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Closed sections
Torsion is usually referred to in terms of torsional moment or torque (T), which is basically
the product of the externally applied force and the moment arm or force arm. The moment
arm is the distance of the centerline of rotation from the line of force and perpendicular to
it. This distance often equals the distance from the member's center of gravity to its outer
fiber (radius of a round shaft, for example), but not always.
The principal deflection caused by torsion is measured by the angle of twist, or by the
vertical movement of one corner of the frame.
Steel, in rolled structural shapes or built-up sections, is very efficient in resisting torsion.
With steel, torsionally rigid sections are easily developed by the use of stiffeners.
Here are the three basic rules for designing structural members to make the best use of
steel where torsional loads are a problem:
1. Use closed sections where possible.
2. Use diagonal bracing.
3. Make rigid end connections.
where:
= shear stress, psi
c = distance from center of section to outer fiber
T = torque, in.-Ibs.
J = polar moment of inertia of section, in.4 = Ix + Iy = 2I
The angular twist of a round shaft is
where:
over-all angular twist of shaft, in radians
(1 radian = 57.3" approx.)
L = length of shaft, in inches
Es = modulus of elasticity in shear (steel Es = 12,000,000 psi)
In most cases, the designer is interested in holding the torsional moment within the
material's elastic limit.
Where the torsional strength of a round shaft is required (i.e. the stress it can take without
failure), the polar section modulus is J/c, and the allowable torque is thus-
where, lacking test data, the ultimate shear strength of steel (u) is assumed to be in the
order of 75% of the material's ultimate tensile strength.
The above three formulas are true for solid round or tubular round shafts. For non-circular
sections the shear stresses are not uniform, and therefore the standard torsional formulas
no longer hold.
4 TORSIONAL RESISTANCE
Values of torsional resistance (R)-stiffness factor have been established for various
standard sections and provide more reliable solutions to torsional rigidity problems.
Values of R are expressed in inches to the fourth power.
Table 1 shows the formulas
for
shear
stress
and
torsional
resistance
of
various sections.
The formulas for solid
rectangular sections call for
values, of and , which
are derived from the ratio
of section width (b) to
depth (d), as shown in the
table.
by
using
This means that the torsional resistance of a flat plate is approximatcly thc same whether it
is used
as such or is formed into an angle, channel, open tube
section, etc. This is illustrated in Figure 3. Samples
of different sections made of 16-gage steel are subjected
to torsion. The flat section twists go. The same picce
of steel formed into a channel (b) twists 9\>0. When
rolled into a tube with an open beam (c), it twists 11 o.
When the same section is made into a closed
section (d) by placing a single tack weld in thc middle
of the open seam, the torsional resistance increases
several hundred times. When the tube becomes a
closed section, the torsional stresses are distributed
morc evenly over the total area, thus permitting a
greater load.
N atice the error in using polar moment of inertia
(J) for the angle of twist of open seetions, and the
good agreement by using torsional resistance (R).
Design Rule No.1: USE CLOSED SECTIONS
WHERE POSSIBLE
5.1 Behaviour
Pure torsion occurs very rarely in steel structures. Most commonly, torsion occurs in
combination with bending actions. The torsion actions may be classified as primary or
secondary, depending on whether the torsion action is required to transfer load (primary
torsion), or whether it arises as a secondary action. Secondary torques may arise as a
result of differential twist rotations compatible with the joint rotations of primary frames, as
shown in Figure 10.31, and are often predicted by three-dimensional analysis programs.
They are not unlike the secondary bending
moments which occur in rigid-jointed trusses, but which are usually ignored (a procedure
justified by many years of satisfactory experience based on the longstanding practice of
analysing rigid-jointed trusses as if pin-jointed).
Secondary torques are usually small when there are alternative load paths of high stiffness,
and may often be ignored.
Primary torsion actions may be classified as being restrained, free, or destablising,
as shown in Figure 10.32. For restrained torsion, the member applying the
torsion action (such as ABC shown in Figure 10.32b) also applies a restraining
action to the member resisting the torsion (DEC in Figure 10.32b). In this case, the
structure is redundant, and compatibility between the members must be satisfied in
the analysis if the magnitudes of the torques and other actions are to be determined
correctly. Free torsion occurs when the member applying the torsion action (such as ABC in
Figure 10.32c) does not restrain the twisting of the torsion member (DEF),but does prevent
its lateral deflection.
