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Torsion

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1 FORMULAS & TABLES

Torsion Diagrams and Formulas

The total angle of twist is given by

Closed sections

2 NATURE OF TORSIONAL LOADING


Torsional loading is the application of a force that tends to cause the member to twist about
its structural axis.

Torsion is usually referred to in terms of torsional moment or torque (T), which is basically
the product of the externally applied force and the moment arm or force arm. The moment
arm is the distance of the centerline of rotation from the line of force and perpendicular to
it. This distance often equals the distance from the member's center of gravity to its outer
fiber (radius of a round shaft, for example), but not always.
The principal deflection caused by torsion is measured by the angle of twist, or by the
vertical movement of one corner of the frame.
Steel, in rolled structural shapes or built-up sections, is very efficient in resisting torsion.
With steel, torsionally rigid sections are easily developed by the use of stiffeners.
Here are the three basic rules for designing structural members to make the best use of
steel where torsional loads are a problem:
1. Use closed sections where possible.
2. Use diagonal bracing.
3. Make rigid end connections.

3 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA


When a round shaft is subjected to a twisting or torsional moment (torque), the resulting
shear stress in the shaft is-

where:
= shear stress, psi
c = distance from center of section to outer fiber
T = torque, in.-Ibs.
J = polar moment of inertia of section, in.4 = Ix + Iy = 2I
The angular twist of a round shaft is

where:
over-all angular twist of shaft, in radians
(1 radian = 57.3" approx.)
L = length of shaft, in inches
Es = modulus of elasticity in shear (steel Es = 12,000,000 psi)
In most cases, the designer is interested in holding the torsional moment within the
material's elastic limit.
Where the torsional strength of a round shaft is required (i.e. the stress it can take without
failure), the polar section modulus is J/c, and the allowable torque is thus-

where, lacking test data, the ultimate shear strength of steel (u) is assumed to be in the
order of 75% of the material's ultimate tensile strength.

The above three formulas are true for solid round or tubular round shafts. For non-circular
sections the shear stresses are not uniform, and therefore the standard torsional formulas
no longer hold.

4 TORSIONAL RESISTANCE
Values of torsional resistance (R)-stiffness factor have been established for various
standard sections and provide more reliable solutions to torsional rigidity problems.
Values of R are expressed in inches to the fourth power.
Table 1 shows the formulas
for
shear
stress
and
torsional
resistance
of
various sections.
The formulas for solid
rectangular sections call for
values, of and , which
are derived from the ratio
of section width (b) to
depth (d), as shown in the
table.

Actual tests show that the torsional


resistance (R) of an open section made up of
rectangular areas nearly equals the sum of
the torsional resistances of all the individual
rectangular areas. For example, the torsional
resistance of an I-beam is approximately
equal to the sum of the torsional resistances
of the two flanges and web (Fig. 1).
Figure 2 shows the results of twisting an I
beam made of three equal plates.
Calculated values of twist by using
- the conventional polar moment of
inertia (J)
and
the torsional resistance (R) are
compared with
the actual results.
This shows greater accuracy
torsional resistance (R).

by

using

This means that the torsional resistance of a flat plate is approximatcly thc same whether it
is used
as such or is formed into an angle, channel, open tube
section, etc. This is illustrated in Figure 3. Samples
of different sections made of 16-gage steel are subjected
to torsion. The flat section twists go. The same picce
of steel formed into a channel (b) twists 9\>0. When
rolled into a tube with an open beam (c), it twists 11 o.
When the same section is made into a closed
section (d) by placing a single tack weld in thc middle
of the open seam, the torsional resistance increases
several hundred times. When the tube becomes a
closed section, the torsional stresses are distributed
morc evenly over the total area, thus permitting a
greater load.
N atice the error in using polar moment of inertia
(J) for the angle of twist of open seetions, and the
good agreement by using torsional resistance (R).
Design Rule No.1: USE CLOSED SECTIONS
WHERE POSSIBLE

Torsion and bending

5.1 Behaviour
Pure torsion occurs very rarely in steel structures. Most commonly, torsion occurs in
combination with bending actions. The torsion actions may be classified as primary or
secondary, depending on whether the torsion action is required to transfer load (primary
torsion), or whether it arises as a secondary action. Secondary torques may arise as a
result of differential twist rotations compatible with the joint rotations of primary frames, as
shown in Figure 10.31, and are often predicted by three-dimensional analysis programs.
They are not unlike the secondary bending
moments which occur in rigid-jointed trusses, but which are usually ignored (a procedure
justified by many years of satisfactory experience based on the longstanding practice of
analysing rigid-jointed trusses as if pin-jointed).
Secondary torques are usually small when there are alternative load paths of high stiffness,
and may often be ignored.
Primary torsion actions may be classified as being restrained, free, or destablising,
as shown in Figure 10.32. For restrained torsion, the member applying the
torsion action (such as ABC shown in Figure 10.32b) also applies a restraining
action to the member resisting the torsion (DEC in Figure 10.32b). In this case, the
structure is redundant, and compatibility between the members must be satisfied in
the analysis if the magnitudes of the torques and other actions are to be determined
correctly. Free torsion occurs when the member applying the torsion action (such as ABC in
Figure 10.32c) does not restrain the twisting of the torsion member (DEF),but does prevent
its lateral deflection.
Destablising torsion may occur when the
member applying the torsion action (such as BC in Figure 10.32d) does not restrain
either the twisting or the lateral deflection of the torsion member (DCE). In this
case, lateral buckling actions (Chapter 6) caused by the in-plane loading of the
torsion member amplify the torsion and out-of-plane bending behaviour.
The inelastic non-linear bending and torsion of fully braced, centrally braced,
and unbraced I-beams with central concentrated loads (see Figure 10.33) have been
analysed [25], and interaction equations developed for predicting their strengths. It
was found that while circular interaction equations are appropriate for short length
braced beams, these provide unsafe predictions for beams subject to destabilising torsion,
where lateral buckling effects become important. On the other hand,destablising
interactions between lateral buckling and torsion tend to be masked by
the favourable effects of the secondary axial stresses that develop at large rotations,
and linear interaction equations based on plastic analyses provide satisfactory
strength predictions, as shown in Figure 10.34. Proposals based on these findings
are made below for the analysis and design of members subject to combined
torsion and bending.

