-

A CASE STUDY ON IMPROVING

LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING PROJECTS
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree

MAGISTER INGENERIAE

Ill

ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT
in the
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
by
BESIM U. BALCI

Supervisor: Prof. Leon Pretorius

JOHANNESBURG
JULY2004

}l6stract
The ability of construction firms to stay solvent largely depends on productivity.
Productivity improvement is the key to economic prosperity in the long term. It
provides the basis for increasing wages and more prosperous firms. Various methods
can be implemented to measure and increase productivity which will result an
increased output and efficiency.

The aim of this work is to address the methods to be used for labour productivity
measurement and improvement in civil engineering context. A case study will be
done on a current construction project.

CONTENTS

Pg

Abstract

List of Tables
List of Figures

4
5
6

1 INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

INTRODUCTION
PROBLEM STATEMENT
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
RESEARCH APPROACH
CONCLUSION

8
8
10
10

2 PRODUCTIVIrY CONCEPT AND THE FACTORS AFFECTING

PRODUCTIVITY
2.1
2.2
2.3

2.4

12

THE PRODUCTIVITY CONCEPT

THE NEED FOR LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENT
FACTORS AFFECTING PRODUCTIVITY
2.3.1 External Factors of Productivity
2.3.2 Internal Factors of Productivity
CONCLUSION

12
13
14
15
18
20

3 PRODUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS

3.1
3.2

3.3
3.4

3.5

21

INTRODUCTION
OATA COLLECTION
3.2.1 Measuring Inputs and Outputs
3.2.2 Camcorders As Data Collection Tools
PARETO ANALYSIS
WORK STUDY
3.4.1 Method Study
3.4.1.1 Tools For Method Study
3.4.2 Work Measurement
3.4.2.1 Time Study
3.4.2.2 Work Sampling
CONCLUSION

21
22
23
23
24
25
27
30
35
36
41
48

4 PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENT
4.1
4.2

4.3

4.4
4.5
4.6

49

INTRODUCTION
PROJECT PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
4.2.1 Networks
4.2.2 Gantt Charts
COST ESTIMATION AND CONTROL
4.3.1 Estimating Labour Costs
4.3.2 Cost Control
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
FOREMAN DELAY SURVEYS
CONCLUSION

49
49
50
53
54
56
56
57
59
62

5 HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND MOTIVATION

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

63

INTRODUCTION
HUMAN RESOURCES PLANNING AND SELECTION
PROJECT MANAGER AS A LEADER
COMMUNICATION
MOTIVATION THEORIES
5.5.1 Maslow's Hierarchy Of Needs
5.5.2 Herzberg's Satisfiers And Dissatisfiers
5.5.3 McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

63
63
65
66
68
68
68
69

5.6
5.7
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5

6.6

SAFETY MANAGEMENT
CONCLUSION

69
71

A CASE STUDY ON PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENT

72

INTRODUCTION
TIME STUDY
WORK SAMPLING
FOREMAN DELAY SURVEY
METHOD STUDY .
CONCLUSION

72
73
77

79
82
86

7 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1
7.2
7.3

87
87
87
89
91
94

SUMMARY OF LITERATURE STUDY

SUMMARY OF CASE STUDY
RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES
APPENDIX

List of rfa6fes
Table 3.1 Relationship between purpose and measurement method
Table 3.2 Pareto Analysis
Table 3.3 Method study recording techniques
Table 3.4 Questioning
Table 3.5 Rates of working
Table 3.6 Relaxation allowances
Table 3.7 Time study observation sheet
Table 3.8 Relaxation allowances- formwork operation
Table 3.9 Activity codes
Table 3.1 0 Field count recording and analysis sheet
Table 3.11 Productive activities in bricklaying
Table 3.12 Non-productive activities in bricklaying
Table 3.13 Contributory activities in bricklaying
Table 3.14 Work Sampling Observation Sheet
Table 4.1 Calculation of man-hours for concrete wall
Table 4.2 Calculation of crew size and resulting duration
Table 4.3 Calculation oflabour costs for concrete wall formwork
Table 4.4 Cost control calculations
Table 4.5 Foreman Delay Survey
Table 4.6 Foreman Delay Survey Summary Form
Table 6.1 Brief description of site conditions and materials
Table 6.2 Time study sheet
Table 6.3 Time study abstract sheet
.
Table 6.4 Relaxation allowances
Table 6.5 Pilot study data
Table 6.6 Work Sampling
Table 6.7 Work Sampling Summary Table
Table 6.8 Foreman Delay Survey Form
Table 6.9 Foreman Delay Survey Summary Form
Table 6.10 Distance Savings

List of Pigures
Figure 1.1 Comparison of labour output trends in the U.K.
Figure 1.2 Comparison of labour output trends in South Africa
Figure 2.1 Relationship between inputs and outputs
Figure 2.2 Productiyity under various environmental conditions
Figure 3.1 Work Study Procedure
Figure 3.2 Typical symbols used in process charts
Figure 3.3 An example of outline process chart
Figure 3.4 Flow process chart of a reinforcement fabrication workshop
Figure 3.5 Crew balance chart- drainage pipe installation crew
Figure 3.6 Crew balance chart- Revised Process
Figure 3.7 String diagram showing concrete distribution in precast yard
Figure 3.8 Typical Construction Workday Breakdown
Figure 4.1 AON format
Figure 4.2 AOA format
Figure 4.3 Gantt Chart Sample
Figure 6.1 Site Layout
Figure 6.2 String Diagram of brick transportation [initial configuration]
Figure 6.3 String Diagram of brick transportation [proposed configuration]

CHAPTER 1
Introduction and (Rgsearcli 06;ectives
1.1 I ntrocfuction
In an increasingly competitive environment with low profit margins, it is productivity
which makes the difference between survival and failure. From 1975 to 1982 there
was a general decline in construction productivity in many biggest economies of the
world such as U.S. and U.K.. Following the decline strict measures were taken and
new management techniques were introduced which led to a new era in construction
productivity. The productivity rates began to increase and costs of production were
lessened. [ 1]

Civil engineering turnover constitutes about 10% of the Gross National Product(GNP)
in many countries. Yet when the productivity rates of construction with other
industries are compared, construction productivity falls below that achieved by the
economy as a whole.[l]

Many practitioners argue that productivity standards for construction work are
impossible to establish within precise limits. The productivity rate of a construction
project depends on many internal and external factors. The external factors are those
which are beyond the control ofthe individual enterprise or company and the internal
factors are those within its control. Some of the external factors are government
regulations, economic demand, capital and labour availability and competition for
resources. The internal factors can be classified as training, management, technology,
work methods, materials, planning and design.[1][2]The focus of this research will be
mostly on the internal factors that affect the productivity.

-----------------------------------------

--------

Labour Productivity in UK
250
200 . - _- _.-.,......... - J!" Construction I
><
150
r~~-----...,.,.~_
.........
,::-...--~-=----. I !
Industry
I
Q)
"C
_..-
l l-11- Manufacturing I
t: 100
Industry_ _____ J
50 -l~-c----~-'-----'----'---~-----~
0-

l_____

~\:) ~<o fb\:)

~Q)

~Q)

~0.)

fb<o

~0.)

~Q)Oj ~Q)Oj

Year
Figure 1.1 Comparison of labour output trends in the U.K. 1970-1995 [1]

,-----------------------------------------------------1

I
1

Labour Productivity in South Africa

I
1

I
I

160

-~~-~-----~---~-----~-~~-----~

14 0 ____.....__.;.._;;,._,...-.,..JL~--,-:-------:---"-->_:__:__---j
120 ~~~---=--~~.----.!~
>< 100 -j_:-----:-----~~--=-~e::!!!~M!C~ ---::-.._--J
~ 80 ~-~-c:: 60
40 ~~-~--~~~--------20 -1-~------~------------I

----~------------,

--+-Construction
---Mining

Agriculture

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

I
I

I
I

Year

~~-----------------------------

------------------

Figure 1.2 Comparison of labour output trends in South Africa 1970-1997 [NPI]

Measures of productivity need not necessarily be restricted to labour but can be

applied to other inputs like materials and equipment. However most frequent
application of productivity measurement is to the output of people. Labour, being
easily quantifiable, constit1.1tes a large part of construction costs. It can be considered
a measure of construction productivity.[3]

1.2 (f'ro6Cem Statement

The word productivity is often not clearly expressed; especially in construction where,
whatever the definition adopted, it is difficult to measure with reasonable accuracy.
[3] Considerable effort needs to be given to understanding the productivity concept.

