JOURNAL

OF GEOPHYSICAL

RESEARCH,

VOL.

93, NO.

B4, PAGES

3211-3231,

APRIL

10, 1988

Uplift of theCentralAndeanPlateauandBendingof theBolivianOrocline

BRYAN L. ISACKS

INSTOCCornell
Andes
Project,
Department
ofGeological
Sciences,
CornellUniversity,
Ithaca,NewYork
Thetopography
of thecentralAndescanbe considered
theprimarytectonic
"signal"
of lateCenozoic
mountain
building
inanaridregion
where
theeffects
ofupliftandmagrnatism
arelitfieobscured
bydenudation.
Thespatial
coverage
ofthetopographic
signal
ismorecomplete
thanthatforsparsely
sampled
geological
and
geophysical
data. A color-coded
imageof digitized
topography
between
12Sand37Shighlights
the
Altiplano-Puna,
oneoftheworld's
mostremarkable
plateaus,
andreveals
important
physiographic
clues
about
theformation
ofthatmajor
feature.
Thetopographic
datacombined
withinformation
onstructure,
magmatism,
seismicity,
andpalcomagnetism
support
a simplekinematical
modelfor thelateCenozoic
evolution
of the
centralAndes.Themodeldoesnotrequirecollisional
effectsor enormous
volumesof intrusiveadditions
to the

crustbutinstead
callsuponplausible
amounts
of crustal
shortening
andlithospheric
thinning.Themodel

interrelates
Andean
uplift,a changing
geometry
ofthesubdueted
Nazca
plate,
anda changing
outline
(inmap
view)of theleading
edgeof theSouthAmerican
plate.Crustal
shortening
hasaccommodated
convergence
between
theChilean-Peruvian
forearc
andtheSouthAmerican
foreland.TheAltiplano-Puna
plateau
canbe
constructed
by a combination
of crustalshortening
andthickening
andlithospheric
thinning
abovea shallow
dipping(20o-30) subducted
plate. The seawardly
concavebendof westernSouthAmerica,the "Bolivian
orocline,"wasenhanced
butnot completely
produced
by an along-strike
variationin the amountof late

Cenozoic
shortening.
Maximum
shortening
in Boliviabothproduced
thewidest
partof theplateau
and
increased
theseaward
concavity
of theBolivianorocline.Thealong-strike
variations
of shortening
are

hypothesized
to resultfrom corresponding
along-strike
variationsin ihe widthof a weakenedzonein the

overriding
plate. Weakening
occurs
abovethewedgeof asthenosphere
located
between
thesubducted
and

overriding
plates;
hence
thewidth
ofthezoneofweakening
depends
upon
thedipofthesubducted
plate.Two
typesof shortening
arerecognized:
(1) a widespread,
basin-and-range,
Laramide-like
shortening
that
characterizes
modem
activity
intheSierras
Pampeanas
andlateMiocene
deformation
oftheAltiplano-Puna
and
(2) ontheeastern
sideof thecordilleras
andplateau,
aneastvergingforeland
fold-thrust
beltin whichthe

underthrust
foreland
compresses
andthickens
theductile
lowercrust
andproduces
aplateau
upliftoftheupper
crust.Thesecond
typeof shortening
canbeapplied
to Plio-Quatemary
deformations
throughout
thecentral
Andes
butwitha substantial
narrowing
oftheregion
ofplateau
upliftinPeru
andsouth
of28S.A proposed
monoclinal
flexure
oftheupper
crust
onthewestern
sideoftheplateau
upliftexplains
theremarkably
simple
andregular
morphology
ofthemainwestem
slope
ofthecentral
Andes.
Themonocline
islocated
above
thetip
oftheasthenospheric
wedge
between
theconverging
plates;
it ispostulated
tooccurabove
thewestern
limitof

lowercrustalthickening.In theregionsof horizontalsubduction

themonoclinecanbe associated
with a late
Mioceneasthenospheric
wedgetip.

INTRODUCTION

evidence
aboutupliftandcrustaldeformation
to support
a model

for the late Cenozoicevolutionof thecentralAndes. The model

connects
along-strike
changes
in theamountof shortening
in the
andthePunaof northwestern
Argentina
together
formoneof the
upperplatewith theshapeof thesubducted
Nazcaplateandwith
world'sgreatplateaus.Averageelevations
near4 km occurover
changesin the map view outlineof the leadingedge of the
an areaabout300 km wide and2000km long. Althoughthe overridingcontinental
plate. The key ideais thatanalong-strike
plateauseemsclearlyassociated
with thesubduction
of theNazca
The Alfiplano of southernPeru,Bolivia, and northernChile

variationin theamountof shortening

impliesthepossibility
of a
change
in theshapeof themapviewoutlineof thelead'rag
edgeof
controversial.While many studieshave assumedthat modern
theupperplate. If lateCenozoicshortening
of theupperplate
Andeantopography
is dueto crustalthickening
produced
by wereto be a maximumin the regionof theseawardlyconcave
magmatic
additions
of materialfromthemantle[e.g.,Thorpeet cornernearthePeru-Chile
border(near18S),thenthemapview
al., 1981], an increasingamountof evidencepointsto the
curvatureof the forearcmusthaveincreased.This providesa
importance
of compressional
crustalshortening
in theformation
simplemechanismfor the development
of Carey's [1958]
themodem
central
Andes[e.g.,Dalmayrac
et al., 1980;Burchfiel
"BolivianOrocline,"
a concept
thathasrecently
received
support
et al., 1981; Jordan et al., 1983a;Chinn and Isacks, 1983;

plate beneathwesternSouth America,its origin remains

frompaleomagnetic
studies[e.g.,Konoet al., 1985]. The orCline

Allmendinger
et al., 1983; Sudrezet al., 1983;Mdgard,1984; can be viewedas a bendingof a narrowforearcstrip that is

Lyon-Caen
et al., 1985;Sheffels
et al., 1986].

accommodated
by a variableamountof shortening
in a mobilebelt

In thispaperI explore
thehypothesis
thatAndean
topographybetween the forearc and the cratonic foreland.
is largelya resultof crustalthickening
produced
by structural The startingpointof themodelis theassumption
thatthermal
shortening
of thecrustandof upliftdueto thermal
thinning
of the weakening
is caused
by convective
andmagmatic
processes
in the
lithosphere.
I usetopographic
datain combination
withpublished wedgeof asthenosphere
locatedbetweentheupperandsubducted
plates.LateCenozoic
magmatism,
ratherthansupplying
thelarge
volumeof crustalmaterialneededto support
theelevatedterrain,
canbe takenasa signof theprocess
of thermalweakening
that
allowedthe compressional
failure of the overridingSouth
American plate to happen. The along-strikevariation in

Copyright
1988bytheAmerican
Geophysic
Union.
Papernumber7B6065.
0148-0227/88/007B-60655-5.00
3211

3212

Isnc:

shortening
resultsfromvariations
in thehorizontalwidthof the

THEALO-PUNA

PLATEAU

zone of thermal weakeningin the overridingcontinentalplate.

Since
thewidth
ofthewedge
ofasthenosphere
isdetermined
by ThePlateau

the dip of the subductedplate, the along-strikevariation in

As shownin Plate1 andFigure1, a singlebroadplateauis the
shorteningis therebyrelated to the geometryof the subducted maincontinental-scale
featureof the centralAndesbetweenabout
plate. Althoughoversimplified
andonlykinematic,theproposed 15Sand 27S. North and southof the plateauthe mountain
model is an evolutionary,three-dimensional
one. Its success system narrows considerably but continues with average
emphasizes
the futility of trying to understand
the subductionelevations
greaterthan3 km alongthehighAndeancordilleras
of
processwith traditionalsteadystate,two-dimensional
cross- Peruand alongthe Chile-Argentineborder(between27Sand
sectionalmodels.
about34S). For convenience,
I distinguish
thesetwosegments
of
In the arid and largely unglaciatedcentral Andes where the Andeanmountainsystemlocatednorthwestandsouthof the

denudation
is minimizedandthetectonicprocesses
areyouthful plateauasthe "Peruviansegment"
(5-15S)andthe "Pampean
andongoing,the topographyis a direct,first-orderexpression
of segment"
(27- 34S),respectively.
theendogenetic
processes
formingthemountainbelt. Earlywork
The hypsometric
curvefor the plateau(Figure2) hasa sharp
suchas Bowman [1909a, b, 1916] clearly recognizedthe break in slopeat an elevationof 3.65 kin, approximately
the

youthfulness
of centralAndeanupliftanditsplateaulike
character.elevationof the extensiveand internallydrainedbasinsof the
However,regionalphysiography
hasreceivedverylittle attention AltiplanoandPuna. Muchof theremainingareaof theplateauis
in the dominantly geochemical,structural and geophysical characterized
by moderaterelief with elevationsin the rangeof
approaches
that characterizemostmodemstudyof the region about3.5-4.7 kin. As recognizedby Bowman[1909b] many
(Coney[1971] is an outstanding
exception).I presentherea new years ago, peneplanation is the dominating fact in the

viewof thecentralAndeanphysiography
basedon digitization
of physiography
of theregion. The otherdominating
factoris the
l:l,000,000-scaletopographic
mapsnowavailablefor mostof the pervasivevolcanism. Many of the highestpeaksare volcanic
region.Thecomputer-generated
colorimageof thisdigitaldata conslxuctional
landforms,
although
areasof highsu'uctural
relief
set is shownin Plate 1. The imagedepictsthe regional-scalearealsofoundalongtheeasternedgesof thenorthernandsouthern
physiographyin a particularlyclear and accuratefashion. It partsof theplateau.

preserves
thedetaillostin a similarly
scaled
conventional
mapin
Theexu'usive
material
largelysitsontopof theplateau
rather
whichtopography
wouldbe shownby only a limited set of than formingthe volumeof the plateauitself. The upper
subjectively
smoothed
contour
lines.

Miocene-Recent
exu'usives
formonlya thincoverona surface
of

I first summarizerelevantinformationaboutthe plateau,then beveledolder structures,as is clearly shownby the studiesof

describea two-dimensionalmodel for shortening,and finally BakerandFrancis[1978] andBaker[1981],by numerous
detailed

describea three-dimensionalmodel for the late Cenozoic reportsof thearealgeologyof specificregionsof theplateau,and
kinematical
development
of thecentralAndeansubduction
zone quiteclearlyby LandsatTM imagerythatI haveexamined
for
and mountainbelt. The digital topographicdata supportthe muchof theplateau.Largeareasarecoveredby onlya thinlayer
modelsqualitativelyby highlightingimportantphysiographicof extrusives,while the high stratovolcanos,
althoughquite
cluesto the natureof theplateauandby showingthevery close numerous,contributerelatively little to the total volume of

spatialrelationships
of theplateau
morphology
o thestrucueof elevated
terrain.In detailed
studies
of twoparticular
areasof the
the subduction
zone. In addition,the topographic
dataareused southern
Altiplanoof BoliviaandChilethatarelargelycovered
by

quantitatively
to constrain
modelsof along-strike
variations
in upperMioceneto Recentvolcanicrocks,Bakerand Francis
crustalshorteningand thermaluplift. Additionalsourcesof [1978]andKussmaul
et al. [1977]estimate
volumesthatamount
information
includepublished
studies
of geology,
seismicity,
and to anaverage
thickness
of extrusives
of onlyabout0.3 kin. With
gravityandthenowextensive
examinations
thatI havemadeof thedigitalelevation
dataandtheassumption
thatelevations
above
LandsatThematicMapper(TM) falsecolorimagesof muchof the theplateaulevel of 3.65 km all represent
extrusives,
an average
centralAndes. The analysisof TM datais ongoingandwill be thickness
of 0.5 km is obtainedfor theentireareaof theplateau.
reportedin subsequent
papersbut is mentioned
in thispaperin Thisestimate
isprobably
toohighsincesomeof thehighland
area
severalinstances
whereparticularly
clearsupportexistsfor aspectsof theplateauis notvolcanic.
of theproposed
model.
The plateauincludesa largeareaof internaldrainage
outlined
It is importantto emphasize
thatthispaperfocuses
onlyon the by the watersheds
shownin Figure 1. The internallydrained
late Cenozoic developmentof the Andes with a model of regionincludesthe large Altiplanobasinof southernPeru and
deformationthat addsincrementallyto the integratedeffectsof Boliviaandthemorefragmented
basinsof theArgentinePunaand

previous
Andeanorogenic
episodes
thatbeganin theJurassic.It the ChileanAltiplanoand Salarde Atacama. In manyof the
is widelyrecognized,
however,thattheOligocene
wasa periodof basins,compressionally
deformedupper Tertiary strata are
relative tectonic and magmatic quiescenceand of probable exposed,andtheboundinghighlandswereupliftedby basinward
reduction
of reliefformedin earlierTertiarytimes.The Mesozoic vergingthrustfaulting[e.g.,Turner, 1960, 1961;Schwab,1970;
and early Tertiary intrusivesthat are now found west of the Everndenet al., 1977;Martinez,1980;Jordanet al., 1983a;and
modemAndeswere presumablyformedin a regionof crustal JordanandAlonso,1987]. Much of thecharacteristic
basinand
thickeninganduplift but arenowlocatedin an areaof relatively rangemorphology
of the ArgentinePunais a manifestion
of this
low elevation and relief. Although the amount of crustal typeof compressional
deformation,
asis thetheareaaroundLake
thickening
remaining
fromtheseearlierdeformational
episodes
is Titicaca [Newell, 1949;Martinez, 1980]. The unconformity
unknown,it is likely thata largefractionof themodemrelief and between the generally flat and little deformed uppermost
crustalthickness
did in fact form duringtheNeogene.As a first Miocene-Recentextrusivesand the older folded and reverseapproximation,
I ignoretheeffectsof pre-Neogene
deformation. faultedstratais seenthroughout
theplateauandgivesevidence

