielded cable is used
and fastened to the dwellingwith large staples. And in simple mini-grids, the service entrance may be no
more than simplya pair of insulated single wires passing through the wall of the customer's premises to a
junction box or distributionboard locatedinside the residence.
More typically, the conductorcoming down from the service drop leads to an enclosure that houses either
an energy meter (the conventionalapproach,see "Conventionalmetering", p. 154) or an power- or
current-limitingdevice (more typically used by smaller mini-grids, see p.155). An energy meter should
generally be located 1.7to 2.0 meters above ground level so that it can be easily read and high enough to
keep it beyond the reach of small children. And it should preferably be mounted on the outside of the
house before bringingthe line indoors. If a current-limitingdevice is used, it might be located somewhat
higher as there is no need to read it.
The enclosure should be locked or sealed to deter tampering. Provision should be made for access to the
switch on the MCB to allow resetting, if such is used. The enclosure must be fully water-proof and fixed
to a structurallysound, permanent part of the building or a purpose-built support. Cable entries should be
from the bottom only, with a drip loop to prevent water entering the unit from these openings.
Ideally, the enclosure shouldbe outsidethe house or business premises. In a number of countries, meters
are mounted inside the home. The rationale is that the consumeroften purchases the meter and keeps in
indoors to protect it from vandalism. However,the reality is that the indoor location often frustrates those
responsible for reading the meter when the consumersare habitually "not home". It also makes it easier
to tamper with the meter to make it understate the actual
energy used. If meters are used with a mini-grid and if
that system is to be effectively managed to the benefit

of all the consumers,they should be mounted outdoors.

In some countries, familiesmay be living in temporary


quarters on their property until they earn sufficient
money to build a more permanent home elsewhere on
the property. In these cases, the service entrance may
be located with a brick masonry structure,usually near
the front of the property, that includes the meter or
current-limitingdevice (Fig. 110). Other conductors
then lead from there to the temporary structure.

Metering
An electricity distributionsystem supplies a service to
consumers, and for this reason, some means must be
incorporated within the system to assesswhat the
consumers owe to cover the costs incurred in providing
this service. This is one function of metering.
Conventionally,this is done by using an energyor
kilowatt-hour meter, whichmeasures the electrical
ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

Fig. 110. Servicedrop to a masonry


structurein the yard is commonlyseen in
Bolivia.

154

energy used by the consumerand is included as part of the service entrance. A meter reader then
periodically records meter readings and the energy consumed each month is calculated. The utility then
uses this to prepare the consumers'bills. These should be based on a tariff schedule designed to generate
the necessaryrevenue to cover all costs incurred in delivering this service (see p. 178).
But mini-grids serving rural areas face additionalconstraints:
*

The mini-grid is supplied by a powerplant of limited capacity. Consequently, the metering


function may also have to provide some control over the power consumption by each consumer to
ensure the equitable availability of electricityto all consumers. Energymeters alone cannot
address this issue.

While electricity is seen as an importantcommodity,the amount that many households can spend
on electricityis limited. If energy meters were used, simply the cost of the meter, meter reading,
bill preparation, and collection for each household would exceed the cost of supplying the
electricityconsumed. It also would involve more sophisticatedbookkeeping.

Rather than billing on the basis of energy consumed, a less costly and more equitable form of "metering"
involves setting a tariff based on the power consumed by each household. A consumer's bill might then
be calculated either on the basis of connected load (e.g., a household is permitted up to the use of two
fluorescent lamps and one TV) or on the basis of a subscribedmaximum power input (e.g., a household
can use up to 40 W).
In summary, the option for metering in a specific situation depends on a number of factors, including the
capacity of the power plant, the number of consumers,the cost of energy, the ability and willingness of
consumers to pay, the desire to benefit as many of the households as reasonably possible, and the
institutional mechanismto operate and manage the system. Below, the technical options for "metering"
are reviewed. The section "Options for tariff schedules" in Chapter XIV describes the advantages and
disadvantagesassociatedwith each of these options and shouldbe reviewedbefore adopting any of the
technical options describedbelow.
Conventionalmetering
If a mini-grid uses the conventionalapproach-relying on energy meters-for metering, this is usually
because no other alternativesare either known or considered. While this approach has advantages for
national-grid-connectedsystems, it presents a variety of drawbackswhen used with mini-grids, the most
significant being cost and the inability to ensure equitable use of the capacity of small power systems.
The typical energy meter is an electro-mechanicalor electronic device that is part of the service entrance,
preferably placed outsidethe home to facilitate meter reading but occasionallyfound inside. Two options
exist for the connectionof energy meters: the bottom-connectedmeters and the socket-connected meters.
If a bottom-connectedmeter (Fig. 111) is to be installed,the entrance cable should have extra sheathing to
protect the conductors leading to the distributionboard and be sealed at the meter's entrance. Open-base
meters should not be used because the exposedterminals present a high level of danger to people,
especially to curiousprying little fingers, and encourages tampering. Somebottom-connected meters do
not have bi-metallic connectionsrequired for copperconductors. Before installing the service entrance,
verify the type of wire that is compatiblewith the meter.
If a socket-connectedmeter is to be installed, suitable conduit is provided to protect the conductors from
the service drop to the meter. This installationprovides for the most securityfor both the utility and the

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

155

consumer, but its initial cost is higher. There are many


operational advantagesto a socket meter installation,
but unless the country is already using socket meters,
they most likely will not be introducedfor mini-grid
applications.

Alternative "metering": loadlimiters


The second basic approach to "metering"is to limit the
current to a predetermined and agreed upon level and
to pay on the basis of this level. In it simplest sense,
this limit can be based on a verbal agreement. A
householdwould simplynotify the system manager
that it will limit its consumptionto, for example, two
40-W bulbs and pay $1 per month for that service. The
only factorsensuring that these terms are abided by are
either the family's honesty or its fear that it will be
penalized when someone somehow finds out that it is
using a couple of 60 W bulbs. Whilethis is the
cheapest approach, it will probably only work for some
small systemswhere there is a good understanding
between all members of a community. It will also
Fig. 111. View of a bottom-connected
work when there is plenty of excesscapacity in both
meter.
the supply and distributionsystem, but additional costs
will be incurred by the system owner for the extra energy generated and consumed.
*

In larger communities, suspicionsthat one or more households are exceeding their entitlement can easily
arise, and a natural reaction is for some of the other households to start exceeding their quota rather than
to confront the possible offender(s). This will lead to overloading the system and to a subsequent
reduction in consumer voltage. This can then lead to the use of higher wattage light bulbs to try to offset
the reduction in light due to the lower voltage. By the time the situation becomes so bad that the
communitymeets to try to solve the problem, the culture of suspicion and over-consumptionwill often
have become too endemic for consumption level to be effectively regulated by verbal agreement.
But to avoid problems that may well arise, several technical solutions are available. These all rely on load
limiters, which are simply overcurrentcutout devices. If the consumer draws a current higher than that to
which he or she has subscribed,the cutout will operate and disconnect the supply. Some load limiters
have to be reset manuallywhile othersreset automatically. The consumer pays a fixed monthlyfee
according to the rating of his load limiter, irrespective of the kilowatt-hour consumption (Fig. 112).
Table 15reviews the characteristicsof five possible current cut-out devices.
Fuses
Using fuses may be the most obvious and cheapest approach to limiting a current into a consumer'shome
and they are widely available. However, they are not a good option for several reasons. They are not
accurate. They age when operated at close to their rated current and will fail in time, even if the rated
current is not exceeded. More annoyingto the consumer is the fact that they cannot be reset; a fuse needs
to be replaced each time it blows. It must be accessible for replacement because this may happen