The industry is still very labour-intensive, therefore the ratio of labour cost to total
cost is higher than manufacturing and other production industries. For example the
costs of internal finishing, plastering, ceiling fixing joinery, floor laying, are still
predominantly labour costs.

The decrease in productivity was mostly used to be attributed to labour but recent
studies has shown that it is rather management and methods causing low productivity
than labour. [4]

1.3

~search

CJ6jectives

First of all the concept of productivity should be made clear. Without understanding
what productivity is, the scope of the current research work can be deviated from the
set target. There are additional concepts such as efficiency and effectiveness that need
to be addressed. Their relationship and difference should be clarified.

Furthermore effects of human nature, methodology, environment and management

decisions on labour productivity are going to be addressed ..
Once the frame for the productivity concept has been drawn and factors affecting the
productivity sorted, the next step will be determining the most suitable methods for
data collection and measuring the labour productivity; 'work sampling' and 'work

study' are most common techniques for analysing the productivity in construction in
this regard. [6] [7]
Motivation is one of the greatest contributors to labour productivity so it will be
discussed in this research as a separate chapter. The relationship between motivation
and productivity is such thatimprovement in one results improvement in the other. [5]

Reliable data collection methods and the criteria on which labour productivity should
be measured will be presented as well. Using the measurement and data collection
methods, the areas of low productivity and the factors that lead unproductive work
will be addressed. Determination of such factors usually contains difficulties
regarding a unique construction project.

In addition to the above a case study on the productivity aspect of a construction

project will be carried out.

The research objectives can be summarized as follows

To promote understanding and awareness of what productivity is

To present the role and importance of productivity in a civil engineering

environment

To describe practical methods of productivity measurement and analysis in the

construction industry

To evaluate existing methods and techniques of productivity improvement

To pinpoint the areas that lead to unproductive work and find remedies.

To establish the impact of the motivation of workers on productivity

1. 4 (]?gsearcfi Jlpproacfi
The research will be carried out under seven chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 - Introduction and Reseach Objectives
Chapter 2 - Productivity Concept And The Factors Affecting Productivity- This
chapter involves the definitions of terms those are connected with the productivity and
the external and internal

~actors

which have an influence on construction productivity.

Chapter 3 - Productivity Measurement and Analysis - This chapter presents the

techniques used for productivity measurement and analysis
Chapter 4 - Productivity Improvement - In addition to measurement and analysis,
the role of management and some productivity improvement models are going to be
discussed in this chapter
Chapter 5

Human Resources Management and Motivation - The relationship

between management and individual worker is going to be addressed.

Chapter 6 -

Case Study - The methods of productivity measurement and

improvement are going to be applied on a recent construction project..

Chapter 7 - Summary and Recommendations

1.5 Conc{usion
Productivity, representing the efficient conversion of resources into marketable
products, is a major concern of any profit oriented organisation .

In general the word productivity is used as a measure of output per unit of input taken
over a definite period oftime.[3] Higher productivity means accomplishing more with
the same amount of resources.

The human resources component of cost of construction has risen dramatically in

recent years as demands for both higher base pay and increased fringe benefits have
been met by employers. Faced with these high personnel costs, employers must
optimize both the size and efficiency oftheir work forces.[l]

10

Labour costs make up a considerable portion of the total cost of a construction

project. Therefore, success of a construction company in today's competitive market
partially depends on accurate estimation and improvement oflabour productivity.

Measurement and analysis is an essential part of productivity improvement. Because

productivity measurement indicates where to look for opportunities to improve and
also shows the results of improvements.[2]

Labour productivity improvement can mainly be maintained by taking proper actions

through sound management on following issues:

Planning

Skills and Motivation of workers

Supervision

11

CHAPTER2
Productivity Concept and
'Tiie Pactors Jljfecting Productivity
2.1 CJ'Iie Productivity Concept
A simple definition for productivity can be generally given as the relationship
between the outputs generated from a system and the inputs provided to create those
outputs.[9] In civil engineering context it is not much different than this. Labour,
capital (physical and capital assets), energy, materials are the inputs brought into a
system. Goods and services rendered form the output. It can be stated as:

Productivity = Output I Input............................................................... (2.1)

INPUT

'

"Human
Resources
x Materials
x Money
x Machines
x Information

OUTPUT

...,..-

ORCANIZATION

The transformation
process

...,....

Constructed
Facility

PRODUCTIVITY
0 utput/1 nput ..1
Figure 2.1 Relationship between inputs and outputs [9]

12

Higher productivity means getting more with the same amount of input but sometimes
productivity is confused with intensity of work. Intensive use of labour and machines
means excess effort while labour productivity shows beneficial results of labour.[2]

Another confusion arises between productivity and profitability. Even when the work
is unproductive, profit can be obtained by price adjustments. Conversely, high
productivity does not necessarily result in high profits.[2]

The third problem is the confusion between productivity, efficiency and effectiveness.
Efficiency is described as producing high-quality goods in the shortest possible time.
The quality is of course a concern of productivity but it should be considered if the
goods are needed. [2] Effectiveness is defined as the degree to which the goals such as
profit or market share are met and whether the approaches, methods and tools used
are correct. [1] In other words effectiveness can be viewed as achieved goals
compared to what is possible. [2]

2. 2 Tlie !Neec Por La6our (productivity Improvement

Civil engineering not only deals with building houses. Construction works are also
needed in agriculture, industry, education, health and other services. Therefore other
industries will also benefit from an increase in the productivity of the construction
industry.

Civil engineering turnover constitutes about 10% of the Gross National Product(GNP)
in many countries. However when the productivity rates of construction with other
industries are compared, construction productivity falls below the achieved by the
economy as a whole[l]

The significance of productivity in the civil engineering field is now recognized

universally. Higher productivity leads more competitiveness, more satisfied
customers, higher turnover and increased profits. [ 10]

13

As the methods, tools and technology become more sophisticated and the competition
accelerates between the companies, a successful contractor should ensure the
maximum rate of production at the minimum cost.

'If we take a typical 5m project lasting 12 months, an increase in labour productivity

of 25 percent would reduce the time of construction by about 2Y.z months (I 0 percent),
and the costs by 3k(6 percent), assuming that labour accounts for 30 percent of the
total cost, and the contractor's profit margin remains unchanged. '[10]

All the human activities in a construction definitely benefit from improved

productivity. If productivity improvement is properly managed it will always be a
better alternative instead of adding extra sources of labour. The reason for focusing
labour is that it makes up a considerable proportion of overall costs in construction
industry and may show great variations in terms of productivity.

2. 3 Pactors )f.fjecting (]Jrocfuctivity

Productivity improvement depends on how successfully the faptors related to work
performance and productivity are identified. There are many of these factors with
varying degrees. Only the most important factors will be discussed here. They will be
studied under two major categories:

External factors

Internal factors

The external factors are those which are beyond the control of the individual
enterprise and the internal factors are those within its control.

14

2.3.1 External Factors of Productivity

External factors of productivity cannot be changed by a contractor's own will. In
order to be safe from negative impact of these factors, they should be taken into
consideration.

Economic Situation
The construction industry productivity greatly depends on the general level of
economic changes and development. The most important economic changes are in
employment

patterns,

the

composition

of capital,

technology,

scale

and

competitiveness. Construction productivity rates drop during times of economic

recession and increase when economy booms. [2]

Competitiveness affects the productivity of both individual contractor and industry in

general.

