Topic 13 X Motivation

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Describe the basic process of motivation;
2. Explain motivation through the approach based on needs and
processes;
3. Discuss the contribution of the four models of motivation; and
4. Assess how behaviour modification can be used in increasing or
reducing behaviour in organisations.

X INTRODUCTION
According to Williams (2000), motivation consists of powers that are able to
move, direct and enable a person to be diligent in their effort to achieve goals.
For example, an employee might be motivated to work hard in order to produce
as many outputs as possible while other employees are only motivated to
perform just enough of the work required. Managers must understand the factors
that form these differences. Managers are usually confused in differentiating
between motivation and performance. In industrial psychology, normal work
performance is represented by the following equation: work performance =
motivation x ability x situational constraints. Since work performance is a
function of motivation, ability and situational constraints, work performance will
decline if any one of the components is weak.

Needs are physical and psychological requirements that have to be fulfilled in

order to ensure existence and well-being. When needs are not fulfilled, a person
will experience internal tension but as soon as a need is fulfilled, a person will
gain satisfaction and feel motivated. Soon, the need fulfilled can no longer
motivate the individual and when this condition occurs, the individual will shift
to other needs that have not yet been fulfilled.
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13.1 CLASSICAL MODEL AND SCIENTIFIC

MANAGEMENT

SELF-CHECK 13.1
After reading the segment above, do you still remember reading on the
contribution by Frederick Taylor in the previous lesson? Try to
remember what his contributions towards the management era were.

According to Rue et. al. (2000), in his classical motivation model, employees can
be motivated by money. Frederick Taylor in his book, „The Principle of Scientific
Management (1911),‰ suggested an approach for companies and employees in
obtaining benefits based on his views on the workplace. He proposed that
employees be paid a higher salary to encourage them to produce more outputs,
which suits the opinion that employees can be motivated by money. Meanwhile
for companies, they need to analyse the job and find the best ways to produce
goods at lower costs, achieving a high level of profit and paying employees
promptly in order to motivate them.

The approach by Frederick Taylor is known as scientific management. His ideas

spread widely among managers in the early twentieth century. For example,
many factories in the United States of America hired experts to conduct studies
on time and movement. The techniques of industrial engineering are used in
every work section in determining how it can be performed effectively.

13.1.1 Motivation Approaches

According to Lewis et. al. (2001), motivation can be studied through several
approaches. Various theories or models of motivation with different approaches
can be categorised into two types of models: need-based models and process-
based models. Need-based models are motivation models that emphasise the
specific needs of humans or internal factors that give power to direct and stop
action. Need-based approaches explain motivation as a phenomenon that takes
place internally. There are three important models in this approach: hierarchy of
needs model, two-factor model and achievement of needs model. Process-based
models are motivation models that focus on the understanding of thinking or the
cognitive process that exist in the mind of an individual and actions that affect
the behaviour of an individual.
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EXERCISE 13.1

Essay Question

How do need-based models differ from process-based models?

13.2 NEED-BASED APPROACH

13.2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

SELF-CHECK 13.2

Have you heard about MaslowÊs Hierarchy of Needs model? What do

you know about this model of needs?

According to Lewis et. al. (2001), MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs motivation model
is the most famous model. According to the hierarchy of needs, an individual has
five basic needs ă physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualisation.
Figure 13.1 shows the five needs according to hierarchy and divided into upper
level and lower level. Physiological and safety needs are lower-level needs that
can be fulfilled externally while social needs, esteem needs and self-actualisation
needs are upper-level needs that can be fulfilled internally. Refer to Table 13.1
and you will obtain brief descriptions on each of these needs.

Figure 13.1: MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs

Source: Certo, S. C. (2000). Modern management (8th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall
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Table 13.1: Description on MaslowÊs Hierarchy of Needs

Needs Hierarchy

Physiological This need is at the lowest level of the hierarchy. Examples of this
Needs need are such as the need for food, water, air and sleep.
Organisations can help individuals to fulfil this need by preparing
sufficient income to obtain food, shelter and a comfortable
working environment. People will focus on fulfilling these needs
before fulfilling the needs in the following level.

Safety Needs This need is related closely to acquiring a safe physical and
emotional environment. Examples of this need are such as
employment network, health insurance and retirement plans used
in fulfilling the safety needs of employees.

Social Needs After physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, social
needs will become the main source of motivation to people. This
need includes desire towards friendship, love and the feeling of
belonging. An example of social need is when an employee
establishes friendship in the workplace and feels a part of the
organisation.

Esteem Needs The needs at this level include the needs towards status and
recognition. This need can be fulfilled through success and self-
esteem that had been given recognition and respect by other
people. For example, organisations can help in fulfilling this need
through promotion or providing a spacious work station to the
employee. People in need of recognition want themselves to be
accepted based on their abilities and assumed as being capable
and efficient.