ISAC: C

ELEV

AU:A.l'raAu

BouvIA.O,ocu,

3213

TIO
KM

25-

7
I

Plate
1.Computer
display
ofdigitized
topography
ofwestern
South
America.
Subaerial
data
aredigitized
aspoint
elevations
onagridspacing
of0.05

oflatitude
and
longitude.
Thedata
aremainly
from1:1,000,000-scale
Aeronautical
Charts
published
bytheU.S.Defense
Mapping
Agency;
afewsmall
areas
missing
fromthose
charts
arefilledinusing
available
Bolivian
andPeruvian
topographic
maps.
Anoffshore
strip
from
thecoastline
totheouter
slope
ofthePeru-Chile
trench
was
digitized
withthesame
gridspacing
astheland
data
from
thel:l,000,000-scale
bathymetric
charts
ofPrince
etal.
[1980].Remaining
oceanic
areas
west
ofthePrince
etal.mapweretaken
fromtheNOAASYNBAPS
digital
bathymetry
f'de,resampled,
andthen

"spliced"
tothecontinental
and
trench
data
with
International
Imaging
Systems
model
5'/5image
processing
software.
Each
elevation
sample
isdisplayed
asapixel
colored
according
tothescale
shown
ontheleft-hand
side.Nospatial
averaging
orsmoothing
wasemployed.

3214

LACKS:CENTRAL
ANDEANPLATEAU
ANDBOt.rVA

12

14

16

2O
,

TRENCH

AXIS

3 KM OCEAN

DEPTH

W-B ZONE DEPTH, KM

22

.....

DRAINAGE

DIVIDES

.:!iiii!iii"iii:..
AVG
ELEV
>3KM
o

VOLCANIC

CENTERS

24

26

28

3O

32

3480 W 78

76

74

72

70

68

66

64

62

Fig. 1. (a) Theshape

of thesubducted
Nazcaplate,volcanic
centers,
drainage
divides,
areaswithaverage
elevations
above3 kin,andtheaxisof thePeruChileTrench.Thecontours
of depthto thecentralpartof theWadati-Benioff
seismic
zonedepicttheshapeof thesubducted
plate(T. CahRlandB. L.
Isacks,
unpublished
manuscript,
1987).TheNeogene
volcanic
centers
wereidentified
onLandsat
MSSblackandwhiteimagery
at a scaleof 1:1,000,000
andrepresent
volcanos
mainlyyounger
thanabout10m.y. Thedrainage
divides
weretracedanddigitized
fromthe1:1,000,000-scale
topographic
charts
usedfor the digitaltopography.
In theshaded
areas,averageelevations
aregreaterthan3 Ion, asaveraged
withina "square"
movingwindowwith
dimensions
0.25in latitudeandlongitude
anda 0.25 step.Theaxisof thetrenchwastracedanddigitizedfromthe1:1,000,000-scale
chartsof Princeet
al. [1980]. Co)The coastline,bordersbetweencountries,
andcertaingeographic
andtectonicprovinces
discussed
in thetext,togetherwith elevations
above3 km andthe trenchaxistakenfrom Figurel a. "F-P CORD" indicatesthe FrontalandPrincipalCordilleraslocatedalongthe Chile-Argentina
border,and "AB" is the AtacamaBasin (Salarde Atacarna)of Chile.

that the compressional

deformationsof much of the plateau Pampean
segments
northandsouthof theplateau[e.g.,Mdgard,
occurredduring lat,e Miocene time. These deformationsare 1984; Jordan and Allmendinger, 1986]. Together,the late
approximately
coevalwith importantcompressional
deformational Miocenedeformations
are for convenience
referredto hereasthe
phasesof the main cordillerasin the adjacentPeruvianand "Quechua"phase,althoughstudiesin different areasreveal

ISAC: C-

Ah'DA.
PLAAUA_h'U
BOI.A. Ooo..u,,m{

3215

12

.......

PERU

14
BOLIVIA

16

18

20

22
o
z

NAZCA PLATE

24

26

ARGENTINA

28

30

PAMPEAN

RANGES
32

3U/N
FF__p,
t4ANDEZ
DGE.

3480 W78

76

74

72

70

68

66

64

62

Fig. 1. (continued)

possibly
significant
regional
variations
intiming
(e.g.,
compare
mainly
along
theeastern
edges
of theplateau
where
drainage
Jordan
andAlonso
[1987]
withMdgard
[1984].
removes
material
fromtheareaandthereby
accentuates
relief.
Except
fortheconstructional
volcanic
edifices,
muchof the Notableareasof highreliefthatcanbe seenin Plate1 are

plateau
nowhasa lowtomoderate
relief.Thereduction
of associated
withtheMesozic
and
Cenozoic
intrusions
located
along

structural
reliefthatoccurred
during
andfollowing
theQuechuathenortheastern
sideoftheAltiplano
andwithbasement
involved

deformations
proceeded
both
byerosion
ofuplifted
blocks
and
by thrust
structures
of theEastern
Cordillera
located
along
the
fillingof adjacent
closed
depressions,
a kindof "cutandfill" southeastern
side
oftheArgentine
Puna
(see
Figure
1).
process
thattends
tolevel
theterrain
inasituation
where
mass
is Although
some
Pliocene-early
Quaternary
compressional
nottransported
outoftheinternally
drained
system.
Thisprocess
deformation
isdocumented
forparts
oftheplateau,
themain
locus
created
thenumerous
thick
sections
oflateCenozoic
continental
of thesurface
manifestation
of post-Quechua
compressional

deposits
thatcharacterize
muchof theplateau
[e.g.,Jordanand deformation
appears
to haveshiftedeastward
to theeastern

Alonso,
1987].Thenonvolcanic
areas
ofhighreliefarelocatedcordilleras
andsub-Andean
belts
[Turner,
1966,
1969;
Martinez,

3216

ISAC:

C'

AmA

PLAmAU Am) BocntIA OloOm'

WIDTH, KM

1980;JordanandAlonso,1987]. An eastwardshift alsoappears

to haveoccurredin the adjacentPeruvianandPampeansegments
[Mdgard, 1984; Jordan and Allmendinger, 1986]. Late
Quaternaryextensionaland strike-slipdeformationsdeveloped

250

500

within
theplateau,
atleast
initssouthern
and
northern
parts
[Lavenu,1978;Sdbrieret al. 1985; Strecker
et al. 1985;
Allmendinger,1986]. Theseyoungestdeformations
appearto be

small
inmagnitude
compared
tothecompressional
deformations,
although
GreenandWernicke
[1986]claimotherwise
for a partof

thenorthernAltiplanoof southernPeru.
The existenceof a broad,internallydrainedareaof low relief,
now at elevations everywhere greater that 3.6 kin, can be
interpretedas an effect of youthfuluplift, youngenoughthat a

0.5
1.0
AREAWITH ELEVATIONS H,
MILLION SQ KM8

1.5

0.5
AREA PER KM ELEVATION,

1.0

MILLION SQ KIdS

Fig. 2. Cumulativeanddifferentialhypsometric
curvesfor the digitized

250-300
Ionwidth
ofelevated
terrain
has
notyetbeen
attacked
by elevations
shown
inPlate
I fortheregion
between
latitudes
13S
and

headward
erosionfromtheflankingdrainages.Although
the 29S,
theregion
oftheAltiplano-Puna
plateau.
In theleft-hand
plotthe

drainagesystemsalong the edgesof the plateauoperateover a variable

ploued
onthehorizontal
axisistheplanviewareaoflandsurface

nearly
3-4kmelevation
differential,
therates
ofheadward
erosionatelevations
greater
than
theelevation
plotted
onthevertical
axi.The
horizontalscaleat the top of the figureshowsthe effective"width"of a

maybesmall
along
much
oftheeastern
andthewestern
sides
rectangular
representation
oftheplateau
asdiscussed
inthe
text.
Inthe
where
theclimates
arequite
arid.There
arefewconstraints
onthe right-hand
plotthevariable
plotted
onthehorizontal
axis
istheplan
view

detailedchronology
of uplift,butnearlyall workersagreeona late areaof landsurface
perunitelevation
takenasa function
of elevation

Cenozoic
timescale.A number
of published
studies
reportan plotted
along
thevertical
axis;
thecurve
wascomputed
asarea
per0.03Inn

acceleration
inthelateMiocene
[e.g.,
Segerstrom,
1963;
Turner,and
nonnaliz
toarea
perI Inn.
1966; Galli-Olivier, 1967; Rutlandet al., 1965;Hollingsworth
and Rutland, 1968; Guest, 1969; Mortimer, 1975; Laubaucher,

1978;
Martinez,
1980;
Crough,
1983;
Tosdal
etal.,1984;
Jordan
ofthePampean
segment;
if added
toJordan
andAllmendinger's
andAlonso,
1987;
Allrnendinger,
1986;
Benjamin
etal.,1987].[1986]
estimates,
this
would
produce
anetshortening
ofabout
100

This timingwould imply significantuplift duringand after the km for the Pampeansegment. Althoughsparselydistributed,

pervasive
Quechua
deformations.

these
estimates
ofshortening
allgivestrong
support
forlarge

Eastern
Thrust
Belt

orderof 100kmandmore,amounts
thatmustbeaccounted
forin

amountsof late Cenozoicshorteningin the centralAndesof the

modelsof crustalthickening.

Theeastern
sideof theplateau
is formed
by themajorthrust Alongtheeastern
sideof muchof theAltiplano-Puna
plateau
beltsof theeastern
cordilleras
andsub-Andean
zones.These thethrust
systems
vergeeastward
withtheplateau
overthrusting
mainlyPliocene-Recent
thrustzonescanbetracedalongstrike theforeland.In those
regions
theeastfacingtopographic
slope
intothePeruvian
andPampean
segments.
In all threesegmentsappears
to coincide
withthethrustbelt. Although
thewestern
theeastern
thrust
beltsareseismically
active.In fact, it isnow drainage
divideislargely
maintained
bythevolcanic
constructions
clearthatcrustal
seismicity
in thecentral
Andes
isconcentrated
thatbuildupand"dam"
thewestern
edge
of theplateau,
it isonly
withintheeastern
thrust
beltsandthattheAltiplano-Puna
regionsin limitedareas
alongtheeastern
watershed
(suchastheFrailes

arerelatively
aseismic
[ChinnandIsacks,
1983;Suardz
et al., ignimbrite
fieldnearlatitudes
19S-20S)
thatextrusives
appear
1983;Froidevaux
andIsacks,
1984].Thisresult
isinaccord
with toexercise
control
ontheposition
of theeastern
drainage
divide.
thestudies
mentioned
in theprevious
section
thatconclude
that Hence
formuch
oftheeastern
sideoftheplateau
thedivide
may
shallow
crustal
deformation
hasalsobecome
concentrated
inthe becontrolled
byupliftofthehanging
wallofthethrust
system.
In
eastern
thrust
belts.
thecrosssection
near22Spublished
byAllmendinger
et al.
Several
estimates
of theamounts
of shortening
in thethrust [1983]thehigheastern
edgeof theplateau
is located
above
the
beltsarenowavailable.
Allmendinger
etal. [1983]reportatleast inferredposition
of thefootwallrampwherethed6collement
60 km of shortening
based
on a palinspastic
reconstruction
of ramps
downtodeeper
levelsof thecrust.Thisresultimplies
a
Mingrarnm
et al.'s[1979]section
through
thesub-Andean
fold- directrelationship
of thethrusting
andtopography.
Theinferred
thrustbelt near22S. Sheffelset al. [1986]find 25-36 % ramping
of thed6collement
beneath
theplateau
implies
thatthe
shortening
of the fold-thrust
beltnear18Swherethebelt is shortening
manifested
in theeastern
thrustbeltis likelyto be
widest.Thisyieldsshortening
values
of about150-225kin. For absorbed
atdepthbeneath
themainplateau
uplift.I willusethis
thesameregion,Lyon-Caenet al. [1985]estimateshorteningconcept
in theproposed
modelof shortening.
amountsbasedon analysisof gravitydatagreaterthan100 km and
mention possible values as high as 400 km. Jordan and
Allmendinger [1986] estimate10-20 km shorteningacrossthe
Pampeanprovince of westernArgentinanear 30-3 lS which,
when addedto about 50 km shorteningacrossthe Precordillera
fold-thrust belt [Fielding and Jordan, 1987; Allmendinger,
personalcommunication,1987], yieldsabout70 km for a section
acrossthePampeansegment.
Noneof theseestimates
is tighdyconstrained,
andnoneinclude
the older Quechuadeformationslocatedwestof the thrustbelts.