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

156

MCB

fuse

~~~~~~~~~~~to
housewserviceirin

from
|
drophoswrg
light

Fig. 112. This homemadecurrent limiter box is mounted outside the home at the end of the
service drop. It is comprised of a low-currentMCB, a fuse, and a light indicating when the
supply is activated.

frequently. And if a replacement fuse is not available, the consumer with a little initiative can easily
replace it with whatever wire is available, completelynegating the purpose of the fuses both to limit
current flow as well as to protect the home against the effects of a short. This last drawback can be
protected against by placing the fuse in a sealed box, accessible only to the system operator. But waiting
for the operator to replace the fuse will also be frustratingto consumers(although it may make them think
twice the next time they consider exceedingtheir agreed-to limit). If fuses are used, time-delay or slowblow designs should be used because they will let through small surge currents without blowing, although
Table 15. Characteristics of a variety of currentcut-off devices.

Attributes

Resetmechanism
Accuracy

Fuse

Magnetic
Thermal
Electronic
miniature
miniature
circuit breaker circuit breaker Thermistor circuit breaker

Replace

Manual

Manual

Auto

Auto

Poor

Poor

Medium

Very Poor

Medium-Good

No

>50 A

>50 A

0.7 A

Type dependant
0.05 A
5A

Good for > 6 A

Limited
Medium

Limited

Very limited

Low

Medium-High

Short-circuitproof Type dependent Type dependant Type dependant


0.05 A
0.05 A
0.04
Min. current (A)
Max. current (A)

>50A

Availability

Good
Low

Price

Low-Medium

Chapter XII. Service connection and housewiring

0.01 A

157

they too may age with time.


Miniaturecircuit breakers (MCBs)
While somewhat more expensive, circuit breakers are more accurate than fuses and have the advantage
that they can be reset without replacement. As with any device used to monitor or control electricity
consumption,it is open to tampering by the owner of the residence. Placing the device indoors encourage
tamperingas this can be done in privacy. A partial solution to this is to always locate the device in a
locationoutside the home, suitably protected from the elements. The device should be enclosed in a box
with restricted access. Box 9 describes MCBs used as "metering" devices by a national utility in a more
conventionalsetting in urban areas of Zimbabwe.
PTC thermistors
While miniature circuit breakers are available down to 0.01 A, they are relatively costly. Positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors have been used as low-cost alternatives. This solid-state
device, resembling a coin soldered between two conductors,is placed in series with the incoming current.
If current exceeds its rated value, the device heats up and, at a certain temperature, suddenlypresents a
high resistance, effectively stopping the flow of any further current. The devices "resets" automatically
when the overload is disconnected and the thermistor is permitted to cool down. Waiting several minutes
until the thermistor cools down, permittingcurrent to flow once more, could again be frustrating to the
consumerwho has to wait in the dark.
Thermistorsmust be protected from larger currents associated with a short that might occur within the
residence. To protect the thermistor, a fuse rated abovethe rating of the thermistor must be placed in
series.
To prevent tampering, the thermistor and fuse should be located in a sealed box. However, should the
fuse blow because of significantlyexcessive current draw, the consumer would encounter the same level
of frustrationas found with using a fuse alone in a sealed box, that is, waiting for the operator to come
replace the fuse. To address this issue, two fuses are sometimesused, one with a lower rating outside the
sealed box which can be replaced by the consumer and one inside that is larger but still adequate to
protect the thermistor. In this manner, failure of the consumerto correctly replace the fuse will mean that
the next time excessive current is drawn, the fuse inside the sealed box will blow, revealing his
improprieties.
PTC thermistors are only available in sizes up to about 0.7 A (equivalent to a power demand of 160 W at
230 V). It should be noted that thermistors are triggeredby current (A) and not power consumption (W).
As was noted earlier (p. 32), uncorrectedfluorescent lamps make inefficient use of current. For example,
a capacitor-correctedfluorescentlamp operating at 23 W would draw a current of 0.10 A at 230 V.
However,a fluorescentlamp operating at 23 W without capacitor correction and with a power factor of
0.5 would draw 0.20 A. This is twice the current draw for the same amount of lighting. Therefore, if two
consumerspay the same tariff and both have thermistorsset to cut off at 0.4 A, the consumer with
uncorrectedfluorescents could operate about 2 lamps while his or her next door neighbor with corrected
fluorescentscould operate about 4 lamps.
Both PTC thermistors as well as thermal MCBs have been used in projects in Nepal. Box 10 describes
briefly experiencesin that country.

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionand housewiring

158

Box 9. Load-limited supplies in urban Zimbabwe.

Load-limited domestic supplies have even been used by more conventionalelectric utilities. In Zimbabwe, for example, MCB-type load limiters have been extensivelyused since the 1960s. In 1996,
129,000 consumers had load-limited supplies,comparedto 210,000 consumerswith metered supplies.
The vast majority of these consumers were in urban areas. There are eight categories of supply, ranging
from 1 to 30 amperes. However, the categories above 7.5 amps are no longer provided to new customers,
as it is considered that these consumers can afford a meteredconnection and that their higher consumption makes metering worthwhile.
The typical cost to the supply authority, ZESA, for providinga load-limitedservice connection is US$ 50
compared to US$ 100 for a metered supply. The load-limitedhouseholds save on housewiring costs,
because some components, as an additional enclosure for fuses or circuit breakers, are not mandatory.
Table 16 presents tariff and customer data for the
different load-limited supply categories. The tariff
for metered customers consists of a fixed monthly
charge of $1.90 and energy charges of $0.019/kWh
for the first 300 kWh and $0.045 for the balance.
Since the fixed monthly charge for a metered supply
is the same as the total monthly charge for a 1 amp
load limit, it is clear to the consumer that the load
limiter is the cheaper option for this consumption
level.

While one might suspect that load-limited consumers


might squander energy available to them,
measurements have shown that, for load-limited supplies in the range 1 to 7.5 amperes, load factors are
within the range 24 to 29%. These are not excessive.
The consumers are provided with leaflets on how to
use the load-limited supply.

Table16. Approximateconsumer
distribution by to tariff category (1996).

Limiter
(amps)

Monthlycost
(US$)

Numberof
customers*

1.0
2.5
5.0

1.90
2.90
4.50

2,400
5,700
27,000

7.5

7.50

49,900

10.0
15.0
22.5

13.60
19.10
22.60

1,800
13,900
1,100

30.0

32.60

122

*Informationbased on data from most but not all area

offices.

Load-limited customers pay for their electricity in


advance, each month, at the local electricity board office. No bills are sent to the customers. If the tariff
is not paid, then the supply is disconnected within two weeks. Metered consumershave their meter read
every month and are presented with a bill a few days after the reading date.
The main problem that ZESA has faced with its load-limitedsupplies is the theft of electricity. A recent
fraud was the replacement of 5-amp load limiters with 15-ampload limiters, with the consumererasing
the number 1 in the front! Utility staff have also been found to be involved in this fraudulent activity.
They have been known to make arrangements with consumersfor uprating load limiters. The consumers
then pay the original tariff plus a secret payment to the staff member. These frauds are detected by
regular checks at the consumer installation, using staff from other districts. Incorrectload-limiter ratings
are detected by connecting a 3 kW load after each load limiter and checking that the load limiter operates.
However, this is very time consuming.
Damage to MCBs is quite common and is often done by the consumer repeatedlyattempting to reset the
device without first clearing the overload. An annual failurerate of 9% was found in Chitungwiza township, compared to less than 0.2% for electricity meters.

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

159

Box 10. Load-limitedsupplies in rural Nepal.

In Nepal, load limiters have been used on rural electrificationprojects since the 1980s. They were first
used on stand-alonemicro-hydropowerprojects. Load limiters are particularly appropriate for these
projects because marginal operating costs are minimal;the cost of operating the plant is largely
independentof how much of its capacity is used. PTC thermistors and thermal MCBs are used and have
generallybeen found to be reliable. Most connections are of 100 W (0.5 amps) or less.
In 1989,load limiters were installed at the Andhi Khola electrificationproject, a 5-MW scheme that
supplies electricityto the local area and sells excesspower to the grid. Rural and semi-urban consumers
are suppliedand more than 95% of households have a connection. Initially there were three load limiter
options: 25 W, 50 W and 250 W, with the 250 W option being designed to enable consumers to use a low
wattage cooker that was promoted by the project. A 100 W optionhas been recently introduced.
It is clear from Table 17 that, before the 100 W option was available,rural consumers generally
subscribedto the 50-W load-limitedsupply, whereas the semi-urbanconsumers tended to have a 250-W
load limiter or meter. The monthlycost for the load-limitedsupplies are $0.34 for 25 W, $0.70 for 50 W,
and $1.90 for 250 W. The average monthlyconsumption of the metered consumers is 87 kWh at a cost of
$3.70 (1994).'5
Table 17. Distributionof consumersaccording to type and tariff category.
Classificationof
consumer

Load limited consumer


50W
250W
25W

Rural
Semi-urban

19
2

127
59

40
171

Metered
consumer

Total
consumers

0
83

186
315

Each rural communityservedby a load-limited supply is organized in a users' group, and one member
from each group is employed as a serviceperson to collect the tariff and carry out basic repair and
maintenance work. Because every household has a load limiter rather than a meter, the monthly fees are
fixed. This is advantageousfor the electricity company and the service person, since both know the
amounts of money due from each consumer. The service person is then responsible for collecting
monthlyfees and for periodically depositing a predetermined sum into the local bank account of the
electric utility.
Electronic circuit breakers (ECBs)
Electronic circuit breakers use a semiconductordevice, such as a triac or transistor, to disconnect the
supply in the event of excessive current. The current is often measured in terms of a voltage drop across a
low resistance. Additionalcircuitry is used to provide time delays that prevent disconnection due to surge
currents and to automaticallyreconnectthe supply. ECBs have been designed specifically as load limiters
and are availablefrom specialist suppliers. Their typical cost is $15, which is higher than for most other
types of load limitersbut can often be justified as a result of better accuracy and their auto-reset facility
(as illustratedin Box 11).
Electronic circuit breakers are a fairlyrecent development, and it is important to check that the products
are reliable,either by obtaining samples for evaluation or throughrecommendation from other users.
ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

160

Box 11. Cost vs. accuracyfor alternative load-limiteroptions.

For this example, consider the case of a micro-hydropowerscheme for a village with one hundred
households,where each household is to be supplied with a 1-amp load-limited supply with a rated voltage
of 230 V, enough for four light bulbs or three light bulbs and a small black and white TV. The ambient
temperatureextremes at this village varies between 10 C in the evening of the cooler season and a 40 C
peak duringthe day in the warm season.
Two types of load limiters are available for this comparison,a thermal miniature circuit breaker and an
electroniccircuit breaker. The price of the MCB is $5 and the ECB $15. The cost of the microhydropowerscheme is $2,000 per kilowatt.
The characteristicsof the MCB are such that at 45 C the tripping current is between 1.00 and 1.35 A.
However,when ambient temperatures decreaseto 15 C, this range increases to between 1.15 and 1.55 A,
as more heating is required from the current to compensatefor the lower ambient temperature. In this
latter case,a greater power output will be required from the micro-hydropower plant. To prevent
overloadingand a consequentreduction in supply voltage, the scheme must be designed to supply this
higher current.
The characteristicsof the ECB are such that the trippingcurrent is between 1 and 1.2 A, irrespective of
the ambienttemperature.
Since 100 load limiters will be used, it is acceptable to assume average values from the tripping current
range, i.e., 1.35 A for the MCB and 1.1 A for the ECB.
The maximumapparent power consumptionP(VA) in the village when either only PTCs and only ECBs
are used, respectively,would be the following:
PMCB =lOOx230Vx1.35A=31,000VA=31.0kVA

=lOOx 230Vx1.1OA=25,300VA=25.3kVA
PECB
The actual power requirementmust take into account the power factor of the load and the fact that the
consumerswill not all be using their maximum entitlementat the same time. The reduction will depend
on usagepatterns in the communityand types of load and should be determined by a pre-installation
(Continued next page)

Two organizationsinvolvedwith electronic circuit breakers are Development Consulting Services in


Nepal and SustainableControl SystemsLtd. in the UK."6
In decidingwhat type of load limiter might be used, the following factors should be considered:
*

Likelihood of fraud and theft: Where the likelihood of the consumertrying to obtain free
electricityby bypassing the load limiter is low, manuallyreset circuit breakers are an acceptable
choice. These must be accessible to the consumerfor resetting. If protection against bypassing is
required, the load limiter must be auto-resettingand fully sealed against the ingress of moisture so
that it can be mounted on a distributionor serviceconnection pole. This makes it harder for the
consumerto bypass the load limiter and easier for detection, because any bypassing should be
clearlyvisible.

Chapter XIL Service connection and housewiring

161

(Continued)
survey and comparisons with existing projects. In this case, it is assumed that most households will be
using close to their rated power in the evenings for lighting and TVs. The estimate for the maximum
actual power consumption is taken to be 0.8 times the maximum theoretical power consumption. An
additional factor, for power loss in the distribution system must also be included, amd is assumed to be

1.1in this case.


Hence the power required from the micro-hydropowerplant undereach scenariois:
PMCB=0.8xl.lx31.0kVA=27.3kW
PECB= 0.8 x 1.1 x 25.3 kVA =22.3 kW
The cost of the scheme with the MCBs is:
Micro-hydropower scheme
MCBs

27.3kW @$2,000 per kW


100 units @ $5
Total

$54,600
$ 500
$55,100

The cost of the scheme with the ECBs is:


Micro-hydropower scheme
ECBs

22.3kW @$2,000 per kW


100 units @ $15
Total

$44,600
$ 1,500
$46,100

It is clear that, in this case, use of the more costly ECBs would be justified because the savings in the cost
of the micro-hydropower scheme would be ten times greater than the extra cost of the load limiters.
In the case of a diesel powered system, the initial savings are likely to be less due to lower equipment
costs. However, with diesel generation, there will be additional savings in fuel costs as less power would
need to be generated. A similar analysis can be done in this case.
The financial argument for using accurate load limiters will be greater for higher-current connections as
fewer load lirmiterswould be required for the same generating capacity.

Cost against accuracy: It is tempting for service providers to install cheap load limiters in order
to reduce costs. However, if the cheap limiters have poor accuracy, the overall cost may be
higher because a greater power capacity will be required and energy usage will be greater. This is
illustrated in Box 11. The minimum and maximum tripping currents for load limiters must be
studied in order to ensure that the consumers will always receive the current for which they have
subscribed and to deternine the most cost-effective option. Variations in tripping current with
temperature must be taken into account, for the full temperature range that can occur where the
limiter is located. In addition to the cost disadvantages of load limiters with poor accuracy,
customer complaints are likely to be higher, because some customers may be unable to run as
many appliances from a load limiter of the same current rating as their neighbors.

Chapter XII. Serviceconnectionand housewiring

162

Housewiring
Land tenure practicesin a specific country can have a considerable impact on the price households are
willing to pay for accessing electric service. If a home is part of a squatter settlement where families do
not own the land, they probably have limited financial resources and, in any case, are probably not willing
to spend much for electrifyingtheir home if, from one day to the next, they may have to move. Or if it is
clear that the mini-gridis a stop-gap measure until the national grid arrives in several years and the
distributionsystem will then have to be rebuilt, they may also not be willing to sink too much into a
temporary scheme even if their homes are permanent. In these cases, there may be an argument to use
low-qualityand thereforeless costly materials, as long as they are safe.
Minimumbuilding standards, such as a requirementfor a water-tightroof, are often imposed on the
grounds of safety. In some countries, traditional dwellingswith thatched roofs are not allowed to have
grid-supplied electricity. However, it is also important to recognize that, if households do not have
electricity, they would use kerosene and candles that could also result in considerable safety risks. This is
therefore a strong argument that electricityshould even be availableto traditional dwellings.
On the other hand, if potential consumers have ownership of their land, they are usually more willing to
make a larger financial commitment. In this case, the question of the quality of the materials and
workmanshipused for housewiring and, inevitably,its cost are often a point of discussion. Low-cost (and
lower quality)materialsclearly make electrificationmore affordable at the outset. However, one has to
be cautious becausethese families are apt to remain in a home for a long time. If low-quality materials
are used, switchesand outlets are bound to eventually fail. Most will then resort to makeshift solutionssticking wires into outlets or making switchesby hooking bare wires together. Therefore, from the point
of view of the life-cycle cost of the installation, personal safety, and consumer satisfaction, one should
lean toward the higher-quality solution,even at the expense of somewhat additional cost.
Housewiring originatesat the service entrance,conveys power to the distribution board usually located on
a wall in the house, and then distributesit to the various lighting fixtures and power outlets in and around
the home. In a village setting, a distributionboard might look like that shown in Fig. 113. In this case, it
is a plywood base with a frame I to 2 cm high around the back that raises this base above the mounting
surface and leaves space for the wiring. In industrialized countries, a distribution board would generally
take the form of a steelbox, with door.
Rather than selectingfrom a range of electrical components that mightbe mounted on such a board, it is
wiser to decide what protection and control features should be part of
}
the consumer'ssupply and then to select those components which
,

permit accessing these features.

For the most basic system, a distributionboard may not even be needed.
In this case, power would be deliveredto a light in each home. With
the arrival of nightfall,the genset is started, lighting the lights. Several
hours later, the system is shut down. No light switches, fuses, breakers,
knife switches,MCBs, etc., would be required.

However, most consumersare somewhatmore demanding and require


Fig. 113. One designfor a distributionboard, which includes a

knifeswitch,a fuseand a switchfor eachof two lightingcircuits,

and a fuse with the power outlet.

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

163

featuresthat give them more flexibility. Below are explained the various componentswhich might be
includedas part of the distributionboard and circumstancesunder which each would be included:
*

Light switches. These are required if the consumer wishes some control over which lights are to
be lit and when. This is usually the case. In more sophisticated systems, these light switchesare
placed at the entrance to the room in which the light is found. However, in more rural settings,
the home is smalland the switches are centrally located, often on the distributionboard itself

Poweroutlets. If the generator can supply adequate power and if the mini-gridhas adequate
capacity to distributethis power without increasing the voltage drop beyond an acceptable value,
consumersmay wish to make use of other electrical devices or appliances. These can range from
a TV and/or radio to motor-driven equipment to a wide range of other equipmentusually
availableon local markets. But power outlets should not be includedif generatingor distribution
capacity is inadequate,because the mere presence of outlets will tempt the consumerto go out to
purchase these appliances.
Furthermore,if power outlets are included, an MCB or fuse must be includedto have some
control over the maximum additional power that the consumermay use.

MCBs. This can serve several functions:


-

It would also serve to protect the housewiring from overcurrentsand shorts.

It can be used as an occasional on-off switch, to isolate the home from the supply when, for
example,modifications or repairs have to be made to the existinghousewiring. With systems
that are only on for several hours in the evening, this is not critical becauserepairs or
modificationscan be made when the system is off.
It can be used as a current limiter (see below) in situations where the consumeris billed
according to his or her maximum power

demandsetbytheMCB.

MCBshave the advantage over fuses in that they


are resettable,more precise, and less open to
tampering. They are, however, more expensive.

-_

- .

The MCBs shouldbe located immediately at the


entrance to the distributionboard, before any
other components,irrespective of what other
componentsare included on this board.
*

Current limiter. If the tariff schedulerequires


the use of a currentlimiter, a MCB (above) might
serve that purpose, in addition to several other
purposes already mentioned above. Other lowercost or more readily available altematives are
possible (p. 155). These could also be mounted
as part of the distributionboard (Fig. 114).
Knife switch. If fuses are used to protect the
circuit for overcurrent,a knife switch would be
used to isolate the household circuit from the
supply in an emergency situation or if repairs are

Chapter XII. Service connectionand housewiring

4
i

Fig. 114. The distributionboard for a

rural homein Nepal.Theservicedropto


the homeentersfromthe rightand
passesthrougha Norwegian
current
limiterand the mainbreakerwithfuses.

164

required on the household circuit. When knife switches include built-in wire fuses, these can
serve as overcurrentprotection. However, because fuse wire of the proper size will usuallybe
difficult to find locally, fuses with the incorrectrating will likely be used, placing the system in
jeopardy. This is another reason MCBs are preferred to fuses.
*

Fuses. Fuses are commonly included on each circuit, as can be seen in Fig. 113 (p. 162) where
the two lighting circuits and the power outlet each have a fuse. This is not required, because
fusing the main incoming line with a fuse of proper size would be adequate. If a properly sized
MCB had been included in the incoming circuit, individual fuses would have been an
unnecessaryexpense because they provide no additional protection.
With a pair of ungrounded, single-phase lines entering the consumer's premise, one line would
need to be fused to protect the incoming circuit. However, under a fault condition, this fuse
would blow,leaving the other line energized. This would create a potentiallyhazardous situation
for anyonewho might try repairing the circuit on the load side of the fuses. A knife switch
should be used in the incoming lines in this situation.

With a pair of ungrounded, single-phase lines entering the consumer's premise, both lines are
sometimes fused. This might be the case if no knife switchprecedes the fuses. This is because,
under a fault condition, the likelihood is that only one fuse will blow, leaving the other line live.
This would create a potentiallyhazardous situation for anyone who might try repairing the circuit
on the load side of the fuses. If no knife switch has been included, care must thereforebe
exercised to ensure that both fuses are temporarily removed before work on that circuit is
undertaken. Use of a knife switch would be preferred as safer and only one line would need to be
fused.
* RCD. For consumers with more varied and sophisticated end-uses,where there is greater chance
of shock to individuals, incorporating an RCD is one means of ensuringa safe environment.
While it might be suggested that safety requires the installationof an RCD in each residence,they
are relatively costly and are not necessary if the end-uses are restricted to lighting and
entertainment.
If used, the RCD should be located immediately after the MCB (so that the MCB can be opened
as a protectivemeasure if work on the RCD is required) and before any fuses (to permit the RCD
to trip if the fuses are touched or being replaced while the household circuit is still accidentally
energized).
* Ballasts. For households relying on fluorescentlighting, ballasts are required. Although the
larger, more sophisticated fluorescent units include the lamp, starter, ballast, and fixture as a
single unit, ballasts for small lamps are often separate from the fixture. In this case, it is not
unusual for the ballast to also be mounted as part of the distributionboard rather than on the
ceiling next to the lamp. (See Fig. 129, p. 200).
*

Groundingconnection. If equipment on the premises is to be groundedby connecting it to the


grounded neutral conductor,the grounding conductor from this equipment should be bonded to
the system neutral on the service entrance side of the distributionboard, before any MCBs, fuses,
or RCD. (When system grounding is recommended is describedin ChapterVI, p. 60.)

From the distributionboard to the various points around the home, several options are possible for
housewiring. These can be broadly classed in temporary and permanent variants:

Chapter XII. Service connection and housewiring

165

housewin
wire duct
Fig. 115. Housewiringneatlystapledto beams in a home in
Gotikhel, Nepal. A woodenjunction box is visible in the upper
left.

Fig. 116. Commercially


available plastic
housewiringducts.

Temporarywiring. This kind of housewiringis associated with some wiring harnesses and is
used in homes built of "temporary"materials. In this case, the housewiring is simply tied to
beams and posts as required. This design options is popular becausethe location of the
housewiring and the lights to which it is connectedcan be easily modified to suit the occasion.
*

Permnanentwiring. In this case, the housewiring can be stapled to beams and posts within the
home (Fig. 115). Alternatively,where the wall is of earth or cement, woodenstrips are placed
where the housewiringis to go and the housewiringstapled along these strips. A more recent
variant is to use plastic ductsdesigned for this purpose(Fig. 116). The base of the duct is nailed
or screwed to the wall, the housewiringis laid in the duct, and then the other half is mated to the
base and snaps into place. This approach both secures and protectsthe housewiring.

Standardizedhousewiring
packages
The purpose of standardizinghousewiringis to facilitatethis task and to reduce cost of materials and
installation so as to permit r-uralhouseholds to be able to afford to connect. Two examples of
standardized packages are discussed below:
*

Pre-packagedcomponents: In this case, standardpackages of all the componentsneeded to


electrifyra home are collected,packaged, and deliveredto the home to be electrified. An example
of a project utilizing pre-packaged components is found in Box 12.

Wiring harnesses: These are pre-fabricated housewiring systems, produced in a range of standard
sizes complete with in-line switches and light fittings. The harness is comprised of several leads
taking off from a commnonpoint, a junction box within the home. The installation is simply a
matter of securing the double-insulated conductors to beamnsor exposed building supports,
usually by tying. The wiring harnesses used in Nepal are explained in Box 13.

Chapter XII. Service connection and housewiring

166

Box12. Casestudy,El Salvador,1989


Program overview
In almost 30 years of rural electrificationin El Salvador,housewiring has been largely ignored. Lines
were extended into the rural areas under the assumptionthat, if electricitywere available, potential users
would flock to the electric utility requesting service. In an interview of 3,000 electrified and nonelectrified residences in 1989,only 60 % of the dwellingswithin 25 meters from the lines were electrified
over a period of 20 years. The principal reason for non-connectionwas the unavailability of cash up front
to cover the cost of a service connection($90, whichincluded the service drop wire and the meter
installation) and housewiring($250, roughly a quarter of which was labor).
As part of a subsequentrural electrificationprogram to make electrificationmore affordable to rural
households, NRECA created a pilot credit program within the national utility CEL to offer both the
service connection as well as the housewiring under a two-year credit program. Standardized
housewiring packages were also a part of this program.
Four options were initially available(options that included from one to three 20-A breakers) but because
of the increased complexity,these were narrowed down to two. Even though low initial loads were
expected, housewiringand breakers were sized to accommodatemaximum loads expected in any typical
residence in the country, i.e., 15 or 20 A.
Each option includeda fixed quantity of all the required, UL-listed* materialsneeded for the job:
appropriately sized conductor,staples for fasteningit to the wall, ground rod, connectors, junction boxes,
outlets, nails and screws,tape, and light bulbs to complete the job. The materials for each job were put
into a cardboard box for delivery,along with an inventory. The packages were then delivered to each
participating household. A local electricianwas then contractedto undertake the wiring.
Although including a standardlength of conductorlimited somewhatthe options for locating the
receptacles, this was importantto ensure the consumersaw that they were all treated equally.
Furthermore, it was determinedthat customizingthe conductorlength added considerably to the cost of
labor: increased administrativecosts, additionalvisits to the homes to measure the conductor which
would have been required, and the need to enter into a differentcontract between each household and the
electrician. However,the consumerswere notified that, if they wish, they could always make their own
arrangements with the electricianto have more housewiring at an additional cost.
Standardizationprovided severalcost advantagesto potential consumers. It permitted bulk purchasing of
housewiring materials that reduced cost of materials. It furtherreduced the cost by having the
installations competitivelybid and by organizingthe housewiring program so that the winning electrician
could wire a group of 10 or more houses at the same time. Costs were reduced in spite of the fact that all
UL-listed materials were used (unlike those used by the utility) and the work was guaranteed.
In addition to reducing cost, housewiringwas made even more affordable by replacing the previously
required up-front payment of about $340 with a token down payment and small monthly payments for
two years.
(Continued next page)
safetytestingandcertificationorganizationin the
* UnderwritersLabis a widelyrecognized,private,not-for-profit
U.S. Safetyrequirementarebasedon its StandardsforSafety.Additionalinformnation
canbe foundon the Internet
at <http://www.ul.com>.

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

167

Technicaldescription
Two housewiringpackages were available:one providing 120-V serviceand the other alsoproviding240V service (three-wire,single-phase)for running productive-use equipment.
Each configurationrequired an energymeter (installed by the utility) on the outside of the home as part of
the servicedrop. And a circuit breakerbox was mounted inside the home on the other side of the wall
from the energymeter. A 1.6-m groundrod with pigtail was connected to the breaker box. Eachpackage
providedfor a single circuit breaker serving two wall switches and two lights. In addition,the 120-V
package (Package 1, Fig. 117) providedfor a single circuit and receptacle with two outlets locatedin a
convenientlocation in the home while the 240-V package (Package 2) provided for two circuits with
receptacles,one at 120 V and the other at 240 V to run agro-processing and other productive-use
equipment.
For Package I describedbelow, the cost of materials and labor was reduced from $250 to $120. (Package
2 was about $180.) This included a costof installation of roughly $10 that was paid immediatelyto the
electricianupon completion of the task. The balance-the UL-listed materials for about $90 (Table 18)
and administrativecost and interest charges for $20-plus $90 for the service connectiontotaled about
$200. This was coveredunder a creditagreement where the consumer made a token down paymentof
about $8 and monthlypayments of $8 for two years rather than a singlepayment of $340 whichwas
ordinarilyrequired. (By relying on the local market, without giving any consideration for qualityof
materials,all the components,except for the conductor,could have been purchased for about half-price,
reducing the cost from about $90 to $56. But they would have a significantlyshorter service life.)
Conclusions
In the pilot housewiringprogram that
promotedthis new option among 3,200
households,95 % of the potential
householdswere electrified within the
first year of the energizationof the
lines wherethis program was implemented. This increased connectionrate
improvedthe cash flow for the utility
and improvedthe system load factor
considerably.
It is interestingto note that, while this
pilot program successfullyresulted in a
very high initial conmectionrate and a
more efficient usage of the electrical
infrastructure,it was not adopted by the
utility. Shortlyafter this project, the
utility was privatized,and the new
ownerswere interestedneither in
managing a credit program nor in even
contractingthis out to a third party.

Table 18. Cost breakdownfor materials used in the

standardized
housewiringPackage1.
Quantity

Total cost
(U.S.$)

40 m
2
2

20
6
4

Outlets
Junction boxes
Breakers (15 or 20 A)

2
3
2

8
6
8

Breaker box
Ground rod, pigtail, connector
Entrance conductor
Misc. (staples, tape, nails, etc.)
TOTAL

1
1
1

6
10
12
8
$88

Item
Conductor (AWG #12 or #14)
Incandescentlights/fixtures
Switches

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

168

DE ELECTRIFICACION
RURAL
PROYECTO

Fig. 117. A home wiredwith one of the standard housewiring


package used in El Salvador (see Box 12).

Readyboards: An alternativeto a pre-fabricatedwiring


harness is a pre-manufactureddistributionboard. In
South Africa where much of its developmenthas taken
place, this is aptly named a "'readyboard" (Fig. 118).
These readyboards are connecteddirectly after the
"metering" device. Even in the basic unit, the consumer
protection includes a RCD. Also included are MCBs for
lighting and plug circuits. The unit may have a number
of breakouts for cables/conduitsand the option of
increasing the number of circuit breakers. Some units
also come with a top-mountedlight, and in the lower
income households, this may be the principal use. The
use of double- insulatedwiring provides additional
protection to the consumer. A readyboard is a part of the
standard installation packageused for township
electrification projects in South Africa, and there are a

*,

- -- v

number of companies that manufacturethem


commercially. The readyboards cost the utility

approximately $40 each.

LW

*>
e,

The distribution boards used in Nepal as part of their

Fig. 118. Readyboard. (Source:

wiring harnesses are essentially low-tech readyboards.

SouthAfrica)
CircuitBreakerIndustries,

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

169

Box13. Wiringharnessesin Nepal


In the Andhi Khola Rural ElectrificationProject in Nepal, both conventional wiring and wiring harnesses
are offered to the householders. The conventionalwiring installations are approximately six times the
cost of wiring harnesses. The most basic wiringhamess, which is made for two lights or one light and
one two-pin socket costs roughly $5 (Fig. 119).The wiring harnesses are installed by trained villagers,
under supervisionof the electricitysupply company,and the lights are placed in positions decided by the

service entranceconductor
)

current
cut-off

ligh bulb

\<>

_wooden junctionbox

Efs

~~double-insulated

oe

ultin-fine

switc

Fig. 119. Componentsof a typical Nepaliwiring harness.

householder(Fig. 120). The cables are always of ample length. The excess length is neatly strappedand
tied and can be undone if the lights are moved. This reduces the problem of the householder extending
the wiring by twisting bits of wire together.
The wiring harness was developedto provide a safe,
low-costmeans of wiringthe traditionalthatched
roofed houses. However, becauseof the flexibility
it offers, it has also proved popular for the more
solidlybuilt houses with corrugated iron roofs.
Conventionalwiring installationsare permanent,
makingit difficult to changethe location of lights in
a room.
The wiring harnessesare used in conjunction with
loadlimiters. If a consumerpays the tariff
associated with a larger current limiter, the wiring
harness can be upgradedto allow for extra loads to
be connected.

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

Fig. 120. Lightbulb and inline switch as

partof a wiringharness.

170

They are standardizedunits assembled


under controlled conditions (Fig. 121).
Installation simplyrequires mounting it
on a secure surface in the home and
connecting it to the service entrance.
Standardizationpresents a number of
advantages:
*

Bulk purchase of materials and labor


permits a reduction in cost.

The consumerscan easily understand


Fig. 121. NepalireadyboardwithNorwegian
the price they have to pay for wiring
currentlimiter,fuse, and twooutlets.
their home. Standardizationof two or
three sizes and a fixed price for each
removes any hidden charges and any consumeruncertainty about the cost for electrifyingtheir
homes.Typically,housewiring is undertakenby local contractors who generally have no vested
interest in minimizingthe cost of housewiringto the consumer. The cost they charge may be
based on the number of components installed and the labor required for their installation. In these
cases, they thereforehave no incentive to minimize the number of components they install.

The packages are prepared in a central location, permitting close control over what is included
and the quality of materials and workmanship.

The inclusion of the appropriateprotection equipment, e.g., grounding, breakers, fuses, etc., can
be ensured.

One minor disadvantage associated with this approachmight be that it may limit the housewiring
configurations. For example, in cases where the standardizationof the available packages implies that a
predeterminedlength of conductor for wiring the home is available, this restricts somewhat the wiring
options within a home. However, standardizationdoes not necessarily preclude wealthierhouseholds
from wiring their home as they see fit by going to an established electrician.

ChapterXII. Serviceconnectionandhousewiring

171

XiII. Operation,maintenance,and consumerservices


Operatorselectionandtraining
The systempersonnelresponsible for the operation, maintenance, and management of the powerplant and
mini-grid play a critical role in ensuringa reliable and sustainablesystem. Even a costly, well-designed
system with quality componentsmay not continue operating reliably if these tasks are not properly
handled. It is essentialthat the individuals selected to perform these tasks have a suitable attitude,
aptitude, integrity,and rapport with the community.
If a private entrepreneuris responsible for the system, then he or she will likely select the operators or
even serve in that capacity. This is the entrepreneur's prerogative. On the other hand, if an outside
organizationis assistingthe village in project development and implementation,it may be its role to guide
the selectionof systempersonnel. To increase the chance that suitable candidates are selected, it might be
advantageousto delaythe identification of these individuals. In this case, as many community members
as are interestedshould be involved in the project developmentand implementation from the start. Then
based on an assessmentof the capabilitiesof each of these individualsas the project evolves, how they
interact with the others, their natural leadershipcapacity, etc., several would then be selected and trained
in the actual operation and maintenance of the plant.
In this manner, while one or two individualswould eventuallybe selected from this set and given initial
responsibility for project operation, the communitywould have a pool of individuals from which to draw
in case the principal operators are not available,because they may have an obligation away from the
village, may be ill, or may have to attend to more pressing matters. Identifying and training only one or
two individualsfrom the outset puts the project at risk should they become unavailable for whatever
reason.
The operator plays an important role in ensuring continued operation of the plant. To minimize training
and backup needs and to ensure continuity,it is desirable that there be little staff turnover with this
position. While it might appear appropriateto assign this responsibilityto a younger member of the
community who is looking for work, possiblyone who has recently completed his schooling, a more
suitable candidatefor system operator might be an older person who is well established in the community,
with his or her own home, land, and sustainableoccupation. Younger individuals tend to be more
transient and likely to take off to the more attractive urban areas in search of employment or other
opportunities. Continuityis lost and a new operator would then have to be trained.
In addition to receivingtraining during project developmentand construction,training must extend over
the long term to be effective and be on-the-job in nature. It cannot be done in an hour or two in a
lecturing atmosphere. As part of this training, the implementingorganizationmust periodically return to
the communityand monitor the status of the project, evaluate the quality and nature of the repairs or
modifications to system design that have been implemented after the project was commissioned, review
the maintenancerecords,and audit the books. Optimally,the operator should also feel that he or she can
contact, and has access to, a suitably trained individual with the required expertise in a nearby town when
needed.

Chapter XIII. Operation,maintenance, and consumerservices

172

Regularoperationand maintenance
A principal responsibilityof the plant operator is to start and shut down the plant on a pre-established
schedule and to ensure its properand reliable operation. In performing this work, the operator must
maintain up-to-date records in a logbook at the powerhouse. The date (and time, where relevant) of each
observationmust also be recorded. This record of plant operation can be used for a variety of purposes,
such as:
*

To determine whenperiodic maintenancemust be undertaken.

To contribute to the database which can be used to revise the tariff schedule.

To assistwith trouble-shootingany problems that may arise with the operation of the plant and
mini-grid.

Items such as the followingshould be recorded:


* Daily hours of operation (when started and when shut-down). One purpose of these numbers is
that they are an indicationof when certain tasks must be undertaken (such as changing the oil,
greasing the bearings,or undertaking minor and major overhauls).
*

The energy (kWh) meterreading at the beginning or end of each day (if an energymeter is
located at the powerhouse). This may highlight unusual day-to-day variations that could be
indicative of some problem with the system.

Output voltage and current readings from a voltmeter and ammeter with a switch(or an ammeter
for each phase) whichshould be installed in the powerhouse. These are importantindicators of
potential problemsthat could lead to system failure, problemssuch as unbalancedphases,
overloadedphases, unexpected loading, and abnormal voltage setting on the generator,

The volume of fuel,oil, and/or grease added, with date. This is useful to calculateactual fuel
expenses incurred in running the powerplant, expenses that must be taken into consideration
when setting or revisingthe tariff. It can also be used to determine fuel consumption(liters per
kWh), which can be an indication on the state of the powerplant, whether fuel is being siphoned
off for unofficial reasons,etc.

Any unusual observations(noises, unusuallyhigh fuel consumption,occasional high current


demands that may be indications of faults or theft of power, detailsof low-voltagecomplaintsby
consumers, frequentbreaker trips, etc.). Being aware of these factors is crucialif consumers are
to continue gettingreliable power and permit locating potential problemsbefore they have an
adverse impact on systemoperation.

* Date and explanationof any maintenance or repairs made.


The operator should also be responsible for makingregular inspections of the mini-grid, ensuring
adequate right-of-way clearancein the vicinity of the line and trimming any branches that could threaten
the integrity of the lines; looking for signs of irregularities along the lines (such as unofficialtaps to the
line); and foreseeingpotentiallyhazardous conditions along the line (such as caused by a broken guy or
damagedpole, a new home being erected in proximity to the line or a service drop, or a severed ground
connection).
Anothertask of the operatormight be to collect payments for electric service from each consumeron
some regular basis. A methodologyfor doing this must be established, and clear records must be

ChapterXIII. Operation,maintenance,and consumerservices

173

maintained and be availableto be reviewed when necessary. Collectionmay, at times, prove difficult
because some consumerswanting special favors (such as a delay or waiver in paying their bill) may place
pressure on the operator. To facilitate his task, all consumersmust be aware of the fact that the operator
is responsible to othersto ensurethat all bills are collectedand that he or she would be held personally
responsible for any shortfall in the collection.
The village electricityorganizationshould preferably establish an account with a local bank to ensure that
revenues generated from the operationof the mini-grid are properly accounted for and accessible for the
intended purposes (for paying staff and for covering costs of tools, supplies, and materials). A policy of
multiple signatories might be establishedto ensure, to the degree possible, that one individual does not
abscond with the savings.

Consumer education
Financial obligations
Consumers must be made aware that they must pay for the service they agree to receive and that this is
required for the ongoingoperation of the plant. Any failure of the consumersto pay their bills puts the
plant in jeopardy for the entire community. Furthermore,it must be made clear that if the consumer no
longer has the wherewithalto pay, that household will be disconnected (unless the others are willing to
cover the increased financial obligations).
Disconnectionpolicy
To encourage paymentof bills, a written policy concerning the disconnection of individual consumers
from the mini-grid in case of non-paymentmust be clearly defined,readily available to all at the outset,
and well publicized. Referenceto such a policy should be included in an agreementinto which each
consumer enters with the villageutility when applying for service (see p. 174). And it should be
promptly enforced, without exception, and implemented in a transparent manner. Failure to forcefully
implement a disconnectionpolicy will contributeto growing problems, as one consumer sees that others
are benefiting by circumventingestablishedregulationsand starts to follow in their footsteps. Gradually
revenues will decreaseto such a point that the system cannot cover costs incurred and will stop operating.
Theft of power
Consumers must alsobe made aware that any theft of power will not be tolerated because this will also
threaten the operation of the entiresystem. A course of action should be clearly and explicitly defined if
any consumer is found to be attemptingto circumventthe normal operating procedures (e.g., bypassing
the meters or current limiter or temporarilytapping the main line each evening upon cover of darkness).
Awareness of optionsfor electrical end-uses
Many in rural villagesare unaccustomedwith the range of uses to which electricity can be put. This can
limit the benefits that consumerscan derive from electricity service if excess capacity exists. A
promotion or awareness-raisingeffort should be implementedby the utility to address this issue. For
example, with battery-poweredradios and cassette players commonly found in rural homes, one electrical
devicethat could have significanteconomic impact is an ac/dc converter to run these items from ac
voltage or to use rechargeablebatteries chargedby the mini-grid. However, while this can have a
significant economic impacton households-because batteries are such an expensive source of
electricity-it is rarely promoted.
and consumerservices
ChapterXIII. Operation,maintenance,

174

At the same time, it would be wise for those involved not to start promotingend-uses-such as hot plates
or electric kettles-which should not be used if system capacity is inadequate. Their use would only
create problemsin the future.
Safety
Especiallybecause electricityis a new commodity in a rural community, all households, whether
consumeror non-consumers,should be made aware that playing with or touching electrical lines can lead
to death. This should also be emphasizedby teachers in the schools. Some of the cautions ideas that
must be shared with the communityinclude the following:
*

Stay away from any downed conductors and immediately notify the plant operator to shut down
the plant so that repairs can be made. Although low-voltage lines will generally appear harmless,
they can still present a potentiallylethal shock.

* Water is usually a good conductorof electricityand persons should never be standingin water or
on a wet surfacewhile touching an electrical switch or appliance or plugging in an appliance.
These maybe designed to be safe but can occasionally fail. Washingbabies or clothes shouldbe
done away from electrical circuitsor appliances.
* Before replacing light bulbs, ensurethat electricityto that fixture has been tumed off.
* Any extensions of housewiring,except through the use of properly made extensioncords, should
be done by a qualified individualor at least inspected by one.
*

No one should climb poles for whatever purpose, because this can pose a risk to both the climber
as well as others in the vicinity.

For a larger electrificationprograr, well-illustratedelectrical safety brochure can be prepared and


distributedto each household in the community. (Because of cost, printing such brochures may be out of
the question for a single village project.) This brochure should highlight the various dangeroussituations
associatedwith electricity. In addition to text, presentinga graphical presentation of the informationis
often more attractive and more meaningfulto all. Text should be kept to a minimum.
In some countries,posters are popular and are stuck on the walls inside the home as decoration.
Attractiveeducationalposters with clear illustrationscan be distributed to all households and schools.

Consumeragreement
To minimize problems that may frustratethe continued successful operation of a project, it is wise to
ensure that consumersare aware of their obligationsand of the repercussions for failing to live up to these
obligations. One mechanismfor achievingthis is to have each consumer sign an agreementor contract
when he or she applies for service. This agreementshould describe the obligations of consumerswishing
electric service. Box 14 shows a variationof an agreementthat is widely used between consumersand