6 INTRODUCTION
For beam design, when the transverse loads do not pass through the shear center of the
cross section, the member will be subjected to a combinationof plane bending and torsional

moment. Consequently the following longitudinal stresses (perpendicular to the cross


section) and shear stresses (in theplane of the cross section) will be developed in the
member:
1. Due to Plane Bending
f = longitudinal bending stress.
v = shear stress.
2. Due to Torsion
w = warping longitudinal stress.
t= pure torsional shear stress (or St. Venant shear stress).
= warping shear stress.
In general, the longitudinal and shear stresses due to plane bending and torsional moment
are computed separately and then combined for the final results. This appendix covers the
location of the shear centre and summarizes the methods used for determining torsional
stresses.

7 SHEAR CENTER
For any open shapes as shown in Fig. B.1, the shear center of the cross section can be
located by x0 and y0 as follows:

where x0 = x coordinate of shear center


y0 = y coordinate of shear center
Ix, Iy = moments of inertia of cross section about xand y-axes, respectively

t = wall thickness
x, y = coordinates measured from centroid to any
point P located on middle line of cross section
s = distance measured along middle line of cross
section from oneend to point P
l = total length of middle line of cross section
= perpendicular distance to tangent line from
centroid (c.g.). The magnitude of is positive if the
centroid is to the left of anobserver standing at P and
looking toward the positive direction
ofthetangent.
Since cold-formed sections are usually composed of flat elements, the computation of the
above properties (Ix, Iy, and ) can be simplified as followsby using the notations shown
in Fig. B.2

Fig. B.2

Table B.1 includes values of x0 and y0 for equal-leg angles, channels, hatsections, and Zsections (Fig. B.3).

All equations are based on square corners.Reference 1.159 contains some general
equations based on round corners forarea and moment of inertia.
where E = modulus of elasticity, 29.5 103ksi (203 GPa)

If the equations in Table B.1 are to be used tocompute the values of x0, the error is usually
less than 5%, except that aslightly larger error may be expected for angle sections.

A = total area of cross section

0 = perpendicular distance to tangent line from shear center (s.c.) (Fig. B.1). The
magnitude of 0 is positive if the shear center isto the left of an observer standing at P and
looking toward thepositive direction of the tangent
= second derivative of angle of rotation with respect to z. Severaltypical equations for
the angle of rotation are given in TableB.2
In Table B.2,G = shear modulus, = 11.3 103ksi (78 GPa)

J = St. Venant torsion constant of cross section. For thin-walled sectionscomposed of n


segments of uniform thickness,

Cw = warping constant of torsion of cross section,

8 TORSIONAL STRESSES
As mentioned in Art. B.1, when a torsional moment Mt is applied to thebeam, as shown in
Fig. B.4, the member is subjected to warping longitudinalstress, pure torsional shear stress,
and warping shear stress.

8.1 Warping Longitudinal Stress w


The warping longitudinal stress developed
in the beam flange can be computedby
using Eq. (B.9). It is constant across the
thickness of the beam flange. The
distribution of the longitudinal stresses
along the flange is shown in Fig. B.5.

The values of Cw for angles, channels, hat sections, and Z-sections are alsoincluded in
Table B.1. All equations are based on square corners. These Cwvalues are used for
determining torsional stresses and for the design of singlysymmetric and point-symmetric
sections to be used as compression members.

8.2 Pure Torsional Shear Stress t


The maximum pure torsional shear stress
parallel to the edge of the elementcan be
computed by using Eq. (B.18) or Eq. (B.19).
These shear stresses varylinearly across the
thickness of each element of the cross
sections, as shownin Fig. B.6.

8.3 Warping Shear Stress w


The warping shear stress can be computed by using Eq. (B.20). These shear stresses act in
the direction parallel to the edge of the element. As shown in Fig. B.7, they are constant
across the thickness of an element of the crosssection. The maximum stress occurs at the
midwidth of the flange,

where
Sw = warping statical moment at point P, shown in Fig. B.1
=third derivative of angle of rotation with respect to z
It should be noted that torsional stresses are determined by material properties (E and G),
torsional properties (n, S, J, and Cw), cross-section dimensions, and derivatives of the
angle of rotation.

Torsional properties vary in the cross section, and


derivatives of the angle of rotation change along
thelength of the member.
Therefore a study should be made on the
combination of plane bending stresses and torsional
stresses along the length of the member with due
consideration given to the direction of stress.