Mdgard [1984] estimates115 km for a part of the Peruvian

segment that does attempt to include all late Cenozoic
deformation.Ramos[1985] estimatesabout30 km of Quechua
shortening
in themaincordilleraat about33Sin thesouthern
part

Southof about22S the easternmargin of the plateauis

increasingly complicated by the appearanceof structures
characteristic
of the Pampeansegment,thatis, by thick-skinned
deformations
with botheastandwestvergericethatare foundin
the SantaBarbarasystem,the ArgentineCordilleraOriental,and
thenorthernSierrasPampeanas
(Figurelb). The morphology
of
the plateau edge becomes more irregular (Plate 1) and is
characterizedby large relief associatedwith Pampean-style,
reversefaultedbasementblocks.Allrnendinger
[1986]showsthat
the foreland-vergingthrustsystemthat boundsthe southeastern
marginof thePunaconsists
of shorten echelonthrustsegments
whichtogetheraccommodate
shortening
amounts
of onlytensof
kilometers.The shorteningaccommodated
by the othermajor
structures
in thiscomplexregionis unknown.

IsAc:

(,,

PLATEAU

BOLrVL,U Ooo,,u,a{

3217

Still farther south in the Pampean segment itself, the Chile andsouthemPerumaybe relatedto an increasingmount of
Precordillera,a thin-skinnedfold-thrustbelt, forms the eastern glaciation at high elevationsin the Western Cordillera. I
slopeof themaincordillera(theCordilleras
FrontalandPrincipal; hypothesize
thatthemonoclinalstructure
is a continuous
feature
seeFigurelb). In Perua similarrelationship
existsbetweenthe throughall threeof the segments.Betweenlatitudes18Sand
Cordillera Oriental and sub-Andeanzoneswith respectto the about26Salongthecentralplateausegment,transverse
drainage
Peruvian"Puna"and WesternCordillera. In both the Pampean to the Pacificis virtually nonexistant[Mortimer, 1981]. Thus the
and Peruviansegments,d6collementsbeneaththe easternfold- westernmonoclinaledge of the Andes is there preservedand
thrustbelts are inferredto ramp down to the west into the crust particularlyclear.
beneaththe easternpartsof thehigh centralcordilleras[Mgard,
1984; Jordan and Allmendinger,1986]. As proposedfor the Relationto Sulgtucted
PlateGeometry

central
plateau
segment,
theeastern
thrust
belts
inthe
Pampean
Western
slope
and
asthenospheric
wedge.
Plate
1and
Figure
2
and
Peruvian
segments
are
also
likely
to
be
the
surface
demonstrate
that
the
great
westernslopeofthe
Andes
very
closely
expressions
of shortening
thatis accommodated
at depthbeneath

parallelsthe trenchaxis and the trendof the inner slopeof the

the main cordilleranuplifts. An addedelementin the Pampean
trench,that is, parallelsthe outline of the leadingedge of the
segment is the significant amount of distributed foreland
South Americanplate. Both featuresshowdistinctchangesin
deformation east of, and probably beneath, part of the
trend near latitudes 17S, 27S, and 33S coincident with
Precordilleran
fold-thrustbelt [FieldingandJordan,1987].
boundariesbetween major segmentsof the central Andean
subduction
system.Alongthecentralplateausegmentthewestern
Western Monocline
edge of the zone of volcanic centers(Figure la), the volcanic
As shownby theunsmoothed
digitalterrainmodelof Plate1, "front,"is alignedalongthe westernplateauedgeandtracksthe
thewesternslopeof theplateauis a strikinglyregularfeaturethat main westernslopeexceptin theregionof 23-24Swherethe

is continuously
traceablenorth and southalong the flanking slopebifurcates
to formtheAtacarna
Basin.
Peruvian
andPampean
segments.
Thesmooth
morphology
of the
In a studyof thegeometry
of theChileaninterplate
boundary
western
slopecontrasts
withthecomplexandvariablemorphologybetweenaboutlatitudes20Sand40S,Kadinsky-Cade[ 1985]
of thethrustbeltsalongtheeasternsideof theplateau.Although showsthat themainwesternslopeof theplateau(or of thehigh
extrusives
buildup, spillover,andthuscoverlargeareasof the cordillerato the southof the plateau)is locatedapproximately

western
plateauedge,thereare"windows"
whereanunderlyingabovethe downdipendof the interplateboundary.This is
subvolcanic
basement
canbeseen.In thesewindowstheedgeand supported
by theparallelism
of theslopeandthecontour
of 75 km
slopeis formedby deformedpre-Neogene
rocksthathavebeen depthto the Wadati-Benioffzone shownin Figure la. The
beveledto a relativelysmoothsurface,a surfacethatis now tilted western slope would thus track the axis of the trench if the

to form the greatwesternslopeAndes. Much of the slopeis interplate

boundary
wereto havebotha constant
dip anddowndip

covered
by a thinlayerof extrusives
andby erosional
debris widthasfunctions
of along-strike
distance.
Thegeometry
of the
forminga giantalluvialdrape.Thesefeatures
canbeclearlyseen Chileaninterplate
boundary
doesnotappear
tochange
appreciably
onLandsat
TM imageryandonChileanregional
geological
maps northof at least33S.
andhaveledseveralinvestigators
to suggest
thattheupliftof the
However,a morerevealingassociation
may be betweenthe
plateauwasaccommodated
by a tiltingorflexureof thecrust[e.g., locationof thewesternslopeandthetip of thewedgeof mantle
Mufioz,1956;Mortimer,1973]. I carrythisforwardby proposingthatexistsbetween
theinclinedsubducted
plateandthehorizontal
that the westernedgeof the plateauis simplya crustal-scaleoverridingplate. The wedge is presumablyasthenospheric
monocline.

materialthatis relativelyhot andweak. The tip of thewedgewill

Althoughevidencefor lateMiocene-Pliocene
compressive
or belocated
nearorjustdowndip
of theinterplate
boundary.
Nearly
extensional
deformations
havebeenreported
for someareasof the all modelsof the generationof subduction-related
magmatism
westernslope[e.g., Thomas,1970;Labsen,1982],theamountof involveinteractions
betweensubducted
materialwith themantle
lateCenozoic
deformations
associated
withthesestructures
appear materialin thewedge;thusthetip of thewedgeprobablycontrols
toosmallandspatiallydiscontinous
to explainthelargeelevation thelocationof themagmatic"front."The shapeof thewedgeand
differentialacrossthe slopeandthecontinuityandregularityof the movementof the subductedplate determinea special
morphologyalong-strike.ImportantCretaceous-early
Tertiary convectivesystem,as shown by many publishedtheoretical
deformations
havebeenrecognized
alongpartsof theslope[e.g., studies.It is thusquitereasonable
to suppose
thatconvection
in
Vicente et al., 1979]. Someof thesestructuresmay have been the wedgepromotesmajormodifications
of theupperplatein the
reactivatedin the late Cenozoic,but most of the deformation form of magmaticintrusions,thermalthinning,and consequent
occurredtoolongagoto be associated
with theuplift thatformed mechanical
weakening.I thusproposethattheparallelismof the

themodemplateauandcordilleras.
western
topographic
slopeandthetrenchis a resultof thefactthat
In contrastto the northernChileanregion,the westernslope thewesternslopetracksthetip of theasthenospheric
wedge.
along the Pampeansegmentis considerably
more incisedby
In areasof nearly fiat subduction,as in the Peruvianand
transverse
drainage
intothePacificOcean.Thisis dueprimarily Pampean
segments,
a wedge-shaped
regionof manfieis foundfar
to the southwardlyincreasingamountof precipitationfalling on inlandof thetrench,nearly800 km in eachof thesegments,
where
thewesternsideof theAndes.Nevertheless,
theclearalong-strike the subductedplate finally bends downward and developsa
continuityof the westernslope(demonstrated
in the colorimage significantinclination. However,thereis goodevidencethat in
of topography)suggeststhat the monoclinalflexure continues bothsegments
thepresentsubducted
plateshapehasevolvedfrom
throughthePampeansegment.The sameargumentappliesto the a more steeplydipping,late Miocene geometrythat probably
Peruviansegment,wheretransverse
drainageis alsodeveloped. existedduringmuchof thedevelopment
of themaincordilleras
in
Examination of TM images suggeststhat the northward thetwo segments.In bothsegments
thewesternslopesareclosely
developmentof the spectaculartransversecanyonsof northern associated
with thewesternfrontsof thenowextinctMio-Pliocene

3218

Isnc!r_s:L-MRAL AND!ANPLATEAUANDBOLrIAN ORcaa.m-

magmaticzones. Well developed

magmaticarcsexistedprior to trendof the intermediatedepthWadati-Benioffzone(compare
about7-10 m.y., indicatingthat asthenosphericwedgesexisted Figure l a and the topographicimage). The upper slope and
beneath the cordilleras then. The near extinction of the magmafieare both swingback towardthe trenchnear24S,and
magmatismin late Miocenetimesis takento datethe flatteningof farther south,a single westernslope againparallelsthe trench.
the subdueted
platesin bothsegments
[NobleandMcKee,1977; The intermediate-depth
contours(125 km and deeper)of the
Coira et al., 1982;Jordanet al., 1983b;Jordanand Gardeweg, seismiczonedo not swingback,however,but continuealonga
1987; Kay et al., 1987]. I thus hypothesizethat in both the SSE trend and thus divergefrom the shallowpart of the plate
PeruvianandPampeansegments
themaincordilleras
werelocated boundary.This divergenceproducesa fiat part of the subdueted
over late Miocene asthenospheric
wedgesand that the western slabthatprogressively
widenssouthward.
topographic
slopesmarkthetipsof thosepreviouswedges.
A clear implicationof the southwardflatteningis that the
In fact, the topographic
slopesarebothnow locatedwherethe curvature of the subduetedplate downdip of the interplate
subdueted
platesbendback from the 200-30 inclinationsof the boundarymustchangefrom convexupwardwherethe plate dip
plate boundariesto more nearly horizontalinclinations. The continues
to steepen
with depthto concaveupwardwheretheplate
geometryof theplateboundaryitselfis quitesimilarthroughoutbendsbackto nearlyhorizontal.This canbe seenby comparing
the threesegments,and it is only belowdepthsof about75-100 the sectionsin Figure3 (seealsoHasegawaand Sacks[1981].
km that the striking variations in dip of the subductedplate Although the seismicity data still do not determine the exact
develop. If in the regionsof horizontalsubduction
the subduetedlocationof thetransitionin curvature,it doesappearto be southof

platewere straightened
out to maintainthenearly30 dip of the
interplateboundary,the wedgetips so definedwould track the
westernslopes.
Along-strikelimits of the plateau. As shownin Plate 1 and
Figure 1, the along-strikeextentof the plateaucoincideswith the
active Plio-Quaternarymagmafie are. In southernPeru the
northernlimits of the plateau and volcanic are quite closely
coincidewith the sharpflexure (near 15S)betweenthe steeply
dipping and nearly horizontalsegmentsof the subductedplate.
The flexure is developeddowndipof the region where the map
view shape of the leading edge of the overriding plate has a

thedoglegjog in the trendof themagmaticfrontnear24S. The

transitionmay well be locatednear the regionof 270-28 where
thereis a subtlebut clear changein the trendsof boththe trench
axis and of the westernslope (see Plate 1 and Figure 2). The
development
of upwardconcavecurvatureof the subdueted
plate
could thus be associatedwith the westwardprotrusionof the
westerntopographicfront that developssouthof 27S. This
wouldplacethe transitionadjacentto thenarrowingof theplateau
andnearthe southernendof themagmafieare.
MODELFORPLATEAU
UPLIFF

change
inseaward
curvature
from
convex
(Peru)
toconcave
Altiplano
section
(southern Peru-northern Chile). The strike of the flexure is
approximatelyaligned along the directionof relative motion
As shownin the precedingsection,a major featureof the
betweentheconverging
plates[Bevisandlsacks,1984;Grangeet centralAndesis the east-westasymmetry
of themountainbelt in
al., 1984]. Theseresultssuggests
a closeconnection
betweenthe termsof lateCenozoicstructures
andmorphology:
onthewestern
development
of theflexureandtheshapeof theoverriding
platein side a monoclinelikecrustal-scaleflexure parallelsthe plate
mapview.
boundary,whereasa majorthrustbelt formstheeasternside. The
However, the correlationof plateau and subductedplate shorteningaccommodated
by the easternthrustbelt is roughly
geometry
farthersouthis notassimpleasindicated
by Barazangi coevalwitha plateaulike
upliftof theAltiplano-Puna.
Thecrossandlsacks[1976]orby Jordanet al. [ 1983a].Near27Sthehigh sectional
modelshownin Figure4 attemptsto account
for these
plateaunarrows,anda singlecontinental
drainage
dividereplacesfeatures
fora representative
section
through
theBolivianAltiplano

thetwothatdelineate
thePuna-Altiplano
basin.Latitude28Sis (Themodelapproximates
a crosssectionin theregionof 21approximatelythe southernend of the zone of Plio-Quaternary 22S).