their neighborhoodmini-grids in the Philippines. In this case, each mini-grid is suppliedby a metered
transformerlocated along a line extensionfrom a distant, much larger, rural electric cooperative. This
agreementshown is only meant to serve as an example. The actual agreement should be designedto be as
short and as clear as possible and to include those issues that are appropriateto the specific system under
consideration.

Chapter XIII. Operation, maintenance,and consumer services

175

Box 14. Example of agreement between a consumer and the electricity supplier, based on an
applicationfor service from a Barangay (neighborhood) Power Association in the Philippines.

[NAME OF COMMUNITY ELECTRICITY SUPPLIER]


I, the undersigned, agree to purchase electricity from [name of community electricity supplier] under the
followingterms and conditions:
1. The undersigned shall comply with the policies, regulations, and tariffs establishedby the [name
of community electricity supplier].
2. The undersigned shall have his premises wired in accordance with the wiring specifications
approvedby [name of community electricity supplier]. The undersignedshall allow employees
of [name of community electricity supplier] to enter his or her premises if there is valid reason to
suspect the illegal use of electricity or dangerous modification of the housewiring.
3. The undersigned shall not be party to the vandalism, theft, or destructionof electric facilities
which could jeopardize continued safe electric service to the community.
4. The undersigned shall support and cooperate with staff of the [name of conmnunityelectricity
supplier] to curtailpilferage of electricity and tampering of electric meters, clear the right-of-way,
and remove constructionsthat may hamper delivery of electricity or pose a danger to life and
property.
5. The undersigned shall not, in any manner whatsoever, pilfer electricity either directly or
indirectly,install illegal and/or unauthorized connections, or tamper with his or her electric
meter. It is in the interest of the undersigned to discourage other consumersfrom engaging in
illegal activitiesor to report such occurrences.
6. Out of respect for, and in recognition of, the rights of other consumers and to avoid disconnection
by the [name of community electricity supplier], the undersigned agrees to pay his power bill to
the [name of communityelectricity supplier] in the prescribed period and not to engage in the
aforementionedillegal activities.
7. The acceptanceof this application shall constitute an agreement between the undersignedand the
[name of communityelectricity supplier].

Date

Applicant'sprintedname

Consumerno.

Signature

Approval:

Chairman
[nameof comrnmunity
electricitysupplier]

Chapter XIII. Operation, maintenance,and consumer services

176

Concnetgla
eMWnca
puedes
toner
unaTIENDA
0
Z7COMEDORpara panad_

SASTRES
Y COSTURERAS
prodx*cn
OIO)re
mYs
r4edo
conmgquinas
eI6cbicas

EnemT

2P

Fig. 122. Part of a cartoon strip illustratinguses to which electricity can be put. (Source:
NRECA/Guatemala)

Under some circumstances,utilities require a securitydeposit from consumersbefore providing electric


service, an amount that is returned to the consumerif he or she should terminate service. Such deposits
are more widely used in urban areas where the comrnmunity
is less cohesive and where households can
pack and leave from one day to the next. In these cases, agreementscould also specify the size of a safety
depositthat may be required from each consumer. The electric utility draws on these deposits only if
consumersincur costs that they fail to pay before they are disconnected.

Consumer services
In addition to providing consumers guidanceon the safe use of electricity,the village electric utility can
also provide other services to the consumer.
End-usepromotion
If sufficient generation capacity exists, one servicewould be to make consumers aware of uses to which
electricitycan be put, productive or otherwise, such as grain grinding,refrigeration,fans, television,
battery-charging (nickel-cadmiumor automotive),blenders, soldering,and a village cellular-telephone
post (Fig. 122). The uses promoted should only be those which contribute to the objective of operating as
efficient a system as possible. For example,ironingclothes should not be promoted for small diesel
systemswhile it might be promoted duringthe daytime for micro-hydropowersystems (as long as their
numbers can somehow be regulated, such as by the use of limiters). A diesel system with excess capacity
might promote battery-chargingwith familiesoutsidethe village when it is operational or this could be an
overnight end-use promoted to make use of excesshydropower capacity beginning later in the evening.
In situationswhere generator capacity is limitedbut where incandescentlighting is the norm, the wider
use of more efficient, although more expensive,fluorescentlights can be promoted. Along these lines, a
service to consumers would be to provide credit to encouragethe use of such lighting. This could be paid
back over time by a slight increase in the tariff. As was illustrated earlier in Table I (p. 25), the cost of
the lamp is insignificant compared to the cost of energy over the life of the lamp or bulb, so there is little
risk to the utility in providing credit and a significantadvantage for all. Dependingon the size of the
plant in comparison to the expected load,it might be advantageousto offer perspective consumersthe

Chapter XIII. Operation, maintenance, and consumer services

177

choice of fluorescentlighting units at the same price as incandescent units, with the balance paid back
through the tariff.
Sales outlet for electrical components
An associatedservice which the village utility can perform itself or through a local entrepreneuris to
make available for sale items such as bulbs, fluorescent tubes, fixtures, conductor for housewiring,small
ac/dc radios, and other hardware and equipment which would be in demand by the villagers. The utility
involvementin this service would have several advantages:
* It could save villagers time and money by making supplies that it can purchase in bulk available
locally.
* It could ensure that a standardizedset of materials and equipment of appropriate quality and
capacity are used: conductor,fluorescent fixtures with power-factor correction, appropriately
sized light bulbs and fuses, etc.
Batterycharging
Because of the cost of battery chargers and rechargeable batteries (see p. 35), another service that the
village utility could provide is to either charge batteries or to rent charged batteries. For nicad batteries,
the utility would cover the initial high cost of these batteries and rent them out for a fraction the cost of
the usual dry-cell batteries. The only risk facing the utility would be that villagers might not return the
discharged batteries. But this issue should be fairly easy to address within a typical community. Suchan
approach could also facilitate the proper disposal of spent batteries, as this could be done by the utility
itself. At present, batteries are simply discarded outdoors but as they corrode, they may leave behind
traces of toxic metals.

ChapterXIII.Operation,maintenance,andconsumerservices

178

XIV.Tariffs
Introduction
For any mini-grid project, covering the cost that has been incurred in the construction of the powerplant
and the distribution system as well as the cost of the electric power that is generated is critical to its ongoing success. For this purpose, a properly designedtariff schedule defining what each consumermust
pay for continuing to be supplied with electricityhas to be established. To achieve this objective,the
tariff should not be arbitrarily set by simply adoptingthe tariff that is used by the national utility, on the
grounds of being "equitable". It should not be set equalto the current expensesincurred by households
for those uses for which electricity will substitute(i.e.,costs of batteries for radios and TVs, candlesand
kerosene for lighting, etc.), under the assumptionthat this is what consumers can afford. And neither
should it be set based on political considerations,becausethese generallyhave little correlation with
pivotal financial considerations. If the tariff were to be set by any of these methods, there is no guarantee
that sufficient revenues would be gathered. In this case,the system would then not be able to be
maintained, it would falter, and the investment in the project in terms of time, energy, and financing
would probably have been wasted.
To achieve its objective, a tariff must be designed to generate revenues to cover all the construction and
operating costs of a generating/distributionsystem, plus a profit or margin if that is required by the owner
of the system. These cost components must first be calculated, the revenuesthat must be raised to cover
these costs are then determined, and a tariff scheduleto raise that revenue must finally be established.
This chapter first identifies the costs that are incurredin implementing and then operating a mini-grid
project. It then briefly reviews the options for coveringthese costs and follows by describing how costs
to be raised each month are calculated. This chapter concludesby describingdifferent types of tariff and
illustratinghow tariff schedules for mini-gridsmightbe established.
It is the role of the project implementer, who shouldbe aware of the economicrealities in the community,
to assess project costs, to identify what portion can be covered up-front, and to configure a tariff structure
that covers the balance of these costs and ensures equitableaccess to electricityby all consumers.

Project costs to be covered


The following costs are typically incurred in constructing and operating a mini-grid:

1. Capital cost of the project, which includes items such as the following:
*

Planning and design

Land acquisition

Powerhouse

Generating plant with controls (genset;hydropowerturbine/generatorwith govemor and/or


load controller; PV array or wind turbine,batteries, electronic controller, and inverter; etc.)

Poles

Conductor for the main distributionline and service drops

ChapterXIV. Tariffs

179

Poletop hardware (insulators, connectors,clamps, lightning arresters, etc.)

Other hardware (groundingrods; guy wires, attachment hardware,and anchors; etc.)

* Housewiringmaterials, if costs are coveredby the project (housewiring,staples, insulating


tape, distributionboard or junction box, breakers, fuses, current-limiters, lighting fixtures,
outlet receptacles, etc.)
*

Tools

* Labor (construction,wiring, inspection,project commissioning,etc.)


*

Transportand handling

2. Recurringoperation and maintenance(O&M) costs,which include the following items. For each
of these items, both the cost and the period over which this cost would be incurred must be
specified.
*

Fuel costs (e.g., diesel fuel and lubricating oil). This is the major recurring cost for a minigrid supplied by an internal combustionengine. For renewables systems, this cost is
minimal.

System operator

Materials (grease, belts, replacement lights, administrativesupplies, etc.)

Equipmentrepair and overhaul.

3. Interestpayments, if loans are necessaryto cover a portion of project cost.

Optionsfor coveringprojectcosts
These costs can be covered in several ways:

* Grants. This type of fundingmay be availablefrom the local or national government, bilateral
aid organizations, private businesses, or non-govemmental organizations (NGOs) to cover a

portionof a project's capitalcost. A common rationale for grants is that project beneficiariesfamiliesresiding in rural areas-are at a disadvantage. An initial infusion of capital is then seen
as assisting them to be in a better position to maintain the developmentalmomentum that is
expected or hoped will result for the project, While a range of benefits is associated with

electrification,some may be difficult to quantify, and they may not necessarily result in
immediatecash returns to the beneficiaries themselves. These benefits may include reduced
urban migration and attendant problems,a more agriculturallyproductive nation, reduced adverse
environmental impacts, or a better educated and healthier citizenry. In making subsidies or grants
available, national governments or other entities like the Global Environmental Facility (GEF)
can be seen as placing a monetary value for these benefits.
Contributing grants or subsidies to cover a portion of the capital cost of a project can be justified.
However, these should never be expected to cover ongoing recurring costs or equipment
replacement costs, because this can never be guaranteed by the donor. If the on-going

The GEF is an independentinternationalfinancial entity implementedby the U.N. Development Programme


(UNDP),the U.N. EnvironmentalProgramme (UNEP), and the World Bank which defrays the costs of rnaking
plannedprojects environmentallyfriendly, with the aim of sustainableeconomic development.

ChapterXIV. Tariffs

180

sustainabilityof a project were to depend on such funding, the project would stop functioning
once this funding is no longer available. Nowadays, most donors are aware of this. If a
community itself cannot fully cover at least all recurring project costs, then the advisability of
proceeding with the project should seriouslybe questioned.
*

Up-front villager contributions.To reduce the monies that must be raised externally or
borrowed, the villagers themselves may raise some monies at the outset of a project. These
contributions,when made by families with little disposable income, are also seen by extemal
project funders as an indication of villager commitment to the project.
Several avenues are open for making such contributions. For many projects, individual
household can cover all housewiringcosts, and this can be considered as an up-front villager
contribution. Villagers might reduce project cost by providing a portion of the labor required to
implement the project (sweat equity) or by providing suitable poles or other required materials.
And finally, each household in the village may decide, or be asked, to make an up-front
contributionto defray a portion of the remaining costs. For grid-connected homes, this is often
referred to as a connection fee.
While up-front villager contributionsmightappear an attractive manner of buying down project
cost, little disposable income among some households may prevent them from getting electricity
service, dependingon the magnitude of this contribution. This may introduce a feeling of
resentment or inequity among those households left out. Therefore, if it appears that this could be
a problem, it might be best to avoid an up-frontcontribution (except for possibly the cost of
housewiring) and rather to include this as part of the tariff, to be paid over time. This will
generally make electrification more affordable,will increase the numbers of households served,
and, by increasing the consumerbase, should decrease the amount which each must contribute
toward total project cost.

* Loans. These would be required to cover the balance of the capital costs (i.e., those not covered
by the above two mechanisms). The usual source of loans for this purpose is from NGOs. They
may maintain a revolving fund for such developmentprojects or may channel funds through a
developmentbank in the country and guaranteethese loans. These loans might also be available
at subsidized rates, under the implicit acknowledgmentthat it is difficult for such projects to
cover their costs with loans availableat commercialinterest rates. In theory, loans would also be
available from commercialbanks but, unless it is a loan to an individual, banks are likely to be
hesitant to loan to community organizationsfor such unconventionalprojects. Whatever the
source of the loan, it eventuallywould have to be repaid by the villagers by including the sum for
loan repayment as one componentin the regular tariff payments.

Calculating monthly costs


Either grants or up-front villager contributionsare used to cover at least a portion of a project's cost. Any
remaining balance would have to be coveredby a loan of some form. Loan repayments would then be
made using revenue generatedthrough monthly consumerbilling. The size of the revenue that must be
raised to cover loan repayment and other recurring costs are calculated as described below.
In this discussion, it is assumed that a loan has been taken out and that the monthly tariff must generate
adequaterevenue to repay the loan over the period of that loan. If, for example, the loan is to be repaid
over a 5-year period, the tariff would be set to cover this sum over the first five years of the project. After

ChapterXIV.Tariffs

181

that period,the loan would have been repaid, and the tariff could be recalculatedbecause it would no
longer need to include a loan repayment component. Other assumptionsmay have to be made and other
cost componentsmay have to be included in the tariff, as necessary,to reflect the actual project situation.
This exerciseis useful as it will illustrate what consumers must pay every month in order to cover the
actual capitaland recurring cost of a project. It will illustratethat, unless a grid can be built at a low lifecycle cost and be well managed, consumers will have to pay considerablyfor electricity supply. This is
the reason that rural electrification around the world often has to be subsidized. However,if a project is
well implementedand yields benefits to the nation (reduced urban migration,better health, employment
opportunities,value added to rural raw materials, etc.) as well as to the consumersthemselves, subsidies
may simplybe seen as the cost for obtaining these benefits.
The followingsteps illustrate how to calculate the revenue that must be raised each month to cover
project cost. An example is found in Box 15.
*

1. Calculate loan repayment. If a loan is necessaryto cover a portionof project cost, tariff payments
will have to generate adequate revenue with which to makeregular loan repayments. The loan
amountL would equal the capital cost of the project, minus any grants or up-frontvillager
contributions. Based on the terms of the loan (annual interest of i over a period of N years), the
monthlypayment PMT to repay the loan in equal installmentswould be the following:
PMT =-

12

r(

)NJ

Ratherthan using the above equation, the monthly paymentcan also be obtainedby multiplying
the loan amount L by the appropriate factor from Table 19.
2. Calculate fuel costs (if a diesel genset or other form of intemal combustionengine is used).
Based on the envisioned uses to which electricity will be put, the monthly consumptionof the
community(kWh) can be estimated by summingthe product of (i) the average power each
householdis expected to use, (ii) the average length of time each day it is to be used, and (iii) a
factor of about 30 (days per month). Then knowing the specificenergy output of the genset
(kilowatt-hoursgenerated per liter of fuel consumed)from literature, the supplier, or historical
data from units operating elsewhere, it is possible to estimatethe volume of fuel (liters) required
each month. The cost of that fuel deliveredto the site CF($ per month) can then be calculated.
Once the plant is operational, one of the tasks of the plant operator will be to regularlyrecord the
Table 19. Factor by which to multiply loan amountto calculate
monthly payments, based on the interestand term of the loan.

ChapterXIV.Tariffs

Term
(years)

4%

8%

2
4
6
8
10
12

0.044
0.023
0.016
0.012
0.010
0.009

0.047
0.025
0.018
0.015
0.012
0.011

Annual interest
16%
12%

20%

0.052
0.030
0.023
0.019
0.017
0.016

0.055
0.032
0.025
0.022
0.020
0.019

0.049
0.027
0.020
0.017
0.015
0.013

182

actual fuel use by the plant to determine whether the tariff must be modified in light of actual fuel
consumptionfigures.
3. Depending on the ownership/managementstructure,the plant operator(s) may also receive a
monthlyfee Co as remuneration for services rendered.
4. Certain interventions will be necessary at regular intervals to ensure that the powerplant continues
to operate satisfactorily. These might include the replacement of drive belts, air or oil filters, and
bearings; refurbishingthe powerplant; and minor and major overhauls. Many of these tasks are
done after so many hours of operation (e.g., replacingthe oil every 500 hours of operation or
undertaking a major overhaul every 3,000 hours). These time intervals must be obtained from the
equipment manufacturer or supplier, from those with experience with operating similar plants in
the country, or possibly from technical school instructors. In addition to determining these
intervals, it will be necessaryto obtain an estimate of the cost of each intervention, both labor and
materials.
For each of these tasks, determine the cost and period between interventions. From this period
and a knowledge of how many hours each month the plant will be operating, estimate how many
months pass between interventions. Then divide the cost of each intervention by this interval to
obtain an estimate of the coston a monthly basis. Add the costs for all the major interventions to
get the total cost Cm($ per month) for maintenance,repairs, and overhauls.

5. For some projects, funds are generated to cover the cost of a replacement powerplant CR. If the
cost of the original powerplant is being bome by the community,paid for either by a loan or by
up-front villager contributions,it may be assumed that the same process would be used to
purchase the replacement unit(s). In this case, addingthis cost component to arrive at the
monthlycost is not necessary. However, if the cost of the original powerplant was covered by a
donor and if the project is designed to be sustainablewithout additional inputs from a donor, then
this cost component must be included to ensure sufficient cash will be raised to cover the cost of
replacementunits by the time the original unit fails. To determine how much must be set aside
each month, assuming that these funds are placed in an interest-bearing savings account, multiply
the expected cost of the powerplant when it is to be purchased by the suitable factor in Table 20.
6. Determinewhat other costs must be covered by revenues generated from the sale of electricity for
that specific project, Cx ($ per month). This could include such items as profit, other
administrativecosts, taxes, etc.
Table20. Factorbywhichto multiplythe expectedfuture
priceof a powerplant
to calculatemonthlypaymentswhich
mustbe investedeachmonthfor the timeindicated.
Time
(years)
1
2
3
4
5
6

ChapterXIV.Tariffs

0%
0.083
0.042
0.028
0.021
0.017
0.014

2%
0.083
0.041
0.027
0.020
0.016
0.013

Annualinterest
4%
8%
0.082
0.080
0.040
0.039
0.026
0.025
0.019
0.018
0.015
0.014
0.012
0.011

12%
0.079
0.037
0.023
0.016
0.012
0.010

183

After the values have been calculated, the total monthly cost Cr for operating the system and for paying
back the initial investment is simply the sum of individual costs described above:
CT =PMT+CF

+CO +CM +CR +CX

Box 15 illustrateshow these basic equations are applied in a specific situation. Note that if the loan is to
be repaid over 6 years,the tariff must raise an average of $7.30/month/consumer.But if the term for the
loan is doubled to 12years, PMT will be somewhat reduced, and an average of $5.90/month/consumer
would have to be raised monthly. With a 6-year loan, if the cost for the entire project is coveredby a
grant and no loan were necessary, the tariff would fall to $3.50/month/consumerto only cover O&M
costs. On the other hand, if the communitywere to cover all project costs with its own resources,
including the cost of a replacement engine, project cost would average $9.20 monthlyfor each consumer.

Basic tariff types


The previous section briefly described how the revenues required to support project costs are established.
The purpose of a tariff schedule is to define the structure by which the various consumers will then
contribute to these revenues. While there are numerous options, they basically fall into two categories:
energy-based and power-based.
Energy-basedtariff
The bill paid by a consumerunder this type of tariff is determined by the actual quantity of energy is
actually used by the consumer. This is measured throughthe use of an energy or kilowatt-hourmeter.
This may be regarded as a more equitable approach, because a consumeris chargedaccording to the
energy actually consumed. Those who use less electricitypay less.
Energymeters are commonly used for large-grid-connectsystems, where they present several advantages:
*

They provide an accurate record of power consumptionfor both billing and planning purposes.

Meters encourageenergy conservation because the customer's consumptiondirectly determines


his or her bill. The consumers save if they reduce electricityuse.

Meter readings can help with the detection of fraud or meter failuresbecause unusual trends in
consumptioncan be used as a signal to initiate an investigation.

Time-of-daymeters (i.e., meters which measure consumptionduring differentportions of the


day) can be used that discourage consumption at peak times and encouragethe use of off-peak
power (althoughthese are more expensive than standard meters).

However,meters also have a number of drawbacks:


*

Good-qualitymeters add to the consumers' cost for accessing electricity. In an attempt to reduce
this cost, low-qualityenergy meters may be used and these may have the problem of unreliably
recording the low demand levels (e.g., 10 W to run a fluorescent light or less to power a small
radio). More importantly, the costs associated with meter reading, accounting,billing, and
revenue collectionare significant, especially if the consumers are widely dispersed or remotely
located. With low consumption levels commonlyfound in rural areas, these costs can add
considerablyto the overall costs of service.

Chapter XIV. Tariffs

184

Box 15. Example of deriving the monthly revenue required to cover project costs.

A village with 40 families has undertaken a mini-grid project powered by a 3 kW diesel genset dedicated
to electricity generation for residential use. All families have indicated an interest in receiving electricity
and it is estimated that they would use an average of 60 W for the four hours that the plant will be
operating every evening.
The capital cost of a mini-grid project, including a powerplant and housewiringis $12,000. To cover this
cost, a grant for $4,000,which also covered the cost of the diesel genset, was obtained. The balance was
loaned to the community by an NGO under the agreement by which loan repaymentswould be deposited
into a revolving fund that would then provide a source of funding for future projects. The agreement
stipulates that the loan has to be paid back in equal installmentsover 6 years at an interest rate of 10%.
The plant operator will be paid a sum of $20/month to operate the plant, to undertakeroutine
maintenance, and to collect the monthly payments from the consumers.
The supplier of the diesel genset notes the following:
*

Fuel consumption:2 kWh per liter when the plant is running above half-load and the cost of
diesel fuel in the village is $0.40/liter.

Oil change every 300 hours at a cost of $5.

Overhaul every 4,000 hours at a cost of $1,100.

Determine the monthly costs to be raised by revenue from the sale of electricityto cover all costs incurred
and estimate what the average tariff should be levied on each consumer to generate this revenue.
Solution:
1. Covering a loan of $8,000 at 10% for 6 years would require a payment of PMT= ($8000)(.019)
= $152/month.

2. The monthly energy requirement will be


(40 consumers)(

60W
4
day
consumer)

3 ah =290,000 W hours = 290 kWh


month9

This will require about 150 liters of diesel at $0.40/liter, costing CF = $60/month.
The operator's remuneration Co = $20/month.
Each month, the mini-grid will be operating 120 hours. Maintenance is restricted to an oil change and an
overhaul. On a monthly basis, the cost for these will be
CM

$5
$1,100
+
=$35/month
$
2.5 months 33 months

The diesel engine has to be replaced in about 6 years for a future cost estimated at $2,300. Revenuesof
CR = $26 must be invested monthly in the village's savings account at 8 % interest.
The total revenues whichmust be generated is CT = $290.
The tariff schedule must next be set in order to generate $290 monthly to cover the cost of generating
290 kWh during this period. Several examples of tariff schedulesare found in Box 16.

Chapter XIV. Tariffs

185

Consumers,who have had no formnaleducation,may have difficulty understandinghow to read


the meter and, therefore, the chargethey are required to pay. This can result in unexpectedlyhigh
bills and, in some cases, can lead to exploitationby fraudulentmeter readers.

Meters alone do not limit peak demandof each consumer;neither do they prevent the supply
from becoming overloaded. If meters are used, without additionalload-limiting components,it is
possible for a few, wealthierhouseholdsto consumemore than their share of the power, leaving
little for the others, or to even overloadthe system. For small schemes with limited generation
capacity, it is essential that this condition be avoided so that the power availablecan be equitably
shared.

With a system employingconventionalenergy meters and meter readers, if any consumer does
not pay his bill, he or she will eventually(the sooner the better) have to be disconnected and then
reconnected if and when cash is again available. The utility and the consumerhave to bear the
cost of these activitiesand the inconveniences.

The drawback arising from the additionalcost of meter reading and billing associated with the use of
energy meters can be partly addressedby performingthese tasks at less frequent intervalsor by having
the consumer read his own meter (and periodically cross-checkedby the system operator).
The prepayment meters (or electricitydispensers)are anotheralternative which obviates the need for
meter reading, billing, and collectingaltogether(Fig. 123). This represents a relatively new alternative to
conventional metering that addressesall exceptone of the drawbacksof energy meters listedabove.
Prepayment meters require the consumersto purchase units of electricityfrom the electricitysupplier in
advance, in a similar way they purchase other energy supplies,
such as kerosene, candles, batteries,or wood. Dependingon
the system, the consumerpurchases a magneticcard or a token
.
or receives a payment number that, in coded form, includes
some indication of the number of units (kilowatt-hours)
purchased. The consumer insertsthe card or token into the
meter or enters the number through a pushbuttonpad.
incorporated on the unit. This creditsthe consumermeter with
00
i
the number of units purchased. The meter displaysthe number
'
O 01
of units available and subtracts from this number as they are
used. Depending upon the designof the meter,it may also
indicate a variety of other data, such as the rate of consumption
and the quantity of electricity still unused. It can also provide
the consumer a warning when the credits are almost exhausted.
-

I -*O

The advantages of the prepaymentmeter include:


*

No meter reading required.

No billing required.
Prepayment means no overdue accounts. Consumers
who have insufficientmoney to purchase electricity
simply do without it until they again find the necessary
funds. They do not have to bear anydisconnectionand

Chapter XIV. Tariffs

Fig. 123. Prepayment meter

(Source:

ConlogSouth Africa).

186

reconnectioncosts.
* Easy budgeting by the consumer and the ability to pay for small amounts in the same way that
other energyresources are purchased.
* No consumerinquiries and complaintsregarding bills.
*

No problems associated with bad or non-existent postal systems or customers having no formal
address at which to receive bills.

It facilitates energy conservation as the consumer can easily relate expense to appliance usage.

Time-of-day tariffs can be programmedinto the meter and easily modified.

It automaticallydisconnects the consumerif he or she is unable to pay the bill, avoiding bad
feelingsthat may arise if the system operator disconnectsthe consumer.

The main disadvantagesthat remain or have been introduced by this new technology are the following:
*

The cost of the meter and card/token/numberdispenser is high.

A well-organizedsales and support service is required.

The burden is on the consumer to go to the electricity supplier's office or shop that has been fitted
with the necessaryequipment to purchase electricity. The customers must therefore be within
easy reach of this service as they may wish to buy cards several times each month.

Although not a major disadvantage,customers need some training on how to use prepayment
meters.

Despite the numerous attractive features of prepaymentmeters, the high cost of the equipment and the
sophisticated supportservices required precludethis from being a viable altemative for mini-grid
applications. By their nature, mini-gridshave too few consumers to provide an economicjustification for
this option.
Power-based tariff
In this case, the tariff is based on the maximumamount of power used by the consumer. The power
available to the consumer is predetermined and payment is made on the basis of this power level. The
simplest variation of this approach is to base the level of consumption on a written or oral agreementwith
the consumer (e.g., limiting consumptionto no more than two 10-W bulbs and a small B&W televisionor
paying 50 rupees (US$ 1) monthly for each light bulb installed). This approach has the clear
disadvantage that there is no way of enforcingthis limit and it is therefore open to abuse.
Another variation is to electrically limit the power consumer by limiting the current into the home
(p. 155). Load limiters have a number of advantagesover metered connections:
*

They limitpeak demand and thereforeprevent overloading of generators (or transformers)and


the distributionlines. Consumers cannot, on their own, decide to increase their consumption.

By preventing excess consumptionby a few individuals who might consume whatever level of
power they wish to use because they can afford it, use of limiters can ensure that all consumers
can get access to some electricity.

Costs associated with meter readingare removed.

Chapter XIV. Tariffs

187

Payment is simpler for both the collector and the consumer,as the amount to be paid on a regular
basis is known.

Fraud and confusion relating to the paymentprocess are greatly reduced.

The payment can be required in advance to ease cash flow for the electricitysupplier.

Reliable load limiters are less expensive than reliableelectric energy meters.

Loads with low power factors(such as uncompensatedfluorescentlamps) make inefficientuse of


available current. Excessive currents in the system lead to energy losses or the need for increased
investment for additional generating and distributingcapacity to more efficiently handle these
increased currents. Standardelectricity meters do not record usage of these excess currents. This
might be seen to benefit the consumerbut places extra burden on those responsible for the viable
operation of the mini-grid. However, in measuringcurrent,load limiters sensethe total current
used and tend to place the burden on individualconsumersto improve their power factor
(provided that they are made aware of how this is done). This benefitsboth the consumers who
can effectivelyincrease the power available to themselvesat no increase in energy cost and to the
utility which incurs fewer losses in the distributionline and generator.

Load limiters encourage off-peak consumptionof electricity,which is especiallydesirablewhen


the "fuel" to produce the electricity is free and no storageis involved, as is the case of most
micro-hydropower schemes. This encourages the more efficient use of the energy resource.

The main disadvantagesare:


* Restricted electricity availability for the consumer. To encouragethis option,load limiters must
have a clear financial advantage over a metered supply for consumers,especially if they realize
this is not the way electricity is conventionally "metered"in urban areas.
*

Increased opportunities for fraud and theft by consumerstampering with the load limiters. Such
tampering is difficult to detect because, unlike with a metered supply, there is no record of the
quantity of electricity consumed. Automatically-resettingload limiters are an exception, since
they can be mounted high on a distributionor serviceconnectionpole to deter bypassing or other
types of tampering.

Uneconomicaluse of electricity. Load limiters do not encourageeconomicaluse of electricity


because the consumers bill takes no account of the energyconsumed. They could, for example,
leave lights on all the time. But these consumersusing limiters generallyhave little disposable
income and would quickly realize that leaving lights on forces them to purchase light bulbs more
frequently, adding unnecessarilyto their domesticexpenses. Measurementsin Zimbabwe
(Box 9) confirm that load factorsare not excessive.Furthermore,a capacity-basedtariff should
not be used with larger consumers,as they can easily cover the cost of the meter.

* Poor reliability. Reliability can be a problem if load limiters that cannot withstand short-circuit
currents are not sufficiently protected or if the accessibilityrequired for manual resetting leads to
abuse of the load limiter.
* Poor accuracy with certain limiters. Thermal devicessuch as standardminiature circuit breakers
and thermistors have poor accuracy,especiallywherethere are wide variationsin ambient
temperature. Magnetic miniaturecircuit breakers and ECBs are considerablymore accurate.

ChapterXIV.Tariffs

188

Consumer educationis required to minimize customer dissatisfaction by making them aware that
repeated tripping of the load limiter can be due to low power-factor appliances or to the use of
appliances that have too high a current consumptionfor the load limiter.

* As with the conventionalenergy meters, non-paymentrequires disconnection of the consumer


(and possible later reconnection) and the costs and inconveniences that these entail.

Designinga tariff schedule


A wide variety of tariff schedulesis possible. In designingsuch a schedule for a specific project, any one
or more of the followingcharacteristicscan be incorporated. But whichever design is adopted, it must
generatethe revenues required to cover project costs. Characteristics include the following:
*

Based on one or more fixed levels of demand. For example, consumers can subscribe to either a
25- or 50 W, load-limited service for $0.50 or $1.00 per month, respectively. Altematively, they
might pay $0.02/installedwatt, although this is more difficult to maintain and enforce.

Based on actual energy (kWh) consumed. Based on kWh readings periodically taken from a
consumer's meter (e.g., every month or two months), the household pays either a fixed price per
unit (e.g., $0.70/kWh)or any of several unit prices based on the total energy consumed (e.g.,
$0.40/kWh for the first 10 kWh and $0.70/kWhthereafter).

Based on the type of consumer (with residential, commercial, industrial, and govemment
consumerspossibly having differentrates).

Based on time-of-day,a tariff generallyavailablefor consumers with larger commercialor


industrial loads. Rates vary, depending on the time of the day that electricity is used. To avoid
interference with lighting loads, lower rates may be offered during the daytime, for agroprocessing,or during the late evening hours, such as for pumping potable water into a storage
tank, when lights and other domestic loads are not being used. Electric utilities use time-of-day
meters, which are more expensive,to ensure that special rates are only applied to electricity
consumed during designatedtimes. However,special time-of-day rates can also be applied for
the few larger loads on a rural mini-grid evenwithout time-of-day meters, through a written
agreement. Any failure of the larger consumersto abide by such an agreement would be
noticeable to other consumers on the grid. If the load is large, it would cause significant
variations in the intensity of incandescentbulbs supplied by the mini-grid.

* Regressive (where larger consumerspay a smallerunit cost).


* Progressive tariffs (where the smaller consumerspay a smaller unit cost)
A progressiveor regressive tariff is used to discourage or encourage increased energy usage, respectively,
dependingon factors such as cost and availability of fuel or the size of the generator in comparison to the
load. The tariff schedule adopted may include several of these characteristics.
In additionto generating the desired revenues to cover project cost, the tariff schedule should also
contributeto making electricity more affordable. Toward this end, the tariff schedule should be
structuredto strive to achieve these other objectives:
*

To minimize the additional costs and complicationsincurred in generating and accounting for this
revenue (i.e., the costs of metering billing, collection, and administration), especially if

ChapterXIV.Tariffs

189

affordabilityis an issue. For example, using a tariff based on a subscribed, maximumpower level
eliminatesthe need for meter reading, billing, and more involved accounting (see p. 186).
*

To give even poor members of the community access to some basic electricity. This usually
involves a low tariff, commonly referred to as a "lifeline" tariff, for the first several kilowatthours consumed, sufficient for basic needs (e.g. lighting and radio).

To maximize the number of consumers, so that the capital cost as well as the cost for running the
system are spread out over as large a consumer base as possible.

To incorporate flexibility in the consumer payment schedule,a feature which is even more
importantwhen consumers do not have a regular income stream. This might be done by
permitting advance payments or else bulk payments several times a year (e.g., when the harvest
comes in).

To encourage the productive (income-generating)uses of the power generated by the prime


mover (e.g., by a diesel engine or a micro-hydropowerplant)-through either a direct mechanical
drive or an electric motor or other appliance-so as to generate additional income and thereby to
reduce the costs that residential consumerswould have to cover.

To encourage demand-side management, such as encouragingother uses of electricity at times


outsidepeak lighting hours in the early evening.

Examples of sample tariff schedules for the case described in Box 15 are found in Box 16.

Chapter XIV. Tariffs

190

Box 16. Sample tariff schedules

Box 15 illustrated how the magnitude of the revenue that has to be raised each month to cover both
capital and recurring costs of the project is calculated. Below, a variety of tariff schedules for generating
this revenue is illustrated. Recall that in that example, $290/monthhad to be raised to cover the cost of
generating an estimated 290 kWh each month.
Energy-basedtariff: This approach requires a meter to be read for the number of units consumed and
bills to be prepared on this basis. Examples include the following:
* A basic tariff schedule is simply to bill each consumerbased on a fixed rate. In this case,
charging $1.00 for each kWh consumed would raise the $290 required monthly.
*

A more complicated schedule would be to include a fixed charge. Consumerswould have to pay
this charge to cover sunk costs that have already been incurred (capital cost and cost of operator),
irrespective of how much electricity they consume. In addition, a variable charge would be
required to cover the other costs would depend on how much energy is consumed. For example,
the tariff schedule could be $4.30/monthplus $0.40/kWh. With 40 consumers using 290 kWh
each month, this schedule would again raise the (40)($4.30)+ (290)($0.40)or $290 required. In
this manner, if a consumer has financial constraints,he can consume less energy and reduce his
monthly bill without jeopardizing the project's need to keep generating revenues to cover the
capital cost.

Power-basedtariff: This approach is based on paying a fixed amount dependingon the amount of
power (watts) to which each consumer subscribed. Examples include the following:
*

Each consumer agrees not to exceed 60 W demand. Since $290 must be raised from 40
consumers, each consumer must pay $7.30 each month.

A village includes 9 commercial consumers (restaurantsand shops) who have 200-W currentlimited service, with the remaining load composed of residentialconsumers who have a currentlimited service of 20 W (for one or two CFLs and a radio). A tariff is set proportional to their
demand: residential consumers are charged $2.40/monthwhile the commercialconsumers are
charged $24/month. This tariff schedule has again been designed to generate $290 each month.

ChapterXIV.Tariffs

191

XV.Appendices
Appendix 1. Case study: Ivory Coast
Appendix 2. Case study: Laos
Appendix 3. Case study: Irian Jaya
Appendix 4. Case study: Dominican Republic
Appendix 5. Calculatingrequired pole diameter
Appendix 6. Derivation of basic voltage drop/powerloss equations
Appendix 7. Computationalexamples
Appendix 8. Sag tables for multiplex conductor
Appendix 9. Areas for further inquiry

Chapter XV: Appendices

192

Appendix1. Casestudy:IvoryCoast
Project initiation
To address the problem of urban migrationby increasingthe attractivenessof rural areas, the availability
of modem services-including access to electricityand the benefits associatedwith it-is generally felt to
be a necessary element. At least in theory, solar photovoltaic systems are seen as an electricity supply
altemative well-suitedfor meeting the most common domestic demands-electricity for lighting and
audiovisual equipment-and for specializedend-uses such as vaccine refrigeration or water pumping.
But before this technologycan find widespreadapplication, the life of the components will have to be
increased, their cost decreased,and mechanismsput in place for the financing of small systems and for
their disseminationand ongoingmaintenance. Today, such projects are still limited to programs heavily
dependent on internationalaid.
APAVE, a French associationof electricityproducers, has been involved in a variety of development
programs in French-speakingcountries over the past 15 years, programs associated with conventional
electrification as well as with solar photovoltaic applications. It felt that to meet the demand for small
quantities of electricity,at least over the mediumterm, solutionsmore in harmony with the socioeconomic characterof rural areas were needed. On the basis of experiencesgained, APAVE felt that, if
technical and institutionaldesigns could be developed that would pennit the implementation of lower-cost
systems that could be managedby other than the national utility, then this would open up the possibilities
for broad rural electrification. These designs would have to maximize the involvement of local
beneficiaries, to give them a stake in the project rather than leaving them on the sidelines as mere
spectators. Relying on the local beneficiaries to contribute sweat-equityto the implementation of the
project and to then manage and operate it would provide a more viable and realistic alternative to project
implementationby the national utility and could further reduce costs.
APAVE consequentlyproposed an integratedapproachedto rural electrificationreferred to as "groupe
electrogene-economied'energie" (GECO), which includes the generation, distribution, and use of
electricity. It was designedto address the obstacles encounteredby conventional approaches to rural
electrification: high cost, overly conservative system design for the end-uses envisioned, and the limited
number of consumersthat could afford to connect.*
Design concept
The GECO concept includesthe followingbasic features:
*

The use of a small autonomouspowerplant, generally a diesel or gasoline genset (although picohydropower plants' are also planned).

A mini-grid supplying consumerswith low levels of "basic" power.

Electric service for only a portion of the day.

Thiscase studyis includedbecauseit illustratedoneof severalinterestingoptionsfor off-gridelectrification.


However,the documentation
usedin its preparationleft a numberof issuesunclear.An attemptwas madeto resolve
theseissuesby contactingindividualsconnectedwiththeseprojects;however,no responseswere obtained.
t "Pico-hydropower
plants"refersto plantsharnessingsmallwaterpowerresourcesand generatingno morethan
severalkilowatts.
ChapterXV: Appendices

193

This approach focuses primarily on comnmunities that generally have from 40 to 400 consumers (homes),
where households are grouped together rather than scattered and are constructed of at least semipermanent materials. To be able to spread the cost of the mini-grid over as broad a base as possible, a
large majority of the households in each perspective community must be willing to become consumers;
otherwise, the system is not built.
The genset supplies power for 3 to 4 hours every evening, primarily for internal and external highefficiency lighting, public lighting, audiovisual equipment, and fans. Consumers each have 3 to 4 power
points (i.e., each power point represents either a light fixture or power outlet). The average design power
demand per household is generally in the range of 30 to 60 VA. Depending on the social and economic
realities in each village, operating times and capacities of the power supply can be increased. Public
lighting can be included if desired and if the conmmunityis willing and able to cover those costs.
The GECO concept imposes no specific management option. In the Ivory Coast, households within the
community become members of a consumer cooperative and, in the process, each agrees to a
memorandum of understanding between the two parties. This cooperative than undertakes the technical
and financial management of the installation. It is also possible for the cooperative to contract part or all
of the management to a private operator. This rnight be more appropriate in larger, more urbanized
centers where the sense of solidarity is not as strong as in a rural setting.
While the system is designed to provide very small amounts of electricity, the objective is to design the
system so that it will be completely compatible with grid-interconnection when it is available. At that
time, the genset would simply be replaced by a distribution transformer and metering/protection
equipment. Bringing conventional power to a village then becomes much more attractive for the national
or regional utility because it would simply need to install a transformer, it would inherit a well-established
load, and it would essentially serve one customer. It could therefore forego the complications involved in
having to deal with numerous individual small consumers, where the costs it would incur in meter
reading, billing, and collection could easily exceed any fee collected. The responsibility for ensuring
prompt payment of the conmmunity's electricity bill to the utility would be transferred to the community
itself through the cooperative originally set up.
At the time of interconnection with the grid, it is always be possible for certain consumers (such as
businessmen or craftsmen), with potentially larger demand, to opt for the conventional individual
subscription contract that may meet their needs more effectively.
A part-time employee paid by the cooperative is in charge of the technical operations to the system. This
individual is responsible for tuming on and off the genset each day, for refueling and lubricating the
genset, and for undertaking simple maintenance tasks. Most villages have local mechanics capable of
maintaining and doing minor repairs on the genset.
The tariff level is set to cover the investment in the mini-grid, the operating costs, and the cost of the
generating equipment. Each consumer pays a fee on the basis of the number of power points installed in

This concept is widely used by rural electric cooperativesin the Philippinesto serve more remoteneighborhoods
or barangay. The utilitysupplies electricity througha metered transformer into a mnini-gridthat it is responsible for
constructing. Legally established Barangay Power Associationsaccept responsibilityfor meter reading,billing, and
collectingwithin their membership and for paying the utility, on a monthly basis, a lump sum based on singlemeter
readingsmade each monthby the utilityat the transformer(s)serving the area. Enforcingpromptpayment and
dealing withtheft of power within the comnmunityis no longer the burdenof the utility but fallson the community
itself which is generallybetter qualified to handle this issue.

Chapter XV: Appendices

194

his or her house and a slidingregressive scale (decreasing cost of additional points). A volunteer from the
cooperative is responsible for collecting the monthly tariff.
Financing of these projects are covered in part by initial contributions from the villagers. Subsidies or
grants also cover part of project costs, while the balance is coveredby a medium-term,soft loan granted
by a local credit institution to the village cooperative. In some cases, these loans may be guaranteed by
an internationalaid organizationor other non-government organization.
Project technicaldetails
After a local community has expressed an interest in getting access to electricity, a study is undertakento
determine the technical and economic feasibility of a project. Potential demand is assessed at this time.
The type of generator used depends
on the expected demand of the
community. If demand does not
exceed about 10 kVA, the
community is broken down into
blocks of unit demand that do not
exceed 5 kVA. Each block is
supplied by a single-phase genset
feeding a 2-wire, single-phase
network (Fig. 124). If demand
exceeds 10 kVA, a three-phase
generator is used, supplyingthe
main lines of either three singlephase networks or a 4-wire, three-

principal
line
power
supply
line
secondarydistribution

switchboard