Types of Contracts
The changes in bic:lding and procurement methods in civil engineering field have
affected the productivity. In the traditional delivery method, the owner hires a design
professional who prepares a complete set of contract document for the owner for a
design fee. With the prepared contract documents in hand, the owner either negotiates
a price with a general contractor or bids out the work. There is little interaction that
takes place between parties during design process and lateral changes can cause
delays through slow communication. Hence the productivity is likely to fall. [29]

The traditional separation of designer and contractor is being bridged to some extent
with different type of contracts. One of them is design-build in which there is one
company hired by the owner for both design and building process. The
communication links between the design team and construction team are very strong
so that project can be easily and quickly performed. [29][36]

15

Sub-contracting
The construction industry has shifted considerably from direct labour to
subcontracting, making the main contractor's role managerial and coordinating rather
than constructing. Most of the civil engineering work is carried out by subcontractors
who are specialized in particular areas such as demolition, road works, tunnelling etc.
Considering specific tasks, the work is likely to be performed more effectively under
the responsibility of such.subcontractor. [24]

'It seems generally accepted that subcontract labour is more productive labour... in
part this is due to the fact that direct employees have to be paid for non productive
time ... but the main effect comes from the fact that subcontractors are usually paid by
'the lump' of specified pieces of work... this incentive attracts faster workers and
encourages teams to work effectively '[11]

The Client
Construction clients sometimes can force unnecessary changes, cause delays and
insist on materials those are not easily available. This happens when a client has a
little knowledge in construction procedures. Changes may also take place when client
<

requirements change during construction phase. [12]

Weather
Unlike most manufacturing industries, building construction takes place in an open
and changing physical environment Manufacturers can control the factors such as
temperature, humidity, wind and precipitation when the work is performed indoor.
But for the construction works it is very unlikely to control.

Weather is another external factor which has a noticeable effect on productivity of

construction due to the nature of the industry. Because most of the activities of a
construction process happen outdoors the workforce is affected by temperature,

16

humidity, precipitation and wind. When the climate deviates from the average levels
the work tends to be less productive (Figure 2.2) .[1]

90
80
0~
~ 70
"0
.E
60
::J
.s:::.
Q)
50
>
:;::::;
(\]
40
Q)
0::
30
20
....-.

Figure 2.2

56
57
59
60
61
62
62
62
-10

71 82 89 93 96
73 84 91 95 98
75 86 93 97 99
76 88 94 98 100
77 88 94 98 100
78 88 94 98 100
78 88 94 98 100
78 88 94 98 100
0 10 20 30 40

98
100

98
100

96
98

100
100
100
100
100
100
50

100
100
100
100
100
100
60

99
100
100
100
100
100
70

Effective Temperature(%)
Productivity under various environmental conditions

93
95
97
99
99
99
99
99
80

84 57
87 68
90 76
93 80
94 82
94 84
93 83
93 82
90 100

0
15
50
57
60
63
62
61
110

[15]

Natural Resources
The most important natural resources are labour, land, energy and raw materials. The
degree which a country manage and use these resources is very important for
productivity improvement. Among these resources the most valuable and crucial
source is labour. [2]

Some countries take great care to invest in educating and training their manpower.
Countries with higher per capita GNP generally have a better trained and educated
population. Investment in these factors improves the productivity of labour force. [2]

Health policies of the government which results in higher life expectancy and low
sickness rates will also result increased productivity. [2]

Project Uniqueness
Projects in construction are never designed or built exactly in the same way as
previous projects. Environmental factors such as the landscape, weather and physical
location force every project to be unique from its predecessors. There are also

17

aesthetic factors -that create uniqueness from project to project. Such factors have a
significant impact upon major project characteristics. While most construction
personnel find this uniqueness to be an attractive element for a career in construction,
it can have an adverse effect upon construction productivity. Project uniqueness
reqmres modifications in the construction processes. These modifications require
workers to go through a learning curve at the beginning stages of each project
activity. [16]

2.3.2 Internal Factors Of Productivity

Management
The success of a productivity improvement lies under the management style.
According to one productivity expert, nearly 85 percent of the quality and
productivity problems in United States are common problems of the management
system rather than workers.[17]

With increased size of projects and complexity the role of management has gained
importance. Managers can no longer be excused by blaming the workers.

Labour
Being the subject of this research, labour is one of the controlling factors for
construction productivity and the labour productivity is directly related to the
motivation of the workers. If management can plan and execute effective incentive
schemes, then the result should be more productive. It is also possible to improve
productivity by co-operation and participation of workers in planning and execution.
[2]

Effectiveness and attributes of workers can also affect productivity. Effectiveness of a

worker is his ability to do a given job. The ability to do a job can be improved through
training and when recruiting trained and experienced workers should be selected.

18

Construction Training
There is currently a lack of formal training in construction, the lowest of any major
sector of the econor:ny. This lack of training is due to practical concerns such as
employers completing the increased percentage of nonunion work. In general, the
workforce of contractors is highly mobile. For this reason, contractors are often
reticent to invest capital to train those who may soon be someone else's employees.
The result may be a decrease in the construction workforce average capability level. It
is unclear how this affects productivity. More effective utilization of large narrowskilled and core multi-skilled workforce's may even result in higher productivity on
some projects. [16]

Technology
Technology has had a huge effect on overall productivity. Most of the basic tasks on a
site have seen changes due to advances in technology over recent years. Tools and
machinery have increased both in power and complexity. These advances in
technology can change skill requirements. This can create difficulties in separating
the contributions of technology, management, and labor to productivity.
Introducing new technology can be more difficult in the

const~ction

industry than in

other industries. Innovation barriers such as diverse standards, industry fragmentation,

business cycles, risk aversion, and other factors can create an undesired climate for
innovations. Labor costs for many skills are relatively low. There is less motivation to
automate a task when the labor associated with the task is not expensive. [16][2]
Due to such obstacles, firms are unwilling to try a new technology. The firm gains
only a temporary strategic advantage if the new technology prove effective. Once it is
proven, other bidders can quickly begin to adopt the technology.[16]

19

2.4 Conc(usion
Productivity can be simply defined as the ratio of outputs to the inputs within a
process or task. To stay competitive in the market, this ratio should be kept as high as
possible. There are internal and external factors those affect the productivity. Internal
factors can be controlled but external factors are outside the control of the company.
The following chapter will focus on productivity measurement and analysis.

20

CHAPTER3
Protfuctivity !JVLeasurement anti;tna[ysis
3.1 Introduction
The productivity of two teams on the same site can differ more than 50% and the
productivity of similar works on different sites can differ up to 5 times. Therefore
there is a huge space for productivity improvement and 20 to 30 percent improvement
of productivity is likely to be achieved in many cases. Productivity measurement
indicates where to look for opportunities for improvement and also indicates how the
improvements are going. [ 10]

The success of productivity improvement depends on accurate measurement and

analysis. The way the productivity is measured depends on understanding the reason
wanting to measure it. Table 3.1 shows the relation between purpose and
measurement.
,.

PURPOSE
Compare global site
performance
Progress towards
completion
Improve performance,
provide estimating data
Calculate bonus
Efficiency of labour
utilisation

METHOD

FREQUENCY

Earned value

Project end

Measured outputs
Measure productivity in
significant activities
Measure output of each
gang in every activity

Monthly

Weekly

Record idle time

Daily

Weekly

Table 3.1 Relationship between purpose and measurement method[10]

21

To increase productivity for performance improvement, at least weekly measurements

should be taken. If the efficiency of labour utilisation is considered than the
measurements should better be carried out on a daily basis.[lO]

3. 2 (])ata Co([ection
Data collection is a major task, especially on a large construction project. There are
many ways for collecting productivity data in the field. They range from careful
observation of the work by an observer to using record devices such as cam-corders
and cameras. Work-sampling and stop-watch studies may also be appropriate for
some tasks.