8.4 Shear stress


= T R / JR = radius

8.5 Table Shearcenter, torsional rigidity and warping rigidity


e Location of shear center (S)
J Torsional constant C=GJ
* (=Cw) : Warping rigidity = /E

9 ASSUMPTIONS IN ANALYSIS
A. A bar is straight.
B. A bar is twisted uniformly.

C. A bar has the same cross sectional shape at any point.


D. The cross section of a twisted bar never distorts, it only rotates perpendicularly
around the torsional axis. Even after twisting, the plane of a cross section still
remains in a plane. This, in other words, means that there is no normal stress along
the bars length due to twisting.

9.1 Table.Category of torsional theory

9.2 TORSIONAL BUCKLING


.
LRFD Design for Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling
For design, AISC-E3 implies that the nominal strength of compression members with
compact and noncompact sections (as defined in AISC-B4) can be computed 11 irlrout con
sidering j7exural-torsional buckling. .
Compression members without slender elements that are singly symmetnc or
unsymmetrical, and certain doubly syn.unetric sections, such as cruciform and built u~ sec
tions,
must be designed to include the flexural -torsional btlcklinglinuttatea~o: ordmg to
AISC-E4. Single angle compression members are excluded from these pro,ision s and a rc
to be designed according to AISC-E3, E5 and E7 . .
For doubly symmetric sections (such as built-up \-section s), when the llexural-tor~t<nal
limit state is evaluated, an equivalent radiu s of g y ration ,- can be ompared " ith r'
and ,.,_ to
reduce the computations . The alternative is to compute the "la stictleural-torsional
buck\m~
stress Fe from Eq . 8. 12.9 [identical to AISC Fonnula (E4-4 ] and compare with F\' r
C\'mputed
using the larger of K_rL .) r.\.and K,.L J r, . in the column fommlasl'f fSC-E3 (alste t
Chapter 6) .
To develop therE' e quatio n. set Eq. 8 . 12 .9 equal to the Eukr equation

whichfo r steel with E / G = 2.6 gives

Synglyasimmetric sections may buckle in a combmauon flexural- torsional mode which will
depend on the Euler column bucling stress Fcysymmemc sec 1 n ' F f .f e,
which will depend on the Euler column buckling stress 'c)' or ax~s 0 sy~etry, and the

J
Where

E = tension-compression modulus of elasticity ksi


G = shear modulus of elasticity, ksi
Cw = torsional warping constant, in. 6
J = torsion constant, in. 4
Ix .ly = moment of inertia about priocipal axes, x and y
IP = polar moment of inertia, in. 4
Ky. K,_ = effective length factors in they-direction, and for torsional buckling (z-axis)
x0 , Yo = coordinates of shear center with respect to centroid of set:tion, in
ry = radius of gyration about the axis of symmetry
r0 = polar radius of gyration about the shear center
dbl . t' ons It has been demonstrated that only for short lengths Will or ou y symmetnc
sec 1 . rf
be lower than r x and r l' for W shapes [6.9] .
To develop therE' e quatio n. set Eq. 8 .12 .9 equal to the Eukr equation.
9.2.1 EXAMPLE 8.12.1
For the sections given in Fig. 8. 12.2, determine under what conditions , if any,
torsional or flexural-torsional buckling is likely to occur under axial compression
loading. Assume the members pinned at the ends of the unbraced lengths, and free
to warp at the ends, fully recognizing that these two assumptions minimize buckling
strength.

(a) W8X31. Since the centroid and


togettheequivalentrE:
(AISC ManualTable 1-1,1 = 0.536in. 4 )

shear

center

coincide,

use

Eq

.8.12

.10

where L is the unsupported length, in feet. Only when L is less than 4.9 ft does r y exceed
rE ;
only for a very short column is torsional buckling a possibility, and even when if
approached
Its minimum value (when L = O) , which is rE(min) = 1.90 in . it is only 6% less than r y.
The result using this section is typical of standard w and S shapes and indicates
torsionalbuckling may generally be neglected for them
(b)

WT8X28 .5.

The

centroid and shear centre do not coincide. but the section has one axis of

symmetry; use Eq. 8.12.11 :


Using the formula from text Appendix Table A2.

The AJSC Manual [1.15, Table I-ll gives J = 1.10 in. 3 and Cw = 1.99 in6 .

For use in Eq. 8.12.11, compute the critical stresses Fe,and Fe: from Eqs. 8.1 2 12.and
8.12.13 using for an effective length KL (for y - and ~- axes) the conunon length of 10ft:

The distance Yo from the centroid of the section to the shear center at the junction of the
mjd-thicknesses of the flange and the web is

ThenusingEq. 8.12.11 ,

Equating Fe to Euler's formula, an equivalent radius f' of gyration for flexural- torsional
buckling can be obtained to compare with rxand ry.
->rE = 1.51 in.
In this case 'E is Less than 'r = 1.60 in. and flexural-torsional buckling is critical for ordinary
lengths. The same situation will occur with double angle compression members.
An equal Leg angle (such as in Fig. 8.12.2c) will have Z2 as its axis of symmetry, and
theradius of gyration with respect to that axis must be used for ry in Eq. 8.12.12. 1
As a conclusion to th.is treatment, the designer is cautioned about using open
sections(torsionally weak sections) in compression having less than two axes of
symmetry,particularly when high width/thickness ratios exist for the elements.
The width/thicknessratio limits (r in AISC-B4) for control of local buckling, if not exceeded,
provide somecontrol since local buckling of sections such as angles, flanges, and tees is
closely relatedto torsional buckling.