~~~~~~terminal

'\,- -distribution
(underground)

---

Fig. 124. Basic configurationof a GECO system.

phase, main distributionbackbone,


which in turn supplies a series of single-phase networks.
In most cases, these main lines are overhead. These may then branch out into secondarylines that are
usually buried and supply switchboards. Because the homes are low, single-storystructures, buried
armored cable is then used from each switchboard to supply a group of homes.
The genset is considered a "consumable": it easily can be transported elsewhere or exchangedwhen
necessary. A 3,000 rpm single-phase genset is assumed to have a life of 4,000 hours while a 1500rpm,
usually three-phase, gensetis assumed to have a life of 10,000hours. Gensets are usually fueled with
gasoline or diesel.
In addition to the genset,the powerhouse contains a power meter and a run-time meter. On occasion, the
run-time meter is coupledto a cut-out that trips after a pre-determinednumber of hours. This is designed
to ensure that the communitydoes not fail to remember to pay its obligations, i.e., loanrepayments, in
addition to those connected with the day-to-day operation of the genset.
Switchboardssupply electricity and provide individual protection to groups of homes. They are installed
at the geographicalcenter of this group and either placed at the bottom of a distributionpole or in a small
masonry structure. Each includes a 300 mA RCD, a capacitor for power-factor correctionfor the
domestic fluorescent lightingloads, a two-pole 10-ampere circuit breaker for each household, and a
ground rod connection.

ChapterXV:Appendices

195

A typical domestic installation includes an outside lighting point, an internal lighting point, and an
electric power outlet, although the numbers of power points can be increased. Housewiring is wallmounted and the outside equipment and the junction box are sealed. Lamps are miniature, uncorrected
fluorescent tubes or CFLs, selected because of their long life and low power demand. Power-factor
correction is achieved within the switchboards rather than at individual lamps. This reduces voltage drop
and power losses in the main portion of the distribution system and reduces the demand for current placed
on the generator.
If public lighting is provided along the main village streets, an additional conductor may be provided for
this purpose. Pole-mounted, power-factor-corrected, watertight 18-W lights in fiberglass-reinforced
polyester housings are used. In village squares, where concessions are built of flimsy temporary
materials, fluorescent lighting strips are installed on 3-m high, surface-treated wooden poles.
The grounding system includes copper wires running through the foundation of the generator housing and
by 2-m ground rods installed at each switchboard. To ensure proper operation of the RCDs, grounding of
the neutral in the switchboards is done doNvnstreamof the RCD and no grounding is used in individual
homes. Protection from electric shock in each home relies on a shared RCD in the switchboard serving
that group of homes.
Lightning is a major risk and lighting arresters are installed at the generator and at each down-conductor
to the switchboards.
Prior to commissioning the plant, the installation is verified. This involves a visual examination to check
that the material complies with the safety standard prescribed, is correctly chosen and installed, and is free
from visible damage that could affect safety. The tests cover continuity measurements on the neutral
conductor, measurements of line insulation and ground connection, tests of RCDs, operating tests on
lights, and voltage measurements at the source and at each switchboard.
Two levels of genset maintenance are envisioned: standard maintenance operations carried out by
operations staff and specialized maintenance operations that require specific interventions. The former
requires that an operator be trained in routine maintenance and provided with an appropriate stock of
consumables (lubricants and filters). At half-year intervals, a visit by a specialist is scheduled, and at
least once every year, a complete service is perforrned in the specialist's workshop.

Projectcostingand tariff
To prepare a cost breakdown for the GECO approach, ten villages in the Ivory Coast were studied. The
average project serves about 130 households with 3 to 4 power points each, along with public lighting.
The cost breakdown (excluding the cost of the genset, which averages $9,400 per site) is shown in
Table 21. This amounts to about $630 per consurmer(household). This cost excludes any taxes and
assumes that materials are supplied locally. Procuring materials overseas (exclusive of tax and import
A capacitor for power-factor correctionis usuallylocated as close as possibleto the source of the inductive loadthe magnetic ballasts in the case of fluorescentlighting. This is to minimizethe impact of increased currents on
voltage drop and power losses along that segmentof the conductorbetween the inductive load and the capacitor. In
the case presented in the GECO project, rather than using a smaller capacitorin each fluorescent unit, a single,
larger capacitor is located in the switchboard. However,as is explainedon p. 148, when small conductorsare used,
reactanceof the conductoris much smallerthan its resistance,and power factor has a negligible impacton percent
voltage drop. Therefore in this case, there is no need to mninimizedistancebetween capacitor and the ballasts in
each fluorescent unit to reduce voltage drop. However,increasedpower losses are incurred due to the higher
currents over this distance; however, this is still low because of the low demand in each home.
Chapter XV: Appendices

196

duties) results in a saving of more than 20 %.


Including taxes would add an additional 20 %

Table 21. Cost breakdown for an "average"project


with locally purchased materials, exclusiveof taxes.

Costs(US$)

to the costs shown.

Sub-totals Totals
$13,600

The still substantialproject costs are in part


due to the use of quality materials to minimize
future costs that would otherwise be incurred
for repair and maintenance and to an emphasis
on a safe design, with adequate consumer
protection. It is expectedthat futurecosts
will be reduced by 20 to 30 % as projects
become more routine, as multiple projects are
implementedat the same time, and with the
bulk purchase of materials.

Description
Main line

In the Ivory Coast, the average operatingcost,


including fuel, maintenance, and minor
manpowerrequirements (for refueling,
generator start-up and shut-down, minor
maintenance on the generator set and
network) works out to about $0.50per month
per power point. The cost of fuel, which
accounts for about 70 % of this cost, has been
calculated on the basis of the deliveredcost of
diesel at about $0.50/liter.

Service connection
Domestic installation
Public lighting
Lightning protection

$22,000
$18,800
$3,600
$2,100

Study and supervision


TOTAL

$9,800
$82,100

The followingitems are considered in the


formulationof the tariff:
*

The investment in the mini-grid

The cost of the generating set

The operating costs (materials and


labor for the day-to-day running of
the project)

Secondary panels
Buried cable junction
boxes
Grounding and
accessories

In-kind local contributions


Cable trenches

$4,100
$2,400
$1,200

$8,900

Holes for pole


installations

$1,300

Powerhouse

$1,700
$11,900

TOTAL

The precise values of the first two components depend on the


size of any grant assistance,the amountof subsidy received, and
the interest rate and duration of the loan taken out to cover the
balance. If there were no governmentgrant or subsidy and if
long-term, low-interest loans were available, an approximate
breakdown of the monthlytariff per power point would be as
illustratedin Table 22. With each consumer averaging 3 to 4
power points, the tariff per householdwould amount to roughly
$9 per month. These figures do not include any tax, which
would add another 20 %.
In the actual situation, monthly payments are made on the basis
of the number of power points in a home, with the rate per point

Chapter XV: Appendices

$12,200

Secondary lines

calTable 22. An approximate

culationfor the monthlytariffper


power pointneeded to coverall
projectcosts,with breakdown.
Item

Min-grd loan
Generator
replacement
Operating cost
TOTAL

Amount(US$)

1.50
0.50
0.50
$2.50

197

decreasing with this number of points.


After the introduction of electricity, the use of batteries, candles, and fuel for lamps continued. Such
lighting is still required for occasional use in areas beyond the reach of electric lighting or as a night light
in the home after the power is shut off. Batteries are still required for such uses as hunting during the
night and for listening to radio during the day. It is interestingto note that the cost of electricity supply
generally exceeds the cost of lamp fuel, candles,and batteries that are displaced. Depending on the actual
tariff in a particular village, the overall operating cost of electrificationvaries between 1.0 and 1.3times
the cost of energy supply options previously used.
To cover loan repayments, it is necessary for regular income to be generated from electricity sales to
consumers. However, since villagers often do not haveregular jobs as is generallythe case in urban
settings, monetary income to villagers tends to be come sporadically,such as when crops are harvested
and sold. This could pose a problem to the plant operator who must ensure that adequate cash is available
to meet the loan repayment schedule.
Conclusions
Potential advantages associated with the GECO approachinclude the following:
*

By keeping cost lower than conventionalmini-grids,it encourages the maximum number of


connections, spreading the base over which to recover costs and thereby reducing unit cost.

Standardizing the design facilitates its replicationin other interested villages and reduces its cost.
It allows communities to access the benefitsof electrification without being at the mercy of
national utilities or beholden to national electrificationpriorities. (However, these projects are
still dependent on the whims of outside institutionsfor access to grants and subsidies.)

In focusing on meeting lighting and entertainment(radio and TV) needs during early evening
hours, it meets the most popular uses of electricitywhile minimizing fuel consumption and cost.

By involving the local community, it reduces project cost. At the same time, it frees the electric
utility from involvement in small troublesomeprojects that it cannot effectively implement and
permits it to focus on the more profitableefforts in urban and peri-urban areas.

Implementing a well-designed mini-gridpermits easy interconnectiononto the grid in the future,


permitting the national utility to maximize its return at minimum cost.

But several conditions affecting the viability of this approach must also be kept in mind:
*

It requires some level of village cohesivenessand initiative and the presence of one or more
individuals who can easily and effectivelyassume leadership roles. With the conventional
approach, the utility is in charge of all aspectsof electrification; the consumers' only obligation is
to pay their bills.

An adequate disposable income within the communityis requisite. Availability of only seasonal
income or inadequate income among some can force the entire mini-grid serving a largely
domestic load to shut down. This is a less importantfactor for a utility serving the national grid
because the broader consumer base permits cross-subsidies. Furthermore, the industrial and
commercial demand on the national system is more reliable and significant.

Costs of this approach are nonetheless very high, in fact higher than the cost of the candles, lamp
fuel, and batteries previously used, while servicecapacity and availability is severely limited.

ChapterXV:Appendices

198

Appendix2. Case study:Ban NamThung,Laos


Project initiation
In 1991, northern Laos faced a drought that significantlyreduced rice yields. To address this shortfall,
international aid provided emergency assistance in the form of rice. The village of Ban Nam Thung,
located several kilometers to the east of LuangNam Tha in northwestem Laos, was provided 27 tons of
rice to tide it over until the next growing season. A smallportion of the rice was donated as a gift to the
villagers, while most was placed in a rice bank from which the villagers could borrow as needed. This
was done with the understanding that farmers had to eventuallyreturn to the bank any rice they borrowed
as they produced surpluses. The rice that was returned was eventually sold, generating funds for the
village that could be used for a communityproject. They opted to use these funds to undertake the
electrification of their village. An agriculturalstudent temporarilyliving in the village as part of his field
training offered to assist in planning and implementingthe project. In 1997, the sum of $1,700 obtained
from the sale of the rice was earnarked for the electrificationof the village.
Design concept
Because of the cost of running a diesel genset, it was decided that the plant would generate power for
three hours every night to serve basic lighting and entertainmentpurposes. Power was supplied to nearly
the entire village of approximately 140 households. A few decided not to get electricitybecause of either
the inability to pay or the lack of awareness of the technologyand the hesitancy to make the commitment.
Households were to be charged on the basis of the number and type of end-uses to which electricity
would be put.
Project technical details
The powerhouse is comprised of a grass-roofed,bamboo structure near the center of the village
(Fig. 125). There, a 18-hp Chinese diesel engine drives a 10-kW three-phase generator. From this
location, two main lines stretch in both directions,each connected to one of the two phases. Presently,the
third phase is not used and the system is not
grounded. The longer line is comprised of two
insulated 7-mm2 stranded aluminum conductors
extending a total of 800 m, serving most of the
main village and a separate village a short
distance to the south. The shorter, 300-m line
loops around the more heavily loaded, northern
m
end of the village on or near the main east-west
road between Luang Nam Tha and Oudomsai
(Fig. 126). This is a 2 x 4.0 mm2, PVC insulated
and sheathed copper conductor. Service drops of
2 x 0.5 mm2 , PVC insulated and sheathed copper
conductor extend in opposing easterly and
westerly directions from the main lines, passing
from house to house, usually through each home.
Along the main lines, wooden or bamboo poles
set in the ground are used. At times, smaller

ChapterXV:Appendices

Fig. 125. Ban Nam Thung powerhouseand

operators.

199

Fig. 126. Aerial view of Ban Narn Thung showing the main
distribution

lines extending

from the powerhouse

in two opposing

directions

Fig. 127. The two main conductors


are supported

by wrapping

each

once around the pole. Also visible


by
is a service drop deadended

(black dot).

wrapping

it once

around

the pole.

bamboo poles are used to raise the line to provide adequate ground
clearance, poles that are simply tied to an post or fence.
Because of the cost that would have been incurred in fixing insulators
to each pole, thcse were not used. Rather, each main conductor was

initially simply wrapped around the top of each pole (see Fig. 127).z^!
This seemed to work well except in the case where live trees were used
as poles. In this case, the growing trees caused the conductor to stretch,JX

breaking the insulation, and giving rise to shorts especially during !

s:

l
i4

rains.

At one point when the fuse link tended to blow too frequently (see

below), villagerswere given the advice that wrapping the an Faconductor


b
around the top of each pole was (inexplicably)causing the probley and
that the more conventional,although more involved, crossa design
should be used (Fig. 128). Needless to say, the plant operators found

that this interventiondid not resolve the problem of fuses blowing ands
that the first designwould have sufficed.pole.
Two approaches were
used to
the
hendrop consi
line. W

connect the service drops to the main


longer span, the conductor was
of a sted

h1

by

support
to
thes
Fig. 128. More r
ecently,
crossarms wereincluded
main linesthat were tied to the crossarm using lengths of string
or wire. These proved more complicated

to prepare

and provided

-.

around
se Fg.12)
the top of
no advantageover simply wrapping theelinespoe
each pole.

Chapter XV: Appendices

200

wrapped and tied around the pole to better support the weight
of that span. The end of each conductor lead was then wrapped
around one of the two main lines and taped. Shorter spans
under little tensionwere directly tied to the main lines
themselves. This did not seem to have yet given rise to anyproblems.
2 copper conductor used as the service drop was
The 2 x 0.5 mm
also used for housewiring. The incoming service drop was
brought to a distributionboard, a wooden board on which were
mounted a knife-switch,one to three power outlets, lamp
switches, and fuses for each lamp and set of outlets (Fig. 129).
Wrapped and taped connections were made on the back of the
board that was then wall-mounted. On occasion, the ballast for
the fluorescentlighting was also mounted on this board.
Wiring clips were used to fix the housewiring to the posts or
beams in the home.
J

Recentoperationalproblems
During the visit to prepare this study, several observations were
made which have general relevance to the design and operation
of mini-grids.

|
i

Q .'

Fig.129.Thisservicepanelincludea
fuse,and switchfor eachof
b3allast,
tw fusent lamps fo addton
to a knife switch and fusedpower
outlet.

In October of 1998,technical difficulties with the project were


manifest in differentways. Firstly, the generator overheated and eventuallybumed out. That problem
was "resolved"by purchasing a new generator with a contribution from the European Community foreign
assistanceprogram operating in the province, along with villager contributions. Secondly,the fuse for the
shorter circuit supplying the northem portion of the village had blown on several occasions. This
problem was finallyattributed, for some unknown reason, to a faulty knife switch. Whatever the real
source of the problem, the villagers had no access to electricitythrough April 1999. While they were
unhappy about this, the lack of technical support in the area led to the delay in trying to resolve the
problem.
The final "solution" was to replace the knife switchwith a more robust one (i.e., 100-ampswitch for a
circuit with a maximum current of 18 A). This was coincidentallypurchased the day of the visit to
finalize this study.
Based on availableevidence, the source of the problem seemed to be neither with the generator,with the
knife switch, nor with having wrapped the main line around the poles rather than using crossarms (see
above). Rather the problems were attributable to the following:
Overloadingthe generator. The excessive use of electricity by those living along the road seemed
to be supportedby the observation made by the plant operators that the generator had been
running very hot before buming out. The plant operators acknowledgedthat one or more
households may well have been trying to use irons or other applianceson a circuit which was
limitedto slightly more than 3 kW for all households. The presence of at least one power point in
each home did not help the situation, as this tempted consumersto purchase and plug in

ChapterXV:Appendices

201

appliances. To limit excess consumption,the plant operators suggested makingthe consumers


aware of the problem, followedby removing this outlet from each home if necessary.
It was also noted that only two of the three phases at the generator output were used, limiting its
output to less than two-thirdsof its full output. (Unbalanceof the generator means that it must be
derated in order to avoid excessiveheating, see p. 59.) Furthernore, becauseof the location of
the powerhouseand the layoutof the principal distributionlines, one phase served a considerably
greater number of consumersthan the other. Therefore,even if fluorescentlighting had been the
only loads on the system,it is likely that relying on only two lines that were also unbalanced
could well have overloadedthe generator and contributedto its burning out.
Incorrect powerhousefusing. It was also observedthat the fuse wires being used in the knife
switches at the powerhousehad ratings larger than the 18 amps that were availableon each phase.
These excessivelylarge fuseswere used in an attempt to "resolve"the problem of fuses blowing
to frequently. An attemptto purchase the correct fuse wire in town highlightedone reason for not
using the correct fuse wire. Fuse wire availablein the couple of shops in Luang Nam Tha either
came in spools with no identificationor were wrappedin paper with Chinese inscriptions and
with a size crypticallyidentifiedas, for example,"No. 16". There was no indication of the
amperage at whichthese fuseswere expectedto blow. Neither the store ownersnor the local
utility personnel had any idea of the currentrating of the various fuse wiresavailable.
*

Consumer fusing. Rather than using a fuse size in each house solely to protect the housewiring as
is conventionallydone, it mighthave been advisableto use a fuse as a current limiter, i.e., to limit
the power that a householdcan draw to perhaps 0.5 A. This would allow, for example, the use of
one fluorescentlamp or TV but not permit the use of an iron or other appliance that would unduly
tax the system. Unfortunately,the smallestfuse available appearedto be a 10-A fuse.

Use of uncorrectedballastsfor the widely used fluorescentlighting. It was noticed that the
ballasts were not power-factor-corrected,resulting in a greater current draw than is necessary.
When the major part of the load is fluorescentlighting and the capacity of the generator is being
approached, as is the case in Ban Nam Thung, it is critical that power-factor-correctionbe
included in each home to makebest use of availablecapacity. Assuming at the design stage that
a 20-W fluorescentlamp consumes0.1 A, which would be expected with a properly corrected
lamp of that size, while it actuallyconsumes twice that current, means that the circuit could easily
have been overloaded.