Nobody especially site personnel like paper work. So data collection forms must be
kept simple.

In the second chapter productivity was defined as the ratio of input to the output.
Therefore inputs and outputs need to be measured. In addition to measurement of
these two sources combining the productivities in different activities is necessary for
an effective measurement.

The amount of labour available is preferred be measured in man-hours rather than

number of people employed. Because workers may work different numbers of hours
in a day.

Productivity of standard and overtime hours are different. Generally

overtime hours result in a fall in productivity. Productivity drops as people become

tired from long working hours.

Productivity data is useful for a contractor from many aspects. They can be used
to[ 4]:

Evaluate the benefits of new methods or explain results due to changed

conditions.

Detect and possibly explain variances from one project to another

Quickly detect and correct adverse trends in the field

22

Measure the effectiveness of the project management team

Tighten up the estimating process

3.2.1 Measuring Inputs and Outputs

At the project site, contractors are often interested in labour productivity. The general
productivity ratio can be modified for labour productivity as:

Labour productivity= Output/Labour Cost ... ................................. (3.1)

Or

Labour productivity=Output/Man-hours ............... ........................ (3 .2)

The man-hours are subdivided as:

Productive time

Unproductive time

Output of construction activities have a wide range. It can be a brickwork and

'

expressed as the number of bricks laid or it can be amount of concrete poured. These
kinds of outputs are easy to measure. However activities like placing bars and
formwork are not that easy to measure at fixed intervals. Completion of a panel is not
always obvious and measured when the concrete is poured . Kinds of bars have many
different diameters.

3.2.2 Camcorders As Data Collection Tools

Data collection in large construction projects has some difficulties when several
observers are employed. Instead a video camera, being a more accurate data collection
method, can take the place of several observers because it captures all the activities
happening at the same time.

23

Before installation of the camera it must be clearly explained to the workers that the
camera is only for the purpose of studying, analyzing and improving the work. The
operations which are going to be recorded must be determined before setting up.
Project superintendent, area supervisors should be involved in the selection of
operations to be taped and analyzed. After confirmation the foremen and crews should
also be notified.

When the activity is recorded it can be then viewed for extracting the most relevant
data to improving productivity. The tape can be shown to superintendents, foremen
and lead craft persons for analysis and recommendations. A report is then prepared,
summarizing all findings and final recommendations.[24]

3. 3 Pareto Jl na{ysis
Pareto analysis is named after an Italian economist who set the 80/20 rule. That means
80 percent of the results come from 20 percent of the effort. This rule is a
generalization and a useful tool for productivity analysis because it focuses on the
most important issues of a problem.[2]

The basic steps of Pareto analysis are as follows:

List the items to be analysed in ascending order of use, cost or occurrence.

Determine total use, cost or occurrence.

Express the individual use, etc., as a percentage of the total.

Produce a cumulative column for step 3.

Divide the cumulative percentage column into three groups, say 70 percent, 20
percent and 10 percent. Name them A,B,C in order.

Repeat steps, 1 to 4 for the items studied.

Compare the cumulative percentage use/cost/occurrence column with the

cumulative percentage item column.

24

Item no:

Item
group

1 A
2 A
3 B
4 B
5 c
6 c
7 c
8 c
9 c
10 c

Total

Usage
%
Cost
40.0
60000
29.4
44000
22000
14.7
15000
10.0
5000
3.4
2000
1.3
1000
0.7
500
0.3
250
0.1
250
0.1
150000
100.0

Cumulative%

Items
%

40.0
69.4
84.1
94.1
97.5
98.8
99.5
99.8
99.9
100.0
100.0

10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

Cumulative
%
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
100

Summary
%of
cost
A
69.4
B
24.7
c
5.9
Total
100
Table 3.2 Pareto Analysis[2]
Stock grou~

%of items
20.0
20.0
60.0
100.0

Thus similar activities can be put in one group and the maximum number of activities
in which productivity needs to be measured can normally be reduced to less than 10
percent of the total activities.

3.4 WorftStudy
'Work study is the systematic study of work systems for the purposes offinding and
standardizing the least-cost method, determining standard times, and assisting in
training in the preferred method A work study is sometimes called a time-and-motion
study. '[19}

Work study is normallly used in an attempt to increase output from a given quantity
of resources. This is done by analysing ongoing operations, processes and work
methods.

25

There are typically two main parts in a work study. [19] These are:

Method Study

Work Measurement

Method study is the method used to find the preferred method of doing the work.
Work measurement is used to determine the standard time to perform a specific task.
Figure shows the relationship between these two.

PROCESS STUDY
FIELD RATINGS
ACTIVITY SAMPLING
TIME-LAPSE
PHOTOGRAPHY

Figure 3.1 Work Study Procedure[19]

26

3.4.1 Method Study

Method study (some~imes called motion study) is the systematic recording and critical
examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work in order to develop and
apply easier and more effective methods and to reduce costs. [2] Method study was
first introduced in the industrial engineering field. The objective of method study is
to determine the best possible way to perform an activity. The result of a method
study will likely be the development of optimum working procedures and conditions.
The methdod study was pioneered by Frank Gilbreth early in the 1900s.[30] He
introduced method study as an engineering and management technique. Frank
Gilbreth's well-known work in improving brick-laying in the construction trade is a
good example of his approach. From his start in the building industry, he observed
that workers developed their own ways of working and that no two used the same
method. In studying bricklayers, he noted that individuals did not always use the same
methods in the course of their work. These observations led him to seek one best way
to perform tasks.
He developed many improvements in brick-laying. He invented a scaffold which
permitted quick adjustment of the working platform. The

work~r,

using this platform,

would be at the most convenient level at all times. Additionally he placed a shelf for
the bricks and mortar, saving the effort required by the workman to bend down and
pick up each brick. He had the bricks stacked on wooden frames with. End of each
brick always was in the same position, so that the bricklayer no longer had to turn the
brick around and over to look for the best side to face outward. The bricks and mortar
were so placed on the scaffold that the brick-layer could pick up a brick with one hand
and mortar with the other. As a result of these and other improvements, he reduced
the number of motions made in laying a brick from 18 to 4 1/2. [30]
Various aspects of an activity are being investigated by method study which focuses
on human aspect in the activity. Method study is generally carried out for following
reasons[14]:

27

Increase the efficiency of activities

Eliminate as many unnecessary methods as possible

Reduce the fatigue of workers

Make activities safer

Improve the layout of site and plans

Improve the material handling process

Find out the optimum procedures for working environment

The basic procedure of a method study is as follows[l][l3][14]:

Select the operation, job or site to be studied, or that is to be set up.

Record all the related facts about the present or proposed method.

Examine those facts critically and systematically.

Develop the most practical, economic and effective method.

Install the developed method.

Maintain the new method by regular routine checks.

Select the operation: Cost is the critical issue in selection of the operation to be
studied. Cost reduction is the main consideration here. The operations to be given
priority in selection-step are as follows[ I]:

Operations making up a large percentage of the total cost

Operations that are repeated during the construction life cycle

Operations which are complex and difficult in nature

Operations involving large quantity of material

Record the facts: It is necessary to get all the facts concerning the project to be
improved. There are various recording techniques which are listed in table 3.3.

28

Group
Charts

Technique
Outline process chart

Suitable situations
To understand the construction process and to find out
whether a detailed analysis is required

Flow process chart

To investigate the construction process and diagnose

inefficiencies in material process, worker and equipment
utilisation
To diagnose and quantify idle times, resulting in unbalanced
teams, and analyse alternatives

Multiple activity chart

Diagrams

Models

Flow diagrams

To understand the construction process and diagnose

inefficiencies in layouts

String diagrams

To diagnose inefficiencies in worker and equipment

movements, site congestion and layout

Three-dimensional models

To visualise completed projects and to solve complicated

structural assembly

Films and videos

A recording technique for any study

Table 3.3 Method study recording techniques[!]