10 I-SECTIONS UNDER TORSION


if a torsion member is fully restrained by a heavy support at one end, warping at the end
section is prevented. Hence, for a torsion member with a noncircular cross section, a
normal stress distribution that prevents warping occurs at the restrainedend. In addition, a
shear stress distribution is developed at the restrained end to balance the torsional load.

Consider the I-section torsion


member
(Figure
6.19)
constrained against warping at
the wall. At a section near the
wall (Figure 6.19a), the torsional
load is transmitted mainly by
lateral shear force V in each
flange. This shear force produces
lateral bending of each flange.
As a result, on the basis of
bending theory, a linear normal
stress distribution is produced at
the wall.
In addition, the shear stress
distribution in each flange, at the
wall, issimilar to that for shear
loading of a rectangular beam.
At smalldistancesawayfrom the
wall
(Figure
6.19b),
partial
warping
occurs,
and
the
torsional load is transmitted
partly bythe shear forces V <V
induced by warping restraint and
partly
by
Saint-Venants
(torsional)shear.

FIGURE 6.19 General effect of torsional load on


I-section
torsion
member.
(a)
Lateral
shearmainly. (b) Partly lateral shear and partly
torsional shear. (c) Torsional shear mainly.

At greater distances from the


wall (Figure 6.19c), the effect of
the restrained
end is diminished, and the
torque is transmitted mainly by
torsional shear stresses. These
conditions are illustrated further
by a solution for an I-section
torsion member presented
later in thissection.
Thin-wall hollow torsion members
with restrained ends (see Figure
6.20) may also
warp under torsion. However, in
contrast to torsion members with
simply connected cross
sections, noncircular thin-wall hollow
torsion members may, under certain
conditions,
twist without warping. A solution
presented by von K h h and Chien
(1946) for
constant-thickness hollow torsion
members indicates that a torsion
member with equilateral polygon
cross section does not warp. By

contrast, if tl= t2, the rectangular


section
hollow torsion member (a # b) in
Figure 6.20 tends to warp when
subjected to torsion
loads and, hence, to develop a
normal stress distribution at a
restrained end.
As a generalization of the von KhAn-Chien solution, a solution presented bySmith et al.
(1970) indicates that the torsion member in Figure 6.20 does not warp if bt 1 =at2.
In addition, they presented a solution for the case when a/b = 3/8, t 1= b/32, and t2 =b/ 16.
They found that the normal stress distribution at the end was nonlinear as indicatedin
Figure 6.20 with m, = 0.0114T, where Max, has the units of MPa and T has the unitsof N m.
For hollow torsion members with rectangular sections of constant thickness andrestrained
ends, similar normal stress distributions at a restrained end are predicted in thepapers by
von KhAn and Chien (1946) and Smith et al. (1970).
10.1.1
Restrained from Warping
Consider an I-section torsion member
subjected to a twisting moment T
(Figure 6.21a).
If both ends of the member are free,
the torsional moment T is resisted
entirely by the torsional
rigidity GJ, where the torsional
constant
J
of
the
member
is
approximately equal to
the combined torsional constants of
the cross sections of the individual
rectangles (two
flanges and the web); see Eq. 6.62.
However, if one end of the member is
restrained such
that warping is prevented (Figure
6.21a), the torsional moment T is
resisted by both the
torsional rigidity GJ of the web and
flanges and the warping rigidity of the
two flanges actingas beams parallel to
the (x, y) plane (Figure 6.21b).

Let the section at the wall be restrained from warping. A small distance from the wall, say,
at section AB, partial warping takes place and the twisting moment T may be considered to
be made up of two parts. One part is a twisting moment TI produced by the
lateral shear forces since these forces constitute a couple with moment arm h. Hence,
T1= Vh (6.70)

The second part is twisting moment T2, which produces warping on the section in
theabsence of end restraint. Hence, T2 isgivenbyEq. 6.63 as
T2= JG (6.7 1 )
The values of T, and T2 are unknown since the values of Vand8 at any section are notknown.
Values of these quantities must be found before the lateral bending stresses in the flanges or the
torsional shear stresses in the I-section can be computed. For this purpose, two equations are needed. From the condition of
equilibrium, one of these equations is
T1+T2=T
which by Eqs. 6.70 and 6.71 may be written
Vh+JG= T (6.72)

torsion member and the distance from the fixed section of the beam. In Figure 6 .2 2 the
distance from the fixed section to the section AB at which the straight-line portion of the
curve intersects the horizontal axis is very nearly equal to the distance a as given by Eq.
6.80. Thus, from this fact and from Eq. 6.88, the length L - a of the beam between the free
end and section AB may be considered as being twisted under pure torsion for the purpose
of computing the angle of twist. From Eq. 6.89 the sections of the beam within the length a
from the fixed section to section AB may be considered as transmitting the entire twisting
momentT by means of the lateral shear V in the flanges. Therefore,
T = Vhor V = T / h (6.90
The force V causes each flange of length a to bend laterally, producing a normal stress in
the flange, tensile stress at one edge, and compressive stress at the other (Figure
6 . 2 2 ~A) .s suming that each flange has a rectangular cross section, we have at the fixed
end

The value for a is given by Eq. 6.80, in which E and G are the tensile and shear
moduli of elasticity, respectively, I, is the moment of inertia of the entire section with
respect to a centroidal axis parallel to the web, and J is an equivalent torsional constant of
the section. Values of a calculated by this equation come close to values obtained from
actual tests. For a section made up of slender, approximately rectangular elements, such as
a rolled-steel channel, angle, or I-section, J is given by Eq. 6.62 if it is noted that bjin this
section replaces 2bj in Eq. 6.62 and tireplaces 2hj in Eq. 6.62. All equations in this section
have been derived for I-sections, but they apply as well to channels or Z-sections.