Running the generatorat too high a voltage. In makingtrial runs with the new knife switch, it
was also observedthat the plant operatorswere running the genset at 250 V rather than at 230 V.
Upon questioning,they noted that running the plant at 230 V resulted in inadequate lighting at the
end of the line. While runningthe generatorat a higher voltage did "resolve"that problem, it also
meant that consumersnearer the generator had accessto too high a voltage, which could
adversely affect the operationand life of their lights and other end-uses. Runningthe plant at too
high a voltage also causedthe generator to generate excess currents, furtherexacerbating the
problem of overloading. (While low-voltageis indeed a problem because it prevents the proper
operation of lights and appliances,the properway of ensuring adequate voltage at the end of the
line is to install conductorthat is properly sized at the design stage of the project, not increasing
the generation voltage.)

ChapterXV:Appendices

202

If the necessary interventionsnoted above are


adopted, the generator should no longer burn out.
Then, the only remaining problem would be
purchasing diesel fuel that, due to the rapidly falling
value of the local currency, is becoming
increasinglydifficult for the villagers to cover.

Table23. Costbreakdownfor components


(includinga
usedfor basichousewiring
single 20-Wfluorescentlamp).
Component
~~~~~~Cost
Component
Knife switch

1.25

Project costing and tariff

Fuse holder (2)

1.40

Initial cost was $1,500 for the diesel genset


purchased in China and $200 for the conductor for
the main lines. The cost of the service drop as well
as the housewiring was the responsibility of each
consumer. The cost of the latter for each household
was approximately $7 for components and $3 for
labor. Although a precise costbreakdown for the
original home installation was not available,
Table 23 presents cost for similar components, had
they been purchased at the time of this study. Note
that these are retail costs and that almost all
materials come from China. Higher quality
materials would be costlier on a capital-cost basis
but might prove advantageousif the system is to
last.

Single outlet
Light switch
Fluorescent lamp
Fixture
Ballast
Starter
Lamp (20 W)
Wiring (20 m, 2 x 0.5 mm2 copper)
TOTAL

.45
.30

.40
2.10
.30
1.20
2.00
$9.40

The monthly bill is based on the number and type of appliances in use in the home. Initially, for the most
popular end-use-fluorescent lighting-the tariff was set at $0.50 for each of one or two 20 W
fluorescent lamps. Based on operational experience, this was raised to $0.80 to cover costs. More
recently, this was raised to $1.00 to cover the increasing cost of fuel due to the loss of value of the local
currency. In addition to a per-lamp cost, separate tariffs are set for other uses, such as video cassette
players and televisions. Each household pays the powerplant operator on a monthlybasis and receives a
receipt.
Revenuesgathered are set aside to meet the follows needs:
*

Expenditures to cover the 210 liters of diesel fuel typically used each month.

Two plant operators at a monthly cost of $5 each.

A fund to cover the cost of spare parts and repairs, a fund that is topped up by additional villager
contributionsif sufficient funds are not available to cover costs that have to be incurred.

Conclusions
This project highlighted the importance for technical backstopping. While the plant operatorshad basic
electrical skills learned on the job, all those involved in one way or another with the project seemed to
have difficulty in critically diagnosing problems that occurred. Consequently,measureswere taken that
correctednothing but resultedin increased costs and hassle (such as adding crossarmsto the poles or
buying new and larger knife switches) or that may have exacerbated the problem (such as running the
generator at a higher voltage than normal or replacing fuses with ones of higher capacity).

ChapterXV:Appendices

203

It also pointed to the need for properplanning and designs. In this case, while each household was
permitted to use at least one 20-W fluorescentlamp powered by a genset of limited capacity, there was no
upper limit on per-consumer usage and no way of enforcing an upper limited had there been one. Also,
conductorswere not properly sized, with the resultingexcessive voltage drop that created consumer
dissatisfactionwith the service.
And finally, it was clear that project operatorsmust be wary of "answers"given them by those not
properly trained. Heeding incorrect adviceresults in a waste of time, money, and energy.
On the other hand, project implementershave developeda project design that, with few changes,could
serve as an example of a basic, low-costsystem. Beside the power supply, all that the system involved
was wiring for the main distributionlines and service drops-with no other special hardware-and
housewiringmaterials.

ChapterXV:Appendices

204

Appendix3. Casestudy:Youngsu,IrianJaya
Project initiation
Youngsu is a coastal village located in the eastem Indonesianprovince of Irian Jaya, isolated from the
national power grid, and only accessibleby boat or trail. This village consists of 150 homes, a clinic,
school, church,and a govemment office building. The villagers are principally subsistence farmers and
fishermen. Sources of income for the village include the sale of fish, coconuts, mangos, and various
vegetable crops. Typically, a householdwould spend up to $4.50 monthly on keroseneand candles for
lighting. The average household wage was estimated to be $300 annually. In an isolated location with
few amenities, the village found it difficultto retain full-time govemment teachers and clinic workers.
Several other coastal villages near Youngsuhad already been electrified using micro-hydropower
systems. As a result, the village leaders in Youngsu had a basic understanding of the technology and
expressed a high level of interest to implementtheir own village micro-hydropowerproject. The
installation of a diesel plant was first considered but ruled out due to the high cost of fuel, transportation,
and maintenance. Village representativessubmitted a formal request for funding to the Development
Board of the Provincial Govemment (BAPPEDA) early in 1993. At this point, YayasanUsaha Sejhatra
Indonesia (YUSI),a local non-governmentalorganization(NGO) experienced in designingand installing
micro-hydropower systems, was contractedby BAPPEDAto survey the site and submit a design
recommendation with a budget for the project. In 1994,the village received funding assistance from the
provincial govemment for the purpose of implementinga village micro-hydropower system. YUSI was
then contracted to undertake developmentof the micro-hydropowersystem with the understanding that
the village of Youngsu would agreeto provide the required labor, local materials, and land for the project.
YUSI was establishedin Irian Jaya in 1987by the World Relief Corporation, with funding from USAID.
The facility it operates is fully equippedto manufacture smallwater turbines and implementvillage
micro-hydropower systems. To date, over 30 small-scalehydropower systems have been installed in
Eastern Indonesiaby YUSI, resulting in over 40,000 direct beneficiaries. YUSI provides training and
direct support of the installed micro-hydropowersystemswith spare parts and repair, an important
element in insuring sustainabilityof the village micro-hydropowersystems.
The village of Youngsu had previously undertaken govemment-fundedprojects, which included
construction of a suspension footbridge,a medical clinic building, and improvement of village roads.
projects within the village,the village govemment authority known as the
Like all govenmment-funded
kepala desa formally initiated the micro-hydropowerproject while a representative from BAPPEDA
supervised actual implementation of the project.

Design concept
With a drop of 30 m in elevation along a local stream within a few hundred meters from the village,
tapping this resource for the generationof power appeareda appropriate source of power for the village.
A 12 kW micro-hydropowerscheme,using a crossflowturbine fabricated in-country, was constructed to
supply the mini-grid and provides three-phasepower that was generated, transmitted, and distributed at
380/220 V.

This casestudywaspreparedby MikeJohnson(minihydro@aol.com).


ChapterXV:Appendices

205

The valve to the turbine is set to generate any level of power up to its design limit. An electronic load
controller disposes of any power in excess of that used by the community by converting it to heat that is
dissipated in the water leaving the powerhouse. In this way, a constant load is placed on the turbine,
permitting it to operate at a constant speed and frequency (50 Hz). This is the conventional approach to
governing a micro-hydropower plant because it is considerably less costly and problematical than using
electro-mechanical governors. The only difference with micro-hydropower projects elsewhere is that, in
those cases, excess power is generally used to heat water then used by the villagers, such as for washing,
rather than thrown away.
Because the village had no experience with electricity prior to the micro-hydropower project, nearly all of
the installed consumer loads were for lighting. The typical home in Youngsu is arranged with a porch,
living area, cooking space, and sleeping quarters. Because a home normally has no ceiling above the
connecting walls, a 40-watt fluorescent fixture mounted high in the rafters will cast light into all rooms.
The village clinic, church, and government office used a more conventional approach with several
fluorescent fixtures installed as needed. To provide lighting for the village road network, 10-watt
fluorescent fixtures were mounted on the distribution poles. The fixtures were mounted on angled wood
supports that were covered with galvanized sheet metal to protect the fixtures from rain. Switches, near
the base of the pole, but high enough so that children could not reach them, were used to turn the lights on
and off.
The plant was generally operated only during the evening hours. It was only run during the daytime if
there was a need for power, such as to run a saw, planer, or some other tool.

Project technicaldetails
After the powerplant, one of the most expensive components of a mini-grid would normally be the poles.
Because of the remoteness of Youngsu, transportation adds further to the cost of anything imported into
the community. The materials must first be trucked a distance over 100 krn from the city of Jayapura to
the nearest dock. From the dock, a 3-hour boat trip is required to the village. In addition to the cost of
local transportation, costs for materials shipped to the remote province of Irian Jaya are generally higher
that the price at their source in Java. These factors were considered in selecting the type and material for
the distribution poles to be used.
Three types of poles that had been used previously in other village systems in the country were
considered:
*

Indonesian-manufactured, galvanized, 80 mm x 6 m, lightweight, steel water-pipe, the upper


threaded end closed off with an 80-mm steel pipe cap.

Steel-reinforced concrete poles, poured upright in place using a wooden form. The square crosssection of 150 mm on a side at the base tapered to 100 mm at the top.

Locally available ironwood poles.

This first option-using galvanized water pipe for distribution poles in a village system-has certain
advantages. With its 6-m length, setting the pole 1 m into the ground still allows sufficient clearance
between the conductors and the ground. If the tops of the galvanized pipes have been capped (to prevent
the entrance of rainwater that would speed up corrosion of the pole from the inside at ground level) and
the buried sections have been coated with bitumen, they have provided years of service in other projects.
In projects located in the interior of the country, where materials are typically flown in, galvanized poles
are transported in 3--msegments and joined by pipe couplings.

Chapter XV: Appendices

206

If a pole is located in soil that does not provide good compaction,a concrete support is poured around its
base. If a pole requires guying, a single section of ABC is used for the guy, secured through a hole near
the top of the pole and attached to a rock anchorburied in the ground. The strength of the pipe is not
compromised by drilling 10-mm holes near the top for attachmentof cable hangers, streetlights,or other
fixtures. Use of galvanized pipes for distributionpoles provides a uniform, professional appearance. The
chief disadvantage of the galvanized pipe, which is manufactured in another part of the country and
shipped across the Indonesian archipelago,is its cost. The cost per pole including the threaded cap,
delivered to the village, would have been US$ 37.
The second option-using poured-in-place concretepoles-requires the construction of suitableforms.
Because forns must be left in place for severaldays for the concrete to cure, multiple forms must be
prepared; otherwise, pouring poles would take too much time. For each pole, approximately 0.8 m 3 of
good quality, high-strength concrete is required, in addition to a matrix of reinforcing rod around which
the concrete is poured. Attachment holes for bolts and anchor wires are provided by inserting pieces of
slightly tapered bamboo sections through the forms near the top. When the pole has sufficientlycured,
the bamboo can be knocked out, leaving the necessaryholes. If the installationcrew is experiencedand
the concrete is mixed properly with good quality aggregate, the results can be good. Conversely,
improperly mixed concrete and poor aggregatecan result in failure. In addition, an adequate curing time
is required for the completed pole. If the conductorsare attached and tensioned too soon, the pole will
crack. Unit cost of the concrete pole was calculatedto be US$ 34. In this application, there would have
been no cost advantage with using concreteas opposed to galvanized steel pole. In addition, cost for the
forms and well as for labor and the risk of pole failureruled out the use of concrete poles.
The third option-using ironwood poles-was chosen for a number of reasons. Youngsu is a coastal
village that lies at the foot of a heavily forestedmountain range. Ironwood suitable for distributionpoles
is in abundance and can be used under governmentregulations that allow trees to be harvested for use in
local infrastructure and community developmentprojects. Although ironwood is a term used to describe
a number of tree species, the particular type of ironwood commonlyused in the area is a dark, dense,
naturally preserved material known as kayu besi. It is used for supportingpiers for village homes and for
other applications where the wood is buried. Posts installed by the Japanese duringWorld War II are still
standing. The ironwood tree itself can be up to 1 m in diameter. These poles may be drilled in the top
section for attachments and can be directly buried,although a coating of bitumen below grade will further
preserve the pole. Normally, the pole is buried about 1 m and well tamped for stabilization. No costs
were associated with the ironwood poles for the Youngsuproject, since the village had agreed to provide
all local materials. The 1,100 meters of single-and three-phasedistributioncable required 55 poles,
which were set at an approximate spacing of 20 m.
Although some low-voltage village distributionsystemsuse bare conductors, secured to insulatorson the
pole, it was decided that both single- and three-phaseconductors for the distribution cable would be
aluminum ABC that is commonly used by the national electric utility, PLN. This type of cable is
manufactured in Indonesiaand is ordered from Jakarta or Surabayaon large spools. In the case of the
Youngsu installation, as with other village electrificationprojects, the insulated conductors provide an
added measure of safety for villagers who are as yet unfamiliar with electricity and associated hazards.
Secondly, stringing ABC on the poles requires only a simple hanger per pole rather than several insulators
and mounting hardware used with open conductors. The cost of ABC is somewhat more than that for
open conductor, although this differenceis somewhatreduced because of the lower labor costs for
installation and the elimination of insulatorsand most poletop hardware.

Chapter XV: Appendices

207

Both 2-conductor(2 x 35 mm2) single-phaseand 4-conductor(3 x 50 mm2 + 1 x 35 mm2) three-phase


ABC were used. To supportthis cable, a 10-nrmhole was drilled 100 mm from the top of each of the
ironwoodpoles. Throughthis hole, a 10 mm x 120 mm bolt was inserted, and this was used to attach a
simple "J" hanger fashionedfrom a length of 3 mm x 30 mm iron strap (Fig. 130). In the case of the
three-phasecable, only the groundconductor was hung in the hanger while for the single-phasecable, one
conductorwas hung in the hanger.A shortpiece of insulatedcopper wire was used at times to secure the
conductorto the hanger in order to prevent movement of the
cable and the resulting wear of the insulation. It is not known
whether,over time, any damagehas occurred to the insulation
or conductorbeing supportedby a hanger of this design.
Where a single-phasecable branched off the three-phase
cable, the single-phasecable was deadended on the pole
carryingthe three-phaseABC. A wedge clamp was usedto
deadendthe neutral conductorof the single-phaseline. This
device, which has a taperinggroove and wedge, is attachedto
the pole with an eyebolt. The cable is inserted into the
groove and is held in by the wedge when tensioned. To make
the connection,the conductorswere bared and joined with a

single galvanized steel U-bolt cable clamp of appropriate

X
I,

size. Prior to joining, the cables were given a good coating of


a anti-oxidation
compound.

Fig. 130. Homemade"J" hangersare


used to support the insulatedABC.

The same method was used to join lengths of conductor. The

(Photocredit: MikeJohnson)

two lengths of conductor to be joined were overlapped about


100 mm and the insulation removed from this overlapping section. These were joined together with two
U-bolt clamps after cleaning and the application of the anti-oxidation compound. On stretches with
multiple conductors such as along three-phase lines, the connection on each line was staggered about
300 mm to avoid shorting between conductors.

These methods for making connectionsand splices use a low-cost, readily available piece of hardware-a
U-boltclamp. While they seem to have provided a goodelectrical connection and have stood the test of
time in the case of the Youngsu project, use of this hardware is not generally recommended for these
purposes.
Where a service drop was provided from the ABC to the building or home, an insulated 2 x 10 mrn2
copper conductor was used. This smaller cable was attached to the aluminum distribution cable using Ubolts as previously described. Typically, the cable was then attached to the building by securing it to the
outside wall or a convenient surface with one or more heavy staples. While it is not proper practice to
join conductors of dissimilar metals (copper and aluminum), a generous coating of de-oxidation
compound was used with good results. Because the service drops were relatively short and lightweight,
they were attached directly to, and supported directly by, the ABC conductor and no attachment was used
to deadend the service drops to the pole. It is unknown whether the use of staples or the direct attachment
of the service drop to the ABC cable has led to fatigue of the metal due to swinging of the conductor and
eventual breaking of the joint as might be envisioned.
The Youngsu system does not use individual kilowatt-hour meters; rather, each residential customer is
billed a monthly flat rate and allowed a maximum total connected load of 40 W. Nearly all of the homes
have installed florescent lamps rather than incandescent light bulbs. Although incandescent light fixtures

Chapter XV:Appendices

208

and bulbs are less expensive, their use was discouragedbecause of inefficiencyand the necessity of
frequently replacing bulbs.
Each home was supplied with an Indonesian-manufacturedsingle-pole circuit breaker. The smallest size
that could be procured in quantity was 0.5 amp. Althoughthis allowed the consumption of more current
than that permitted by the 40-W limit, the breakers at least provide protection against short circuits and
the use of high-current loads such as electric irons. At anothervillage installationwhere breakers of a
higher value were used, a govemment schoolteacherironinghis trousers in the evening regularly browned
out the village. The Indonesian breakers were supplied with a mounting plate and plastic cover. The
breaker was mounted close to the incoming conductor,usually on the home's porch, with a drip loop
provided to keep water from running into the breaker. Because the electrical system is floating, no
grounding electrodes are used. From the breaker, 2-wire indoor-typeinsulatedwire connects the lamp,
switch, and a single outlet.
The honor system was expected to prevent individual consumersfrom drawingmore than 40 watts of
power from the distribution system. In practice, however,many homes exceeded this limit and eventually
the cumulative effect resulted in the turbine shutting when the frequency dropped below 45 Hz. This
would normally occur during the dry season whenthe turbinewas running at part load due to lack of
water. At this point, the kepala desa would police the consumersand attempt to enforce the 40-watt rule.
Villages in Indonesia are prone to operate by consensus,wherepressure to conformcorrects behavior
which is contrary to the community interest. In time, after a period of trial and error, the village adapted
its energy usage to availability of power.
Apart from residential use and lighting for the few communitybuildings, some of the more enterprising
villagers discovered income-generating opportunitiesmadepossible by the micro-hydropowersystem.
The use of a few incandescent lamps permitted smallpoultrybusinesses to provide warmth for raising
chicks, leading to considerable success in an otherwisedamp environment. Some woodworking tools,
particularly electric hand-held wood planers are being used to work rough cut boards into finished
lumber. The government clinic also installed a small refrigerator,which is used to preserve medical
supplies.
Because the operation of the electronic load controllerwas sensitive to lightning, lightning arresters were
included at the powerhouse.

Projectcostingand tariff
Table 24 provides the cost breakdown for the mini-grid portionof the project. One factor that reduced
project cost was reliance on local materials (ironwoodpoles, sand, gravel, and rock). Labor provided by
the villages on an in-kind basis reduced cost. Electric servicewas provided up to and including the
breaker. The consumer was responsible for purchasingand installing the housewiring, the 40-watt
fixture, and an outlet, if desired. YUSI provided electriciansto supervise consumerinstallations.
In addition to this cost, the cost of the micro-hydropowersystems totaled about $19,000.
Individual households were responsible for coveringthe cost of all materials used for housewiring listed
in the Table 25 (except the breakers) and labor. This amountedto about $22.

This approachwas adoptedto be consistentwith whatseemsto be the approachtypicallyusedby PLN, the


nationalutility,for low-voltagedistribution.
ChapterXV:Appendices

209

Table 24. Cost breakdownfor the Youngsumini-gridserving 150 homes, a clinic, school,
church, and governmentoffice building.
Items

Quantity

Unit cost

Total

Three-phase ABC

600 m

4.40

2,640

Single-phase ABC

500 m

2.40

1,200

Service wire

1,000 m

1.60

1,600

Housewiring (see below)

150

19.70

2,950

Village lighting and switches

24

12.00

290

Circuit breakers

5.50

30

U-bolt clamps

180

.60

110

J hangers

60

.40

20

Bolts, nuts, washers

80

1.60

130

Friction clamps

15

2.70

40

35 40-kg bags

6.80

240

Concrete
TOTAL

US$ 9,250

Table 25. Breakdown of housewiring


The provincial government funded the capital cost for the
project. Consequently, revenues to repay this cost were not
costs.
Cost
required. However, to cover the cost of the operator as well
(US$)
Component
as to have a reserve to procure materials for the
maintenance of the system, a monthly tariff per consumer
was set at Rp. 5,000, which was equal to $2.30 when the
Circuit breaker
$5.50
Fluorescent unit, 2 x 20 W
6.80
project was commissioned in 1994. Given that the cost of
Outlet
1.10
kerosene typically used for lighting was nearly double this
figure, electrification with its many additional uses and
benefits was a bargain for the villagers. Furthermore,
Switch
1.40
recurring costs should be minimal, at least in the first years
Wire (20 m)
4.50
Staples
.40
of the project, and if monthly fees continually to actually be
$19.70
TOTAL
collected and accounted for, adequate funds should be
available to cover these plus the operator's wages.
However, it is clear that this project, as with most
infrastructure projects, is dependent on extemal funding
and it is not clear whether such a project could be implemented with costs solely covered with funds
generated by the local beneficiaries, even if credit on reasonable terms were available.
In addition, the kepala desa was responsible for collecting the monthly user fees. This type of accounting
is not transparent and often results in funds disappearing or being used for some other purposes. Yet in

Chapter XV: Appendices

210

the case of Youngsu, there was no alternative other than financial management by the local government
authority.

Chapter XV: Appendices

211

Appendix4. Casestudy: El Lim6n,DominicanRepublic


Project initiation
The village of El Lim6n is located in the arid southwestmountains of the Dominican Republic (DR), two
hours west of Santo Domingo. Nearly seventy households eke out a marginal living growing onions,
eggplant, and other low-valuecash crops. Like most Dominican villages off the infrastructure corridors,
El Lim6n has little prospect of being connectedto the national electrical grid in the foreseeable future.
But unlike the typical Dominicanvillage, El Lim6n is a highly organized communitywith a strong history
of participation in self-helpprojects. For the past 25 years ADESJO,a regional community development
organization in the nearby city of San Juan de Ocoa, has been providing technical and financial support
for such projects as the constructionof the road, school, irrigation system, water system, and agricultural
improvement. In each case, the communityhas assimilated new skills and movedrapidly toward selfreliance. The result has been a community with an atypicallyhigh degree of self-confidence and project
management skills.
El Lim6n's experience in building and operating its irrigation system provided the base for the
electrification project. When constructionof the irrigation system began in 1991,the community could
only provide manual labor. Within a few years the villagershad acquired the technical and management
skills necessary to maintain (and extend) the elaborate gravity-fedPVC pipe irrigation system. A very
effective system of work brigades evolved, headed by a five person committee; each member was
responsible for one day of the workweek. This approach is now being used to extend the irrigation
system, as well as for other communityprojects, includingthe electrificationeffort and the fairly
extensive repairs needed after Hurricane George.
The Irrigation Committeeis the village's most sophisticatedmanagement operation. It allocates water,
schedules water use (which involves moving sprinklers every two hours around the clock), and makes
sure that all members of the irrigationproject make their payments to cover the original $75,000
construction loan. The actual handling of money and the record keeping is done in the nearby city of
Ocoa by ADESJO, which managedthe loan and the initial construction. Fifty-nine families participate in
the irrigation project and each is responsible for making quarterlypayments timed with their quarterly
harvests. Most own from 1.0 to 1.5 ha and pay $170 to $250 quarterly. Most people have been able to
keep up with their payments.
The electrificationof El Lim6n grew out of a 1996regional workshop on very small hydropower systems
presented by the EcoPartnersProject (a Cornell Universityaffiliate), in cooperation with ADESJO. The
workshop visited El Lim6n as a field exercisein system design and demonstrateda 12-volt
turbine/generatorunit to the community. Responsewas enthusiastic,and a turbine was eventually
installed at the village school, with extensive communityparticipation. Residents expressed a very strong
interest in villagewide electrificationpoweredby the irrigation system. The system described here was
designed to address the limited water resource available. Technical support has been provided by
EcoPartners, logistic support by ADESJO,and labor by the community.
The implementationapproach was unusual, in that the electrificationwas integrated into a much broader
village development project. The expatriate project implementerresided in the village on a half-time
basis over the two years of the project, with much time spent on other activities. A major project priority
ThiscasestudywaspreparedbyJon Katz(Ogk5@comell.edu).
ChapterXV: Appendices

212

has been transferringtechnical skills into the community,and residents learned construction,wiring,
electronic assembly,and computer/videodocumentation skills.
The project was officially inauguratedthe beginning of April 1999 although portions of the villagehad
begun receivingpower earlier. A total of 56 households now receive electricity and a few more will be
added later. All have one light and a second will be installed shortly.
Design concept
As the sourceof power, a 2.5 kW micro-hydropowerplant was built along an irrigation pipeline to
hamess the excess energy in the water as it descendsthe final kilometer of a 6 km PVC pipeline. A lowcost, 240-V induction motor, with an appropriate electronic load controller, is used as a generator to
supply single-phasepower to the mini-grid.
The distributionsystem transmits the power about 600 m to the village and distributes it around the
village,supplyinghomes as far as about I km from the village center (Fig. 131). Because of the limited
hydropowerpotential of the irrigationpipeline and the need to serve 60 households and to provide
roughly 200 W of power to the schoolfor lighting and the computer center, the power availableto each
household is initially limited to no more than 35 W. This might be altered somewhat as actual operational
experienceis gained. Potential
consumerswere made aware that this
was only adequate for a couple of
compactfluorescentlights and a radio
3
\
Villa
or tape recorder;that a small 12-V
18
television could be used if lights were

turned off; and that refrigerators,irons,


and hair dryers could not be used at
all. While many residents would have

Village of El Limon
Dominican Republic

10Additionl
Mapn '

School

preferred more electricity, explaining

that the energyavailable 24 hours a


day would equal the output of three
photovoltaicpanels quieted all further
objections. Only one family in El
Limon has been able to afford a
private single-panelsystem, and a
three-panelsystem is considered a

~~ ~

House
Store

Barn
-Power Line
500 ft

-.

ToTurbine

1800
ft
Ea

great luxury

After passing through the turbine,


water is fed back into a network of
pipes to irrigatethe land at lower
elevations. Because the irrigation

systemruns around the clock,


electricity will be available at all

times. The energy calculation of 2.5


kW was based on the 6 I/s
(liters/second)flow observed over a
typical year. However, 1998 was a
Fig. 131. Layout of the el Lim6n mini-grid.

ChapterXV:Appendices

213

drought year and the water flow droppedto about 2 1/s. This was inadequate for irrigation as well as
electricity generation, and the communityrecently obtainedthe pipe necessary to extend the system to the
next stream, whose flow was measuredat 12 1/sduringthe drought. The irrigation extension should
assure a minimum of 2.5 kW at all times and may allow for some expansion.
A conventional distribution system in the DR distributeselectricity to and around the village at a medium
voltage and then steps it down to 120 V, the nominal residentialvoltage in the country. In this project,
the decision was made to generate and distributepower at 240 V for the following reasons:
*

This voltage is sufficientlyhigh to permit the use of reasonably priced conductor for transmitting
power from the powerhouseto and around the communitywhile restricting the maximum voltage
drop to 5 %.

It somewhat reduces the dangerof shock and makes the system easier and safer for village
residents to maintain.

Power can be generatedat the "transmissionvoltage" of 240 V, eliminating the losses and the
expense associated with a step-uptransformer that would otherwisehave been needed at the
powerhouse.

The absence of 240-V lamps and appliances on the local market makes it difficult for end-users to
illegally tap the power line, a common practice in the DR.

While 240 V is available around the village,consumers only have access to low-voltagedirect current
(dc). To convert the distributionvoltage to 12-V dc for domesticuse, a converter-a smalltransformer,
rectifier, and filter capacitor-that is usuallypole-mounted outside each home is used. The design of
system components within the home parallels that used for solar home systems (SHSs)-dc wiring,
fluorescent lighting, and a connectionfor radio or TV. Also like SHSs, for those who wish to make the
additional investment in a battery, it would appear that power could be stored, if the availablevoltage is
adequate to properly charge lead-acid batteries. This has yet to be attempted. But unlike the solar option,
the power of 35 W per household will be available24 hours per day, making the battery only necessary to
operate larger loads. In fact, only a few batteries are likely to be installed, reducing both system life-cycle
costs and toxic pollution associatedwith the uncontrolled dumping of lead-acid batteries. Twelve-volt
appliances are increasingly readily availablein the DR because of the popularity of SHSs.
This approach has the followingadvantages:
*

Availability of only 12 V dc in the home reduces the potential for shock and fire hazard and
facilitates maintenance by local residents who have little prior experience with electricity.

The use of a converter (necessaryto convert electricity availableat 240 V ac outside the home to
12 V dc within the home) and breakers in a steel box for each consumer sets an absolute limit on
the current than can be drawn, even if the limitingdevice in the home is bypassed. This might
also be possible with an ac systembut findinga low-cost, low-current (i.e., about 0.07 A) circuit
breaker may be difficult.

Should battery-chargingprove practical at the voltage available from the transformer/rectifier,


this would permit significantlymore energy to be availableto the consumer.

No noticeable change in brightnessis apparent in the compact fluorescent lamps over a


considerable voltage range (8 to 15V).

Disadvantages of this approach includedthe following:


ChapterXV:Appendices

214

Increased costs, complexity, and chance of failure are associated with the converters.

Incurring losses estimated at 10 W per household is also a significant disadvantage when


available ac power is limited to no more than 35 W per household. These losses are typical of the
general-purposetransformers donated to the project. The use of high-efficiency transformers