Self-actualisation This need is at the highest level of the hierarchy. This need means
Needs that people require full achievement based on their self-potential
by using capability and interest to the maximum level in order to
perform work in the environment. As an example, a challenging
task can assist in satisfying a person towards the achievement of
self-actualisation needs.
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According to Maslow, when a particular need has been fulfilled it will no longer
motivate the behaviour of employees. For example, when an employee has
gained guarantee in his work, then a new retirement plan may become less
important to him compared to the opportunity of having new friends and joining
the informal group in the organisation. It is the same when the lower-level needs
are not fulfilled, most people will pay attention to those particular needs. For
example, an employee who is trying to fulfil the need for self-recognition by
holding an important position in a particular department suddenly finds out that
the department and position he is going to hold may be eliminated, hence the
employee may find that the chances of not being terminated in other
organisations give more motivation to him compared to the offer of promotion in
the previous organisation.

MaslowÊs model had identified that individuals have different needs which can
be motivated by different matters or activities. Unfortunately, this model can
only provide slight specific guidelines to managers. Many following studies
conducted found that hierarchy level differs between individuals in different
cultural environments.

ACTIVITY 13.1

To obtain more information on MaslowÊs Hierarchy of Needs, go to the

website below and you will find a detailed article regarding this needs-
based model.

http://www.ship-edu/~cgboeree/maslow.html

13.2.2 Two-factor Model

According to Rue et. al. (2000), the study done by Frederick Herzberg, Bernard
Mausner and Barbara Snyderman produced an approach towards motivation
that is accepted widely in the area of management. This approach is known by
several names such as motivation and care approach, two-factor or motivation
and hygiene approach. This model relates between job satisfaction with
productivity for a group of accountants and engineers. This study had found that
factors towards job satisfaction are separated from the factors that incline
towards dissatisfaction of jobs.
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Figure 13.2: Two-factor model

Source: Lewis et. al. (2001). Management

(a) Motivation Factors

Motivation factors are factors related to the work performed with positive
feelings and attitude towards the particular work. Motivation factors
include such as the work itself, achievements, inner growth and
responsibility.

(b) Hygiene Factors

These factors refer to the context of work or the environment where the
work is being carried out. The factors are such as supervision, workplace
conditions, individual relationship, salary, safety, and the companyÊs
administration and policies. These factors are closely related to the negative
feelings towards a particular job but nevertheless they do not contribute
towards motivation. According to the researchers, these factors do not
generate motivation but instead prevent motivation from occurring.

For example, employees will feel dissatisfied if they believe that their work
place is not safe; but if the condition of the workplace is improved,
employees may not necessarily become satisfied. If employees are not given
any recognition, the feelings of dissatisfaction may not exist and at the same
time they may not also feel satisfied but when recognition is given,
employees will feel more satisfied.

This theory suggests that managers should use two approaches in order to
increase motivation. Firstly, they must ensure hygiene factors such as work
environment are policies that are clearly stated and can be accepted by the
employees. This practice will be able to reduce dissatisfaction of the
employees. The second step is that managers must use motivational factors
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such as recognition and additional responsibilities as tools that will be able

to increase satisfaction and motivation.

In conclusion, this approach shows that motivation comes from the

individual himself. Perfect and precise attention towards hygiene factors is
able to help individuals from the feeling of excessive dissatisfaction but is
still able to motivate the particular individual. Both factors of motivation
and hygiene need to exist together in creating the true motivation. The
result of this study had found that this two-factor model is effective in a
professional workplace environment but is less effective in a workplace
environment that are more clerical and manufactural in nature.

EXERCISE 13.2

Essay Question

Describe the hygiene factors and motivational factors in the two-factor

model.

13.2.3 Achievement of Needs Model

According to Rue et. al. (2000), this motivation model focuses on the three needs
that are important or related to the working environment, namely, achievement,
affiliation and power. This model was developed by David Mc Clelland. The use
of the word „needs‰ in this model differs from the hierarchy of needs approach.
In this model, needs are assumed as something that can be learnt while Maslow
viewed needs as inherited.

Need for achievement is the desire to perform something much better and more
effectively than before. The amount of achievement motivation of a person
depends on factors such as childhood, personal experiences and education and
the type of organisation joined.

Need for affiliation relates to the desire to control, obtaining power and the
ability to influence other people. This need can involve personal authority or
institutional authority. Meanwhile, the need for social acceptance is the desire of
creating friendly relationship with other people.