Examine the recorded facts: The recorded facts must be systematically examined.
This is done by asking questions. Basically five questions are asked for the
examination procedure. What? Where? When? Who? How? are the questions also
known as primary questions[6] Then the question 'Why' is asked following each
primary question.
Primary Questions
Purpose

Place

Sequence

Person

What is
achieved?

Is it necessary?
Why?

Where is it
done?

Why that place?

When is it
done?

Why then?

Who does it?

why that person?

Secondary
Questions
What is the
alternative?

What should
be done?

Where else is
possible?

Where should
it be done?

When else could When should

it be done?
it be done?
Who else could
do it?

Means

Alternatives

Who should
do it?

How is it done? Why that way?

How else could it How should it
be?
be done?

Table 3.4 Questioning [1]

Develop an improved method: New ideas and creative thinking is needed for this
step. Construction staff from different backgrounds may be consulted at this phase of

29

method study. Their experience might present better alternatives. The brainstorming
techniques can assist this process.

Install the new method: Following the development of new method should be
carried out. It may be advisable to try the new method on a small of the works at first
in order to

test the effectiveness of new method

train supervisors who will introduce the new method

convince the workforce about the benefits of new method

Maintain the new method: Maintaining involves the monitoring and modifying the
new method in operation. Once the new method is installed, it should be checked and
results evaluated in order to:

Identify and deal with unpredicted problems

Identify further opportunities for improvement

3.4.1.1 Tools For Method Study

Process Charts
Process charts are diagrams used to visualize the overall conception of the method.
The ASME[American Society of Mechanical Engineers] symbols are most commonly
used in process charts and recommended in BS 3138[2] These symbols were
originally used by Gilbreth. They represent the sequence of individual events or
activities in the operation under study. There are several kinds of process charts. Two
widely used ones are :

Outline process chart: An outline process chart can be used to record a general
picture of a process. Only operation and inspection symbols are used. This
chart is useful at the initiation stage of an investigation.

Flow process chart: It is used to show the process in detail. The components in
an outline process chart are expanded.

30

Drive Nail, Cement, Type Letter.

Transportation

Move Material by truck, conveyor, or hand.

& R a w Material in bins, finished product on pallets, or filed documents.

Wait for elevator, papers waiting, material waiting

nspectionl

measuremert

'-----"Read gages, read papers for information, or check quality of goods.

I!~
Operation 8
inspection

:\___ ./__Any combination of two or more of these symbols show an understanding

for a joint process.
Figure 3.2 Typical symbols used in process charts[6]

nspectlonl
measurement

Inspect timber
on truck

Unload to

Measure and mark

ground

length

888
Cut to length

Place in position

Wedge and fix

Final check for

position

Figure 3.3 An example of outline process chart[6]

31

Storage rack for uncut bars

Move to cutting bench

4m

Cutting to specified length

50%

50%

5m

Move to
m
10
bending bench

Move straight bars

Stack waiting
bending

Store

Bending to
schedule

60%

40%
6m

10m
Stack waiting
fabrication

Move bent bars

Store

Fabricate column cages

Inspect column cages

10m

:rransport column cages

Store column cages

Figure 3.4 Flow process chart of a reinforcement fabrication workshop[ I]

Crew Balance Charts

Crew balance charts are a graphical technique used to show the sequential activities
[with time durations] for the actions of individual crew members working on a
repeating task. [27]

A crew balance chart consists of a series of vertical bars scaled against a time or
progress measure. The vertical bars on a crew balance chart are shown across the x-

32

axis with each bar representing an individual crew member. Hence, the more bars
shown, the more crew members present in working on the task. In addition the
individual crew member vertical bars are subdivided through shading and patterns to
show the specific

subtask~

[with times] that the crew member is performing. The y-

axis represents time.[ 4]

Since each element of ti~e for each crew member is plotted to the same time scale,
the interrelationship of the various crew members and sub-tasks can be studied
through a comparison along any line parallel to the x-axis on the chart. Construction
field staff can rearrange task assignments among various members of the crew in
order to reduce or eliminate non-productive time and increase productivity.[27]

m standby/reposition
shovel slurry

CJdirect slurr;
D sandbag headwalls
taset pipe
Djoin pipes
81ift pipe

II hook pipe
Dwalt
Dgrade
o check grade
Dcut
Labol'tr #1

Laborer 1o!2

Laborer 3

Laborer #4

Cr~wMember

Figure 3.5 Crew balance chart- drainage pipe installation crew[27]

33

Elstandby/reposition

Bshcve! slurry
Ddirect slurry

osandbag headvlai!s
caset pipe
Ojoin pipes

l'lllift pipe
lilhook pipe

ow a it
Ograde
Glcheck grade
Ocut

Laoorer 42

LiJborer1P3

Opera lOr

crew Member

Figure 3.6 Crew balance chart- Revised Process [27]

String Diagrams
This is a scale drawing or model on which a thread is used to trace and measure the
path of workers, materials or machines through operation. The purpose is to give a
picture of the paths taken those most frequently used and rearrange the location of
workplaces or paths to reduce the amount of work.

1181111111

Figure 3.7 String diagram showing concrete distribution in precast yard[l]

34

3.4.2 Work Measurement

The sequence, timing and flow of construction activities should be properly tracked
in order to use the information in planning and programming. This will result in a
sound control over the activities. Planning and programming requires accurate
knowledge of the work capacity of workers. There are two ways to find the capacity
of workers: one is by the.previous experience and other is by work measurement.

Work measurement is the application of techniques, designed to establish the time for
a qualified worker to carry out a specific job at a defined level of performance[l3]
Work measurement is used to develop standards for:

Planning and scheduling of construction operations

Estimating for tenders, completion dates

Setting output standards for workers which can be used for control as well as
incentives

Balancing the work of workers to form a team balance

There are two most commonly used techniques for work measurement. These
are[l ][13]

1) Time Study
2) Work sampling

Workers do not like to be observed during the course of work. They may
misunderstand and derive criticism from management. So the aim and methods of
work measurement should be explained to the supervisors and workers.

35

3.4.2.1 Time Study

Time study

IS

a mam technique of work measurement first introduced by

Frederick W. Taylor ad Frank Gilbreth in the early 20th century.[l ][30] This
method is concerned with data collection in the form of recording times and rates
of working. Time study involves:

Timing, to discover how long various operations are taking

Rating, to assess the worker being observed against a norm

Building up of time standards, by allowing for appropriate relaxation and

contingency allowances

The reasons for performing a time study can be classified as[13]:

To study a new job, or a job for which no reliable output figures exist

To study a change of method

To investigate workers' complaints that the time allowed for a particular

job is too tight

To inves#gate delays

To maintain correct team balance

As a preliminary to introducing an incentive scheme

When the cost of a particular job seems excessive

Reliable data can only be collected from experienced work study practitioners
who are very scarce in the construction industry[ 1] The first step of a time study is
getting familiar with the work to be studied. The location, environmental
conditions, team sizes and materials should be known by the practitioner.
Sketches should be made of the layout of the workplace. The elements which are
going to be timed should be determined clearly so that breakpoints be
distinguished.

36

For accuracy of identification, each element will have a distinctive start and finish
known as break points. These should be easily recognised by eye or ear such
as[13].

Labourers' hands grasp the brick

Labourers' hands grasp the trowel

Wheelbarrow stops for off-loading

The second phase is to maintain the necessary equipment. A stopwatch, a

clipboard and observation sheets are used in an ordinary time study.

Time Study Procedure

Observe the job as a whole without any timing

-,

Decide on the breakdown of the job into elements of work

Establish the break points

Record the elements and break points on the time study sheets

Observe, rate, time and record the observations

Add in relaxation and contingency allowances

Develop the standard time for the job.

The following are definitions of some terms used in time study.