Destablising torsion may occur when the
member applying the torsion action (such as BC in Figure 10.32d) does not restrain
either the twisting or the lateral deflection of the torsion member (DCE). In this
case, lateral buckling actions (Chapter 6) caused by the in-plane loading of the
torsion member amplify the torsion and out-of-plane bending behaviour.
The inelastic non-linear bending and torsion of fully braced, centrally braced,
and unbraced I-beams with central concentrated loads (see Figure 10.33) have been
analysed [25], and interaction equations developed for predicting their strengths. It
was found that while circular interaction equations are appropriate for short length
braced beams, these provide unsafe predictions for beams subject to destabilising torsion,
where lateral buckling effects become important. On the other hand,destablising
interactions between lateral buckling and torsion tend to be masked by
the favourable effects of the secondary axial stresses that develop at large rotations,
and linear interaction equations based on plastic analyses provide satisfactory
strength predictions, as shown in Figure 10.34. Proposals based on these findings
are made below for the analysis and design of members subject to combined
torsion and bending.
6 INTRODUCTION
For beam design, when the transverse loads do not pass through the shear center of the
cross section, the member will be subjected to a combinationof plane bending and torsional
7 SHEAR CENTER
For any open shapes as shown in Fig. B.1, the shear center of the cross section can be
located by x0 and y0 as follows:
t = wall thickness
x, y = coordinates measured from centroid to any
point P located on middle line of cross section
s = distance measured along middle line of cross
section from oneend to point P
l = total length of middle line of cross section
= perpendicular distance to tangent line from
centroid (c.g.). The magnitude of is positive if the
centroid is to the left of anobserver standing at P and
looking toward the positive direction
ofthetangent.
Since cold-formed sections are usually composed of flat elements, the computation of the
above properties (Ix, Iy, and ) can be simplified as followsby using the notations shown
in Fig. B.2
Fig. B.2
Table B.1 includes values of x0 and y0 for equal-leg angles, channels, hatsections, and Zsections (Fig. B.3).
All equations are based on square corners.Reference 1.159 contains some general
equations based on round corners forarea and moment of inertia.
where E = modulus of elasticity, 29.5 103ksi (203 GPa)
If the equations in Table B.1 are to be used tocompute the values of x0, the error is usually
less than 5%, except that aslightly larger error may be expected for angle sections.
0 = perpendicular distance to tangent line from shear center (s.c.) (Fig. B.1). The
magnitude of 0 is positive if the shear center isto the left of an observer standing at P and
looking toward thepositive direction of the tangent
= second derivative of angle of rotation with respect to z. Severaltypical equations for
the angle of rotation are given in TableB.2
In Table B.2,G = shear modulus, = 11.3 103ksi (78 GPa)
8 TORSIONAL STRESSES
As mentioned in Art. B.1, when a torsional moment Mt is applied to thebeam, as shown in
Fig. B.4, the member is subjected to warping longitudinalstress, pure torsional shear stress,
and warping shear stress.
The values of Cw for angles, channels, hat sections, and Z-sections are alsoincluded in
Table B.1. All equations are based on square corners. These Cwvalues are used for
determining torsional stresses and for the design of singlysymmetric and point-symmetric
sections to be used as compression members.
where
Sw = warping statical moment at point P, shown in Fig. B.1
=third derivative of angle of rotation with respect to z
It should be noted that torsional stresses are determined by material properties (E and G),
torsional properties (n, S, J, and Cw), cross-section dimensions, and derivatives of the
angle of rotation.