magmatism.In contrast
to theserathersharplydefinedsouthern In thefirststage(Figure4a) theupperplateis thinnedduring
boundaries
of theplateauandmagmaticarc,theWadati-Benioff anepisodeof relativelylow-angle(butnothorizontal)subduction.
zoneonly graduallyfiattensbetweenlatitudes
of about21Sand Theheatingandthinningof thelithosphere
mayhavestarted2532.5S [Bevis and lsacks, 1984; T. Cahill and B. L. Isacks, 30 m.y. ago, when widespreadmagmatismresumedafter an
unpublished
manuscript,
1987]. Significantflatteningis already Oligocenehiatus[e.g., Baker and Francis,1978;Coira et al.,
apparent
at latitudesof 27-28S.
1982;Jordan and Gardeweg,1987], andwhenthe directionof
The development
of theflatteningbetween21Sand24Sis plate convergencebecamemore nearly normal to the plate
associatedwith a marked anomalyin the morphologyof the boundary[Pilger, 1984;Cande,1986;Pardo-CasasandMolnar,
westernAndesin theregionof the AtacamaBasin. Outsideof this 1987].

region,topographic
profilesfromthetrenchaxisacross
theforearc

The modelstartswith the assumption

that processes
in the
typicallyshowa benchlike
shapeformedby twosteeper
parts,the wedgeof astheno
sphere
located
between
thesubducted
andupper
innertrench
wallandthemainwestern
slope
of theplateau
orhigh platesareeffective
in thinning
theupperplate. Suchprocesses
cordilleras,
separated
by a lesssteeppart that includesthe mayinclude
convection
in thewedgedrivenby themotion
of the
coastline.In theAtacama
Basinregionthewestern
slopeof the subducting
plate,intrusion
of magmas
intotheupperplate,and
plateaubifurcates
in mapview,anda second
bench(occupied
by erosion
of thelowerpartof theupperplatebylithospheric
stoping
the Atacama Basin) is formed at an elevation intermediate
between that of the coastal bench and the high plateau. The
bifurcationactuallybeginsnearlatitude21S to form the upper
basin of the Loa River. The lower part of the westernslope
continuesto parallel the trenchaxis, while the upperslopeand
magmaticarcfollow a morenearlySSEtrendthatis parallelto the

or delamination.I hypothesize
thattheseprocesses
operatewithin
a swath whosecross-sectionalhorizontalwidth is the distance
betweenthe wedgetip andthepoint at whichthe wedgereaches
somespecificverticalthickness.This thickness
hasto do with the
as yet poorlyunderstood
convectiveprocesses
in the wedgeand
canonlybe guessed.An estimatefor thethickness
of 250 km is

ISAC: CZ

AlmmAPLAmZAU
A BOUVIAOaoo. u

3219

K+
r- CHILE EE=10'1
I __

-5

WESTERN

ALTI
PLANO

EASTERN

-IViNLi
NE L,,c

CORDILLERA
SUBANDES
MOHO

NAZCA
PLATE

......................

100

SOUTH AMERICAN

KM

LITHOSPHERE
=

200

1200 _

300

200KM

4(X)

6(X)

800

1000

-5

AF_R_,
,N,T_A_L
'APRECORDILLERA
SIERRAS
PAMPEANAS

CORDILLERAS

100

KM

'NAZCAPLATE
mm m

1200 .

300

200KM

400

600

800

1000

Fig.3. Twocross
sections
showing
topogy andhypothesized
deepstructure.
Theupper
section
crosses
thewidepartof thecentral
Altiplano,
while
thelowersection
crosses
thePampean
fiat slabsegment.
Thewestern
endpoints
andtheazimuths
of thesections
are20.5S,72.0W,and083for the

upper
section
and31.0S,
72.0W,
and090forthelowerone,respectively.
Eachtopographic
pmfde(upper
plotineachsection)
shows
digital
elevations
averaged
alonga swath30 krnperpendicular
to,and10krnalong,thesection.The plothasa vertical
exaggeration
of 10:1. Theposition
of the
subducted
Nazcaplateisfixedbythelocation
of theWadati-Benioff
zone(T. CabillandB.L. Isacks,
unpublished
manuscript,
1987).Thewigglyline
areas
indicate
shortened
andthickened
ductile
lowercrust.Theupper
crustoverthrusts
theforeland
alonga simplified
single
faultwithmotion
indicated
bythehalfarrow.Notetheimplied
monoclinal
structure
oftheupper
crust
forming
thewestern
topograic
slope
oftheAndes.OtherPampean
faults
in
thelowersection
aretakenfromJordan
andAllrnendinger
[1986].The1200C
isotherm
indicates
lithospheric
thinning.

plausiblein view of seismicstudiesof modemasthenosphericdip, thewidthincreases

to a maximumandthendecreases
to zero

wedges[e.g., Barazangiand lsacks,1971; Utsu, 1971; asthedipapproaches

horizontal.
A 20dipis a plausible
guess
Barazangi
et al., 1975;HiraharaandMilcumo,
1980],butthis forthedipformaximum
width;thatis,atthatdipangletheremay
choice
remains
a somewhat
adhocstarting
pointforthemodel. still be enoughvolumein the asthenospheric
wedgefor the
With a fixed verticalthickness
thehorizontalwidthof the lithospheric
thinning
processes
to operate.With a dipof 20 and
thermallyaffectedswathwill increasewith decreasing
angleof dip the characteristic
thickness
of 250 kin, thehorizontalwidthof the

of thesubducted
plate.However,witha dipangleof zero,litfieor wedgewouldbe500 km asshownin Figure4a.
no asthenosphere
wouldbe locatedbetweenthetwo plates.It is
Magmatism,implyingan efficientadvectivetransferof heat
thusreasonable
to suppose
thatasthedip decreases
fromvertical intotheupperplate,wouldlikelybe associated
with thethermal
to horizontalin a plot of widthof thermaleffectversusangleof thinningof the lithosphere.Thus both volcanismand thermal

3220

Isncats:

PLAIAUAW'D
B(3LiVIA
Ooo.m

HEATED
AND
WEAKENED
ZONE
o

KM

REARc

27-14 MY

........ '............ ........

FORELAND

lOO

A
2oo

,I

200

400

600

800

FORARC

FORELAND

100KM.

QUECHUA

D
v v

v,.ff-a.-

POST-QUECHUA

PRESENT

ALTIPLANO-PUNA

0v[-TRENCH
KM

FORELAND

FOREARC
NAZCA

130KM,

PLATE

ASTHENOSPHERE

100

1200

2OO

200

400

KM

600

800

Fig.4. Simpldied
modelof lateCenozoic
evolution
of a section
near21--22S.
Faultsandductilelowercrestareshownasin Figure3. Theinitialand
ma].
stages
aredepicted
in the(a) upperand(a) lowersections,
whilethethreemiddlesections
showa veryschematic
(butbalanced)
blockmodelof the

cmstaldeformation.
(b) is a simplified
initialcmstalsection.(c)Thecross
hatching
indicates
pervasive
shortening
of theUpler
britdecmstduringthe
"Quechua"phase
of deformation.
(d)Forclaritytheovektrusting
of theuppercrestontotheforeland
is shownwithoutanyisostatic
flexuraladjustment;
(e) the isostaticadjustmentis shown.

upliftareimpliedin theearly-middle
Miocenephasedepicted
in dippingsubducted
platesandthecontrast
betweenthismodeof
Figure4a, andbothoccurabovea wide asthenospheric
wedge. plateconvergence
andthe onecommonly
foundin the western
The thermalthinningwouldincreasethe temperature
of the Pacific,wherethesinkingof theoceanic
plate"draws"
theisland
uppermostmantleand thusweakenthat strongest
part of the arc seaward,are well recognized
andarethe subjectof several
continental
lithosphere.
If theplateis subject
to horizontal
stress papers
[e.g.,WilsonandBurke,1972;MolnarandAtwater,1978;
produced
by theglobalconvective
system,
theweakening
would UyedaandKanamori,1979;Dewey,1980].Theincreased
ratesof
localize and concentratedeformationin the thermallyaffected
zoneandthuscloselytie the spatialextentof the deformationto
thepositionof theasthenospheric
wedge.
I assumethat the combination
of globalplatemotionsand
mantleconvectionled to a situationwherethe continental
plate
overrides the oceanic plate and produces a pervasive

convergence
in late Miocenetimesmay havehelpedtriggerthe
failure[Pardo-Casas
andMolnar, 1987].
The compressive
failureof the weakened
swathof lithosphere
is postulated
to haveoccurredin two phases.A widepread
and
pervasive
horizontal
shortening
andverticalthickening
of thecrust
(Figure4c)corresponding
to the Quechuaphase
of deformation

compressional
stress
in theSouthAmerican
plate.Theassociationwasfollowedby a concentration
of deformation
alongtheeastern
of compressive
stresses
in theupperplatewithrelativelyshallow sideof theorogenwheretheuppercrustthrusted
overtheforeland

Islet. s:

Plu

BOL

Oao

3221

along an eastwardlyvergingthrustbelt (Figure4d). The latter Cretaceous

andlowerTertiaryplumnsfoundin thecoastalregions
phaseproducethebasiceast-wetasymmetry
of thestructure
of of Peru andChile, the samebatholithsthat serveas modelsfor
the plateauand accountsfor the evidencethat the widespread crustalthickeningby magmaticintrusion,arenow locatedat low
Quechua deformation was followed by a concentrationof elevationsandarenot partof the presentelevatedmountainmass
compressive
deformation
alongtheeasternthrustbell
of the Andes. With the 100-150 m.y. timescale,it seemslikely