could decreasethese losses.

Project technical details


The 135 poles required for the project were fabricated on-site of steel-reinforced concrete. The 20-foot
(6-m) poles have a squarecross-section of 6 inches (150 mm) at their base, tapering to 4 inches (100 mm)
at the tip. Although at first reluctant to transfer his skills, the mason who designed the poles did
eventuallyteach the local residents how to form and wire the reinforcing steel, and production of the
poles continued without his involvement. Reinforcementconsists of four 3/8-inch (10 mm) rods running
the length of the pole, tied by square rings of 3/16-inch (5 mm) every 6 inches. Forms consisted of
wooden walls nailed to a wood platform. Four poles were made at a time, at the rate of 8 per week. As is
customarilythe case, concrete was mixed on the ground. The use of ungraded aggregate produced a lowstrength concrete,but there was little problem with breakage of the cured poles. To facilitate the
mounting of insulators, two (later four, at right angles) pieces of 1/2-inch (13 mm) plastic water pipe were
included in the pole to provide through-holes. The material costs for the poles (cement, reinforcingsteel,
and aggregate) averagedabout $40 per pole.
Moving the poles, which each weigh over 500 pounds, proved to be a major problem. To facilitate this
task, a handcart was built of steel box tubing and automobile wheels. Despite the cart, moving the poles
to locationsaway from the roads proved difficult. In some locations, it was necessary to carry the poles
with teams of 12 workers. One conclusion drawn from this experience was that it would have been wiser
to choose longer, less direct transmission runs that followed roads wherever possible.
Holes were dug using basic hand tools. The poles were raised using a variety of pulleys, poles, and gin
poles. Differing conditionsrequired a constant reinvention of approaches and techniques. While never
easy, and often hazardous, the process became less formidable with practice.
Where necessary, poles were guyed with the usual 3/8-inch (10 mm2 ) high-tensile cable. This cable was
tied around an anchor made of meter-long lengthsof concrete pole castoffs buried a meter underground.
Because of cost-savingsresulting from quantity discounts, only two sizes of conductor were incorporated
in the system, one for the multiplex and one for the copper. This meant that the longer, more heavily
loaded "transmission" runs used #2 (34 mm2) aluminum secondary cable in duplex, triplex, and
quadruplex combinations (one, two, or three insulated aluminum conductors, respectively, wrapped
around the neutral ACSR conductor) to keep voltage drop within acceptable limits. For example, the
initial run was comprised of two lengths of triplex or a total of six conductors. As the line approachedthe
village and split off into two directions, a transition was made to one quadruplex and one duplex cable.
Where the multiplex ended, hard-drawn solid #12 (3.3 mm2 ) copper conductor with ultraviolet-resistant
high-densitypolyethylene (HDPE) insulation, rather than off-the-shelf indoor wiring, was used to extend
further within the village,. This wire is mechanicallymuch stronger than indoor wiring, and the
insulation is more durable and tougher for outdoor service. This conductor was specially fabricatedat a
cost only slightly higher than indoorwiring. The sizes of the conductors used were calculated using a
spreadsheetdeveloped to calculate voltage drops and costs of conductor made of differing materials and
with different sizes.

ChapterXV:Appendices

215

The conductors were attached to the poles on 2.5-inch


(60 mm) porcelain spool insulators mounted on 1/2inch (13 mm) threaded rod. Two-inch-long(50 mm)
spacers cut from 1/2-inch iron pipe were used between
the insulators and poles. Washers were used at all
porcelain interfaces to prevent chipping or cracking.
Where the conductor made a significant angle, rightangle brackets were used to mount the spool insulators
vertically, on the inside of the bend, and no spacers

were necessary. Short lengths of the insulatedcopper


conductorwere used to attach all the conductorsto the
insulators. Where multiplex conductor was used, the
bare neutral conductor was separated from the

insulatedconductors in the bundle, placed over the top


of the insulator, and tied to it with the insulatedwire.
This attachment design is secure, but will allow the
wire to separate from the insulator under high stresses
without breaking.
Figure 132 shows a section of the main quadruplexline Fig. 132. Typical poletop configurationwith
three pole-mountedpower supplies.(Photo
passing through in the upper left and a copper
credit:Jon Katz)
conductor extension of the 240-V distributionline
to
dc
line
A
conductor).
(upper
leaving at the right
supply a home leaves from the right (lower conductor). The two wires to the lower right are guy wires.
A homemade right-angle bracket supportsthe spoolto which the messenger of the quadruplex is attached.
In this case, the spool insulator is cantilevered,somewhatreducing its strength. A stronger configuration
that should be used for this purpose is a swinging clevis shownin Fig. 65. A support clevis should
preferably be used to deadend the line extensionleaving at the upper right, replacing the upset bolt
actually used. An upset bolt is typically only used to support a conductorthat leaves the spool insulator
about perpendicular to the axis of the insulator. As shown in the figure, the conductor as installedwould
tend to slip off the spool over time or fractureat the point where the conductor goes over the lip of the
insulator if the angle is too great.
In September 1998, Hurricane George's center passed about 40 miles from El Lim6n. No poles failed, but
the high winds (about 160 km/h) tilted about five highly exposed poles to the extent that they had to be
realigned and, in some cases, guyed. In several locations, wires separatedfrom the insulatorsbut were
undamaged and easily reattached. Only one copperconductorwas broken by falling tree limbs.
A copper conductor is also used for the initial portionof the service drop from the distributionline to the
converter box and is joined to the main line with a split-boltconnector. Where the distribution line is
aluminum, a tin-plated split-bolt connector with a separator is used to eliminate copper-aluminumcontact.
Anti-oxidant grease is applied before joining the wires, and the joint is well covered with rubber splicing
compound and wrapped with vinyl tape. (See p. 104 for discussionof connectors and problems with
aluminum-copper connections.)
The distribution system supplies 240 V ac, with one side grounded. The 12 V dc supply to each home
consists of the following items:

ChapterXV:Appendices

216

A 0.63-ampere MCB on the 240 V side to


protect the system in case of diode or
transformer failure.

A converter (consistingof a transformer, an


encapsulatedrectifier bridge, and computergrade filter capacitorsrated at 20,000
microfarad,40 V dc).

A 6-ampere,dc self-resettingMCB on the dc


sidetransformer in case the manual breaker in
the house is bypassed.

For both of the above MCBs, thermal units were


selectedto keep costs down. All the componentsfor
each home are mounted in one ventilated,waterproof
steel box, generallystrapped to the pole nearest the
home (Fig. 133). In the case of sturdier homes, the box
may be mountedon the outsideof the home. Given the
social structurein the village,tampering is not expected
to be a problem;otherwise, these boxes could be sealed.
Within the home, the principal power-limitingdevice is
a wall-mounted,3-ampere manual (3 A x 12 V = 36 W)
reset circuitbreaker. The box can be sealed to prevent
the consumerfrom bypassingthe breaker if that should
prove a problem.

I
i

m i
*
_I_
Fig. 133. Each home is supplied by dc

power from a pole-mounted power supply.


(Photocredit JonKatz)

If the homesare furtherthan about 10 m from the pole, two lengths of the insulated #12 copper conductor
2 ) flexible duplex (lamp) cord
serve as the service drop from the pole to the home; otherwise, #16 (1.3 rmm
is used.
This flexiblecord is also used forinternal housewiring. Two 10-W compact fluorescent lamps with highquality wall switches are providedfor each house, as is a connector to power a radio or small TV. For
radiosrequiring other than 12volts, convertersdesignedfor use in automobilesare widely available. A
few householdswill probably decide to incorporatea battery for the occasional use of higher wattage
appliances. To prevent trippingthe 3-A breaker in the house due to the high current draw of discharged
batteries,a current-limitingdevice will be suppliedto these households. This will probably be a powertransistor-basedseries current limiter.
Lightningis not expected to be a major problem, since most of the distribution system is in relatively low
areas. However,as a precaution,each converter has a MOV (metal-oxide varistor) spike protection
arrester betweenthe phase and neutral conductors, and the neutral conductorat about 20 poles with
convertersis grounded using with 8-foot (2.5 m) galvanized-steelground rods. The few poles in exposed
locationsare fitted with lightningrods. The powerhouseend of the transmission line is also protected by
a lightningarrester.
Back at the powerhouse,the turbine is protectedby a 10-ampere magnetic circuit breaker. Each of the
three branchesof the system is provided with a 5-amperethermal circuit breaker at the powerhouse,
which alsoallows powering up the system in stages. If startup outrush currents prove to be a problem,

ChapterXV:Appendices

217

several solid-state time-delay relays will be installed in various system branches to provide a more
gradual startup. This has not yet been a problem.
For safety purposes, the use of RCDs in the powerhousewas considered, but it was decided that multiple
grounding of the system, which is not compatible with use of RCDs at that location, provides a higher
degree of safety. Also, nuisance tripping of any RCD used,because of leakages along the long runs,
might also be a problem.
Management and human resources
Before work started, the project was brought to
the village's governing town meeting. After
extensive discussion, the village formally
reached consensus on making the
electrification a community project. Each of
the 65 households was required to contribute
one day of work per week. Some individuals
worked much more, and several householdsm
ultimately failed to contribute significant
_
labor. Two key individuals took on personal, l
long-term responsibility for completion of the
i
project. One concentrated on the poles and
distribution wiring and the other on the
electronic assembly of the fluorescent lamps
Fig. 134. Despitethe useof a cart expresslybuilt
and converter units. The project was
for this purpose,difficult terrainstill madethe task
completedin about18 months. Thelargest
concretepolesdifficult.(Photocredit:
of transporting
part of the work, by far, was transporting the
aggregate, fabricating the pole, transporting
them, and then setting the 135 reinforced
concrete poles (Fig. 134). While at times the idea of a lighter, more easily made pole seemed very
attractive, the reinforced cement poles proved their strength during the hurricane.
Both the community and the project implementer found the process of electrificationmore difficult and
time-consumingthan expected. The single largest problem was the unanticipated difficulty of working
with the concrete poles. There were also changes from the originalplan that added substantialwork. Just
before construction began, the powerhouse site had to be moved from the village about 600 meters up the
valley because of a new area which was to be irrigated. Also, residents were very involved in day-to-day
design issues and opted for a more durable system. Fewer trees, and therefore more poles, were used than
originally anticipated,and a concrete powerhouse much more elaborate than the simple shed originally
envisioned was constructed. Other delays were unavoidable. Funds for the distributionwire and
materials arrived almost a year later than expected,and HurricaneGeorge, while doing little physical
damage to the system, diverted labor to repairs and replanting.
In this project, the organizational strength and motivationof the villagers of El Lim6n were critical to
meeting the challenges they faced. Many residents felt that, at least until a less labor-intensivealtemative
to concrete poles is found, many communitieswould have difficultycarrying this type of project to
completion with their own resources.

ChapterXV:Appendices

218

Outside resources were also critical to


project success. The EcoPartnersProject
coordinatorspent half of the two-year
project period in El Lim6n, although
much of his time was dedicated to other
projects in the community. Institutional
connectionswere veryimportant too, with
Rotary Internationalproviding about one
third of the materials,as well as a skilled
volunteer for two months.

Table26. Costbreakdownof the mini-grid.

Description

US$

Tasmission wire
Distributionwire (#12 copper)
Distributionmaterials
Poles (135 6-m concrete)
Lighting
Misc. electrical supplies

3,500

2,400
1,500
5,400
3,500
1,500

1
8
5
19
12
5

1,400

55

Transformersfor above (donated)

1,000

Miscellaneousmaterial
Tools

1,000
500

3
2

ProjectcostingandtariffCovreunt1,0 Converter units


The cost incurred in the construction of
the mini-grid portionof this project is
broken down in Table 26. In addition,a
additional $4,200 wasmore or less evenly
split between the powerhouseand the
turbine and controls.Most of the cost of
the penstock(the pressure pipe) was
covered by the irrigationproject.
Otherwise,the cost of the unusually long
(6 kin) PVC pipe would have added
$10,000 to the cost ofthe project. In
addition, there were contributionsof food,
communitylabor (estimatedat 7,500
hours), and technicalassistance
(estimatedat 1,500hours).

Shipping
Intemationaltransportation
Local transport
Telecommunications
Administration
TOTAL

1,000
4,800
300
500
600
$28,900

3
17
1
2
2
100 %

For severalreasons,it was initially decided to seek donations for the capital costs of this project:
-

The system designwas very innovative,and it felt inappropriateto ask the community to pay for
an experimentthat might not yield expectedresults.

Loanswere unlikely to be availablefor an unprovendesign.

The comrnunityhad minimalcash resources.

The communityhad committedto contributinga significant amount of labor.

* Donation of capital fundingwas availablefrom the United Nations Development ProgrammeGlobalEnvironmentalFund and from Rotary International.
In addition,the communitywill be responsiblefor operationand maintenanceof the system. The
ElectricityCommitteewill set a monthlyfee to cover regular maintenance:cleaning filters, periodic
turbine bearingreplacement,lamp replacements(10,000-hourlife), and repairs. Residents were involved
in every phase of constructionand are alreadyprepared to perform most of the maintenance and repairs
themselves.
The tariff is expectedto be minimal, about $2 per month,approximatelythe same as that typically spent
for kerosenefor lamps. Because project costs were covered from various external sources,the monthly

Chapter XV: Appendices

219

tariffs are expectedto cover the cost of materials such as bulb replacement and turbine bearings and the
cost of the plant operator. To ensurepayment, the ElectricityCommittee has decided to require a written
agreementwith each household before installing the housewiring. At present, nearly 60 households (all
in the village except for the four houses located outside the present service area) have access to electricity.
Conclusions
Response from the communityhas been enthusiastic,both verbally and in terms of labor provided, and
this forebodeswell for the continuationof the project after it has been coTmmissioned.But it is too early
to know how diligent the consumerswill be about monthly electricity payments. Electricity, even in
limited quantities,is extremelyimportant to most residents,both practically and as a symbol of
development.
In the process of implementing this project, lessons were learned:
*

Everythingtakes longer than one expects.

Seek out individual residentswho will commit to the project as a personal responsibility.

Use packaged subsystemswherever possible (particularlythe turbine and controls).

Place as much emphasison teaching skills as on getting the work done.

Bring in skilled volunteerswhen possible.

With a project of this complexity and this degree of community participation, extensive technical
supportis needed. Having someone who understandsthe technology available to initiate each
phase of the work and to be on-call at other times is essential.

But questionsstill remain:


e

Will the system operate reliably and satisfactorilyunder actual loading? Will reliance on the use
of dc at the consumer level prove its worth or will unexpectedproblems arise?

Given the fixed and limitedpower available, how will the community deal with load growth in
the village?

* Will all villagers regularlypay the agreed-upontariff on a continuing basis and will this tariff
generate the necessary revenues?
* Will the work of operating the system be distributedequitably, or will the burden fall on the
villageactivists, to the point that over-reliance on a few puts the system in jeopardy over the long
term?
*

What level of technical and financial assistance would be required to implement this project
elsewhereand what implications does this have for project replicability?

ChapterXV:Appendices

220

Appendix5. Calculatingrequiredpolediameter
Chapter VIII includes a simplified
equation establishingthe relationship
between the span supportedby poles to
the circumferenceof the pole at the
ground line to ensure sufficient strength to
counter maximum expectedwind forces.
A more complete form of the equation is
derived below. Simplifyingassumptions
made which permit the use of the
simplified equation are also noted.

F on conductor
Li
hl

)Id

hn,

where
Fn= force (N) on pole due to nth
conductor

'r

on pole

due to forceF1
o nf
wque

nthconductorF, is transmitted to the pole


at a distance hn (m) to the pole's ground
line and creates a momentM, (N-m)
which is equal to

L IL2

win

first
ofmdon

The total force of the wind acting on the

Mn, = Fn hn, = 0.05 v2

..-

-M
Mr

due to force
(tforwque

(resistingmomentfromground on pole)

Fig.43 (repeatedfromChapterVill). Forceson a pole


due to thewindactingon boththe pole and the
conductor.Forsimplicity,only the first of several
conductors is shown.

V = design wind speed (km/hr)


LI, L2 = spans lengths (m) of either side of pole as shown in Fig. 43 (see above)
d, = diameter of conductor (m), with insulation

h, = height (m) of the insulator (supportingthe nt ' conductor) above the pole's ground line
The total force of the wind blowing on the pole itself also creates a momentMp (N m) which is obtained
by integrating the pressure along the pole (i.e., to make up for the fact that the pressure acting on the pole
at the tip has a greater effect on the bending moment on the pole than the pressure acting near the
ground). This moment is approximately equal to
MP=0.05 Vy(dg
2 fj+2

+2d, jp h2 2
2
3

where
hp = height of pole (m)
dg = pole diameter (m) at its ground line
d, = pole diameter (m) at its tip

ChapterXV:Appendices

221

The resistingmoment Mr (N m) created by the strength of the wood at the base is equal to

M,

0.0031fCg3
SF

where
f

ultimate fiber stress of wood poles (see Table 11,p. 100)


pole circumference at the ground line (m)

cg

SF = safety factor (usually 2 to 2.5)

Finally,for a pole to resist fracture,the resisting moments must equal the sum of all the other moments
actingon the pole.

(etc., for third and fourth conductor is they are used)

M, =MP + M + M 2 +.
0.00 31lfcg3

SF

=o.sv
05V

(d_+2d

th~+00
) 2

(LL
(

2d

hi +0.05K2

(L

+L>2

id, h 2 ....

To simplifythe calculations,it is assumed below that all the "n" conductors used are locatednear the top
of the pole (i.e., hp= hn= h) and have the same diameter. This is usually the case for secondary
distributionlines. Any small discrepanciescaused by these assumptions err on the side of safety. It is
also assumed that forces due to small deviations in the line are not significant. (If they are, they should be
counteredby guys.)

0.003l fg

=0

05

2(dg

+2d, )h

(n,L +L

SF

d)

2 )j

Furthermore, for small, short poles, the contribution of the first termnin the bracket is considerably smaller
than that of the second term and can be disregarded. The maximum span for a pole of given
circumference at the ground line is the following:

Li(L + L,

0.06 f c

L2 ;L

hnd,

SF

Note that this is the maximum average span under design maximum wind speeds that the pole can resist.
This does not indicate whether or not the conductor strength is adequate. The maximum span that the
conductor can support it determined by its strength and allowable sag (see Chapter VII, p.79).
Or equivalently, the pole diameter (m) required to support a given average span is the following:
dg =0.80L3Y

Chapter XV: Appendices

h n d, SF

222

Appendix6. Somebasicelectricalconceptsand equations


Voltage drop along a line affects the quality and usability of
the electricity delivered to the consumer. Power losses in that
line result in an extra cost that must be borne by the consumer.
These two parameters are affected by the conductor and line
configuration selected. To ensure the most cost-effective
service to consumers, it is therefore important to understand the
relationships between each of these two parameters and
conductor size and configuration.

line
i)

Em'1'

load

supply
I

Fig. 135. A basic distribution line.


To calculate the voltage drop and power loss requires knowing
factor,
the size of the load supplied by the line and its power
along with the conductor's resistance and reactance. The
conductor's resistance is determined by its type (usually either copper or aluminum) and size (crosssectional area). The conductor's reactance is determined by its size and its physical proximity to other
conductors.
This appendix will first review the basic terms and equations related to voltage drop and power loss. It
will then calculate these for a simple single-phase, two-wire system, first for the case where the entire
load is located at the end of the line (Fig. 135) and then for the case where the load is distributed along the
line. And finally, it will present the equations needed to calculate these two parameters for all commonly
used single- and three-phase line configurations, equations that have been summarized in Table 8.
Resistance

and reactance

In the simple single-phase line illustrated in Fig. 136, a generator forces or "pressurizes" the current I into
a conductor and on its way to the load. At the load, the current transfers its power P to perform some

magneticfield around conductor


due tothe flowof current

E
_

generator

.1-

F,

Loa J 111_ Dower (heat,


iLght;
fi motion,

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~sound)

conductor

Fig. 136. Impedance originatesfrom the forces on electrons as they passthrough a changing
magnetic field.

Chapter XV: Appendices

223

form of work (such as lighting, turningmotors, or heating). In the process, it loses its "pressure"or
voltage and returns to the generator in the second conductorat which point it is repressurized to repeat
this energy transfer process. The voltage E is a measure of the difference in electric "pressure"between
the current in the two conductors.
In the process of transmittingelectrical energy from the generator to the load, the current encounterstwo
forcesthat impede its motion:
*

The major force is resistanceto the current, the flow of electrons within the conductor.The
resistance causes the pressure behind the current (i.e., the voltage) to decrease, leaving less
"pressure" to push the current through the load and transferring less power to the load. The total
resistance of a circuit depends on the material making up the conductor,its length, and its crosssectionalarea of the conductor.

The second force impeding the current or the flow of electrons is called reactanceand is caused
by the magnetic field that growsand collapses around each conductoras the alternatingcurrent
passes through. As the magneticfield caused by the flow of each electron in the upper conductor
in Fig. 136 increases and collapses,it cuts across the flow of other electrons in that conductor,
imposing a magnetic force F, that opposes their flow, effectively increasing resistance. This
magnetic field becomes weaker with distancebut also cuts across the flow of electronsin the
lower return conductor. This imposes a weakermagnetic force F2 in the same direction,which in
this case happens to be the same direction as the current flow, thereby encouragingthat flowor
effectivelyreducing resistance.
In surnmary,when the two conductorsof a single-phaseline are far from each other, the magnetic
field around each conductormostlyaffects the flow within that conductorand somewhat
increases the resistance to the current (due to the force F, on each electron, opposing its flow).
As the conductorsare broughtcloser together,the encouraging effect of the magnetic field from
one conductoron the
3.0
other (givingrise to force
F2 ) pushes the electrons in
the other conductor
Resistance: Aluminum
forward, effectively
7
1
_
2.0
Resistance: Copper
reducing the resistance to
flow or reactance. The

net effect is that, while


reactance always adds

additional resistanceto

Reactan

1.0_

the flow of current in a

___

__I

distributionline, this ==re


resistance diminishes

somewhat as the
separation
of the
separation of the

0.0 0

l
20

40

60

80

100

Area of conductor(mm2)

conductorsis reduced.
Graphicaldeterminationof
resistance and reactance

Fig. 137. Resistance and reactance for aluminum and copper


conductor. An equivalent spacing of 0.30 m and a frequency

Figure 137 presentsthe resistance

of 55 Hz are assumed.

Chapter XV: Appendices

224

and reactance of conductor commonlyused on


distribution lines as a function of its cross-sectional
area. Note that reactance is a function of the geometry
of the conductor and not of the material of which is it
constructed.

A conductor's reactance is one factor used in


determining its voltage drop in a given situation. But
for conductor sizes commonly used as distribution
lines within a mini-grid, reactance usually plays a

E 0.10
E

,
'0

oo

*m-0.05

____

-_

0.10

0.30

0.50

0.70

0.90

minimal role because, as can be observedfrom


Fig. 137, resistance is usually considerably larger.

Therefore, while the precise value of reactance


depends on both system frequency and equivalent
spacing, any figures more precise than those

obtainable from the graph are unnecessaryfor small


conductor because this factor contributeslittle to
voltage drop.

Fig. 138. This indicatesthe additional


reactance to that listed in Fig. 137
resultingfrom changes in the equivalent

spacingof the conductors.

However, if large conductor is necessary, a more precise value for reactance may be necessary and can be
obtained as follows:
*

To determinethe reactance for another conductor spacing,the value for the "equivalentspacing"
must firstbe determined. For a single-phaseline, the equivalent spacing is simply equal to the
physical spacing between the two conductors. The equivalentspacing for a three-phaseline is
explained later in Eqn. (3). The correspondingreactance that must be added to or subtracted from
the reactance found in the graphin Fig. 137 can be determined from Fig. 138.

To determine the reactance for another frequency,take the value of reactance obtain above and
add or subtract 10 % dependingon whether the supply frequencyis 60 or 50 Hz, respectively.

For example, assume that the reactance of a single-phaseline of 80-mm2copper or aluminum conductor,
a spacing of 0.20 m, and operating at 50 Hz is required. To take into considerationthe smaller equivalent
spacing, begin with the 0.30 ohms/kmassociatedwith this size conductor with a spacing of 0.30 m (from
Fig. 137) and add a negative 0.04 (from Fig. 138) associated with the smaller equivalent spacing. This
leads to a reactance to 0.26 ohm for each kilometer of conductor. To take into account the reduced
frequency of 50 Hz, 10 % of this value or about 0.03 ohms/kmis then subtracted from the valuejust
obtained, which leads of a final reactance of 0.23 ohms/km.
The graphs and example illustrate how placing the two conductorscloser together than 0.30 m effectively
reduces the reactance (as previously explained)by adding a negative number to the value found in
Fig. 137 for a spacing less than 0.30 m. Aerial bundled cable, where insulated conductors are closely
wrapped around each other, presents less reactancebecause the size of the magnetic forces from the first
conductor encouragingthe flow in the second approaches the size of the magnetic forces opposing the
flow of current in the first conductor.
Calculation of resistance and reactanceby equations
The unit resistance (ohm/km) of a conductordepends on (1) the material used and (2) its cross-sectional
area.

Chapter XV: Appendices

225

The usual materials used are either copper or aluminum. Occasionally, steel conductors are used. Of
these, copper has the least resistance. The resistance of aluminum is 1.6 times that of copper and steel is
10 times that of copper.
The equation for the resistance of a conductor is the following:

18

ohm/km

(1)

where
A
k

=
=

cross-sectional area of the conductor (mm2 )


1.0 for copper
1.6 for aluminum
10. for steel

For ACSR, the cross-sectional area of the conductor is the total cross-sectional area of the aluminum
wires making up the ACSR. When calculating resistance, the steel core is assumed not to conduct.
Line reactance does not depend on the material used for the conductor. Rather, it depends on
geometrical considerations-the size of the conductor and the equivalent spacing between conductors-as
well as the frequency of the supply. The equation for the reactance of a conductor is
x=27tf

19+461og,o(

)]10

ohm/km

(2)

where
f
s

=
=

line frequency, usually 50 or 60 Hz


equivalent spacing of conductors in meters (see below)

overall physical diameter of the conductor (meters)

4A 10-3

Note that if stranded conductor or cable is used, the overall physical diameter of the conductor is larger
than the diameter associated with the actual cross-sectional area A of the metal making up the a
conductor. The overall physical diameter of the cable also includes voids between the strands making up
the conductor.
For a single-phase configuration, the equivalent spacing is equal to the distance between phase
conductors. For a three-phase configuration, the equivalent spacing is

s =3 sI *S

(3)

where SI, s2, and S3 are the distances (in meters) between the first and second, second and third, and third
and first conductors.
Example for calculating r and x
A single-phase line of AWG #4 (21 MM 2) copper conductor supplied by a 60 Hz generator is being
considered. This seven-strand conductor has an overall diameter of 0.0060 m, the conductor spacing is
0.30 m, and the area of the conductor is A = 21 mm2. Therefore, from Eqn. (1):

ChapterXV: Appendices

226

__ (18.4)(1.O)=0.88ohm/km
21
and from Eqn. (2):
x=2-3.14.601 19+46
+41g
*L

C0.00609]
lo-

030
0.gl,

=380(19+ 77) 10-5


= 0.37 ohm/km

Note that if the overall physical diameter of the conductoris


unknown,it can also be estimated if the number of strands
and area of the conductorare known. For example,because
the area of the conductor in this case is about 21 mm2, each
of the seven strandshas an area of 3.0 mm2. Because A =
7id2/4, each strand must therefore have a diameter of about
2.0 mm or 0.0020 m. As can be seen from Fig. 139 for the
case of a cable with 7 strands, the overall diameter of the
conductoris equalto three times the diameter of a single
strand or about 0.0060 m.

3m 2
3 m

Fig. 139. Cross-sectional view of a


seven-strand conductor.

Power and power factor

In additionto dependingon the resistance and reactance of


the conductorused, voltage drop and power loss also depend
on the magnitude of the current transmitted by the conductor. This latter is determined by the power P
consumedby the load, its power factor (cos 0), and the operating voltage. (The power factor can be
interpretedas a measure of the efficiencywith which the current is used by the load. It is a characteristic
of the load itself.)
The relationshipbetween these two parameters and both the current I through the load and the voltage E
across the load is given by the following:
(4)

P(kW) = cos F x P(kVA) = cos f x E(V) x I(A) x I0-3

For example, if 230 V is placed across a fluorescentlamp with a nameplate rating of 0.17 A and a power
factor of 0.6, then the power it consumes is
P(kW)=cos4 xE(V)xI(A)x10-

=0.6x230Vx0.17Ax10-

=0.023kW=23W

Or if the same voltage is placed across a resistive load (i.e., with a power factor = 1.0), such as a light
bulb, which consumes the same power, the current required by the bulb will be

ChapterXV:Appendices

227

P(kW)x103
cos

0.023kWx103 =0.10A
1.0x230V

xE(V)

Voltagedrop/powerloss along a line


This sectionpresents equations for
voltage drop and power loss along a
distributionline. For the sake of

calculateddrop

simplicity, these equations are initially

derived for the case of a single-phase,


two-wireline. It first calculates the
voltage drop and power loss for a single
load locatedat the end of the line and
then for the case where the load is evenly
distributedalong a line. This section
concludeswith slightly modified
versions of these equations which can be
applieds to these
bquala

slitphas
n

cand

three-phase configurations. The results

I r L cos

I x L sin 0

error

actual
drop

E
I

Ix L
IrL

Fig. 140. Vector relationshipbetween voltage,voltage


idrops,
and current in a single line. (Es = supply voltage,
E = voltage acrossload)

are summarizedin Table 8, p. 75).


For a general case, it is assumed that,
because of the nature of the load, the current in a section of line is out of phase with the supply voltage by
an angle of 4(Fig. 140). While no simple forn of an equation for the precise value of the actual voltage
drop (VD,, volts) along this single line is possible, it can be estimatedas the value of the "calculated
drop" in Fig. 140:
VD1

I (rcos4)+xsin4)L

(5)

where
I
r
x
L
cos 0

=
=
=
=

current in the line (amperes)


line resistance (ohms/kin)
line reactance (ohms/kmn)
length of the line (km)

power factor at the beginning of the line power factorat the load

The percent voltage drop at the load is


VD

VzD

%VDz100 VD 100 V
Es

(6)

because, for the typical situation where the voltage drop must be low, Es
5 Z E.'
The power loss is more straightforward to calculate. The loss along a single line is simply
P1 (fkW)= 12 r L 10-3

(7)

The factor of 100 is included to convert the ratio to a percent. Note that if a computerized spreadsheetprogramis
used, it can be set to automaticallydisplay the voltage drop ratio as a percent; in this case, no additionalfactor of
100 is required.
Chapter XV: Appendices

228

Single-phase,two-wire configuration
Calculationsfor load concentratedat end of line
Once the supplyvoltage E (in volts), conductorresistance r andreactance x (both in ohms/km), line
length L (in kilometers),and power consumptionP and power factor cos 4of a single load located at the
end of a single-linehave been determined,the line current can be calculated from Eqn. (4) as follows:
I= P(kVA)
E

10 3 =

(8)

P(kW) *103

E cos4

Substitutingthis into Eqn. (5), the voltage drop VD along two lengths of line (i.e., to the load and back)
becomes
+xsin )I=2L(rcos

VD,2L(rcos

+xsin)x

P(kW)

E cos

13

(9)

volts

The percent voltage drop becomes


%VD z200 L(r cos0+ x sin