9 ASSUMPTIONS IN ANALYSIS
A. A bar is straight.
B. A bar is twisted uniformly.
Synglyasimmetric sections may buckle in a combmauon flexural- torsional mode which will
depend on the Euler column bucling stress Fcysymmemc sec 1 n ' F f .f e,
which will depend on the Euler column buckling stress 'c)' or ax~s 0 sy~etry, and the
J
Where
shear
center
coincide,
use
Eq
.8.12
.10
where L is the unsupported length, in feet. Only when L is less than 4.9 ft does r y exceed
rE ;
only for a very short column is torsional buckling a possibility, and even when if
approached
Its minimum value (when L = O) , which is rE(min) = 1.90 in . it is only 6% less than r y.
The result using this section is typical of standard w and S shapes and indicates
torsionalbuckling may generally be neglected for them
(b)
WT8X28 .5.
The
centroid and shear centre do not coincide. but the section has one axis of
The AJSC Manual [1.15, Table I-ll gives J = 1.10 in. 3 and Cw = 1.99 in6 .
For use in Eq. 8.12.11, compute the critical stresses Fe,and Fe: from Eqs. 8.1 2 12.and
8.12.13 using for an effective length KL (for y - and ~- axes) the conunon length of 10ft:
The distance Yo from the centroid of the section to the shear center at the junction of the
mjd-thicknesses of the flange and the web is
ThenusingEq. 8.12.11 ,
Equating Fe to Euler's formula, an equivalent radius f' of gyration for flexural- torsional
buckling can be obtained to compare with rxand ry.
->rE = 1.51 in.
In this case 'E is Less than 'r = 1.60 in. and flexural-torsional buckling is critical for ordinary
lengths. The same situation will occur with double angle compression members.
An equal Leg angle (such as in Fig. 8.12.2c) will have Z2 as its axis of symmetry, and
theradius of gyration with respect to that axis must be used for ry in Eq. 8.12.12. 1
As a conclusion to th.is treatment, the designer is cautioned about using open
sections(torsionally weak sections) in compression having less than two axes of
symmetry,particularly when high width/thickness ratios exist for the elements.
The width/thicknessratio limits (r in AISC-B4) for control of local buckling, if not exceeded,
provide somecontrol since local buckling of sections such as angles, flanges, and tees is
closely relatedto torsional buckling.
Let the section at the wall be restrained from warping. A small distance from the wall, say,
at section AB, partial warping takes place and the twisting moment T may be considered to
be made up of two parts. One part is a twisting moment TI produced by the
lateral shear forces since these forces constitute a couple with moment arm h. Hence,
T1= Vh (6.70)
The second part is twisting moment T2, which produces warping on the section in
theabsence of end restraint. Hence, T2 isgivenbyEq. 6.63 as
T2= JG (6.7 1 )
The values of T, and T2 are unknown since the values of Vand8 at any section are notknown.
Values of these quantities must be found before the lateral bending stresses in the flanges or the
torsional shear stresses in the I-section can be computed. For this purpose, two equations are needed. From the condition of
equilibrium, one of these equations is
T1+T2=T
which by Eqs. 6.70 and 6.71 may be written
Vh+JG= T (6.72)
torsion member and the distance from the fixed section of the beam. In Figure 6 .2 2 the
distance from the fixed section to the section AB at which the straight-line portion of the
curve intersects the horizontal axis is very nearly equal to the distance a as given by Eq.
6.80. Thus, from this fact and from Eq. 6.88, the length L - a of the beam between the free
end and section AB may be considered as being twisted under pure torsion for the purpose
of computing the angle of twist. From Eq. 6.89 the sections of the beam within the length a
from the fixed section to section AB may be considered as transmitting the entire twisting
momentT by means of the lateral shear V in the flanges. Therefore,
T = Vhor V = T / h (6.90
The force V causes each flange of length a to bend laterally, producing a normal stress in
the flange, tensile stress at one edge, and compressive stress at the other (Figure
6 . 2 2 ~A) .s suming that each flange has a rectangular cross section, we have at the fixed
end
The value for a is given by Eq. 6.80, in which E and G are the tensile and shear
moduli of elasticity, respectively, I, is the moment of inertia of the entire section with
respect to a centroidal axis parallel to the web, and J is an equivalent torsional constant of
the section. Values of a calculated by this equation come close to values obtained from
actual tests. For a section made up of slender, approximately rectangular elements, such as
a rolled-steel channel, angle, or I-section, J is given by Eq. 6.62 if it is noted that bjin this
section replaces 2bj in Eq. 6.62 and tireplaces 2hj in Eq. 6.62. All equations in this section
have been derived for I-sections, but they apply as well to channels or Z-sections.