In thelatter
phase,
deformation
ofthebrittle
upper
crust
was thaterosional
removl
ofmass
would
beabletokeep
upwiththe
concentrated along an eastern thrust belt, although the slowrateof additionof crustalmaterialby magmatism.
underthrusting
forelandcontinuedto compressthe ductilelower
As a first approximation,I thereforeneglect the magmatic
crustwestof the thrustbelt. The consequent
thickeningof the contribution,partly to seeto what extentcrustalshorteningand
lower crustproduceda plateaulikeuplift westof the thrustbelt lithosphericthinningalonecanaccountfor the plateauandpartly
where the rising upper crust suffered little additional post- because the intrusive volumes are quite uncertain. When
Quechuadeformation."Cut-and-fill"processes
localizedby the information about crustal shortening,thickness,and density
internaldrainagesystemof the plateaureducedthe relief of the becomessufficiently accurateto constrainmodels, then the
Quechuastructures
on the upliftingplateauandtherebyproduced discrepencies
betweenobservedand calculatedparametersmight
the characteristicphysiographyof the Altiplano-Puna. The be usedto estimatetheintrusivecomponent.
conceptfor thesecondstageof compressive
failure[lsacks,1985]

issimilar
(but
independently
derived)
tothat
proposed
byZhaoApplication
tothe
Flat
Slab
Segments

and Morgan [1985] for the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau. In the
centralAndesthe "hydraulicram" of Zhao and Morgan is the
The modelfor theuplift of theplateaushownin Figure4 can
underthrusting
SouthAmericanforeland.
also be applied to the adjacentalong-strikesegmentsof the
The modelshownin Figure4 impliesthaton thewesternside convergent
zone. The "plateau"
betweenthemonoclineandthrust

of theplateaua monoclinal
flexureaccommodates
thedifferential zone is taken to narrow into the high cordillerasof the two
upliftof theuppercrustat thewesternlimit of ductilethickening segments,
becomingthe CordillerasPrincipalandFrontalin the
of the lower crust. The monoclinalflexureactuallyappearsto PampeansegmentandtheCordillerasOccidentalandOrientalin
form the western slope beneath the extrusivecover and is thePeruviansegment In fact,thePeruvian"Puna"[McLaughlin,
particularlywell preserved
in thehyper-ariddesertof thecentral 1924; Coney, 1971], a narrowhigh plateauregionwith mature
partof theplateau.The westernlimit of thickening
of thelower relief characteristics
similarto the Altiplano,is locatedbetween
crust is located at the westernboundaryof the heated and theCordillerasOrientalandOccidentalin Peruandis a northward
weakenedzonein theu
plate,andthisin mrnis locatedabove continuation
of theAltiplano.Coneyshoweda hypsometric
curve
the tip of the asthenospheric
wedge separatingthe converging for elevationswithin a small areaof the centralPeruvianAndes
plates. The positionof the westerntopographic
slopeis thereby thatis quitesimilarin formto thatshownin Figure2. The widths
tiedcloselyto thelocationof themagmaticfrontandthegeometry of thepostulated
shortened
andthickenedlowercrustsbeneaththe
of thesubducted
plate.
cordilleran"plateaus"
in thePeruvianandPampeansegments
are
The modelshownin Figure4, althoughhighlysimplified,is smallerandinvolvelessshortening
for thesameamountof uplift
scaled accuratelyto representrealistic amountsof crustal
The wedgesof asthenosphere
hypothesized
to be responsible
shorteningand thickeningwith preservationof cross-sectionalfor the weakeningof the swathsareno longerlocatedbeneaththe
area; it is a "balanced"cross section. The plateau'spresent Peruvianor Pampeancordilleras,as alreadydiscussed,but are
elevationis supportedisostaticallyby a combinationof crustal postulatedto have migrated inland. The "flattening"of the
thickeningandthermalexpansion(or lithospheric
thinningin the subductedplate is partly the effect of the continentalplate
sensediscussed
by Turcotteand MacAdoo[1979]). Measure- overridingthe downwardbendof the Nazca plate and thereby
mentsof crustalthicknessanddensitiesin the regionare still too movingwestwardrelativeto theasthenospheric
wedge.The tip of
crudeto provideusefulconstraints
on the detailsof themodel. In the wedgethusappearsto moveeastwardor inlandrelativeto the
thef'malstage(Figure4e), a 4-km-highplateauis compensated
by upperplate. The tip is now locatedat the easternedgesof the
a thickeningof the crustfrom 40 to 65 km and by a thermal deformedforelandsof the two flat slab regionsand may be
thinningof thelithosphere
from140to 70 km. Thisis a workable responsiblefor minor Neogenevolcanismin these regions
but nonuniquemodel. If the shorteningrequiredto producethe [Stewart,1971;Kay et al., 1987].
thickeningis averagedover 15 m.y., theconvergence
betweenthe
In the middle Miocene before the overriding, a relatively
forelandandforearcwouldbe about1 crn/yr.Thisis a reasonablenarrow asthenospheric
wedge is implied by the narrow late
numberfor forelandfold-thrust
belts[Allmendinger
et al., 1985]. Miocenemagmaticarcsin thePeruvianandParnpean
segments.
The model doesnot includeadditionsof magmaticmaterial The narrowwidth of thewedgeimpliesthat the subducted
plates
from the mantle. As pointed out above, the volume of late thendippedmoresteeplybeneaththesesegments
thanbeneaththe
Cenozoicextrusivescontributelittle to the overall volume of centralBoliviansegment.This increased
dip is supported
by Kay
elevatedcrust. The intrusivevolumeis unknown,but Kay and et al. [1987]. The narrowthermallyweakenedswathsalsofailed
Kay [1985]estimatea ratioof intrusiveto extrusivevolumesof underthe pervasivecompressional
stressin the upperplateand
aboutonly 1:1 for the Aleutianislandarc. Baker and Francis thereby producedthe crustal thickeningbeneath the high
[1978]discuss
ratiosnear10:1thatwouldbe requiredto buildthe cordilleras
of thetwo segments.
Andes. This would lead to an extremelyhigh rate of magmatic
As the continentalplatepassedover the asthenospheric
wedge
additionif the late Cenozoictime scalefor the uplift is assumed in the Pampeansegment,it wassomewhatthinnedandweakened,
[Isackset al., 1986]. Baker andFrancis,in fact, proposethat but theoverridden
andstill nearlyhorizontalNazcaplatequickly
intrusiveshave been thickeningthe crustsinceJurassictimes. replacedthelostcontinental
lithsosphere
sectionto form a kind of
This time scale,however,seemsat oddswith the considerable doublelithosphericstructure.A thin, weak interfacebetweenthe
evidencementionedin the precedingsectionthat much of the subducted
andupperplateswouldstill effectivelycouplethe two
uplift occurredin the late Cenozoic. In addition,the massive platesin termsof verticalisostaticadjustment.The low regional

3222

lsncr, s: CB

ANDA PLnTAU ANDBot

OaOOJNB

elevationof the SierrasPampeanas

eastof the Precordillera(see deformation.In mapview theboundaries
of theforearcwouldbe
Figure3) couldthusreflectthe isostaticeffectof the combined the axis of the trenchand the westerntopographicslope. A
lithosphericthicknesses,
while thedeformations
manifestedby the movementof the forearcrelative to the SouthAmericancraton

SierrasPampeanas
couldresultfromthedecoupling
of thethinned mustbe takenup in an intervening
zoneof deformation.The
(and weakened)upperplate from the lower plate in respectto movementof the forearccouldconsistof a rotationof the forearc

horizontallithosphericstresses. The stresssystemsin the asa wholecombined

with a changein its mapview shape.It is
overridingplate and in the Nazca plate may be coupledmainly importantto point out that becausethe forearcis very long and
alongthe interplateboundarylocatedwestof the mountainbelt narrow,a rather substantialchangein shapecould occurwith
and transmittedonly throughthe upperplate. If the overriding relativelylittle deformation
in theforearcitself.
plateis fifinned,thenthehorizontal
compressive
stress
is increased The spatialrelationship
betweenthe presentAndeanforearc
in thethinnedsectioncombed to thethickercratonto theeastby shapeandthegeometryof thesubducted
Nazcaplatecanbe taken
theratioof respective
lithospheric
thicknesses.
to suggest
thattheforearcdid, in fact,changeshapeduringthelate
An alternative
view is thattheforelanddeformations
in regions Cenozoic. The divergencesouthof 22Sbetweenthe strikesof
of flat slab subductionare producedby the effect of shearing thesubducted
Nazcaplateat depthsgreaterthanabout150km and
stressesaccumulatedalongthe large areaof contactbetweenthe the modernplate boundarysuggests
that the shapeof the deeper
two plates[e.g.,Dickinsonand Snyder,1978]. The problemwith partof thesubducted
Nazcaplatereflectsan olderplateboundary
thishypothesis
is thatit doesnotexplainwhydeformations
donot configuration
thatis lessindentedthanthepresentone. Figurel a
extendeastof the zoneof platecontactwherethe accumulatedshowsthattheplanview shapeof the 150-kmcontouris distinctly
stresses
mightbe expectedto be largest.It seemslikely thatshear less embayedthan the trace of the modem trenchaxis. The
heatingwithin theplateboundaryinterfacezone(locatedbeneath implicationis thatthewestwardconcavityof theforearcincreased
the Chilean forearc) would reducethe strengthof the zone duringthesubduction
of theseismically
visiblepartof theNazca
downdipof the interplateboundary[e.g.,Yuenet al., 1978]. This plate,i.e., duringthepast12 m.y. [Wortel,1984;T. Cahill andB.

is supported
by the apparentmaximumdepthsof interplateL. Isacks,
unpublished
manuscript,
1987].
earthquakesof about 60 km [e.g., Chinn and backs, 1983;
Along-strike
variationsin theamountof shortening
in thezone
Kadinsky-Cade,1985] andthelackof evidenceof giantinterplate of accommodation
betweentheforearcandSouthAmericancraton
eventsthatwouldinvolveseismogenic
slippagealongthenearly couldimply a changeof shapeof the forearc. Sincethe Punahorizontalpartsof the interfacezone. Thusthecouplingbetween Altiplano is locatedinland of the indentationof the Peru-Chile
the plates in terms of horizontalcompressivestressmay be coastline,it is reasonableto supposethat the plateauand the
concentrated
in theforearcinterplate
boundary.
indentationare related. In particular,the indentationcouldbe
Bird [1984] arguesthat Laramidedeformations
of the western produced,or at least enhanced,if the along-strikevariation in
United Statesresultedfrom a shearingof the lower crust and shortening
werea maximumin Boliviaadjacentto theindentation.
lithosphereby the eastwardmoving, horizontalFarallon plate The fact that this is where the Andesreach maximum width
beneath western North America. The rotational shearing encourages
thispointof view.
transported
lower crustalmaterialeastwardandtherebythickened
Data to constrainthe movementof the forearcrelative to the
the forelandcrust. The Pampeandeformations
are at an early cratonincludeestimates
of theamounts
of shortening
acrossthe
stagecomparedto thedurationof the the Laramideorogeny,so Andesat variouslatitudesandpaleomagnetic
determinations
of
the effectsof shearingof the lowerPampeancrustwouldnot yet rotationof theforearcrelativeto stableSouthAmerica.Thesetwo
be so large as in the Laramidecase. The topographicprofile linesof evidenceare developedin the followingsection. Direct
shownin Figure3 is stillprobablydominated
by theeffectsof the suuctural
evidenceof deformations
associated
withbendingof the
Miocene episodeof steep subductionand associatedcrustal forearcis sofar generallylacking,but,asmentioned
above,these
shortening and thickening beneath the high cordilleras and deformations
arelikely to be smallrelativeto thosein thebackarc
Precordilleraand by the isostaticeffectsof the overridenNazca that absorbthe relative motion betweenthe forearc and South
American craton.
plate.
It is interestingthatalthoughforelandbasementdeformationof
the Peruviansegmentis reported[e.g.,Sudrezet al., 1983;Chinn Along-StrikeVariationsof Cross-Sectional
Area

and lsac, 1983], thesedeformationsappearquite reducedin

Area measurements. The amount of shorteningis not
extent and amountcomparedto the Pampeansegment. This
accurately
constrainedin any single crosssectionthroughthe
contrastsuggests
thatflat subduction
doesnot necessarily
produce
centralAndes,althoughroughestimatesare availablefor several
Laramidelike structm'es.
sections.I attemptto add to theseestimatesby consideringthe
cross-sectional
areaof the upliftedterrainas an effect of crustal
MODEL FOR TH BOLIVIAN OROCLINE
shorteningand thickening. The digitized topographyis easily
The terms"backarc" and "forearc"were originallyintroduced usedfor thispurpose.
to describewesternPacificislandarcs. Karig and Moore [1975]
The cross-sectional
areais measured
for eachof the22 profiles
areaveraged
withina moving
discussthe forearc as a deformablebeam (in map view), and shownin Figure5. The elevations
Karig et al. [1978] arguethat the Marianasforearcdeformed window100 km wide (perpendicular
to thecrosssection)by10
somewhatin accommodating
the openingof the Marianasbasin km long,andtheresultingcurveintegrated
to givethetotalcross(see also McCabe [1984], and Faure and Lalavde [1987]. sectionalareaabovea baselevel of 0.3 km. The baselevel is an
Althoughtheconceptof a narrowforearcplateletis mostobvious estimateof the elevationof the plainseastof the the Andesthat
whenappliedto westernPacificIslandarcswith largeamounts
of areunaffectedby the uplift. The areassocalculatedare plotted
back arc extension,it can also be usefully applied to South againstthe along-strikepositionof the profilesas measuredby
America. The Andean"forearc"is a long narrowplate located distancealonga line parallelingthetrenchaxisbut located300 km
betweenthe interplateplate boundaryand the zone of "backarc" to the east of it. The distanceof 300 km is measuredfrom the

Isncs: Camm Al,nn.n l:nu

Bouvn. Ooou,u

3223

10

probablybeganearlierwhenwidespread
magmatismstartedabout

25-30 Ma.