According to McClelland, most people had already achieved certain levels from
these needs and this varies from one individual to another. In the approach of
this model, when the strength towards these needs has been developed, it will be
able to motivate the behaviour of individual in situations that will allow them to
fulfil highly demanding needs.
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13.3 PROCESS-BASED APPROACHES

Employee motivation is a complex matter. Managers need to have a complete
perspective regarding methods that can be implemented to face the particular
situation. They need to understand the reasons why people have different needs
and goals, why individuals need change and how employees change in order to
satisfy their needs through various methods. The need of understanding these
aspects of motivation is crucial since organisations face various management
issues that are caused by changes in the global environment. Several models that
can be used to understand the complex motivation process are expectancy
model, equity model, goal-setting model and behaviour reinforcement model.

13.3.1 Expectancy Model

According to Rue et. al. (2000), this model was developed by Victor H. Vroom.
Expectancy model was based on the idea that employee believes in the
association between effort, performance and result as the consequence of the
value and performance that they had fixed on the result. It has the role of
determining their level of motivation. This model assumed that the motivation
level of employees depends on three basic beliefs which are expectancy, valence
and instrumentality. Figure 13.3 shows the association between expectancy,
instrumentality and valence.

Figure 13.3 Association between expectancy, instrumentality and valence

Source: Jones, G. R., George, J. M., & Hill, C. W. L. (2000).
Contemporary management (2nd ed.). Boston: Irwin-McGraw Hill

(a) Valence ă EmployeesÊ belief regarding the value of outcome or simply how
far the particular reward or outcome is attractive or desired.
(b) Expectancy ă EmployeesÊ belief that their effort will incline towards the
level of performance desired or simply said as the assumption on the
association between effort and performance.
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(c) Instrumentality ă EmployeesÊ belief that the achievement of performance

level desired will lead to the outcome desired or simply said as the
assumption on the association between performance and rewards.

This model suggests that in order to become a highly motivated person, the three
factors or beliefs must also be high. If any one of the factors declines, the overall
motivation will also decline. Managers are able to use this model in order to
motivate employees through systematic gathering of information regarding what
employees want out of their job by creating a clear and simple association
between rewards and individual performance, and also granting power or
authority for the employee to make decision. The measures mentioned will be
able to increase the expectancy of employees that hard work and effort will bring
about excellent performance.

13.3.2 Equity Model

According to Rue et. al. (2000), this model was proposed by J. Stacey Adams. This
motivation model was based on the idea that people want to be treated equally in
their relationship with other people. Inequality exists when an employee regards
that his inputs or contributions in the form of time, effort, education, experience,
skill, knowledge and all the efforts given to the work together with the outcome
or rewards given by the organisation in the form of salary, benefits, recognitions
and others are less compared to the contribution towards work and rewards
received by other people. Figure 13.4 illustrates the situation of comparison and
its association with perception.

EmployeeÊs Self Comparison to Other People Perception

Reward Reward
= Equality
Input Input

Reward Reward
< Inequality
Input Input

Reward Reward
> Inequality
Input Input

Figure 13.4: Comparative situations and its association with perception

Source: Bateman, T. S., & Snell, S. A. (1999). Management: Building competitive
advantage (4th ed.). Boston: Irwin-Mc-Graw Hill
234 X TOPIC 13 MOTIVATION

For example, a graduate who has just completed his studies received a job offer
to work with a company with a starting salary of RM24,000 per annum, having
the facility of a company car, and sharing an office room with another employee.
If he finds out that there is a new employee reporting for duty given the same
salary and remuneration he received, he will feel that the treatment given is
equal. But if the opposite happens, that is, if the new employee reporting for duty
is given a salary of RM30,000 per annum, a bigger company car and a specific
office room for himself, the particular employee will feel that inequality has
taken place. For an individual who experiences equal treatment, the ratio of
comparison may not necessarily be the same relatively. Based on the previous
example, the employee who initially feels that there is inequality when the new
employee receives a better remuneration will be able to alter that feeling when he
finds out that the new employee has higher work experience and qualifications
than himself hence he deserves the bigger remuneration based on his
contributions towards the company.

This model also states that the existence of inequality can result in a pressure
which is the same level as the level of inequality felt by the employee. This
pressure will motivate a person to achieve equality or reduce inequality. There
are several actions that can be taken to reduce inequality such as reducing inputs
or contribution if it is much higher compared to the input and outcome received
by other people, increasing input if input is much lower compared to others,
demanding compensation such as a pay rise or deciding to resign from the job.

EXERCISE 13.3

Essay Question

Explain the main differences between the expectancy model and the
equity model.

13.3.3 Goal-setting Model

According to Williams (2000), the goal-setting model is a motivation model that
acts by increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of individuals, groups,
departments or organisation by emphasising specifically on the outcomes
expected. Goal is the target, objective or decision that a person tries to achieve.
This model stated that people will be motivated up to a certain level when they
are able to accept a specific goal, and challenging and obtaining feedback
regarding their development towards achieving the particular goal.
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The basic components for a goal-setting model are such that goals must be
specific, challenging and acceptable; have performance feedback; and being at
the perfect time. As a motivation tool, goal-setting could help employees in three
ways: as a guideline and generating behaviour to support the goals of the
organisation; providing challenges and standards that can be used to make
evaluations; and for stating something important and preparing the framework
for planning.