10.1.2
Various Loads and Supports for Beamsin Torsion
The solution of Eq. 6.81 given by Eq. 6.82 is for the particular beam shown in Figure 6.21.
However, solutions of the equation have been obtained for beams loaded and supported as
shown in Table 6.2 by arranging the particular solution of the differential equation to suit
the conditions of loading and support for each beam. The values of the maximum lateral
bending moment Mmaxgiven in Table 6.2 may be used in Eq. 6.91 to compute the maximum
lateral bending stress in the beam. The formulas in Table 6.2 where I-sections are
shown may also be used for channels or Z-sections.
10.2 WARPING
Assumption (D) is not satisfied in this I-section bar. This distortion of the plane is called
warping.
Technical document V1901-R-FD-009
When the section rotates around the z-axis, the web of the section experiencesonly torsion,
on the other hand, the two flanges will experience bending as wellas torsion. If the section
rotates by an angle , the rotation will cause a horizontaldisplacement of the flanges of h
/2.
Where h is the height of the web and If is the sectional moment of inertia of theflange
around the x-axis.
These shearing forces in a flange make a twisting moment T 2:
This is a fundamental equation of torsion with warping of an I-section bar. This equation is
different from that of pure torsion in terms of the existence of EIf h 2/2, which is called
warping rigidity and expressed by . Therefore, Eq. (7.4.4) canbe rewritten in theform:
This example of an I-section bar is an easy case to understand in that the flange creates an
additional moment due to warping
10.3.1
10.3.2
TABLE 6.3 y, Ty, Tp, and Tp/T for Five Common Cross Sections
10.3.3
figure 8.5.4
case of Concentrated torsionalmoment at midspan;torsionally simply supported.
Develop, using the differential equation, the expressions for the twist angle 4>, as well the
first, second, and third derivatives, for the case of concentrated torsional moment applied
at midspan when the ends are torsionally simply supported
Solution:
Referring to Fig. 8.5.4, it is apparent that Mz is constant and equal to T/2. Thuslet
p = C1+ C2z (any polynomial)
The other constant C1 may be combined with C of Eq. 8.5 .14 . The complete solution for
this loading is therefore
Consider the boundary conditions for torsional simple support. Thinking of the lateral
bending of the flange (since is proportional touf). simple support conditions mean zero
moment and deflection at each end , or for torsion:
ln this case the differential equation is dis continuo us at L/2. Thus G using zero slope
'h-:.ge at L/2 i.e.,</>' = 0, along withcf> = 0 and" == 0 0 .': it1
i ,H the IJ)ree constants of Eq. (b
Many practical cases can be solved without using the general formulas.
Since the shear centre location is a problem in equilibrium , moments may most
conveniently
be taken through a point that eliminates the greatest number of forces . Thus,
letting Yr = 0 and taking moments about point A of Fig. 8.4.1 a, changes the equilibrium
equation, Eq. 8.4.2. to
(a)
where according to Eq. 8 .3.5
(b)
For these thin-wall sections , the lengths along which integration is performed is measured
at mid-thickness. Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (a) , and using y = - h/2 where t = tf gives
whereaccordingtoEq. 8.3.6,
In the case of a twisted bar with an open section, the bar generates not only
torsionaldeformation but also warping deformation. Since that warping is not constant at
any point in a cross section, it induces normal stress as a result. The general theory of
torsion with warping was established by Wagner.
Before discussing the torsion with warping, let us investigate the shear centre. When a
shearing force is applied at an arbitrary point on a bar having an open section, the force
creates a torsional moment around the center of twisting and consequently it induces
torsional deformation and bending deformation simultaneously.
However, in the case where the force acts on the centre of twisting, torsional
deformationwill never occur and only bending deformation will be induced. That twisting
centre point is called shear centre.