The trenchaxis, digitized from the 1'1,000,000 bathymetric

chartsof Princeet al. [ 1980],is an easilydefinableandconvenient
delineationof the shapeof the forearc. Although a line in the
centerof the forearcwould be more accurate,I approximatethe
deformationof theforearcby the deformationof a line delineating
its westernborder. A problemwith this simplificationis that
accretionof sediments
duringthetimeperiodconsid wouldbe
equivalentto a movementof thetrenchaxisseaward
relativeto the
craton. However,thiseffectis not likely to be appreciableexcept
south of 33S where large volumes of accretedsedimentare
present[Schweller
et al., 1981].
In developing the model the present geometry was taken
backwardin time. The presenttrench axis was first rotated
eastwardtogetherwith the South America plate accordingto
Chase [1978]. Then, to model the Andeanshortening,the axis
was movedrelative to the cratonby a westwardtranslationand
mapview deformation
to (1) producea trendsouthof 20Sthatis
morenearlyparallelto thestrikeof thedeeperpartsof theWadatiBenioff Zone (whichwould havebeensubducting
near the surface
then),and (2) produceshorteningamountsthat are in agreement

19
18
17
16
15
14

12

with the available constraints. These constraints, discussed in a

3o

previoussection,are chosen(with amountsaddedfor shortening

not calculated in the referenced studies) as follows: 90 km at

35

80

75

70

65

latitude31S[JordanandAllmendinger,1986], 120km near22S

[Allmendinger
et al., 1983],250 km near18S[Lyon-Caenet al.,
1985;Sheffelset al., 1986], and 100 km in the Peruviansegment
northof theAltiplanonear10S[Mdgard,1984].
In Figure7 thesequence
described
aboveis reversedto showa
forwardevolutionin timesince12 Ma. The oceanicplateis held

Fig.
5.Map
showing
22cross
sections
along
which
thecross-sectional
fixed
relative
totheWSWmovement
oftheoverriding
South

area
measurements
plotted
inFigure
6 aredetermined.
Thedashed
lineis American
plate.Thehypothesized
trench
axis12 m.y.agois

located
300kmfromtrench
(measured
alongthesection
lines);thealong- rigidly rotatedwith the SouthAmericanplate andthentranslated

strike
distance
plotted
inFigure
6 ismeasured
fromsouth
tonorth
alonganddeformed
eastward
toitspresent
shape.Thetwomotions
of

this
line.
The
axis
ofthe
trench,
areas
with
average
elevations
greater
thantheforearc
areapAficially
separated
inFigure
7only
toisolate
the
3 kin, anddrainagedividesaretakenfromFigure1. Themapis extended
to10S
toshow
locations
ofpaleomagnetic
data
plotted
inFigure
6, motion
of theforearc
relative
tothecraton
andnottoimplya

although
thedigital
topography
andaveraged
elevations
endat 12S.The sequential
chronology.
lettersidentifying
thesitesof paleomagnetic
studies
arereferenced
in
The actualtrajectories
of themotionsof pointsin theforearc

Figure
6.

relative
to thecraton
arenotknown;
onepossibility
is thatthe
trajectoriesare more or lessparallel to the directionof relative
motionsbetweenthe Nazca andSouthAmericanplates,as shown

trenchaxisalongeachof the 22 sectionlines. This "strike"line in Figure 7. The motionscan then be decomposed
into two
passesthroughthe main uplifted area and is usedonly as a components,
oneperpendicular
andoneparallelto thelocalstrike
convenientlinear measureof along-strikedistancewithin the of the forearc. Thesemotionsare assumedto be takenup in the
mountainbelt. The 22 greatcircleprojectionlinesdefinea rough deformingbelt east of the forearcby shorteningand vertical
curvilinearcoordinatesystemfixed to the curvedshapeof the thickeningfor the perpendicularcomponentand by horizontal

orogen,with a secondset of approximately

orthogonallines rotationalshearingfor the parallelcomponent.The modelof
(parallelto strike)locatedat fixed distancesalongthe section shortening
shownby theshadedareain Figure7a is calculated
as
lines.

the distance between the deformed and undeformed trench axes

The calculatedcross-sectional
areasareplottedfor eachsection measuredperpendicularto the local strikeof the presenttrench
in Figure6. Comparison
with Figure5 showsthatthe areais a axis. Thisis of courseonlya veryroughfirstapproximation
to the
maximum for section 16 acrossthe wide part of the Bolivian heterogeneous,three-dimensionalfinite strain field within the
AltiplanoandEasternCordillera.The maximumalsocoincides upperplate.
with the bendin the coastlinenear the Peru-Chileborder. This
The along-strike"location"of a calculationof shorteningis

r9sultindicates
a maximum
of shortening
wheretheforearchas pinned
tothelocations
of the22 sections
shown
in Figure5 in the
moved farthestback toward the craton,in agreementwith the following way. The model shorteningis measured at the

hypothesis
of oroclinalbending.
intersections
of the22 sectionlineswith thepresenttrenchaxis.
Modelof shortening.I examinetheoroclinehypothesis
with Thesepositionsarethenprojectedalongthe sectionlinesto the
theverysimplemodelillustrated
in Figure7. The 12 m.y. time line located300 km eastof the trenchaxis, the "strike"line
intervalshownin Figure7 ischosen
to includetheprimaryphasesthroughthemainmountain
beltshownin Figure5, to determine
of compressional
deformation
anduplift. Theactualtimingisnot the appropriatealong-strikedistancecorresponding
to the
well constrained.
Thermalupliftandweakening
of theupperplate calculated
shortening.The valuesof shortening
obtainedin this

3224

ISACga:

Ah'nS

PLA'mAU AND BOUVIAN OocLm

PALEOMAGNETIC
DETERMINATIONS
OF
FORARC ROTATION

.o.i

lO

- -10

Oi

0
I

3O
25oo

- 438

MEASURED
AREA

,-

',

SHORTENING
, MODEL

2000

- 350

14

12

:0

,,
262

1500
18

SHORTENING
MODEL

1000

THERMAL

500

175

EFFECT

- 88

10

20

DISTANCE ALONG STRIKE, DEGREES

Fig. 6. The solidcirclesin the lower sectionshowcross-sectional
areameasured
alongthe numberedsectionsin Figure5. The
preferredshortening
model1 is showntogetherwithanothermodel2. Model2 hasa maximumshortening
of 425 Ion insteadof
250 Ion. The combinedshortening
andthermaleffectis shownonly for thepreferredmodel,andonly model 1 is illustratedin
Figure7. The shorteningvaluesusedin the modelsare given on the right-handverticalaxis. The upperpanel plots
paleomagnetically
determined
rotationsof the forearcat the siteslabeledby lowercase
lettersin Figure5. In bothpanelsthe
horizontalaxisis distancemeasured
alongthedashed"strike"line in Figure5. The paleomagnetic
dataincludea, Becket al.
[1986]; b, Palmer et al. [1980a] andgoao et al. [1985]; c, Turner et al. [1984]; d, gono et al. [1985]; e, He/d et al. [1985]; f, Heki
et al. [1983] andPalmeret al. [1980b];g, goa et al. [1985]; h, He/d et al. [1985];andi, May aad Butler [1985]. The rotations
corroding to thetwo shortening
modelsareshownby solid(model1) anddashedlines(model2) asindicated.

way areshownfor model1 on theright-hand

ordinateof Figure6.

use a simple Airy isostaticmodel with local compensation.

Cross-sectional
area calculatedfrom shortening
model. Elevated
material
withdensity
Ptis compensated
bya rootwith
Shortening
produces
upliftby theisostatic
effectof a thickeneddensityDr anda mantlewith densityPro' The initialcrustal
crust.Assuming
preservation
of two-dimensional
cross-sectional
thickness
isHO,withaninitialelevation
hO. Aftershortening,
the
area,thenthesumof thecross-sectional
areaof elevated
terrain sumof theadditional
elevation,
h - hO,andtheadded
rootr are
andthedepressed
crustal
rootwill equaltheproduct
of theoriginal integrated
overthewidthaffectedby theshortening
to givethe
crustal
thickness
timestheamount
of shortening.
Anestimate
of added
cross-sectional
areaof crust,Ac. If cross-sectional
areais
the elevationresultingfrom thermalexpansioncan be calculated conserved,

fora given
amount
oflithospheric
thinning
andadded
tothe

Ac=SH0

effectsof shortening.Magmaticadditionsarenot includedin this

model.I alsoneglect
thelossofmaterial
byerosion.
In fact,for whereS is theamount
of shortening.
Themeasured
crossmuch
ofthecentral
andsouthem
parts
oftheplateau
theerosional
sectional
areaof material
elevated
above
thebase
levelhoisAr.
loss
ofmaterial
isprobably
quite
minimal
owing
tothelarge
areasWithsimple
Airyisostasy
wehave
of internaldrainageand the aridityof the climate. The effectsof
extrusive

additions

and erosional

losses can be considered

as

perturbationssuperimposedon the effects of shorteningand

heating.
The shorteningmodel depictedin Figure 7 can be used to
calculate the cross-sectional area of elevated material if the initial
crustal thickness and crusud and mantle densities are assumed.

A=Ac +a
where

h-h0

Pm-Pt

Isncgs: CRh'RALANtAN PLATnU AN BOLWI OOCLm!

3225

The cross-sectionalareas determined from the shortening

modelcan thenbe comparedto themeasuredareasas in Figure6
with assumed
valuesfor ctandHO. Wollard[1966]estimated
anct
of 1/7.5 basedon empiricalrelationships
betweenelevationand

10

crustal thickness. For the crude model under consideration, we

will use this value and assume an initial crustal thickness of 40

20

SHORTENING

3O

12 MY BP

km. The valuesof shortening,

S, aretakenfrom themodelshown
in Figure8A (thevaluesareindicated
ontherighthandordinateof
Figure7).
The resultingcalculatedcurve mimics the main latitudinal
variationof measuredcross-sectional
area,exceptthat near 27S
the measuredarearampsup to largervalues. This occursat the
southernend of the Punaplateau. These higher valuescan be
accountedfor by a thermaleffect, as discussed
below. Another
modelwith theshortening
valuesincreased
in theBolivianregion
relativeto the flanksis alsoshownin Figure6 (labeledmodel2).
The maximumshortening
for thismodelis about425 km. This is
near the upperlimit of the estimatesof shorteningdiscussed
by
Lyon-Caenet al. [1985]. This curve is everywhereabovethe
measuredshorteningvalues, even without any thermal effects
added. Model 1 seemsto give a betterfit, especiallyif thermal
effects are added.

70 W

60

10

Thermaleffect.I hyIx)tsize thattheexcesselevationnorthof

latitude27Sfor model 1 is mainly an effectof thermalexpansion
or lithosphericthinning. The thermaluplift for a 70-km thinning
of the lithosphere
is shownin Figure6. This wouldcorrespond,
for example,to a changeof lithosphericthicknessfrom 140 km,
an arguablevalue for a stablecontinentallithosphere[Sclateret
al., 1981], to 70 km. A simple linear approximationto a
lithospheric conduction gradient is assumed [Turcotte and
McAdoo,1979] with a coefficientof thermalexpansionequalto 3

x 10-scgsunits.
An effective width of 400 km is then used to obtain the cross-

sectionalareathatis produced
by 'thuming
of thelithosphere
in the
regionof theAltiplano-Puna.The effectivewidthis estimated
on
thebasisof thehypsometric
curveof Figure2. Thiscurvecanbe
viewedas a kind of averaged,one-dimensional
crosssection.The

3O

If theplateauis simplifiedinto a stackof rectangular

prisms,the
area shownis the productof the length of the plateautimes a
width within which elevationseverwhereexceedthe particular
elevation.The lengthof the Puna-Altiplanoregionbetweenabout
13Sand 27S,measuredalongstrike,is about2000 kin. With
thislengthfixed, theabscissa
axiscanthenbe labeledin termsof
thewidthvariableasshownalongtheupperpartof Figure2. The
hypsometric
curveshowsthatthe averaged"side"of the plateau
hasa nearlylinearslopebetweenelevationsof theplateau"edge"

2O

abscissa is area of land above the altitude shown on the ordinate.