An important aspect in this model is the involvement of employees in goal-

setting. When the employees themselves determine the goals they want to
achieve, it will be easier for them to accept the goal and become more committed.
If employees are not involved or participation is only at a minimal rate in setting
the goals, they normally will not be that interested in achieving the goals.

13.3.4 Reinforcement Model

According to Rue et. al. (2000), the growth of motivation reinforcement model
was pioneered by B. F. Skinner. There are two assumptions for this theory which
are the behaviour of humans is determined by the environment and is associated
with related laws that can be expected and altered. The basic idea that forms the
core of this theory is the assumption that the outcomes or consequences of a
personÊs behaviour at present will affect his behaviour in the future. The
behaviour that is inclined towards positive outcomes will be repeated while the
behaviour that is inclined towards negative outcomes normally will not be
repeated. The outcomes or consequences of the behaviour of an individual are
referred to as reinforcements. Basically, there are four types of reinforcements ă
positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or avoidance, punishment and
elimination. Figure 13.5 illustrates how behaviour can affect outcomes.

Figure 13.5: Consequences due to behavioural actions

Source: Bateman, T. S., & Snell, S. A. (1999). Management: Building competitive
advantage (4th ed.). Boston: Irwin-Mc-Graw Hill
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(a) Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is the contribution of positive outcome or
consequence based on the desired behaviour. For example, organisations
that pay cash bonus to salespeople who exceed the sales quota will
encourage them to work more diligently in the future.

(b) Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement means giving an opportunity to a person in order
to avoid negative outcome or consequence through the desired behaviour.
Negative and positive reinforcements can both be used to increase the
frequency of desired behaviour. For example, making tax payment before
the month of May will prevent a person from being fined.

(c) Elimination
Elimination involves the absence of positive outcome or effect, or drawing
back the positive outcome that used to give effect from the desired
behaviour.

(d) Punishment
Punishment is the giving of negative effect as the result of the occurrence of
undesired matters. As an example, an employee who is always late for
work can be suspended or have his pay detained. Both forms of elimination
reinforcement and punishment can be used to reduce the frequency of
undesired behaviour. There are many studies conducted that show that
rewards can increase the level of satisfaction and motivation compared to
punishment.

Figure 13.6 below illustrates a summary of the reinforcement theory that was
discussed above.

Figure 13.6: The summary of reinforcement theory

Source: Rue, L. W., & Byars, L. L. (2000). Management: Skills and application
(9th ed.). Boston: Irwin-McGraw-Hill
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EXERCISE 13.4

Essay Question

As a manager, you have decided to reduce the behaviour of a particular

employee. What are the types of reinforcements that are suitable to be
used and why?

TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements

1. The scientific management approach assumes that money is the

main inducer to motivation.
2. The experience of an employee is an example of outcome or result
in the equity model.
3. In the two-factor model, hygiene factors need to exist for true
motivation to take place but motivation factors do not need to
exist for true motivation to happen.
4. Valence in expectancy model refers to employeesÊ belief regarding
the value of outcomes or consequences.
5. The key to a successful positive reinforcement is that rewards
must be the result of performance.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The model that assumes people are motivated towards lower level
needs that has not yet been fulfilled is referred to as the
______________ model.

A. goals
B. reinforcement
C. hierarchy of needs
D. two-factor
2. The model which states that needs are assumed as being learnt
rather than being inherited is the model proposed by
________________.
A. Herzberg
B. Maslow
C. McClelland
D. Vroom
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3. The following are the basic components of the expectancy model

EXCEPT:

A. valence
B. instrumentality
C. forecasting
D. expectancy

4. Which of the following is NOT a type of reinforcements in the

behaviour reinforcement model?
A. Elimination
B. Positive reinforcement
C. Negative reinforcement
D. Existence

5. According to the view of the two-factor model researcher, what factor

DOES NOT produce motivation but instead can prevent motivation
from occurring?

A. Hygiene factors
B. Motivation factors
C. Equity factors
D. Expectancy factors

• There are two main approaches in explaining the aspects of motivation.

• Need-based approaches explain about the motivation that exists and takes
place internally or explains about what truly motivates people.
• Meanwhile, process-based approaches explain the cognitive process that
affects human behaviour.
• The three needs-based models discussed were the hierarchy of needs model,
two-factor model and achievement of needs model.
• In the process-based approach, there are four main models discussed namely
the expectancy model, equity model, goal-setting model and behaviour
reinforcement model.
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Equity model MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs

Expectancy Reinforcement model
Goal-setting model Valence
Instrumentality