~~~~~~
lo,10%
x ~~~~~P(W)
E2 L (r cos~+ x sin+)
2
E

COS

~(0

(10)

The power loss along the two length of line becomes

I(kW)=2Lr12

PI2(M)=
L

10-3

=2LrP(kW))

=2Lr

E cos

21 3

(10)

(l1

For example,if a 21 mm2 single-phase,240-V ACSR line with a spacing of 0.50 m is used to bring power
500 m from the power house to a load of 3 kW with a power factor of 0.95, what is the percent voltage
drop and power loss along that line?
0.95

cos=
=

180

sin 4=0.31

r = 1.39ohm/km
x = 0.44 + 0.05 = 0.49 ohm/km
137A
W
3,000W
(230 V) (0.95)
VD =(2)(0.50km)[(1.39)(0.95)+ (0.49)(0.31)]ohm/km(13.7A)= 20 V
P, =(2)(0.50km)(1.39ohm/km)(13.7 A)2 =260W

ChapterXV:Appendices

229

Therefore, when supplying 3 kW of power to the load, the voltage drop along the line is 20/230
260 W of power is lost in resistive heating of the line.

9 % and

Calculationsfor loads uniformlydistributed along line


If rather than the load being located at the end of the

line, the load is uniformlydistributed along the line


as illustrated in Fig. 141, the expressions for voltage
drop at the end of the line is a simple variant of the
above expressions. In this case, P(W) in the
following equations will represent the sum of all the
loads along the line. With a uniform load along the
line, the voltage drop is precisely half the voltage
drop that would result had the same load been
located entirely at the end of the line. Applying this
factor of one-half to Eqn. (10), the percent voltage
drop of a load P uniformly distributed along a
single-phase line of length L becomes

%VD =10(r

/\J

n
uniformly
Fig. 141. A diagramof consumers
distributionlong a line.

~~~~~
0 %(2
)10%
0) (lo2 ) L(km).
sin
cos0+ x sin0) -= (r cos + x~~ILP(kW)
E COS
E

(12)

The power loss is precisely one-third of the power loss that would result with the load located entirely at
the end of the line. Applying this factor of one-third to Eqn. (1 1), the equation for power loss becomes

PI(kW)

2Lr I 2
3

22Lr
o103=

P(kW)

2(3

Eo)

.03

(13)

Calculationsfor loads at various points along line


With the typical mini-grid, consumers are scattered at various points along the distribution line rather than
being uniformly distributed along it as in the previous case. In this case, it is still possible to easily and
accurately calculate the voltage drop, provided that the power factors for all consumer are approxirnately
equal. In this case, the product of power demand and distance from the supply for each consumer must
first be calculated, and then these products for all "N" consumers involved must be summed. This is
represented by the numerator in Eqn. (14). The voltage drop at the end of the single-phase, two-wire line
to this total sum divided by the distance from the supply
will then be the same as if a load Pr(kW)-equal
to the end of the line-is placed at the end of that line. This equivalent load is the following:
N

EL.n(km)

PT (kW)

n=)

L=

x Pn(kW)

(14)

and the percent voltage drop at the end of the single-phase, two-wire line is obtained by substituting this
into Eqn. (10) results in the following equation for:

Chapter XV: Appendices

230

N
I

%VD z 2(rcosO+xsinO)

"

Ln(km) x Pn(kW)
E2 cos
o

(15)

An example of the applicationof these equations is found in Chapter VII (p. 71).
Generalsolution
Since the power consumedby any load is equalto the product of the voltage across that load, the current
through the load, and its power factor, the current for each of the basic line configurations is as shown in
Fig. 142. It is obtainedby solving the first equationfor each configurationfor the current, I. The percent
voltage drop affectingeach load is also indicatedin Fig. 142 as a functionof the voltage drop along a
single length of line, VD,. The value of the latter is found in Eqn. (5). Note that the actual voltage drop
experiencedby the load in the single-phase,two-wire configurationis twice the value of VD, because the
voltage drop occursalong two lengths of line. For a split-phaseconfiguration,the voltage drop occurs
only in one conductor,as the currents cancel out in the return conductoris the loads are balanced. The
voltage drop experiencedby the load on each phase of the three-phase, delta configuration is J times
the value of VD because the voltage drop occurs along two lengths of line but these drops are out of
phase. And the voltage drop experiencedby each load in the wye configurationoccurs in only one
conductor, for the same reason as for the split-phase configuration. Substitutingthe values of all the
variables will lead to the equations for percent voltage drop found in Table 8.
The total loss of power along the circuit is obtainedby substituting the value for current for the
configurationunder consideration(Fig. 142)and multiplying the resultant by the number of phase
conductorscarrying the current (2 for either single-phaseconfigurationor 3 for either three-phase
configuration). This leads to the power loss equationsfound in Table 8. Note that for a balanced circuit,
which is assumedhere, the current in the neutral is zero and therefore contributesnothing to the total loss.

ChapterXV:Appendices

231

(a)

(b)
E

--

I
p~~~~~~~~

I= O
4---I--

P12

Power consumed by
each single-phaseload:

P = E I cos - 10-

Current in phase line:

Percent voltage
drop at each load:

P
Ecos )

2
P

2Ecos4

2 VD, 100/E

YD, 100/E

(d)

(c)
E

P/3~ ~~

Power consumed by

P= E-I COS_10-3

each single-phase load:

Current in phase line:


Percent voltage
drop at each load:

P/3

S1

P
103
T= E cos43E
O
VD, IOOIE

1=0

-=

E I cos4) 10-

3
I =

Ec

103

cos
VD, 100/E

Fig. 142. Line current for differentconfigurations, each serving a total load of P (kW). Balanced
loads are assumed in all cases. The value of VD, is found in Eqn. (5).

Chapter XV: Appendices

232

Appendix7: Computational
examples
By means of examples, this appendixillustrateshow conductorsize is determined in several situations.
At the same time, these exampleswill also illustrate(1) the impact of power factor on the size and cost of
the conductor, (2) the impactof systemconfigurationand conductoroptions on the cost of line
construction, and (3) the relative accuracyof several approachesto estimatingconductor size,
respectively.
(1) Impact of power factor on system cost
In the first phase of electrification,lighting is the most popular end-use. And while incandescentbulbs
are still popular in many parts of the world becauseof their low cost, many are now aware that fluorescent
lighting is more efficient, that is, that it produces considerablymore lighting than can be achieved with
incandescent lamps for the same amountof power consumed. But even with the use of fluorescent
lighting, not all are aware that fluorescentunits commonlyavailablein many countries are not powerfactor corrected; neither are they aware of the implicationthis has on system cost. While lack of powerfactor correction does not directly affectthe amount of light available, this does have two implications
which lead to increased cost:
The conductor neededto serve the load may be larger than would otherwisebe necessary.
T
*

Increased generationcapacity will also be required(even though the same power is consumed).

For this example, assume that a three-phasegenerator


supplying 230 V at 50 Hz is locatedin the middle of the
village and that a single-phase,1.0km-long,singlephase, two-wire aluminum line serves similar lighting
needs of each of three sectors in the village (Fig. 143).
Assume that each sector has a load of 60 homes with the
equivalent of 40 watts of fluorescentlighting in each,
that this load is evenly distributedalonethe line, and
that the voltage drop shouldnot to exceed 6 % at the end
of the line.

1.0 km

>

maindistributionline
with loading of 9.0 kW km

In each home, this same amountof lighting can be met


by either of the following:

Fig 143. One of three portions of a village

Two 75 W bulbs

Two 20-W fluorescentlampswithout powerfactor correction (with a power factor of 0.6), with each consumerrequiring45 W (which
includes 5 W to account for losses in the ballast)

Two 20-W fluorescentlamps with the power-factorcorrected to 1.0, also requiring 45 W.

for which conductorand generator size


are to be calculated.

For each of these cases, the conductorsize that will be required to ensurethat the percent voltage drop
does not exceed 6 % and the generatorcapacity required to serve this load will be derived below.

Chapter XV: Appendices

233

Incandescentlighting
Conductorrequirements
In this case, each main ACSR distributionline will need to be sized to serve a total load of 60 x 150Wor
9.0 kW uniformlydistributed along the line. Using the appropriate graph in Box 5, with k = 4.5 kW-km,
an aluminum conductor of 80 mm2 would be required to keep the voltage drop to within about 6 %.
Generator requirements
Each phase of the three-phase generator must serve a 9 kW resistive load. A total generating capacity of
27 kW (at a power factor of 1.0) or 27 kVA would be required.
Fluorescentlighting without power-factorcorrection
Conductor requirements
In this case, each distribution line will need to be sized to serve a total load of 60 x 45 W or 2.7 kW
uniformly distributedalong the line. Using the appropriate graph in Box 5, with k = 1.4 kW-km and a
power factor of 0.6, an aluminum conductor of 40 mm2 would be required to keep the voltage drop to
within 6 %.
Generator requirements
Each phase of the three-phasegenerator must serve a 2.7 kW load with a power factor of 0.6. A total
generating capacity of P(kVA) = P(kW)/cos 4= 8.1/0.6 or 14 kVA will be required. Fluorescent lighting
makes more efficient use of the current generatedand, therefore, less current and reduced generating
capacity are required.
Fluorescentlightingwith power-factorcorrection
Conductorrequirements
In this case, each line will again need to be sized to serve a total load of 60 x 45 W or 2.7 kW uniformly
distributed along the line. Using the appropriate graph in Box 5, with k = 1.4kW-km and a power factor
which has been corrected to 1.0, an aluminum conductor of 25 mn2 would be required to keep the voltage
drop to within 6 %.
Generator requirements
Each phase of the three-phase generator must again serve a load of 2.7 kW but with a power factor of 1.0.
A total generating capacity of P(kVA) =P(kW)lcos 0 = 8.1/1.0 or about 8.0 kVA will now be required.
This further decrease in the capacity of the generator is due to the fact that, by adding power-factor
correction, still more efficient use is being made of the current and, therefore, even less current is required
of the generator. Therefore, the wire in the generator windings can be reduced in size, resulting in a less
expensive generator.
Conclusions
The conclusions of the previous calculationsare summarized in Table 27. As can be seen, replacing
incandescentlighting with fluorescentlighting results in cost savings in both conductor and generator
capacity but the full extent of the savings is not evident until power-factor correction is incorporatedin
the fluorescentlighting units. In using fluorescentlighting with power-factor correction, conductor
required is only about one-third the size (and cost) of the conductor that would have been used to supply
incandescent lighting.

ChapterXV:Appendices

234

Table27. Conductorsizeand generatorcapacity


requiredfor the sameamountof lighting.
Description
of lighting
Required Required
sizeof
generator
conductor capacity

A word of caution should be noted here.


For larger loads as were assumed above,
larger conductoris required and power
factor is an important factor in selecting
the appropriateconductor size based on
acceptablevoltage drop, as is illustrated
in Table 27. However,if smaller loads
and distances are involved in a given
situation, then smallerconductor would
be required. In this case, the power
factor does not play as important a role
in determiningthe voltage drop.

Incandescent
Fluorescent,without powerfactor correction
Fluorescent,with powerfactor corrections

80 mm2

27 kVA

40 mm2

14kVA

25 mm2

8 kVA

This can be seen by changing the form


of the equationfor Yin Table 8, which is used to calculatethe voltage drop along a conductor,as follows:
Y=2(rcos4)+xsind?)

E2

COS Q

10-5 =2r+x

sin)

COS f

P L0E2

For smaller conductor,Fig. 137 in Appendix 6 illustrates that reactance x becomes much less important
than the resistance r of the conductor. Since even for low power factors,the value of (sin 4 1 cos ))is not
much greater than 1, the double-underlinedterm in the equation above becomes less importantin
affecting the voltage drop than the value of r. Therefore, for small conductor,the conductorsize that is
necessaryto keep to within an acceptablevoltage drop is much less affected by the power factor than is
large conductor.
For example,assume that the fluorescentlighting load evenly distributed along each line were reduced
somewhatto perhaps 1.0kW km rather than the 2.7 kW km assumed above. The minimumconductor
size for a line serving uncorrectedfluorescentlighting would then be 11 mm2 while that requiredto serve
correctedfluorescentlighting would be 10 mm2 . Giventhat conductor is only available in a few discrete
sizes and that the same size conductorwould be used in both cases, having properly correctedfluorescent
lighting would essentiallyhave no impact on conductor size when loads are small.
In this example,the generator required to serve the uncorrected fluorescentlighting load in the village
would still, in theory, be considerablylarger than that needed to serve the corrected lightingload
(4.8 kVA vs. 3.0 kVA). However, in this case, because the size options for small gensetsare limited, a
5 kVA would probably be required in both cases and power factor correction would also have no impact
on generatorcost. Note that operating costs would be marginally higher with no power-factorcorrection
because of increased power losses in the distribution line due to the higher currents associatedwith a low
power factor.
(2) Impact of configurationon distribution system cost
Consumersin countries where the distributionvoltage on a single-phase,two-wire line is 120 V rather
than 230 V are somewhat handicappedbecause this lower voltage implies greater currents to supply the
same loads, and these in turn implya greater voltage drop and line (energy) losses. Altematively,to keep
to within the same voltage drop, the area (and cost) of the conductor must increase by a factor of about
four to serve the same load at this lower voltage.
ChapterXV:Appendices

235

However, by reverting to a different configuration,it may be possible to reduce costs. The following
example first calculates the installed line cost for supplying a specific load with a single-phase,two-wire
configuration. It then illustrates the impacton cost of using a single-phase,three-wire configuration to
serve the same load and then of using a three-phase,four-wire configuration.
For this example, it is assumed that a single-phasegeneratoris available in the village and that, by proper
connections to the generator terminals, either 120 V, 120-0-120V, or 208/120 V at 60 Hz can be
generated. The generator is at the end of a 1.4km ACSRdistribution line which serves 40 consumers
evenly distributed along that line. Each consumerhas a 20-W fluorescent lamp, with the power factor
corrected to 1.0, that consumes a total of 25 W.
To determine the approximate conductor size that will be required so that the voltage drop does not
exceed the desired maximum set at 6 %, the graphs in Box 5 (p. 77) will again be used. However, since
the nominal voltage used by the consumer is other than230 V, the value of k described in that box must
be modified as explained therein. Alternatively,the equations in Table 8 can be used.
Note that Box 5 assumes an operating frequencyof 50 Hz while, in this case, the frequency is 60 Hz. In
theory, the graphs in Box 5 have not been prepared for this frequency and one should rely on the forrnulas
in Table 8 since the reactance of the conductordependson the frequency of the supply (see Eqn. (2) in
Appendix 6). However, because in this case the power factor, cos 4, is 1.0, then sin 4= 0 and it can be
seen from the equations in Table 8 that the value of Y (and therefore the percent voltage drop) does not
depend of the reactance of the conductor. For the same reason, equivalent spacing of the conductor,
which also affects reactance, has no impact in this case. Therefore, the graphs in Box 5 can be used. For
non-unity power factors, the original equations in Table 8 would have to be used if more accurate results
are required.
Two-wire configuration
For this example, a total load of 1.0 kW (with cos 4 = 1.0) uniformly distributed over a line 1.4 km long
is to be supplied. As explained in Box 5, the value of k, modified for a voltage of 120 V, is as follows:
k=(1.0 kW)(1. 4 km) (230)
2
120

=2.6kWkm

From the first graph, the distribution line would require two lengths of 48 mm2 aluminum conductor or
AWG 1/0 to handle the expected current without exceedinga 6 % voltage drop.
Three-wire configuration
As explained in Box 5, for this case, the value of k for a perfectly balanced system, modified for a voltage
of 120 V, is as follows:

(1.0
kW)(1.4km) ( 1)(230 )
2
4 120

0 65 kWI

In this case, an aluminum conductor of about 12 mm2 or AWG #6 would be necessary. Therefore,
although this distribution line would now require three lengths of conductor,a considerably smaller
conductor would be required. Note that this value is only correct if the loads along the line are perfectly
balanced. In reality, this is difficult to ensure. If we assume a 50 % load unbalance, the above value of k
must be multiplied by a factor of 1.8 as indicated in the last column in Table 8. For the new value of k =
1.2, the distribution line would require a 23 mm2 , which is close to a larger, AWG #4 conductor.

ChapterXV:Appendices

236

Three-phase,four wire configuration


Assuming the realistic case where the circuit has a 50 % load unbalanced, Box 5 indicates that the value
of k is as follows:
k = (I-0 W)1.4km (1
2
4

( 230)
120

= 0.65 kW km

In this case, AWG #6 would be necessary. Comparedto the unbalanced single-phase,three-wire


configurationabove,this configurationrequires four length of smaller conductor.
Costs
A comparativecosting of these four configurationswill be calculated using costs from El Salvador. To
illustrate the impact of conductor type on cost, two conductoroptions will alsobe considered. The first is
the use of uninsulatedACSR conductorand the second is the use of multiplex as explained in Box 4. The
costs assumedfor this costing are indicated in Table 28.
Table 28. Recent small-quantitycosts for quality materialsand labor in El Salvador, including
duties, taxes, warehousing,and delivery. Costs are in U.S. dollars and totals are expressed to
two significantfigures.
Conductor costlm
Conductor

Materials

Labor

Poletop hardware cost/pole

Total

Materials

Labor

Total

#1/0 ACSR (2-wire)

1.84

.56

2.40

22.84

20.64

43

#4 ACSR(3-wire)

1.05

.72

1.80

31.26

30.96

62

#6 ACSR (3-wire)

.90

.33

1.20

31.26

30.96

62

#6 ACSR(4-wire)

1.20

.44

1.60

41.68

41.28

83

#1/0 duplex

2.24

.30

2.50

10.60

10. 32

21

#4 triplex

2.30

.15

2.40

10.20

9.50

20

#6 triplex

1.21

.12

1.30

9.80

9.30

19

#6 quadruplex

1.70

.12

1.80

9.80

9.30

19

Table 29 summarizesthe componentcosts for a single 30-m span (conductor plus poletop hardwareat the
pole at the end of that span) for the four configurationsbeing considered in the example.
Conclusions
Several conclusionscan be drawn from Table 29:
*

Labor costs can be a significantportionof line construction cost, especiallyfor bare ACSR lines
which are much more labor intensivethen multiplex lines (bare ACSR requires that each line to
be strung separatelywhereas one conductoris strung if bundled cable is used). The costs in
Table 28 are for electric-utility-implementedinstallations. In cases where labor costs of lower or

Chapter XV: Appendices

237

Table 29. Breakdown of the costing per 30-m span for all the options being considered for
supplying the village load. For two cases indicated, a 50 % load unbalance is assumed.
Bare ACSR
Configuration

Materials

Two-wire (#1/0)

Multiplex

Labor

Total

Materials

$78

$37

$115

$78

$19

$97

Three-wire (#4)
(unbalanced)

$62

$53

$115

$79

$14

$93

Three-wire (#6)
(balanced)

$58

$41

$99

$46

$13

$59

Four-wire (#6)
(unbalanced)

$78

$54

$132

$61

$13

$74

Labor

Total

where a more rudimentary village design whichrequire less labor are utilized, labor cost can be
reduced significantly.
*

Independent of the configuration, the multiplex (or ABC) option can be considerably cheaper,
primarily because of the fact that less labor is required for its installation.

The single-phase,three-wire configuration is the least costly if balanced loads are considered.
However, as noted, this is difficult to ensure. With a more realistic unbalance of 50 %, the leastcost configuration depends on the conductor option. The three-phase, four-wire configuration is
the least costly (at $74 per span) when multiplex conductoris used while either of the singlephase configurations is the least costly (at $1 15per span)when bare ACSR is used.

* Three-phase distribution is, in theory, more efficient than single-phasedistribution. However,


this example illustrates that, in this case, the cost for a three-phase line is greater than even a
single-phase, two-wire line.
(3) Sizing a distribution line for motor starting
It is assumed that a 15 kW diesel genset is located on one side of a village and that one load being
suppliedis a 2 hp motor to run a rice huller that must be located 1400 m away. To facilitate motor
startingand minimize conductor size, a 220/380 V, three-phase,four-wire line will be used to supply the
motor. The motor efficiency is 80 %, its power factor is 85 % duringnormal operation and 60 % during
start-up,and the current draw is 6 times the normal operating current during start-up. Is the generator of
adequatecapacity to start the motor? And if it is, is a 10 mm2 copper conductor of adequate size to ensure
that the voltage drop along the line to the motor during its start-up does not exceed about 20 %?
The maximum horsepower capacity of a three-phase motor driven by a three-phase synchronous
generator is about 15 % of the generator's kilowatt rating. This generator should be able to start a motor
with a capacity of up to about 2.2 hp and should thereforebe adequate to start the proposed motor.
To determine whether the proposed conductor is of adequate size, the voltage drop must be calculated.
But this requires that the current needed by the motor first be calculated. From the equation on p. 39), the
power input to the motor necessary to drive the rice huller duringnormal operation is as follows:

ChapterXV: Appendices

238

(2.0 hp) 750-)j


~~hp)=.2V
p=
2.2 kVA
(0.80)(0.85)

and then, from Fig. 142d,the line current during this time would be
2200 VA
3 (220 V)
The start-up current will attain six times this value or 20 A at the power factor of 0.60 noted earlier.
To determine the percent voltage drop under these conditions, the values of resistance and reactance of
the conductormust first be found. From Fig. 137, for a 10 mm2 copper conductor, this can be found to be
r = 1.8ohms/km and x = 0.4 ohms/km. Inserting these values into the equation for voltage drop in
Fig. 142d and Eqn. (5) referred to in that figure, the percent voltage drop is the following:
100
100
I (r cosb + x sin c;)E
%VD= VD,-=
E
E
m20 [(1.8)(1.4)(0.6)+ (0.4)(1.4)(0.8)]1 2 = 18

220

The resulting voltage drop of 18 % during motor start-up falls within the acceptable range. Note that this
assumes that the only load on the distributionline is the motor. If the possibility exists that lighting or
other loads may be connected to that line during motor start-up, either before or after the location of the
motor along the distributionline, these currents must also be included in the above calculations because
they alsowould contribute to the voltage drop along the line.
After start-up, when the power factor increases to 0.85 and the current demand reduces to 3.3 A, the
percent voltage drop due to the normal operation of the motor will reduce to the following expression:
10010
%VD= VD, E =I (r cos; + x sin4) E
E
E
=3.3 [(1.8)(1.4)(.85)+ (0.4)(1.4)(0.50)] 20 = 3.6
220
A 3.6 % voltage drop is acceptable at the motor location. However, as noted above, other loads along the
distributionline will increasevoltage drop along that line and calculations for the voltage drop at the
motor location (or at the end of the line) must also considerand include other loads that may be on at the
same time.
(4) Impact of approach to conductor sizing on accuracy
The conductor size for a single-phaseline serving a total load of 4.4 kW distributed as shown in Fig. 144
is to be determined. Assume an average power factor of 0.9, a supply voltage of 230 V, and a maximum
acceptable voltage drop of about 6 %. It is assumed that ACSR conductor is available in the following
sizes: 10, 25, 35, 50, 70, and 100 mm2 . The graphs in Box 5 will be used for the initial sizing of the
conductor. Longer computationalmethods will then be used to illustrate that these more time-consuming
approachesmay yield more precise results but that quick estimates are often more than sufficient for the
purpose of selecting conductor size.

ChapterXV:Appendices

239

distributionline
with25-mspan
226t

27\-

service drop

~~~~~~~Key:
o 50W
*

branch circuit

100W

*~~~~~~
200 W
n
W

Fig. 144. A map showing the location of consumerloads along the distributionline to be sized,
together with their maximum coincident demand.
To reduce project cost, the same size conductor is typically used for the entire network. The use of a
single size usually permits a lower unit cost through quantity purchases and minimizes the range of sizes,
and costs, for items such as connectors, preformed deadends, and tooling dies (for crimping connectors)
required for line installation. For the initial costing, it is assumed that a single-size conductor is used. If
it is felt that conductor of this size is too large for use in branch circuits, it is always possible to determine
the size of these circuits separately and then to cost them to decide if branch circuits of smaller size are
more cost-effective.
Since the maximum voltage drop occurs at the end of the line with the largest combination of loading and
length, the line stretching from the supply all the way to the right in Fig. 144 will be the main line that is
to be sized. For this sizing, the peak coincident load of 0.90 kW served by the branch circuit heading
downward will simply be considered as an additional load to the 50 W consumer load which is also
.connected to the pole (no. 10) where the lines join.
The easiest cases to analyze are those where the entire load is either concentrated at the end of the line or
uniformly distributed along the line. While either of these cases rarely reflects reality, the results obtained
still give a rough estimate of conductor size.
*

If the entire load were concentrated at the end of the line, this would result in the maximum
voltage drop. While this is not the case here, it does set the upper limit on the size of the
conductor. In this case, k (as defined in Box 5) would equal (4.4)(.60) or 2.6 kW-km. From the
first two graphs in Box 5, a 50 rmm2 aluminum conductor would be required if the power factor
were 1.0 and 75 mm2 if it were 0.8. For a power factor of 0.9, an estimate for the conductor
which would be required would be 60 mm2 . Given available sizes noted previously, a 70 mm2
aluminum conductor would be required.