12 MY BP

80

70

60

of 3.65 km and an elevation of about 1.3 km and an upward

concaveprofile at lower elevations.I assumethat the effective

Fig. 7. Hypothesized
evolutionof (a) subducted
plateandCo)upperplate
by a pointhalfwaydownalongthelinearpart
since12Ma. TheNazcaplateis heldfixedwithrespect
to thepresentmap widthis determined

coordinate
system
whiletheSouth
American
plate
andforearc
arerated. of theslope.Thewidthof theplateau
fromthisanalysis
is about
Figure7a showsdepthsto thesubducted
platein km for thepresent
andfor
12 Ma. For the sametimes,Figure7b showsthe hytxesized weakened
zones(darkestshading)in theupperplateandthe bendingof the forearc.
In Figure7a thethicklinesshowthetrenchaxisat 12 Ma, a rigidrotation
of that axisfor the 12 rn.y. interval,andthe presentdeformedaxis. The
shadedareabetweenthelasttwo positions
of thetrenchaxisrepresents
the
lossof surfaceareaof theupperplateby the convergence
of the forelancl
towards cratonic South America and is the basis for the preferred
shorteningrnodel 1 shownin Figure6. In Figure7b the trenchaxis
coincideswith the westernboundaryof the foreland at 12 rn.y. and at
present,whilethethickline is the 12-rn.y.rigidrotationof thetrenchaxis

400 kin.

The agreementof the estimatedthermal effect and the

magnitudeof the discrepancybetweenobservedarea and area
calculatedfrom theshortening
is quitegood. Note thatthealongstrikeextentof the thermaleffect is simply fixed to producethe
addedareaat 27S. The interpretionof the 27Sjump in areais
that north of this latitudethe overridingand subductedplatesare
decoupledwith enough intervening asthenosphere
to permit
thermal isostasy to operate, while to the south the nearly

(bef bending
oftheforearc)
asalsoshown
inFigure
7a. Thetrajectories
horizontal
Nazcaplateis coupled
or "stuck"to theoverriding
plate

offorearc
movement
toward
theSouth
American
craum
areabitrarily
takenandeffectively
holds
it down.Thistransition
inplate
coupling
is

parallelto the directionsof convergence

of the two large plates. The

lighter
shading
onthe
leftside
(present
time)
ofFigure
7bshows
areas
of superimposed
onanorthwardly
increasing
amount
ofshortening
theupper
plate
weakened
bypassing
over
theasthenospheric
wedge
asthe to produce
theobserved
northward
increase
in cross-sectional
plateoverrides
theNazcaplatein theflat slabsegments.

area.

3226

Isncr, s: CitYreAL AW'A Plmm{nuAlvi)BOLlVIAWOoo.,m'

The Quaternary
magmaticarcendsnear28S,just southof the track studiessuggestremovalof possiblymore than 10 km of
southernendof thebroadplateau,but thereis no evidenceof an overburden
duringthepast10-15 m.y. [Crough,1983;Benjamin
abruptchangeof dip of the subductedplate as found at the et al., 1987]. The lossof volumeon the easternslopesouthof
northernendof theplateaunear15S.However,assuggested
in a 18Smaytherefore
beonlythematerialmissingfromtheyouthbY
previoussection,thecurvature
of thesubducted
platejustdowndip valleysand depositedin the forelandbasincloseto the eastern
of the plateboundarychangesfrom convexto concaveupwards marginof themountainfront. The materialin theforelandbasins
near27S,andthischangecouldbe relatedto boththesouthward aboveelevationsof 0.3 km is includedin thecross-sectional
area

termination
of magmatism
andtheisostatic
coupling
between
the measurements.
Thusit is reasonable
to arguethatsignificant
plates.
effectsof erosionalremovalof materialare seenonly in sections
Effects of denudation. The erosionalsystemsvary quite 18 and19.
substantially
aroundtheedgesof theAltiplano-Puna
plateau.The
Why, then, do the deficiencies
in cross-sectional
areanot

western
sideisextremely
addwithpractically
nostreams
reaching extendto sections
20-22 aswell,wheretheerosional
vigorof the
thePacificbetween
18 and26 [Mortimer,1981]. In addition,Amazonian
drainageshouldperhaps
be evengreaterthanin
thevolcanism
onthewestern
edgeof theplateau
addsvolumeand sections18 and 197 Oneproblemis thatthe essentially
two

actsagainst
headward
erosion
by damming
theplateau
drainage.dimensionalapproachof the shortening
modelsbecomes
Asidefromtransfer
of materialdownthegiantalluvialdrape increasingly
inaccurate
in thecomplex
re.
curved
northern
endof
alongthewestern
plateau
slope,
littlevolume
hasprobably
been theplateau.
Thesections
taken
therearesomewhat
oblique
tothe
removed
fromthewestern
sideoftheplateau
south
of 18S
duringplateauandthusoverestimate
thecross-sectional
areaby an
thelateCenozoic
phase
of uplift.Headward
erosion
of Pacific amount
thataccounts
forabout
halfof thediscrepency
between
drainageintotheplateauhasdeveloped
in theregionnorthof 18S theobservedandcalculated
areas.

asmanifested
bythespectacular
series
of transverse
canyons
in

Another
possible
effectistheerodability
of thematerial.
The

southern Peru. The still very youthful character of that batholithsof the easternAndesof Bolivia and southernPeru

physiography,
however,
suggests
thatthemasslostis small,that become
bothmoreextensive
andolderfromsouth
tonorth[Grant
is,onlythatneeded
tofill thewidelyspaced
canyons.
etal.,1979;Dalmayrac
etal.,1980].In theBeniRiverbasin
the
The eastern
slopesarecharacterized
by tworegimes
also Triassic
andlateOligocene-early
Miocene
plutonic
bodies
of the
separated
approximately
by thelatitude
18S,theAmazon
River Cordillera
Realformveryhighbutareallysmallmassifs
within
drainage
to thenorth,andthesemiarid
ParanRiverdrainage
to thesurrounding
weaklymetamorphosed
Paleozoic
sedimentary
thesouth.Sections
18and19cross
intotheAmazon
system
and rocks[e.g.,McBride
etal., 1983].TheBeniRiversystem
hasthus
showthelargest
deficiency
in cross-sectional
areawithrespect
to cut deeplyinto the lessresistantrocksand has removed
theshortening
model
(Figure
6). I propose
thatthisanomaly
is,in considerable
materialfromtheplateau. Farthernorth,the
fact,partlyduetomaterial
removed
by unusually
higherosionnortheastern
margin
of theplateau
isformed
byareally
extensive

ratesin thisregion.Sections
18and19cross
intothedrainagelatePaleozoic
andMesozoic
batholiths
andassociated
strongly
basin
of theBeniRiver,a tributary
oftheAmazon
River.Besidesmetamorphosed
sedimentary
rocks.These
rocks
maybehavelow
the vigorouserosionundermodemconditions,
significantratesoferosion
compared
tothose
farther
south
intheareas
eastof
glaciafion
of theCordillera
Real,thehighmassif
forming
the LaPazandthus,withtheirgreater
arealextent,
mayconstitute
a
eastern
edgeoftheAltiplano
intheregion
crossed
bysections
18 moreeffective
bastion
against
theheadward
migration
of the
and 19, probablyaugmented
the erosiveefficiencyof this Amazonian
drainage.
drainage
basinduringthePleistocene.
Themountainous
upper Therelatively
smallanomaly
nearsection
13isassociated
with
reaches
of theBenibasinformsa deeplyeroded
segment
of the theAtacama
basin,
thesteplike
feature
of thewestern
sideof the
eastern
slope
oftheplateau,
asisobvious
frominspection
ofPlate plateau
discussed
in a previous
section.
Thisanomaly
doesnot
1. Thephysiography
clearlysuggests
a largeerosive
cutintothe appear
tobeexplainable
asaneffectof denudation.
side of the plateau. Filling this cut to the presentlevel of the

plateau
would
account
forabout
half
thediscrepancy
forsections
Paleomagnetic
Data
18 and 19.
In contrast,the drainagesystemsfarther south are far less
Severalinvestigators,notablyKono et al. [1985], arguethat
vigorous. In fact, the easterndrainage south of about 19S paleomagnetic
data for the Chileanand Peruvianforearcsupport
actuallycarrieslittle materialto theParan/tRiver,sincetherivers thehypothesis
of oroclinalbending.Becket al. [ 1986]pointout
flowingout of the easternAndesdry up within 100 km from the possibly severe problems with the dating of remnant
mountainfront. This is associatedwith the increasingaridity magnetizations
andwith thedeterminations
of paleopolepositions
southof 18Sandthedecreasing
amountof Pleistocene
glaciation for cratonicSouthAmerica(seealsoValencioet al. [ 1983]) but
evenat highelevations.The Andesbetweenaboutlatitudes18S nevertheless
alsoshowthatthepublished
datado seemto indicate
and33Sa
to be in a climaticbelt [e.g.,Clapperton,1983] a counterclockwiserotation of the coastal areas of Peru and
that is much less affectedby the powerfully erosive alpine northernmost
Chile whichcontrasts
with a clockwiserotationof
glaciationsof the Quaternarythat so profoundlyaffectedthe the forearcfarthersouth. This resultis seenin the summaryof
landscape
of othersegments
of themountainsystem.
selectedforearcpaleomagnetic
dataplottedin Figure6.
The drainagesystemof theeasternslopeof theplateausouthof
Also shownin Figure6 are simplegeometriccalculations
of
18Sis incisingthe foldedand faultedstructures
of the Bolivian therotationsthatoccurin themodelsof deformationof theforearc
EasternCordilleraand sub-Andeanthrustbelts,but remnantsof relativeto thecraton. Again,thechangein shapeof the forearcis
the high plateausurfaceare apparentin the topographyandon modeledby the changein shapeof the trenchaxis. Both the
Lariat imagery.For example,the Potosfintrusion,now exposed modelcalculations
andtheselected
paleomagnefic
dataareplotted
at elevationsof 3 km (near 19.6S,65.7W)is estimatedto have with respect to along-strikepositionsdeterminedby the 22
beenemplac closeto the late Miocenelandsurfacewith little sections(Figure5) asdiscussed
in theprevioussection.The plot
materialsubsequently
lostfromabovetheintrusion[Franciset al., is extendednorthwardto covercentralPeruvianpaleomagnetic
1983]. This contrastswith the Zongointrusionlocatedfarther determinations.The rotationscalculatedfrom the shortening
northin the upperreachesof the Beni River basin,wherefission model are done in a very crudefashion:the net rotationsnear

ISACKS:Cl{

ANDI{AN PLATF_.AU
AIqDBorvxs Ooou

3227

sections
4-12 and20-21 arefirst determined,
andtheintervening Peruvianand Pampeanflanks. This geometryis schematically
curve is then roughedin with the assumedconstraintthat the indicatedin Figure7a. A somewhatsimilargeometrycannow be
changefrom clockwiseto counterclockwise
rotationoccursnear observedin the Izu-Bonin/NorthHonshu/Kurilesystemof the
sections16-17 wherethe shorteningreachesa maximum. More northwestPacific. The Pacificplatedipsgently(30) beneaththe
numerous
andbetterconstrained
palcomagnetic
datawouldjustify North Honshusegmentbut steepensconsiderablyin both the
a moresophisticated
modelof forearcbendingandits associated flankingsegments,the Izu-Boninand Kurile arcs. The overall
rotations. At this stage,however,the fit of the data certainly form is that of a plunging anticline, a shape that can be
encouragesconsiderationof the oroclinal hypothesis. The topologically
compatible
with theconcaveshapeof thetrenchaxis

magnitudes
of rotationfor model1 tendto be too small,while in termsof deformations
of an inextensiblelithosphericshell
model2 providesa somewhatbetterfit. However,all of the [Yamaoka
andFukao,1986,1987].
palcomagneticdeterminationsshown are for Mesozoic
In the central,shallow-dipping
sectionthe asthenospheric
magnetizations
andthusintegrate
thedeformation
overtheentire wedgewaswidestandconsequently
thinnedandweakenedthe
Cenozoic.Hencemodel2 may be a beuermodelfor the entire broadest
swathof theupperplate,whilea narrowermagmaticand
Cenzoic,whilemodel1 ispreferred
fortheNeogene.
thermalsystemoperatedalongthe flankingregionswherethe
In contrast,a completestraightening
out of the Peru-Chile subducted
platehadsteeperdips(seeFigure7b). At sometime
forearc, an effect discussedby Kono et al. [1985], requires afterthe weakeningbegan,thevariable-widthswathbeganto fail
rotationsthat are muchlargerthanthe well-determined
rotations under the compressivestresssystemtransmittedacrossthe
shownin Figure6. This impliesthattheembayment
of western convergent
boundary.A greateramountof shortening
occtured
in
SouthAmericawasan inheritedfeaturethatwasenhanced
but not the central segmentbecausethe weakenedarea there was the

caused
by Cenozoic
shortening.
I makeuseof thisimplication
in
discussingthe late Cenozoicevolutionof subductedplate
geometry
in thenextsection.
The blocklikeclockwiserotationof Perusuggested
by the
palcomagnetic
dataas far northas 5S[Hekiet al., 1983;May
and Butler, 1985] implie.sa steadilydecreasingamountof
shortening
towardthenorthwestwithinthe Peruvianorogen. In
agreement
with this,resultsof a preliminaryexamination
of the

widest. The assumptionis that for a relatively constant

lithosphericstress,shorteningwill proceeduntil a limiting
elevation
isreached
[e.g.,DalmayracandMolnar,1981;$udrezet
al., 1983;Froidevauxand Isacks,1984];thusthe mount of
shortening
will depend
uponthewidthof theweakened
.swath.
The flanking segmentsof forearcconsequently
tendedto
overridethe oceanicplate relative to the centralsegmentand
therebyhelpedflauenthesubducted
slabs.However,theamount
topographic
mapsof Perunorthof 12Sshowa clearlydecreasing of movementof the flanking segmentsrelative to the central
cross-sectional
areatowardthenorth. High altitudesstill occuras segmentis not enoughto explainthe flattening.An appealmust
sharppeaksin the glaciatedcordilleras,but the total cross- be made to otherunconstrained
factors. Possibilitiesinclude
sectionalareadecreases.