10.1.2
Various Loads and Supports for Beamsin Torsion
The solution of Eq. 6.81 given by Eq. 6.82 is for the particular beam shown in Figure 6.21.
However, solutions of the equation have been obtained for beams loaded and supported as
shown in Table 6.2 by arranging the particular solution of the differential equation to suit
the conditions of loading and support for each beam. The values of the maximum lateral
bending moment Mmaxgiven in Table 6.2 may be used in Eq. 6.91 to compute the maximum
lateral bending stress in the beam. The formulas in Table 6.2 where I-sections are
shown may also be used for channels or Z-sections.

10.2 WARPING
Assumption (D) is not satisfied in this I-section bar. This distortion of the plane is called
warping.
Technical document V1901-R-FD-009
When the section rotates around the z-axis, the web of the section experiencesonly torsion,
on the other hand, the two flanges will experience bending as wellas torsion. If the section
rotates by an angle , the rotation will cause a horizontaldisplacement of the flanges of h
/2.

Torsion with warping deformation of 1 section bar


These displacements induce shearing forces inthe upper and lower flanges and each
component is

Where h is the height of the web and If is the sectional moment of inertia of theflange
around the x-axis.
These shearing forces in a flange make a twisting moment T 2:

In addition, pure torsion is induced due to twisting as follows:

Therefore, equilibrium of external torsional moment and internal torsional moment


can be expressed as in the following form:
T = T1+T2

This is a fundamental equation of torsion with warping of an I-section bar. This equation is
different from that of pure torsion in terms of the existence of EIf h 2/2, which is called
warping rigidity and expressed by . Therefore, Eq. (7.4.4) canbe rewritten in theform:

This example of an I-section bar is an easy case to understand in that the flange creates an
additional moment due to warping

10.3 Various Loads and Supports for Beams in Torsion


The solution of Eq. (6.81) given by Eq. (6.82) is for the particular beam shown in Fig. 6.20.
However, solutions of the equation have been obtained for beams loaded and supported as
shown in Figs. A, B, C, and D in Table 6.2 by arranging the particular solution of the
differential equation to suit the conditions of loading and support for each beam. The
values of the maximum lateral bending moment Mmaxgiven in Table 6.2 may be used in
Eq. (6.91) to compute the maximum

10.3.1

TABLE 6.2 Beams Subjected to Torsion

10.3.2

TABLE 6.3 y, Ty, Tp, and Tp/T for Five Common Cross Sections

10.3.3

Full plastic torque Tpfor Common Structural Sections

11 TORSIONALLY SIMPLY SUPPORTED


Analysis for Torsional Moment

figure 8.5.4
case of Concentrated torsionalmoment at midspan;torsionally simply supported.
Develop, using the differential equation, the expressions for the twist angle 4>, as well the
first, second, and third derivatives, for the case of concentrated torsional moment applied
at midspan when the ends are torsionally simply supported
Solution:
Referring to Fig. 8.5.4, it is apparent that Mz is constant and equal to T/2. Thuslet
p = C1+ C2z (any polynomial)

The other constant C1 may be combined with C of Eq. 8.5 .14 . The complete solution for
this loading is therefore
Consider the boundary conditions for torsional simple support. Thinking of the lateral
bending of the flange (since is proportional touf). simple support conditions mean zero
moment and deflection at each end , or for torsion:

ln this case the differential equation is dis continuo us at L/2. Thus G using zero slope
'h-:.ge at L/2 i.e.,</>' = 0, along withcf> = 0 and" == 0 0 .': it1
i ,H the IJ)ree constants of Eq. (b

12 OPEN SECTION BARS


12.1 Shear Centre

Many practical cases can be solved without using the general formulas.
Since the shear centre location is a problem in equilibrium , moments may most
conveniently
be taken through a point that eliminates the greatest number of forces . Thus,
letting Yr = 0 and taking moments about point A of Fig. 8.4.1 a, changes the equilibrium
equation, Eq. 8.4.2. to

(a)
where according to Eq. 8 .3.5
(b)
For these thin-wall sections , the lengths along which integration is performed is measured
at mid-thickness. Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (a) , and using y = - h/2 where t = tf gives

Thus the shear centre location along the x-axis is

measured in the positive x direction to the left of the channel web.


For the shear centre coordinate measured along the y-axis, apply Vx. and let Vy= 0, and
because of symmetry Vx must act at y = 0 for equilibrium.
To demonstrate, let Vx beapplied at the distance y0 below the x-axis and take moments
about point A. Satisfyingequilibrium

whereaccordingtoEq. 8.3.6,

In the case of a twisted bar with an open section, the bar generates not only
torsionaldeformation but also warping deformation. Since that warping is not constant at
any point in a cross section, it induces normal stress as a result. The general theory of
torsion with warping was established by Wagner.
Before discussing the torsion with warping, let us investigate the shear centre. When a
shearing force is applied at an arbitrary point on a bar having an open section, the force
creates a torsional moment around the center of twisting and consequently it induces
torsional deformation and bending deformation simultaneously.
However, in the case where the force acts on the centre of twisting, torsional
deformationwill never occur and only bending deformation will be induced. That twisting
centre point is called shear centre.
In order to obtain the shear centre, the shearing distribution of a cross section must first be
considered. Figure 1 represents the mechanism where a change in normal stress induces
shearing stress. Figure 1(a) illustrates the cross section.
Let us consider the equilibrium force in the lower portion of the section; i.e. hatched area.
In the longitudinal direction of this bar, the normal stress due to bending of the bar is
distributed as shown in Figure 1(b). By cutting out the lower portion from this section at y =
y1 level, we can observe that the normal stress is acting onboth sides of the portion and the
shearing stress is working on the cut out surface inFigure 1(c).
The difference in the normal stress on both sides is caused by thechange of moment V
x, where V is a shearing force acting on the cross section, andthe sum of the differences
in the normal stresses must equal the shearing stress T yx.