Rating: Rating is defined in BS313 8 as 'to assess the worker's rate of working

relative to the observer's concept of the rate corresponding to standard rating'. [ 1]

A system of rating has been established so that performance of a worker can be
measured besides timing. The efficiency and ability of workers varies because of
characteristics individuals and surrounding circumstances. The efficiency also
differs from time to time during a work day.

In order to assess the performance or rate of working, a rating scale has been
produced and 100 is given as standard rate. It is the rate of output which the
qualified worker will achieve under norms.

37

Description

Comparable
walking rate
kph

No activity

50

Very slow, clumsy, fumbling movements. Worker appears half

asleep with no interest in the job

3,2

75

Steady, deliberate, unhurried performance, as of worker not

on piecework, but under proper supervision; looks slow, but
time is not being intentionally wasted while under observation

4,8

Rate

Brisk, business-like performance as of an average qualified

100
worker on piecework; necessary standard of quality and
standard accuracy achieved with confidence

6,4

125

Very fast; operator exhibits a high degree of assurance,

dexterity and co-ordination of movement, well above that of
an average trained worker

150

Exceptionally fast; requires intense effort and concentration

and is unlikely to be kept up for long periods; a great
performance only achieved by a few outstanding workers

9,6

Table 3.5 Rates ofworking [19]

Basic time: This is the time for carrying out an element of work at standard
rating. The basic times are calculated by the following formula:

Basic time= Observed timex Observed rating/Standard rating ......... (3.3)

If a qualified worker, working at a steady rate of 100, performs a certain element

of work in 15 minutes without any rest pauses, then the basic time for that element
of work is:

15 x 100/100 = 15 minutes ........................................................ (3.4)

If his rate of working was 125, then the task would only take 12 minutes and basic
time is still 15 minutes.

12 X 125/100 = 15 ................................................................... (3.5)

With a slower rate of working of75, observed time will be 20 minutes

38

20 X 75/100 = 15 ..................................................................... (3.6)

Relaxation Allowances :The basic time does not include the time needed for
resting. Relaxation allowances can be divided into two categories. One is an
allowance for the personal needs such as drinking water, going to toilet. The other
one is allowance from fatigue. Both allowances are made by adding a percentage
to the basic time. There is an uncertainty to determine the percentage allowance of
fatigue for most of the construction works [6].

Standard time: Standard time is the total time in which a job should be done at
standard performance, and is the sum of the basic time and relaxation allowances.

Nature
Standard
Posture

Attention
Conditions

Effort

Monotony

Allowance
[%]
8%
2%
2-7%
2-7%
0-5%
0-8%
0-5%
0-5-10%
0-5%
0-70%
1%
1-10%
10-30%
30-50%
0-4%
0-5%

Description
Personal needs[toilet, drinking, washing] plus basic fatigue
Standing
Awkward bending
Very awkward[lying, stretching up]
Fairly fine to very exacting visual work
Fairly fine to very complex mental process or span of attention
Lighting: fair to inadequate
Ventilation: fair to dust or fumes to extreme conditions
Noise: quiet to intermittent or high pitched
Heat: temperate to 35 degrees at 95 percent humidity
Light: up to 5 kg lifts
Medium: up to 20 kg lifts
Heavy: up to 40 kg lifts
Very heavy: up to 50 kg lifts
Mental
Physical: tedious to very tedious

Table 3.6 Relaxation allowances[19]

39

TIME STUDY OBSERVATION SHEET

Study by:
Date:
Element
Opening check time

Started:
Rating

OT
915

Collect tools and walk

50 m to site

90

6.7

Clean out
Measure
Talk to foreman

90
95
100

1.8
0.4
1.2

Measure

95

0.73

Cut timber

105

1.25

Re-check measure

100

0.25

Fetch timber

80

3.21

Adjust bandage on
thumb

IT

2.21

Move to adjacent site

90

3.56

Measure

100

0.75

Cut timber

105

2.61

Total C/F

24.67

Finished:
Element

I No
Study

Sheet
Rating

Drill timber

105

OT
24.67
2.15

Fix screws

100

6.78

BIF

Final check time

943

Total

33.6

Table 3.7 Time study observation sheet [6]

40

Date

Operation Description:

Study no:

Cut and fix timber supports to formwork

Sheet of

Notes:

% Relaxation

Basic

Total

Standard

Elements
times

PN

Coni'

times

Collect tools

6.03

10

26

7.60

Clean out

1.62

23

1.99

Measure

1.82

21

2.22

Discussion

1.20

16

Cut timber

4.05

10

27

5.14

Recheck measure

0.25

16

0.29

Fetch timber

2.57

20

38

3.55

Move

3.20

10

27

4.06

1.39

Drill timber

2.26

10

27

2.57

Fix supports

6.78

15

33

9.02

Table 3.8 Relaxation allowances- formwork operation[6]

3.4.2.2 Work Sampling

Work sampling sometimes called 'activity sampling' is a technique of making a
large number of observations over a period of time on workers or operations Each
observation records what 1s happening at that time.
observations recorded for

The percentage of

a particular activity or delay 1s a measure of the

percentage of time during which the activity or delay occurs.

Observing and recording the construction operations for a whole day or week may
lead to detecting the exact performance of activity whether it is costly and takes
too much time. So doing a number of observations should give a picture of a
situation within an acceptable accuracy when work sampling is performed. It is
done at irregular intervals to avoid observing the activities at the same point in the
work cycle each time.

41

Compared to time study the practitioner does not necessarily have to be well
trained for the activity sampling. In setting up a work sampling exercise, the first
step is to decide on the various categories of works that are possible. The most
simple way is dividing work into two categories. One is 'working' the other one is
'idle'. During the observation, each worker is noted simply as working or not
working. Since a work period is normally made up of active work with short
breaks, the average derived from several counts will never show 100 percent
active time. On construction works it will normally be 60-80 percent depending
on the heaviness of the work and conditions. If the results are lower than average
figures then it means there is something wrong with the work. [13]

On a large site employing a large labour force, the work sampling technique is
useful for identifying weak points where more supervision or a more detailed
study needed.

For a more detailed analysis of activities, instead of recording the times as

'working' or 'idle', the practitioner uses codes to describe what the worker is
doing at the time of observation. An example of activity codes is shown in table
3.9

Machine excavating
Machine travelling

E
T

Worker working

Worker resting

Machine breakdown

BD

Worker absent

Table 3.9 Activity codes

The number of observations that needs to be taken depends on the accuracy
needed and the limit of error that is tolerable. In construction works generally 95
percent accuracy is needed and 5 percent error is accepted. The equation for
calculating the number of observations for a given accuracy is[6]:

N=4P(l-P)/L2 ...................................................................... (3. 7)

N: Number of observations

P: Category Proportion
L: Limit of accuracy required

42

In the equation above P is the portion of the sample that is expected to have a
given characteristic. For example , if 10 tiles were found to be damaged out of a
sample of 100, the category proportion for damaged tiles would be 10%.

Example: To determine the proportion of inactive workers within 100 operatives,

with a confidence limit of 95 percent and with a tolerance of 2.5 percent the
number of observations to be done can be calculated as follows:

N= 4x0.75[1-0.75]/[0.025]2 = 1200 observations ........................... (3.8)

Late start early

quit
3%
Direct work
32%

Waiting and idle

time
33%

Ins

4%
Tools and
material

5%

Transport

5%
Travel
12%

Figure 3.8 Typical Construction Workday Breakdown [4]

Work sampling can be applied in different forms depending on the degree of

details. The different sampling methods are:

Field rating: for quick appraisal of site activity

Productivity rating: involves a further stage of sophistication

In the field rating, observations are made by simply categorizing them as

'working' or 'idle'. Such a study requires the attention of an observer because it is

43

sometimes difficult to determine the state of activity. A worker speaking to a

foreman can be either chatting or receiving instructions.[6]

FIELD COUNT STUDY SHEET

Number

Number

Total

Clock

observed

observed

number

Percentage

time

working

idle

assigned

observed

8:30

50

32

90

91

61

8:50
9:20
10:05

48
52
45
53
248

35
30
28
25
150

90
90
90
90

92
91
81
86

58
63
62
68
62

10:30

Percentage

Total
Table 3.10 Field count recording and analysis sheet[l]

active
[activity rating] Remarks

Productivity rating is more complex than field rating. Its focus is on effectiveness.
Even the idle time appears to be very low after a field rating, the question of 'how
effective is the work?' still remains important. So for the productivity rating, the
work is divided into three elements such as, effective work, contributory work and
ineffective work.[6] Examples of productive, non-productive and contributory
activities for a bricklaying operation are listed on the tables 3.11, 3.12 and 3.13.
An example of work sampling observation done for productivity rating is also
given in table 3.14

Effective work is defined as physical input to an activity which is observed.