effects of subductedtopography[e.g., Kelleher and McCann;

An apparent
problemwith theoroclinalhypothesis
is thefact 1976;Pilger,1981;Nut andBen-Avraham,
1981],subdueted
plate
that the counterclockwise
rotationscharacteristic
of the Peruvian age [e.g., Molnar and Atwater, 1978; Wortel, 1984], relativeand

"block"arealsofoundin theregionjust southof theChile-Peru absolute

platevelocities[e.g.,Luyendyk,1970;CrossandPilger,
border(near18S)andthereforesouthof thepresumed
kink or 1982]andmantleflow [e.g.,HagerandO'Connell,1978;Tovish
hingein themoderncoastline
wheretherotations
wouldreverse etal., 1978].
sign. However,thesharpness
of the"kink"in thecoastline
near
The transition
near 17Sin subducted
slabdip is associated
the Chile-Peruborderis not a featureof the regional-scalewith theinflectionof mapview curvature
of the trenchaxisand
morphology. The topographicimageshowsclearly that the westernslope. The sharpness
of thatinflectionmay have
coastlineis not an accuratedelineationof the moresmoothly enhanced
by lateCenozoic
crustalshortening,
assuggested
by the
curvedtrendof thetrench-mountain
system
butreflectsa second- modelof Figure7. Thusthelocalization
of thetransverse
flexure
orderstructure
on the topographic
"bench"betweenthe inner in thesubdueted
platemaybepartlya resultof thelateCenozoic
trenchslopeandthemainwesternslopeof theAndes.Thusin change
in theoutlineof theleadingedgeof theoverriding
plate.
thisregionthe shapeof the coastlineis an inaccurateindicatorof

the shapeof the forearc. The modelshownin Figure7a for Quaternary

Deformation
of thePlateau
forearcbendinghasmaximumcurvaturein theregionof the PeruEvidence that extensional structures developed on the
Chile border, but the exact location of the change from
Altiplano-PunaplateauduringtheQuaternarycanbe relatedto the
counterclockwise
rotationto clockwiserotationdependsuponthe
topographic effects of uplift as argued, for example, by
detailedtrajectories
of materialin thedeformingforearc.The sites
Froidevauxand Isacks[1984]; (seealsoDalmayrac and Molnar
in northernmostChile, in fact, appearto be slightly on the
[1981], but the extensionalstructureshave so far been reported
northernsideof themaximumof inferredshortening,
in agreement
only for thenorthernandsouthernpartsof theplateau. According
with theoroclinalhypothesis.
to the model of deformationshownin Figure 7, and assuming
forearctrajectoriesrelativeto the forelandthat are approximately
Relationshipto a ChangingNazcaPlate Geometry
parallelto the directionsof motionbetweenthe forelandand the

Why shouldshortening
vary along-strike?
The following
scenario
isproposed
withverytentative
timing.Duringtheperiod
25-12 Ma the map view outlineof the leadingedgeof the
overridingplate had a less pronounced(but still distinctly
seawardlydirected)concavecurvaturethannow existsalong
westernSouthAmerica. Duringthatperiodthe subducted
plate
dippedat an angleof 20-30 beneaththe centralpan of the

Nazcaplate,shortening
in theregionof thenorthram
Altiplanois
obliqueto thedeformational
zonewitha significant
component
of
left-lateralshearingalongthe strikeof the orogen. This is
consistentwith the predominantlynorth-southdirection of
extensiondescribedby $dbrier et al. [1985] in the northern
Altiplano. It is intriguingthat the topographic
imageof Plate1

showsrathermarkedlinearfeatures
alongthenorthwestern
sideof
embaymentbut steepenedto dips of 40-60 in the adjacent the Altiplano with northweststrike. Large yet unrecognized

3228

Isncxs:

A.lAS

PtXAU A

BOLV!AS Oaoom

strike-slipfaultsmay existin thisregion. The shortening

in the
The modeldepictsan evolutionary,three-dimensional
process
southern
partof theplateauis alsoobliquebutwith a right-lateral ratherthansteadystate,two-dimensional
one. Changesin map
senseof shearparallelto strike. This is alsoconsistent
with the view shapeof the upperplate affectthe dip of the slabandvice
orientations
of theyoungextensional
andstrike-slip
deformationsversa. The three-dimensional
aspects
of the modelpresented
in
along the southeastern
margin of the plateaureportedby thispaperimply a very intricate,tightlycoupled,andtwo-way
Allmendinger
[1986].
relationship
between
theconfiguration
of thesubdueted
plateand
The northernandsouthern"ends"of theplateauare,however, the plan view outlineof the forearc. The followingsequence
is
likely to be difficultto model,andfield studiestherearelikely to proposed
for thelateCenozoicevolutionof thecentralAndes.An
reveal complexpatternsof deformation[e.g., Allmendinger, initialseawardconcavityin themapview shapeof theoverriding
1986]. In thosetwo regionsthe three-dimensional
aspects
of the plateled to an along-strikevariationin the dip of the subdueted
deformationare important,preexistingstructurescontrol the plate, which, by affecting convective processesin the
detailsof thedeformations
[e.g.,Marocco,1978;Allmendingeret asthenospheric
wedge,producedan along-strike
variationin width
al., 1983],andalong-strike
changes
in thermaluplift areprobably of a thermally weakened zone in the upper plate. The
associated
with the flaueningof the subducted
plates. Thus, for compressional
failureof the weakenedzonethenoccurredwith an
example,in the regionof the southeast
marginof the Argentine along-strikevariation in the amount of shorteningand a
Puna, a northwardly increasing amount of shortening is consequentchangein the shapeof the leading edge of the
accommodated
by a northwardly
changing
styleof deformation
(in overridingplate. The changein shapeenhanced,
but did not
transitionbetweenthe Laramide-style
thick-skinned
deformationsproduce,the bendingof the Bolivian orocline. The changein
of the Pampeansegmentandthe Bolivianfold-thrustbelt), and shapealsoinvolvedthePeruvianandPampean
segments
moving
thisis all overprinted
by a thermaluplift thatmaynowcontrolthe seawardrelative to the central segment,an effect that only
locationof thesoutheastern
plateaumargin.
partiallyaccounts
for the flattenLng
of the subducted
platesin the
two segments.Effectsof subdueted
platebuoyancyandmanfie
CONCLUSIONS
flow probablyalsoareimportant.
Themodeldepictedin Figure7 impliesthatthechanges
in dip
In thispaperI have arguedthat the late Cenozoicuplift of the
fromrelativelysteepto nearlyflat occurin tworegionsnear17S
Andesis a resultof thermalthinningof the lithosphereandcrustal
and 23-27S. Theseregionsincludethe anomalous
structures
thickeningproducedby crustalshortening.Althoughthe model
andphysiographies
of the "AbancayDeflection"[Marocco,1978]
dependsupon assumptionsabout crustal densitiesand initial
andtheAtacamaBasin--Southern
Puna,respectively.
Thelocation
conditions,crustalshorteningof the orderof 100 km is now well
of theseregionsabovealong-strike
"hinges"
in thesubducted
plate
establishedandmustcertainlybe an importantcomponentin any
modelof thecentralAndes. It wouldalsobe hardto argueagainst
a thermal component in the uplift of a plateau that is so
extensivelycoveredby volcanicsas the Altiplano-Puna. The
model can account for the topography without inclusion of
magmaticadditionto crustalvolume.
At the other extreme, a primarily magmaticmodel for the
uplift wouldrequirean unusuallylargerate of extractionof crustal
density magmas from the mantle wedge and would imply
physiographic
characteristics
that are not observed.The volcanic
material forms a thin cover on a relatively uniformly elevated

geometrymay help to understandthe tectonicevolutionof these

complexregions.
As perhapsthe Iz4meexampleof noncollisional,
subductionrelatedmountainbuilding,thelateCenozoicAndesoffera modem

exampleof processes
thatmayhaveplayeda rolein thehistoryof
more complexmountainbelts, such as westernNorth American
cordillerasor the Himalayas.The ideathatthe essentialelement

of cordilleranmountainbuildingin the Andesis compressional

failureof a weakenedswathof the overridingcontinental
plate,
weakenedby thermalandmagmaticprocesses
operatingin the
asthenospheric
wedge between the plates, is reminsicentof

"tabletop."
Although
very
youthful
normal
faulting
isdeveloped
discussions
ofthe
Late
Creus-early
Tertiary
Laramide-Sevier
in thenorthern
andsouthern
parts
oftheplateau,
thenetdeformations
inthe
western
United
States
bySales
[1968],
Coney
deformation
is
small
compared
to
the
much
larger
late
Cenozoic
[1972],
Burchfiel
and
Davis
[1975],
and
Armstrong
[1982].
compressional
deformations
of the crust. Thereis no evidencefor
A key featurein explainingthe unusualwidth of the central

major
crustal
scale
riftsthat
might
result
if large
amounts
of Andes
deformational
beltisthelowangle
ofsubduction
inthe
material
were
injected
into
the
crust
as
dikes.
The
physiographic
central
more
steeply
dipping
segment.
I
hypothesize
a
20
dip
characteristicsof the plateau thus indicate that substantial
duringthe Miocene,while the presentdip is about30. Two

magmaticcontributionswould have to be in the form of sill-like

factorsmay alsofavor low-anglesubductionin additionto the
intrusionsor horizontallydistributedunderplatingsof material
concavityin theshapeof theoverridingplate. As theEastPacific
ratherthanlargeverticaldikelikeintrusions.The uniformplateau

Riseapproaches
thesubducfion
zone,(1) theageof thesubdueted
platedecreases
andits buoyancymay thereforeincrease,and(2)
throughoutthe large area of the plateau. There is no evidenceof
the mantle flow beneaththe subductedplate may have an
topographic
bulgesthatmightbe expectedabovelargeintrusiveor .
increasinglylarge eastwardcomponent.Theselast two factors
underplatedvolumesconcentrated
beneaththe main volcanicareas
would also help explain the postulatedlow-anglesubduction
alongthe westernsideof theplateau.
elevation

would

indicate a rather even distribution

of material

Instead,
the
physiography
and
structure
ofthe
Altiplano-Puna
beneath
late
Mesozoic-early
Tertiary
western
North
America.

reveal a plateaulikeuplift boundedon one sideby a major thrust

beltandontheotherbya monoclinal
flexure.Thetopography
is a

Acknowledgments.
I thankR. Allmendinger,
M. Barazangi,
E.

directexpression
of thetectonics
overmuchof theplateaubecause Fielding,T. Jordan,
M. Mpodozis,
andV. A. Ramo,for veryhelpful

of thelowrates
oferosion
inanaridclimate.
Thus,
incontrast,
for criticalreviews
of thispaper. Manydiscussions
withJordan,
Allmendinger,S. M. Kay, R. Kay, A. L Bloom,andothermembersof the

example,
tothe
Central
Range
ofTaiwan
[Suppe,
1981],
elevation
Cornell
Andes
Project
have
contributed
substantially
tothe
viewpoints
ofthecentral
Andes
maybecontrolled
ultimately
by lithospheric
presented
inthispaper.
Thisresearch
wassupported
by NASA
Grant
stresses
ratherthanby denudation.

NAS5-28767
andNSFGrantEAR-85-18402.

ISAC:

Ama_ PtXAU

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