Figure 1. Shearing stress distribution due to change of normal stress

as explained in Figure 1(d). Hence from the equilibrium of the horizontal forces acting on
the lower portion in Fig. 7.5.1(e), the following equation can be derived:

(7.5.1)
The derivation of this equation is already explained by Eq. (2.1.7) in Sect. 2.1.
Equation (2.1.7) deals with the shearing stress in the web plate, whereas, the above
Eq. (7.5.1) is more generalized.

12.2 Example Open Sections


By using this relation between shearing stress and bending stress, let us calculatethe shear
center of a channel section subjected to a vertical force of 7500 kgf in Fig. 7.5.2(a). The
sectional moment of inertia I is obtained as follows:

Figure 2.Detail of shearing stress distribution

When a slice of length x= 1 (cm) is cut from the channel, the bending moment created by
a shearing force V becomes Vx, then the difference in the normal stress of the flange
due to this bending moment is calculated in the following form asshown in Fig. 7.5.2(b):

If we define the shear flow q by multiplying shearing stress _ and plate thickness t, then the
shear flow of the flange at the point x from the free edge is obtained as follows by
considering that the shearing stress must equal the sum of the normal stress as shown in
Fig. 7.5.2(c):

In the vicinity of the web plate of the channel, the shear flow at the point y from the neutral
axis must support the sum of the normal stress of the flange and the normal stress in the
upper part of web as shown in Fig. 7.5.2(d). Therefore, itbecomes

In the lower part of the web or in the lower flange, the shear flow can be calculated in the
same manner, thus the shear flow distribution in this channel section is obtained as
illustrated in Fig. 7.5.2(e). The total shearing force in the web plate is estimated by
integrating the shear flow over the web plate height and this is

This shearing force equals the applied shearing force V.


From Fig. 7.5.2(e), the shearing force in the flanges and web is calculated by integrating
the shear flow and these forces are plotted in Fig. 7.5.2(f). The torsional moment around
the shear centre S in the flanges must be equivalent to that of the web plate, hence, the
equilibrium of these torsional moments is expressed in the
following form by taking from the distance of shear centre to the web plate as e:
2000h = 7500e

12.3 Shear Centre Equation


In more general form, the shear centre S of the open section as illustrated in Fig. 7.5.3 is
proved by the following equation:

where the warping rigidity (Cw=)


integration in terms of warping function w:

can be obtained by performing thefollowing

As shown in the above equation, torsional moment T includes the pure torsional moment as
well as moment due to warping. Typical examples of torsional rigidity and warping rigidity
are listed in 7.5.1

12.4 EXAMPLE SHEAR CENTRE IN OPEN CHANNEL


Locate the shear center for the channel section of Fig. 8.4.l.

b = 4 in., h = 12 in., and t = tw,


the
centroid of the channel (refer to Fig. 8.4.lc) is located

Thus it is shown that y0 is zero.


The shear centre may also be located as follows .First compute by integrating over each
stress distribution of Fig. 8.4. t. the shear forces acting ineach of the component elements
of the section. Then the shear centre is located such thatVx or Vy: counteract all of the
shear forces acting on the components to produce equilibrium.
In solving for the shear center location, the solution may be made as illustrated, and
thenchecked by verifying that the forces are in equilibrium

13 TORSION Of A Member With Narrow Semi Circular Cross Section


Consider a torsion member of narrow
semicircular cross section (Fig. E6.4), with
constant thickness 2h and mean radius a.
The mean circumference is 2b = a.
We consider the member to be equivalent
to a slender rectangular member of
dimension2h x a. Then, for a twisting
moment T applied to the member, by Eqs.
(6.62),

We approximate the maximum shear stress and angle of twist per unit length as follows:
Alternatively, we may express 8 in terms of max as

Alternatively, we may express 8 in terms of max as

14 Torsional Resistance of Frame and Various Sections

15 EXAMPLES
15.1 Example Hollow Thin-Wall Circular Torsion Member
EXAMPLE 6.5Hollow Thin-Wall Circular Torsion Member
A hollow circular torsionmember has anoutsidediameter of 22.0 mm and
insidediameter of 18.0 mm, with mean diameter D = 20.0 mm and t/D = 0.10.
(a) Lettheshear stress at the mean diameter be r = 70.0 MPa. Determine T and 8
usingEqs.
(6.66)
and
(6.67)
and
compare
thesevalueswithvaluesobtainedusingtheelasticitytheory. G = 77.5 GPa.
(b) Let a cut be madethroughthewallthicknessalongtheentirelength of
thetorsionmember
and
letthemaximumshear
stress
in
theresultingtorsionmember be 70.0 MPa. Determine T and 8.