Contributory work is that which cannot clearly be identified, but without which
the work could not proceed. Ineffective work is that which has neither input nor
contribution to the activity.

44

Productive activities

Description

Spreading mortar

Spreading mortar on the wall in

preparation for laying bricks

Fetching mortar

Taking mortar with trowel for spreading or

butterif'\g bricks to be laid

Fetching brick

Taking brick from the stack for buttering,

cutting or laying

Cutting brick

Cutting bricks to required size using a

trowel or chisel

Laying brick

Positioning and pressing the brick on the

course, including tapping

Filling joints

Placing and compacting mortar into

vertical gaps between bricks

Setting line for the next course and

Setting and checking checking verticality and horizontally using
spirit level or other device
Removing excess mortar from joints using
Raking and pointing a trowel or pointing[ depending on design]
using pointing bars

Table 3.11 Productive activities in bricklaying [ 1]

Unproductive activities Description

Idle and away

Relaxation

Operative not working while work is

available or not on plot for no
obvious reason
Apparent relaxation for necessary
physiological fatigue

Waiting

Waiting by the operative for materials or

tools, or due to
interference by another team

Searching

Looking for misplaced tools or any other

necessary equipment for implementing a
task at hand

Rework

Removing and replacing already

completed work due to operative's
fault or management fault

Confused

Other work

Undecided or abrupt stoppage of work

sometimes followed byconsultation
Doing work not directly related to
bricklaying

Table 3.12 Non-productive activities in bricklaying [1]

45

Contributory activities Description

Checking distances in line with drawings
Measuring
using tape or other
device
Instruction and
inspection
Ancillary work

Taking instructions from supervisor or

interruptions during supervisor's inspection
Work relevant to bricklaying such as fixing
lintels, windows, doors, anchors, thermal
insulators, setting platform and so on

Driving dumper

Usually by the labourer for collection and

distribution of materials

Operating mixer

Mixing mortar, including loading the mixer

with constituent materials
Distribution of mortar onto mortar boards
and bricks into stacks on the platform for
laying bricks
Fetching bricks or mortar from depot or
mixer for distribution and fetching tools by
operatives
Washing the mixer, removing excess
mortar and broken bricks at the end of
working day

Distributing bricks or
Mortar
Fetching

Cleaning

Reading drawings

Checking drawings for necessary details

before or during setting

Table 3.13 Contributory activities in bricklaying [1]

The percentages of effective, contributory and idle times are used to calculate the
'labour utilization factor' [6]

Labour utilization factor= effective work observations/total observations .... (3.9)

Another formula including the contributory activities was developed as[6]:

Labour utilization factor= effective work observations+

1

/.t (contributory observations)/total observation ... (3 .1 0)

46

WORK SAMPLING OBSERVATION SHEET

Contract:

Time started:

Sheet No: 1 of 4

~ob description: Fixing form work to first floor

Time finished:

Date:
pbserver:

Location:
~ctivity Codes:

Notes:

Dismantling - 1

Carrying- 3

ldle-5

Weather bright and cool

Erecting- 4

Cleaning- 2

Workers/Machines

Time

Round

Remarks

number
Smith

Jones

Francis

Albert

Peter

8:30

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

8:35
8:40
8:45
8:50
8:55
9:00
9:05
9:10

4
5
3
3
1
5
4
4

1
4
4
5
4

1
3
4
4
4

2
3
4

2
5
4

2
2
4
4
1
5
3
4

9:15

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

9:20
9:25
9:30
9:35
9:40
9:45
9.-50
9:55
10:00
10:05

2
2
3
3
1
4
4
5
4
1
4
5
4
3
4
5
4
2
2

1
5
4
5
3
4
1
3
5
3

4
2
4
1
5
4
4
5
4
5

5
4
3

,_

2
1
2
4
4
4
2
5
3

Pilot study over

2
5
3
5
1
4
4

Table 3.14 Work Samplmg ObservatiOn Sheet[l]

A work sampling study of crews can provide the necessary information to help
determine the corrective actions that are needed to improve the percentage of
direct work. However according to a study done by Randolph Thomas in 1992 on
several nuclear power plant constructions the assumption of increased directwork-time leads to better productivity is not correct at all. His conclusion is that
work sampling studies show how busy the crafts are and the results cannot be used
to predict labour productivity or to quantify inefficient work hours.[26]

The conclusions of Randolph Thomas proves to be correct to some extent as he

considered the activity sampling as taking samples of 'working' and 'idle' which

47

is done as 'field rating' for quick appraisal of site productivity. On the other hand
'productivity rating' which involves a further stage of sophistication and detail is
an effective tool for productivity appraisal.

3.5 Conc{usion
Productivity

measurement

and

analysis

1s

important

for

productivity

improvement. It enables the evaluation of existing methods of work and guides

towards better methods for improved productivity.

Process charts give a clear picture of the activity being studied and method study
searches for better ways for more productivity. Time study is the method for
establishing standard times for specific type of work and can be used for multiple
purposes. Work sampling is not a direct measurement of productivity but it can be
used in productivity estimation.

48

CHAPTER4
Procfuctivjty Improvement
4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter some useful techniques for productivity measurement and
analysis, commonly used in civil engineering environment, were discussed. Those
methods form the basis for planning and productivity improvement. In this chapter the
role of management and some productivity improvement models are going to be
discussed.

4. 2 (JJroject (JJ[anning ancScliecuCing

One significant reason for low productivity in construction can be traced to poor
planning and scheduling. Poorly planned and scheduled activities lead to excessive
labour, waiting time, delays and shortages. Planning is done to prevent these
unwanted situations.[l][21] A typical example to show the impact of planning is a
superstore project constructed by a company known as Kvaemer in U.K. When a
proper planning process was put in place, in which the amount to be achieved each
week was precisely specified, productivity improved by over 15 percent.[IO]

A typical project is composed of a series of activities. The project plan shows the
relationships between the various activities. Work durations are assigned to each
activity to enable the overall project duration to be determined.

Planning is all about coordinating the relevant data, involving all the parties in
decisions, and producing a summary of analysis for those who will need it during
construction as well as for control purposes.

49

A formal project plan and schedule has the following elements[6][14][21]:

Breakdown of a project into a series of individual 'work pieces'

Determination of work piece durations and required crews.

Sequenci1;1g of work pieces in an overall project plan.

Calculation of project duration as a function of work piece durations and

sequencing.

Determination of activity 'float times' or possible delay times available to

a manager to use during unexpected and uncontrollable events.

Commonly used planning and scheduling techniques for construction projects are
PERT(Program Evaluation and Review Technique), CPM(Critical Path Method) and
GANTT charts.[6][21] PERT is generally used in R&D type of projects. CPM was
designed for construction projects and has been adopted by construction industry
since. The logic of both CPM and PERT are the same. Both of them are based on
network diagrams.[21]

4.2.1 Networks
Network is defined_as ' The arrangement of all activities in a project, arrayed in their
logical sequence and represented by arcs and nodes. All projects can be broken down
into a number of necessary activities. The detail required will decide the number of
activities for the project to be completed.