In order to obtain the shear centre, the shearing distribution of a cross section must first be
considered. Figure 1 represents the mechanism where a change in normal stress induces
shearing stress. Figure 1(a) illustrates the cross section.
Let us consider the equilibrium force in the lower portion of the section; i.e. hatched area.
In the longitudinal direction of this bar, the normal stress due to bending of the bar is
distributed as shown in Figure 1(b). By cutting out the lower portion from this section at y =
y1 level, we can observe that the normal stress is acting onboth sides of the portion and the
shearing stress is working on the cut out surface inFigure 1(c).
The difference in the normal stress on both sides is caused by thechange of moment V
x, where V is a shearing force acting on the cross section, andthe sum of the differences
in the normal stresses must equal the shearing stress T yx.
as explained in Figure 1(d). Hence from the equilibrium of the horizontal forces acting on
the lower portion in Fig. 7.5.1(e), the following equation can be derived:
(7.5.1)
The derivation of this equation is already explained by Eq. (2.1.7) in Sect. 2.1.
Equation (2.1.7) deals with the shearing stress in the web plate, whereas, the above
Eq. (7.5.1) is more generalized.
When a slice of length x= 1 (cm) is cut from the channel, the bending moment created by
a shearing force V becomes Vx, then the difference in the normal stress of the flange
due to this bending moment is calculated in the following form asshown in Fig. 7.5.2(b):
If we define the shear flow q by multiplying shearing stress _ and plate thickness t, then the
shear flow of the flange at the point x from the free edge is obtained as follows by
considering that the shearing stress must equal the sum of the normal stress as shown in
Fig. 7.5.2(c):
In the vicinity of the web plate of the channel, the shear flow at the point y from the neutral
axis must support the sum of the normal stress of the flange and the normal stress in the
upper part of web as shown in Fig. 7.5.2(d). Therefore, itbecomes
In the lower part of the web or in the lower flange, the shear flow can be calculated in the
same manner, thus the shear flow distribution in this channel section is obtained as
illustrated in Fig. 7.5.2(e). The total shearing force in the web plate is estimated by
integrating the shear flow over the web plate height and this is
As shown in the above equation, torsional moment T includes the pure torsional moment as
well as moment due to warping. Typical examples of torsional rigidity and warping rigidity
are listed in 7.5.1
We approximate the maximum shear stress and angle of twist per unit length as follows:
Alternatively, we may express 8 in terms of max as
15 EXAMPLES
15.1 Example Hollow Thin-Wall Circular Torsion Member
EXAMPLE 6.5Hollow Thin-Wall Circular Torsion Member
A hollow circular torsionmember has anoutsidediameter of 22.0 mm and
insidediameter of 18.0 mm, with mean diameter D = 20.0 mm and t/D = 0.10.
(a) Lettheshear stress at the mean diameter be r = 70.0 MPa. Determine T and 8
usingEqs.
(6.66)
and
(6.67)
and
compare
thesevalueswithvaluesobtainedusingtheelasticitytheory. G = 77.5 GPa.
(b) Let a cut be madethroughthewallthicknessalongtheentirelength of
thetorsionmember
and
letthemaximumshear
stress
in
theresultingtorsionmember be 70.0 MPa. Determine T and 8.
Solution
(a) Thearea A enclosedbythe mean perimeteris
A=D^2/4 = 100mm^2
The torque givenby 6.66 is:
Hence, afterthecut, the torque is 6.7% of the torque forpart (a), whereastheunitangle of
twist is 5 times greaterthanthatforpart (a). However, themaximumshear stress
isessentiallyunchanged.
Solution
A. Uniform Load Applied through Shear Center (s.c.)
Since the uniform load is applied through the shear center of the cross section, the beam is
subject only to the plane bending without torsional moment.
1. Sectional Properties. Based on the methods discussed in the text, the following required
sectional properties can be computed:
Ix = 7.84 in4, Zx= 2.24 in3
2. Longitudinal Stress. The maximum bending moment at midspan is
3. Shear Stress. As discussed in Art. 4.3.3.1, the shear stress v due to plane bending can
be computed by
Therefore, as shown in Fig. B.9, the maximum shear stresses developed in the beam flange
and the web are computed as follows:
It can be seen that for this channel section the value of v 5 is approximately 25% higher
than the average value vav.