Equations 6.67 & 6.68

Solution
(a) Thearea A enclosedbythe mean perimeteris
A=D^2/4 = 100mm^2
The torque givenby 6.66 is:

Theapproximatesolutionagreeswiththeelasticitytheory in thepredictionof theunitangle of


twist
and
yields
torque
thatdiffersbyonly
1%.
Notethattheapproximatesolutionassumesthattheshear
stress
wasuniformlydistributed,
whereastheelasticitysolutionindicatesthatthemaximumshearstress
is
10%
greaterthanthevalue at the mean diameter, sincetheelasticitysolutionindicatesthat r
isproportionalto r.
Note thatfor a thintube J =2R3t = 4000mm4 ,
where
R isthe mean radius and t thewallthickness (seeProblem 6.17).
(b) When a cutismadethroughthewallthicknessalongtheentirelength of thetorsionmember,
thetorsionmemberbecomesequivalentto a longnarrowrectangle, forwhichthetheory of Sec.
6.5 applies. Thus, with h = 1 andb = 10

Hence, afterthecut, the torque is 6.7% of the torque forpart (a), whereastheunitangle of
twist is 5 times greaterthanthatforpart (a). However, themaximumshear stress
isessentiallyunchanged.

15.2 Example Two Compartment Hollow Thin-Wall Torsion Member


EXAMPLE6.6 Two Compartment Hollow Thin-Wall Torsion Member
A hollow thin-wall torsion member has two compartments with cross-sectional
dimensions as indicated in Fig. E6.6. The material is an aluminium alloy for which G
= 26.0 GPa. Determine the torque and unit angle of twist if the maximum shear
stress, at locations away from stress concentrations, is 40.0 MPa.
SOLUTION

Possiblelocations of the maximumshear


stress
are
in
the
outerwall
of
compartment 1 where t1 = 4.5 mm, in
theouterwall of compartment 2 where t2
= 3.0 mm, and the wall between the two
compartments wheret3 = 1.5 mm.
To determine thecorrectlocation, wemust
determine the ratio of q1 to q2 .

First, wewritethethreeequationsgivenbyEq. (6.68) and Eqs. (6.69).


Sincetheunitangle of twist givenbyEq. (b) isequaltothatgivenbyEq. (c), the ratio of q 1 to q2
isfoundto be

15.3 EXAMPLE. SHEAR CENTRE


Example B.1 For the beam (channel
section) shown in Fig. B.8,
determinethe maximum longitudinal
stress and shear stress under the
following twoconditions:
A. Uniform load applied through
shear center (s.c.)
B. Uniform load applied through
centroid (c.g.)
Use E = 29,500 ksi and G = 11,300 ksi.
Assume that both ends of the beamare
simply supported flexurally and
torsionally.

Solution
A. Uniform Load Applied through Shear Center (s.c.)
Since the uniform load is applied through the shear center of the cross section, the beam is
subject only to the plane bending without torsional moment.
1. Sectional Properties. Based on the methods discussed in the text, the following required
sectional properties can be computed:
Ix = 7.84 in4, Zx= 2.24 in3
2. Longitudinal Stress. The maximum bending moment at midspan is

The maximum longitudinal stress in the flange is

3. Shear Stress. As discussed in Art. 4.3.3.1, the shear stress v due to plane bending can
be computed by
Therefore, as shown in Fig. B.9, the maximum shear stresses developed in the beam flange
and the web are computed as follows:

At the intersection flange-web: Q2 =


Q3 = (Bf-R)tfd/2
At the centre of beam:
Q5 = Q2 + t.w d/2 d/4
Shear stresses:

By using the average stress method

It can be seen that for this channel section the value of v 5 is approximately 25% higher
than the average value vav.
B. Uniform Load Applied through Centroid (c.g.)
When the uniform load is applied through the centroid, as
shown in Fig. B.10a, the beam is subject to plane bending
and a uniformly distributed torque because for the given
channel section the shear center and the centroid do not
coincide. In order to compute the longitudinal stress and
the shear stresses developed from the torsional moment,
the shear center should be located and torsional
properties such as J, Cw, n, and Sw should be computed.
In addition, the equation for the angle of rotation and its
derivatives must also be derived and evaluated.

The following calculations are based on the procedures given by Galambos in Ref. 2.45.
1. Location of Shear Center.
Based on the midline dimensions shown in Fig. B.10a, the shear center of the given channel
section can belocated by using the value of x0 computed from the equation given in Table
B.1 for channels with unstiffened flanges:

2. Torsional Properties.
By using the midline dimensions, the torsional properties can be computed as follows:
a. St. Venant torsion constant. FromEq. (B.14)

J = 1/3(2

b. Warping constant of torsion. From Eq. (B.17) or the equationgiven in Table B.1,

c. Normalized warping constant. From Eqs.(B.10) through (B.13)or using the equations
given in Ref. 2.45 for channels, the valuesof n1 through n4 shown in Fig. B.10b can be
computed:

d. Warping statical moment. From Eq. (B.21) or using the equationsgiven in Ref. 2.45, the
values of S2, S3, S5, and S6 as shownin Fig. B.10c can be computed:

3. Equation of Angle of Rotation and its Derivatives.


From Table B.2, the following equation can be used for the angle of rotation:

The derivatives with respect to z are as follows:

4. Warping Longitudinal Stress.


The warping longitudinal stress can be computed by using Eq. (B.9):
a. At z = 0,
b. At z = L/2,

Therefore,

By using E = 29,500 ksi and the values of n1


through n4 givenin Fig. B.10b, the warping
longitudinal stresses at z = L/2 forpoints 1
through 4 shown in Fig. B.10a are computed:

The distribution of w is shown in Fig. B.11a.