Chapter XV: Appendices

240

If we assume that the load is uniformly


distributedalong the line, whichis closer to the
actual case, k would equal 1.3 kW-km. For a

power factor of 0.9, the actual conductor size


would be between 24 mm and 30 mm2 and a
35 mm' conductorwould seem to be necessary
in this case. in this case.

Table 30. Calculating the loading along


themainlineshownin Fig. 144.
Pole Distance Demand Loading
(kW km)
(kW)
(km)
no.

23

0.675

0.20

0.144

~~23

0.575

0.25

0.144

A more accurate estimate is obtainedby calculating the


sum of the products of power demandat each pole and
its distancefrom the source. This has been done in
Table 30. The value of k is 1.43 kW-km and the
conductorsize would be 27 mm2 and 33 nim2,implying
that a 35 mm' conductorwould probablybe required.

22
21
20
19
18
17
16

0.550
0.525
0.500
0.475
0.450
0.425
0.400

0.10
0.30
0.05
0.45
0.00
0.25
0.30

0.055
0.158
0.025
0.214
0.000
0.106
0.120

If one required more precise figures, the equations


presented on p. 72 can be used Substitutingthe
appropriate values into those equationsyields the
required conductor size as A = 31 mm2 , once more
2 conductor should be used.
confirmingthat a 35 mm

15
14
13
12
11

0.375
0.350
0.325
0.300
0.275

0.00
0.40
0.00
0.00
0.00

0.000
0.140
0.000
0.000
0.000

Note that while the results of this last approach may be


more accurate,the easier methods described above can
lead to results which are as accurate as necessary under
the circumstances.Furthermore, it is useless attempting
to obtain high accuracy in the calculation when the data
used is not accurate. For example, to what accuracy is
the power factor known? While it is probably difficult to
determinewhether the power factor in a situation will be
0.76 or 0.84, using one rather than the other in the
equations for voltagedrop and power loss can lead to a
10 % difference in these parameters or more depending
on actual circumstances. Equivalently,it may mean that
the required conductor size may be off by 10 %, or more.

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

0.250
0.225
0.200
0.175
0.150
0.125
0.100
0.075
0.050
0.025
Totals:

1.00
0.05
0.10
0.00
0.15
0.05
0.20
0.10
0.15
0.30
4.40

0.250
0.011
0.020
0.000
0.023
0.006
0.020
0.008
0.008
0.008
1.43

A basic spreadsheetthat can also be used for assessing voltage drop and power loss and, thereby, for
sizing conductoris described on p. 72. For this specific case wherethree segments are involved-two
end segmentsand one source segment-three spreadsheet modulesare used and the final results are
shown in Fig. 145. Only those fully knowledgeable with manipulations offormula and data within
computerized spreadsheets should attempt their use; otherwise, numerous errors could be introduced.

In this case, a 35 mm2 conductor was assumed and the spreadsheetcalculated the voltage drop along the
main line as 4.3 + 7.9 or 12.2 V or 5.3 %, and is within the acceptablerange, once more confirming the
previous results. If a conductor size of 31 mm2 were substitutedin the spreadsheet, the voltage drop
would be calculated as 13.6 V (or 5.9 %), the same as the results obtained previously, using the equations
presented on p. 72.
Note that by also using a 35 mm2 conductorfor the branch circuit, the voltage drop at the end of that
2
circuit is only (0.6 + 7.9)/230 or 3.7 %. A smaller conductor could be used. Replacing "35 mm '" in the

ChapterXV:Appendices

241

module for the branch circuit with smaller values, one could go down to using a 4 mm2 aluminum
conductor for that circuit before the voltage drop between the source and end of the branch circuit attains
the 6 % limit. Therefore, rather than using 35 mm2 conductor for this branch, a long service drop of
perhaps 5 mm2 aluminum conductor could be used.
Notes on the use of spreadsheet for more involved circuits:
Note that two very similar spreadsheet modules are used in Fig. 145: one for end segmentsand one for
source segments. Any distribution circuit can be divided into segments and one of the two modules can
be used to analyze each, depending on the type of segment. Here, a segment can either be a length of line
between the power supply and the firstjunction, a length of line between any two consecutivejunctions,
or a length between any end of the line and the preceding junction. For calculatingpurposes, two
different types of segmentsare used: source or intermediate segments (including the first two types of
segments defined above) and end segments (including the last type of segment defined above).
Any radial circuit can be analyzed using these two modules. For example, for the line presented in the
lower right of Fig. 146, the five modules for the end segments and the three modules for the intermediate
and source segments would be interrelated as shown in this figure.
Note that the differencesbetween the two modules are only in two cells:
* The first entry in the "Main demand" column is zero in the source or intermediate module.
* The sum of the currents leaving any source or intermediate segments(i.e., the sum of the
currents calculated at the beginning of the follow-on segment or segments) is placed at the
top of the "Current" column (see the Source segment module in Fig. 145 as an example).
For the proper use of spreadsheets, all cells must be properly interrelated. Otherwiseerrors are easily
introduced. In preparing spreadsheets, results should always be checkedfor reasonablenessagainst
results obtained using other methods.

A "junction"here is definedas a point whereline conditionschange,usuallya pointwherethe line splitsup,


althougha pointwherethe conductorsizechangeswould alsoqualify.

Chapter XV: Appendices

242

2
Fig. 145. A detailed analysis of the line shown in Fig. 144 verifies that a 35 mm conductor is
suitableto keep voltage drop to within 6 %.

Basic specifications:
Voltage at end =
Frequency=
Power factor

230 V
50 Hz
0.9
Ending segment
(4)
(2) | (3)
(1)
Span Denand (kW) Voltge
(V)
Spurs Main
no.

Main line, pole 10 - 24

Line specifications:
Conductor size =
Equiv. separation=
Resistance=
Reactance

35
0.3
0.84
0.30

mm
m
ohm/km
ohm/km

24

0.200

0.200

230.0

1.0

0.025

0.0

0.000

23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11

0.250
0.100
0.300
0.050
0.450
0.000
0.250
0.300
0.000
0.400
0.000
0.000
0.000

0.450
0.550
0.850
0.900
1.350
1.350
1.600
1.900
1.900
2.300
2.300
2.300
2.300

230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0

2.2
2.7
4.1
4.3
6.5
6.5
7.7
9.2
9.2
11.1
11.1
11.1
11.1

0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025

0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5

0.000
0.000
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.004
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005

2.30

230.0

11.1

0.350

4.3

0.036

TOTALS:

Branch line, pole 10,25-30

Line specifications:
Conductorsize=
Equiv. separation=
Resistance
Reactance=

35
0.3
0.84
0.30

mm
m
ohm/km
ohm/km

End segment
Span. Demand (kW)
no. Spurs I Main

Voltage
(V)

0.150
0.350
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.900

230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0

0.7
1.7
1.9
2.4
2.9
4.3

0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025

0.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001

0.90

230.0

4.3

0.150

0.6

0.002

30
29
28
27
26
25

0.150
0.200
0.050
0.100
0.100
0.300

TOTALS:

Source segment
Span Denund (kW) Voltage
(V)
no. Spurs Main

Main line, pole 1-10

Line specifications:
Conductor size =
Equiv. separation=
Resistance=
Reactance=

35 mn?
0.3 m
0.84 ohnh/km
0.30 ohm/km

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

0.100
0.050
0.100
0.000
0.100
0.050
0.200
0.100
0.150
0.300

TOTALS:

Chapter XV: Appendices

(8)
|
(6) 1 (7)
(5)
Current Length Volt drop Power loss
-(kW)
(V)
(km)
(A)

0.050
0.150
0.150
0.250
0.300
0.500
0.600
0.750
1.050

230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
230.0

1.05

230.0

Current Length Volt drop Power loss


(kW)
(V)
(km)
(A)

Current Length Volt drop Power loss


(kW)
(V)
(km)
(A)
15.5
0.011
0.7
0.025
15.9
0.011
0.7
0.025
16.2
0.012
0.7
0.025
16.7
0.012
0.7
0.025
16.7
0.012
0.8
0.025
17.1
0.013
0.8
0.025
17.4
0.014
0.8
0.025
18.4
0.015
0.8
0.025
18.8
0.016
0.9
0.025
19.6
0.019
0.9
0.025
21.0
21.0

0.250

7.9

0.134

243

Fig. 146. Illustration of how a series of spreadsheet modules can be used to analyze a more
involved distribution system.

I (line current) in this column


EndsegmentA

End segmentB

---

__-

-_

spreadsheet moodule
for internediate and
source segment

Intennediateseg

\
,
nt C

Intemneiateseg

nt E

~~~~~~~~~~~~spreadsheet

modulefor

End segmentD

end segment

current at end of one segment (e.g , E)_


is equal to sum of currents into
subsequent segrents (e.g., C and D)

Endsegment F

End segmentG

Souncesegment

F~~~~~

Chapter XV: Appendices

;___

43~
Generator
Generator

distribution line

~being
analyzed

244

Appendix8. Sag tablesfor multiplexconductor


Below are sag tables prepared for duplex and triplex aluminum conductor with a bare (neutral)ACSR
messengerused in a "light loading district" in the U.S. as defined by the NESC (wind loading of
440 N/M2). The safety factor is definedas follows:
*

Initial unloaded condition(initial sag): When the conductor is initially strung and is carrying
no load, the tension shall not exceed 35 % of the ultimate strength of the conductor at 16'C.

Final unloaded condition (finalsag): When the conductor has been subjected to assumedwind
loading over a period of time, it receives a permanent stretch. When this condition is reached, the
tension in the conductor without loading shall not exceed 25 % of ultimate strength of the
conductor at 16 'C.

Furthermore,when the conductor is loaded to its assumed wind loading, the tension shall not exceed 60 %
of the ultimate strength of the conductorat -1 'C (loaded condition).
Note the following trends:
-

For the short and long spans of a specific duplex (or triplex) conductor, the tensions are roughly
the same. This means that a greater sag is associated with the longer span (as determinedby the
equation for sag).

For a specific span and specific size conductor, the tension for both duplex and triplex is the same
because the same size messengeris used. However, the associated sags are greater for triplex
because the weight of that bundle of conductors is greater for the the equivalent size duplex.

For a specific span of duplex(or triplex) conductor, the sag is the same independentof the size of
the duplex (or triplex) conductorsused. This is because the weight of the conductorbundle and its
ultimate tension are both proportional to conductor area. As the weight of the conductorbundle
increases, the ultimate tensionincreases proportionately and their ratio (wdI), which appears in
the sag equation, remains unchanged.

For saggingnew cable, the shaded sections of the tables below are the ones of immediate importance.
These tables have been provided by a conductor manufacture specifically for the conductor and operating
conditionsdescribed above. Conductormanufacturers would be able to provide charts for other size and
type conductors that are to be used in a particular situation.

ChapterXV:Appendices

245

DUPLEX
#6 (13 mm2) ACSRDuplex (113 kglkm)
Sag at initial
sag (m)

Tension at
initial sag
(kg)

(m)

I-1C | 1C

Conductor temperature
16C I25C
32C
40C

40
70

| 0.14
0.42

0.16
0.50

Span
0.16
.47

0.18
0.53

0.20
0.57

|-1C

0.23
0.60

165
163

Sag at final
sag (m)
Span

-1C10C

-Im)
40
70

0.16
0.49

0.20

! 0.58

Conductor temperature
10C 16C 25C
3C
40C
145
148

140
139

123
130

110 jo100
121
116

Tension at
final sag
(kg)
Conductor temperature
16C 25C 32C 40 0C
0.23 | 0.27 0.31 0.38
0.63 0.73 0.80 0.88

Conductor temperature
-1C
137
140

10C 16C 25 0C 32C 40C


115
1190

100
110

83
95

72
86

60
78

#4 (21 mm2) ACSRDuplex (172kg/km)


Sag at initial
sag (m)

Tension at
initial sag
(kg)

Span
||

||

(m)

rr

Conductor temperature

||

100C

16C2 5C

0.15

0.17

0.17 | 0.19

0.49

|-1C

40
70

_0.52

0.56

40C

* ||
Span

|| ||

(m)

r0
W70

-1 0C |10C
0.17| 0.21
|05
0.61
|| ||

Chapter XV: Appendices

I 40C

2C

32C

236

207

1 203

| 179

169

| 148|

| 0.60 |0.62

237

216

| 201

1 189

176

J 169

Sag at final
sag (m)

II

Conductor temperature

-1C 1OC1160C

| 0.20 | 0.23

Tension at
final sag
(kg)
Conductor temperature
16C | 25C
32 0 C 40C

Conductor temperature
-1 0C

0.23 | 0.28

0.33

0.39

198

0.66 | 0.76

0.84

0.92

204

I10C 116C I 25C I 32C I 40C I


1 121 1 105 1 88
173 | 159 | 138 | 125 | 114|

| 165 | 148

246

#2 (34 mm2) ACSR Duplex (265 kg/km)


Sag at initial
sag (m)
Span
(m)
_

| -1CC |10C

Tension at
initial sag
(kg)
Conductortemperature
16C |25C|32C 40C

40

0.14 0.15 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22

70

0.41 0.45 0.48 0.53 0.58 0.63

Conductor temperature

-1C I| C 116C I 25CI 32C |40C

392 351 330 293 265 236


1 395

I(m)

[4

-1C

0.16 10.20 | 0.22 |0.27 | 0.32 0.38

323

|0.50

70
1

Conductortemperature
10C | 16C 25C I 32C 40C

|-1G

338

306

282

257

Tension at
final sag
(kg)

Sag at final
sag (m)
Span

357

0.59 | 0.64 10.74 10.82

0.91

|10C

Conductortemperature
W16C 25C 32-C 40C

264

237

194

165

140

323 1 274

252

219

198

179

#1/0 (53 mm2) ACSR Duplex (424 kg/km)


Sag at initial
sag (m)
Span

Tension at
initial sag
(kg)
Conductortemperature

1]

40
70

Sag at final
sag (m)
||Spani|
(m) |-1C

|40|
1

Conductortemperature

-1C|10C 16C 25C 32C 400C ||


-1C I| C 116C I 25CI 32C|40C
0.14 10.16 1 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.24 I 602 536 502 1 440 1 400 354
606 548 516 1 465 14428 390
0.43 0.481 0.50 0.56 0.61 10.67

LM)

Conductortemperature
10C I 16C 25C|32C 40C

Tension at
final sag
(kg)
-1C

Conductortemperature
10C 116C I 25C I 32C |40C

0.17 0.21 | 0.23 0.29 0.34 0.39 | 497 404


0.77 0.85 0.94 1 497 4421

J70
0.521 0.621 0.67

Chapter XV: Appendices

361| 295 | 253 | 215


388 1 338 1 306 1 277

247

TRIPLEX
#6 (13 mm2) ACSR Triplex (172 kg/km)
Sag at initial
sag (m)
Span
(m)
40
70

-1C
0.21
0.65

Tension at
initial sag
(kg)

Conductor temperature
10C 16C 25C 32C 40C
0.24 0.25 0.28 0.31 0.34
0.71 0.76 0.81 0.87 0.91

Sag at final
sag (m)

-1C
165
163

Conductortemperature
25C 32C 40C
140 123 110 100
139 130 121
116

10C16C
145
148

Tension at
final sag
(kg)

Span

Conductor temperature
32C 400 C
0.34 0.41 0.48 0.57

Conductor temperature

137 | 115

0.96

140 | 119 |110

I 10C
|16 0C 1 25C I 32C I 40C

10C 16C |25C

40

-1C
0.25

70

0.75 |0.89

(m)

0.30

1.11

1.23 |1.35

100 1 83 | 72 |60
|

95 | 86

|78

#4 (21 mm2 ) ACSR Triplex (252 kg/km)


Sag at initial
sag (m)
Span
(m)

40
70

-L1C
0.21
0.65

Tension at
initial sag
(kg)

Conductor temperature
100 C 16C 25C 32C 40
0.24 0.25 0.28 0.30 0.34
0.71 0.76 0.81 0.87 0.91 |

Sag at final
sag (m)

Conductortemperature
'C| I 1OC 16C 25C 32C 40C
236 207 203
179 169 1148
237 216 201
189 176 j 169
Tension at
final sag
(kg)

Span
(m)

40
70

-1C
0.25
0.75

10C
0.30
0.89

Chapter XV: Appendices

Conductor temperature B
Conductortemperature
16C 25C 32C 400C
-1C 10C 160C 25C 32C I 40C
0.34 0.41 0.48 | 0.57 |198
165 148 121 | 105 1881
0.97 1.11 1.23 1.35
204 173 159 138 | 125 | 114

248

#2 (34 mm2) ACSR Triplex (397 kg/km)


Sag at initial
sag (m)

Span
(m)
40
70

Span
(m)
40
70

Tension at
initial sag
(kg)

Conductortemperature
-10 C | 10C 16C 250 C 320C | 40C
0.20 0.230.240.27
0.30 0.34
0.62 0.68 0.72 0.79 0.86 0.95

Conductor temperature
I 25C 32C I 40C
392 351 330 293 1265 236
395 1 357 1338 1306 J282 257
-1C | 10'C 116'C

Sag at final

Tension at

sag (m)

final sag
(kg)

-1C
0.25
0.75

Conductortemperature
10C 16C 25C 32C I 40C
0.30 0.34 0.41 0.48 0.57
0.89 0.96 1.11 1.23 1.36

Conductor temperature
| -1C | 10C | 16C I 25C I 320C| 40C
| 323 7 264 | 237 1 194 J 165 140
323
274 252 219 1 198 | 179

#1/0 (53 mm2) ACSR Triplex (640 kg/km)


Sag at initial
sag (m)

Span

Tension at
initial sag
(kg)

Conductortemperature

Conductor temperature

|| (in) ID -1C

o10oC 16C I 25C

320C I 40C

-1C |10C

0.21
0.65

0.24 0.25 0.28


0.71 | 0.75 | 0.81

0.31 10.34
0.87 | 0.93

605
603

[j40
70

at final
sag (m)

543
550

1160C I 25 0C I 32C | 40C

512 1 459
525 | 483

419 1 378
453 | 423

Tension at
final sag

Sag

(kg)

Span
|m)

40
70

Conductortemperature ||
Conductor temperature
-1C I 10C I 16C 25C 32C | 40C ||| -1C | 10C
25C 32C I 40C
0.26 0.31 0.34 0.40 0.44 | 0.5011 497 | 415 | 379 | 324 1 289 258
0.79 0.89 0.95 1.04 1.12 1.20
497 | 439
414 | 376 | 351 328

ChapterXV: Appendices

116C
|

249

Appendix9. Areasfor furtherinquiry


In the processof preparing this manual, questions were raised to whichthere seemedno clear response.
Some of these questions have been listed below. It is hoped that this annotatedlisting might serve to
draw informationfrom others with experience in these areas. Altematively,it might serve as topics for
further research. If readers have informationthat addresses any of these points, we would appreciate it if
it could be forwarded to the address below so that this informationcan be shared with others:
Allen R. Inversin
NRECA - International Programs

4301 Wilson Boulevard


Arlington, VA 22203-1860
Fax:
703-907-5532
Email: allen.inversin@nreca.org
Pole treatment
Poles can be the most costly component of a mini-grid. Wood polesrely on a renewable resource, can be
locallyproduced, and have numerous useful characteristics. The principal drawbackis shortlife due to
decay andinsect damage. What can be done to increase its life and the attractivenessof this option? What
useful techniques can be developed that could increase the their life? In some areas, pole butts are
painted with bituminous paints to offer protection when poles are set in earth in an area open to the
elements,. How effective is this "treatment" (i.e., a comparisonof with and without)? Againstwhat does
it protect (decay, insect damage, etc.)? What about soakingthe butts of poles in used automotive sump
oil? Is this an effective treatment against something? Under what circumstancesis it effective? Can its
effectivenessbe proved? What other simple treatment optionshavebeen documented?
Metal Poles
Poles are generallythe costliest single components of a mini-gridand even costlier when life-cyclecosts
are considered. Local woodenpoles are inexpensiveor free,if available,but without treatment,which is
difficultto effectively achieve on a small scale,they must usuallybe frequentlyreplaced. Concretepoles
can be locallyproduced but require suitable quality control of both materials and production and are
difficult to transport and set. The most appropriate alternativecould be fabricated sectionalizedsteel
poles, which are easy to handle and set and have a long life if galvanizedor properly painted. Chapter
VIII providesa couple of ideas for such poles. An interventionthat could prove of great advantage to
those implementingmini-grids would be one or more simpleyet durablemetal pole designs,including a
descriptionof construction techniques. Such a design shouldalso include informationon the proper
depth for setting different size poles, maximum lateral poletopforce that can be handledbefore a pole
buckles andcollapses, and typical cost and manufacturingrequirements. Designs for locallyfabricated
poletop hardwaresuitable for metal poles would also be useful.
Strengthof smaller diameterpoles
Poles are sized by using the ultimate fiber stress of the speciesunder considerationand calculatingthe
strengthrequired at the ground line to withstanda given bending momentdue primarily to the lateral
force of the wind and to line tension when there is a deviationin the direction of the line. For poles used
with mini-grids,poles with reduced girth are necessary. Are the values of ultimate fiber stress over the

ChapterXV: Appendices

250

cross-section of the pole which are typically used for utility-gradepoles reduced for smaller poles because
of different physical make-upof the smaller than standard diameter poles (less mature wood, larger
percentage of sap to heartwood,etc.)?
Optimum setting depth
As explained in the section on setting poles (p. 102),to maximize line-to-ground clearance for a pole of
given length, it is necessarythat pole length not be "wasted" by setting it too deeply. A rule of thumb is
available for the setting depth for the size of poles conmnonlyused by electric utilities. Is this rule of
thumb also valid for poles of small diameter that would be encounteredin mini-grids? If not, what new
rule of thumb can be derived for such poles? Mathematical or empirical relationships could be useful.
Measuring the effectivenessof the electricalground
If a ground electrode is installedto achieve a specificpurpose (e.g., increase personnel safety), one must
be ensured that it indeed does serve that purpose. To function properly, ground resistance must be
suitably low and there must be a method for verifying its value. Typically, specialized equipment is
utilized to measure groundingresistance. More recently, a range of solid-state devices has been
developed that facilitate this task. Such devices are not readily available to those working in rural areas
overseas. Under these circumstances,are there other approaches that can be used to measure ground
resistance, one that might rely on basic principles and use basic equipment (a genset, multi-tester, etc.)?
Magnitude of leakage currents
In Western households, RCDs are commonlyused in
individual homes to protect consumers from body currents
that could prove hazardous (placement (a) in Fig. 147).
However, widespreaduse of these devices can prove
costly in those cases where minimalhousewiring systems
are sufficient to meet small lighting loads of most
consumers and cost is a major deterrent to their receiving
a connection. In these cases, and when the specific
distributioncircuit supplyinga number of consumers is
not grounded, it is suggested in the chapter on protection
(see Fig. 96, p. 139)that several homes can be protected
with a single RCD (placement(b) or perhaps even (c) in

Fig. 147. Howeffectiveare different


placements of RCDs for detecting

Fig. 147). This approach should detect fault currents

specific fault conditions along a branch

C
a
RCD

through faulty electrical equipmentto the consumer


circuit?
ground and open the circuit,thereby removing the threat
of shock before it is touched by individuals. Leakage
distributed along this entire length of line may prevent a threshold current from being set at a level
sufficiently low where the RCD will be triggered solely by fault current going through an individual. Is it
possible to categorize leakage current levels (what are they caused by and what is their magnitude) in
typical situations? If this were possible, one would be in a better position to locate and size RCD to
minimize cost yet ensure effective protection to people.

ChapterXV: Appendices

251

Mark Hayton, personalcorrespondence, Bandung, Indonesia, 23 April 1993.


2 Louineau, Dicko, Fraenkel, Barlow, and Bokalders,

"Rural lighting, A guide for developmentworkers",


IntermediateTechnologyPublications Ltd. (103-105 SouthamptonRow, London WC1B4HH, U.K.), 1994.
D.C. Pritchard, "Lighting", Fifth edition, Longman, 1995 (ISBN 0-582-23422-0).

4 Theodore Baumeister (ed), "Standard Handbook

for Mechanical Engineers", SeventhEdition, McGraw-HillBook

Company,New York, 1967.


5 Allen Inversin, "New designs for rural electrification, Private-sector experiencesin Nepal", NRECA, Arlington,
VA, 1994.
6 "Primer on woodpoleproduction program", Power Use Development Division,Cooperative ServicesDepartment,
NEA, Philippines.
7 A.K. Lahiry, "Manualof a mini treating plant for waterbome preservativetreatment of timber and bamboo", Rural
ElectrificationBoard (Dhaka, Bangladesh), Paper No. IRGAWP99-40130 publishedin 1999by The International
Research Group on Wood Preservation (SE-100 44 Stockholm,Sweden)

' "Building in hot climates.A selection of overseas building notes", issued by the BuildingResearch Establishment,
Distribution Unit (Garston,Watford, WD2 7JR, England).
9 "Series4, High pressure sap displacement treatment", Second Revision, Forest ProductsResearch and
DevelopmentInstitute, Laguna, Philippines, December 1997.
10"Report on design, construction and testing of RCC electric poles", DCS (preparedfor ITDG/Nepal), Butwal,
Nepal. June 1995.

" "Final report on development of a portable device for manufacturing pre-stressedconcretepower poles for
microhydro schemes",prepared by DCS for the UTNDP'sRural Energy DevelopmentProgramme, Butwal, Nepal.
November 1998.
12

"REC specificationsand construction standards", Rural Electrification Corporation,Ltd., New Delhi, 1994.

13J.F. Seiler, "Effect of depth of embedment on pole stability",Wood PreservingNews (American WoodPreservers' Association),November 1932 (available at the USDA Library in Beltsville,MD).
14 "Getting down to earth", Biddle Instruments (510 Township Line Road, Blue Bell, PA 19422, Phone: 215-6469200), 1990.

'5 Dale L. Nafziger, "A synopsis of domestic sector impacts at the Andhi Khola hydel and rural electrification
project and their implications for future Butwal Power Company rural electrificationplanning", Butwal Power
Company(P.O. Box 126, Kathmandu, Nepal), 1994.
16 Developmentand Consulting Services can be reached through P.O. Box 126, Kathmandu and SustainableControl
Systems,which been field testing its unit in Peru, can be reached through 4 CharlestonHouse, Peel Street,
NottinghamNGI 4GN, England (or, on the Internet, at http//:www.scs-www.com).

Chapter XV: Appendices

252

TheWorld Bank
1818 H Street,NW
Washington,DC20433 USA
Tel.: 1.202.458.2321 Fax.:1.202.522.3018
Internet:www.esmap.org
Email:esmap@worldbank.org

AR\BankProgramme
joint
UNDP/Wor

A joint UNDP/WorLd Bank Programme

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