B. Uniform Load Applied through Centroid (c.g.)
When the uniform load is applied through the centroid, as
shown in Fig. B.10a, the beam is subject to plane bending
and a uniformly distributed torque because for the given
channel section the shear center and the centroid do not
coincide. In order to compute the longitudinal stress and
the shear stresses developed from the torsional moment,
the shear center should be located and torsional
properties such as J, Cw, n, and Sw should be computed.
In addition, the equation for the angle of rotation and its
derivatives must also be derived and evaluated.
The following calculations are based on the procedures given by Galambos in Ref. 2.45.
1. Location of Shear Center.
Based on the midline dimensions shown in Fig. B.10a, the shear center of the given channel
section can belocated by using the value of x0 computed from the equation given in Table
B.1 for channels with unstiffened flanges:
2. Torsional Properties.
By using the midline dimensions, the torsional properties can be computed as follows:
a. St. Venant torsion constant. FromEq. (B.14)
J = 1/3(2
b. Warping constant of torsion. From Eq. (B.17) or the equationgiven in Table B.1,
c. Normalized warping constant. From Eqs.(B.10) through (B.13)or using the equations
given in Ref. 2.45 for channels, the valuesof n1 through n4 shown in Fig. B.10b can be
computed:
d. Warping statical moment. From Eq. (B.21) or using the equationsgiven in Ref. 2.45, the
values of S2, S3, S5, and S6 as shownin Fig. B.10c can be computed:
Therefore,
The combined longitudinal stresses are shown in Fig. B.11c. The maximum longitudinal
stress of 25.74 ksi is 28% higher than the longitudinal stress due to plane bending.
6. ShearStressesDuetoTorsion
a. Pure torsional shear stress. By using Eq. (B.18), the pure torsional shear stress is
At z = 0
Therefore the pure torsion shear stress in flanges and the web is
b. Warping shear stress. By using Eq. (B.20), the warping shear stress is
At z = 0,
The maximum shear stress of 11.468 ksi occurs at point 5, which is the neutral axis of the
channel section.
For additional information on torsional analysis, see Ref. B.3.
Solution:
(a) Circular thin-wall section. UsingEq. 8.10.4,
The circular section is best for torsional capacity, the rectangular box is next; these closed
sections have the torsional constant 1 equal to 96 and 71 times that of the channel
respectively. The resisting moments are I 9 and 1.8, respectively, times that of the channel.
B = 200 mm , H =350 mm , tB = 4 mm , tD = 6 mm
The total torque applied to the beam is 20 4 10 3 Nm.
From symmetry the reactive torques at support points A and D will be equal and are:
TAB = 20 Nm 4m /2 = 40 103 Nm. Therefore,
Note that the torque distribution is antisymmetrical about the centre of the beam. The
maximum torque in the beam is therefore 40 000Nm so that, from Eq. (11.22)
Area enclosed: A = H B = 200 350
The rate of twist d/dT along the length of the beam is given by Eq. (11.25) in which
Therefore, integrating:
=2 [(B/tB) + D/tD]
Then
When x=0, AB =0 so that B=0 and when x=1000 mm, AB =0.0063 rad (0.361)
In BC, TBC =60 00020x Nm. Then, from Eq. (11.25)
When x=1000 mm, BC =0.0063 so that C=0.0016. Then
At mid-span where x=3000 mm, BC =0.0126 rad (0.722).
The torque is constant along the length of the beam and is 1 kNm.
Also the thickness is constant round the beam section so that the shear stress will be a
maximum where the area enclosed by the mid-line of the section wall is a minimum, i.e. at
the free end. Then
Also
Then
or
i.e.
Then
The maximum shear stress in the section is given by Eq. (11.31) in which, from Eq for thin-walled
sections the torsion constant J may be written as
Where s is the length and t the thickness of each component in the cross section or if t varies with s
FromEq.
The positive and negative signs in Eq. (11.31) indicate the direction of the shear stress in relation to the
assumed direction for s. Thus
Then,