5. Combined Longitudinal Stress.
From case A of this problem, the distribution of the longitudinal stress f due to plane
bending is shown in Fig. B.11b. The longitudinal stresses are combined in the following
table

The combined longitudinal stresses are shown in Fig. B.11c. The maximum longitudinal
stress of 25.74 ksi is 28% higher than the longitudinal stress due to plane bending.
6. ShearStressesDuetoTorsion
a. Pure torsional shear stress. By using Eq. (B.18), the pure torsional shear stress is

At z = 0

Therefore the pure torsion shear stress in flanges and the web is

The distribution of t is shown in Fig. B.12a and d.

b. Warping shear stress. By using Eq. (B.20), the warping shear stress is

At z = 0,

Therefore the warping shear stress is

Using the values of S given in Fig. B. 10c,

The distribution of Sw is given in Fig. B.12b and e.


7. Combined Shear Stresses.
The combined shear stresses at z = 0 canbe summarized in the following table, in which
the shear stress v dueto plane bending is obtained from case A.

The maximum shear stress of 11.468 ksi occurs at point 5, which is the neutral axis of the
channel section.
For additional information on torsional analysis, see Ref. B.3.

15.4 EXAMPLE Maximum Shear Stress


Compare the torsional resisting moment T and the torsional constant J for the
sections of Fig. 8.1 0.3 all having about the same cross-sectional area.
Themaximumshear stress is 14 ksi.

Solution:
(a) Circular thin-wall section. UsingEq. 8.10.4,

(h) Rectangular box section

(c) Channel section. Since for this open section,

the maximum shear stress will be in the flange. Also,

The circular section is best for torsional capacity, the rectangular box is next; these closed
sections have the torsional constant 1 equal to 96 and 71 times that of the channel
respectively. The resisting moments are I 9 and 1.8, respectively, times that of the channel.

15.5 RHS/SHS simply supported - TORSION


The thin-walled box section beam ABCD shown in Fig. P.11.6 is attached at each end
to supports which allow rotation of the ends of the beam in the longitudinal vertical
plane of symmetry but prevent rotation of the ends in vertical planes perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis of the beam. The beam is subjected to a uniform
torqueloading of 20Nm/mm over the portion BC of its span.
Calculate the maximum shear stress in the cross section of the beam and the
distribution of angle of twist along its length G = 70 000N/mm2.

B = 200 mm , H =350 mm , tB = 4 mm , tD = 6 mm
The total torque applied to the beam is 20 4 10 3 Nm.
From symmetry the reactive torques at support points A and D will be equal and are:
TAB = 20 Nm 4m /2 = 40 103 Nm. Therefore,

Note that the torque distribution is antisymmetrical about the centre of the beam. The
maximum torque in the beam is therefore 40 000Nm so that, from Eq. (11.22)
Area enclosed: A = H B = 200 350

tmin= min (4mm, 6mm) = 4mm

The rate of twist d/dT along the length of the beam is given by Eq. (11.25) in which

With G, the shear modulus, is constant round the section

Therefore, integrating:
=2 [(B/tB) + D/tD]

Then

In AB, TAB =40 000Nm so that


AB = 15.7910-14 T 40000 103 =

When x=0, AB =0 so that B=0 and when x=1000 mm, AB =0.0063 rad (0.361)
In BC, TBC =60 00020x Nm. Then, from Eq. (11.25)
When x=1000 mm, BC =0.0063 so that C=0.0016. Then
At mid-span where x=3000 mm, BC =0.0126 rad (0.722).

15.6 TAPPERED SECTION, CANTILEVER


Figure P.11.7 shows a thinwalled cantilever box-beam
having a constant widthof
50mm and a depth which
decreases linearly from
200mm at the built-in end
to150mm at the free end. If
the beam is subjected to a
torque of 1 kNm at its free
end,plot the angle of twist of
the beam at 500mm intervals
along its length and
determine
the maximum shear stress in
the beam section. Take G=25
000N/mm2.

The torque is constant along the length of the beam and is 1 kNm.

Also the thickness is constant round the beam section so that the shear stress will be a
maximum where the area enclosed by the mid-line of the section wall is a minimum, i.e. at
the free end. Then

The rate of twist is given by Eq. (11.25) in which


varies along the length of the beam
as does the area enclosed by the mid-line of the section wall. Then

Also

Then

or

i.e.

Then

When x=0, =10.6 etc.

15.7 Thin walled section


The cold-formed section shown in Fig. P.11.8
is subjected to a torque of 50 Nm. Calculate
the maximum shear stress in the section and
its rate of twist.
G=25 000N/mm2.
Ans. max =220.6N/mm2,
d/dx=0.0044 rad/mm.

The maximum shear stress in the section is given by Eq. (11.31) in which, from Eq for thin-walled
sections the torsion constant J may be written as

Where s is the length and t the thickness of each component in the cross section or if t varies with s

Then , for open sectionsmax = Tt/J

FromEq.

The positive and negative signs in Eq. (11.31) indicate the direction of the shear stress in relation to the
assumed direction for s. Thus

Then,

15.8 Channel. Cantilever


Structural-and-Stress-Analysis-T H G Megson.pdf

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