Two different type of representations in networks are AON[ Activity on the node] and
AOA(Activity on arrow).[1][21] For both techniques arrows and nodes are used to
show activities and events . Activities are represented in nodes and arrows show the
precedence of the activities. This arrangement [network] defines the project and the
activity precedence relationships.

Networks are usually drawn starting on the left and proceeding to the right.
Arrowheads placed on the arcs are used to indicate the direction of flow. [21]

50

Figure 4.1 AON format[21]

The principal component on the AOA system is the arrow which represents the
activity. The direction of the arrow shows the direction of the flow. The tail at the
arrow represents the starting point for a particular activity. The head represents the
completion point. At each arrow there is an event that takes place. It is also called a
node.

All networks are constructed on the principle of dependency. There are predecessor
activities which must precede before an event takes place.

To prepare a network diagram following steps should be taken:

Defining activities

Estimation of activity durations

Determining the activity sequencing

51

kfivitV lalb$1 t1a1t time

Adivlly ~
AciWlty earUestliMII tme

---w ,

Start Ewlll
0 0

~ e..enllinM

+ + t Fi~ E~
LnTJ

Ac1iYdy

@
7 "f

late f\-ent limo

Figure 4.2 AOA format[!]

As seen on figure 4.2, the activity durations are also included together with earliest
and latest start and finish times. These figures are used to calculate the 'critical path'
_which is the row of activities in a network that determines the project duration. So
critical path activities are those which need extra attention. The events and activities
on the critical path are also critical. A delay in these activities or events results a delay
of project completi9n.

After determining the critical path the float times of other activities are determined. It
will be useful to see the float times for adjusting resources. The projects can be
classified into two categories as 'time limited' and 'resource limited'.

If the resources for the activities can be made available to suit the earliest or latest
activity time without affecting the project duration then the project is called timelimited. However in practice, resources cannot be provided instantly. As being the
subject of this dissertation and a most prominent resource for construction activities,
labour requirements should be adjusted for the whole project duration. Recruitment
and dismissal of workers for short durations is not a desirable solution for the
contractors. For example if a limit of five workers were imposed then the end date of
the project would have to be extended.

52

4.2.2 Gantt Charts

Gantt charts are project planning tools that can be used to represent the timing of
tasks required to complete a project. Because Gantt charts are simple to understand
and easy to construct, they are used by most project managers especially for complex
projects. [1][6] A Gantt chart sample is shown on figure 4.3

In a Gantt chart, each task is shown on a row. Dates run along the top in increments of
days, weeks or months, depending on the total length of the project. The expected
time for each task is represented by a horizontal bar whose left end marks the
expected beginning of the task and whose right end marks the expected completion
date.

Tasks may run sequentially, in parallel or overlapping. As the project progresses, the
chart is updated by filling in the bars to a length proportional to the fraction of work
that has been accomplished on the task. This way, one can get a quick reading of
project progress by drawing a vertical line through the chart at the current date.

Completed tasks lie to the left of the line and are completely filled in. Current tasks
cross the line and are behind schedule if their filled-in section is to the left of the line
and ahead of schedule if the filled-in section stops to the right of the line. Future tasks
lie completely to the right of the line. In constructing a Gantt chart, keep the tasks to a
manageable number (no more than 15 or 20) so that the chart fits on a single page.
More complex projects may require subordinate charts which shows the detail of the
timing of all the subtasks which make up one of the main tasks. For team projects, it
often helps to have an additional column containing numbers or initials which identify
who on the team is responsible for the task.

Often the project has important events which you would like to appear on the project
timeline, but which are not tasks. For example, you may wish to highlight when a
prototype is complete or the date of a design review. You enter these on a Gantt chart
as "milestone" events and mark them with a special symbol, often an upside-down
triangle. [6][21]

53

Aetlviry
Do~tis:>ti<ln

A - Pr..,are statts

RINII~

TitM ldovsl

05

15

10

2<)

25

35 40 45

60

55

60

&5

7()

75

8 Prep.ra heft 1114 $\M

c (:Ot\C(a~ shit)

!ZZZ !21

D ton~;,.,, shaft al'l4 'CW$

E Ptcpere external wtlls
F Brick ei'l4 Oloc:t shaft Willi

IZZZ ~
IZ

G Col'tette 6lltotnal wds

H - Brlc:t\ and block ext. wall$

J E!Mfnal ftc4de
J( -GWint
l. BlOck inlttnal wafts
M Timber frem.. end o"l'llnil'
N P~bino - I t t

t:J
IZ ~

fZZ

IZi'
II ~13

122:-l
121

ez ~
1Zl

IZl

P s.Mco dvets

'ill

0 Air cOII<IillOI'llng vntts

A SU5pondtd ~s Plaster and paint

T Corns.Qte rittlnD
\J . btNN pm.rinQ.

\I CWJ>et 0$

Suoerviaion

~
Hammock

Slr.o fat!il<ti..,

Figure 4.3 Gantt Chart Sample[l5]

4.3 Cost (Estimation and Contro[

The use of cost control system is to put attention to any operation that is uneconomic
to the contractor. If a particular operation or process is being performed inefficiently,
immediate attention must be given to that operation.[6]

Cost estimation typically involves a determination ofthe following[15]:

Method of construction

Quantity of work

Crew size

Worker and crew productivity

Worker and crew pay rates

54

There are different method alternatives for a particular type of work. For example, a
formwork operation can be done by using job forms built on site, pre-built ones or
steel-ply forms. Labour productivity will depend on what work method the contractor
selects.

So

contractor must make production decisions when preparing

estimations. [ 15]

Then the amount of work to be performed is estimated. Construction drawings are the
main source to calculate the amount of work. The calculated quantity is usually
entered on an estimating sheet. The next step is to find the required man-hours for the
corresponding quantity of work. Cumulative productivity estimations from previous
projects and experiences are generally used to calculate the man-hours.
In table 4.1 man-hours needed for 5000 m2 of concrete wall formwork is calculated.

Quantity of work to be performed

= 5000 m2

Assumed cumulative productivity

=10 man-hours/1 0 m2

Required man-hours

=5000 m
,

x 1O[mh]/1 0 m

= 5000 man-hours

Table 4.1 Calculation of man-hours for concrete wall [15]

Having obtained man-hours, the crew size and workdays can be decided. Different
alternatives for crew size with different durations are considered to make a decision as
seen on table 4.2. Having decided the crew size, the corresponding duration can be
used to calculate a cost estimate for the formwork and an overall project schedule.
Size of crew Resulting duration Resulting duration
{hours}
{weeks}
Possible crews:

Selected crew:

625

15,6

10

500

12,5

12

416

10,4

10

500

12,5

Work to be performed: 50 000 square feet formwork area

Required man-hours: 5000
Table 4.2 Calculation of crew size and resulting duration [15]

55

4.3.1 Estimating Labour Costs

Estimating is crucial in financial success of a contracting firm. Every project has
unique aspects that affect the cost however past experience together with awareness of
varying project conditions may lead to a good cost estimation.

In the table 4.2 it is assumed that the contractor has decided to use 10 craftsmen to do
the forming operation. Suppose that the average wage rate for each craftsman is R120.
Given this per-craftsman cost per hour and the duration calculated in the table, the
labour cost for the formwork can be estimated as in table 4.3.

Estimated man-hours duration:

500 hours

Cost per craftsman:

R120/hour

Estimated Labour cost=

duration[hours]craftsman
number of craftsman

Estimated Labour cost=

500hoursxR 120/hourx1 0

Estimated Labour cost=

R 600 000

rate/hour

Table 4.3 Calculation oflabour costs for concrete wall formwork [15]

4.3.2 Cost Control

The need for cost 'control for a construction project should be obvious. Changing
physical

environment,

changing

conditions,

project

uniqueness,

industry's

dependence on labour productivity introduces uncertainty into project plans and

estimates. Early diagnose of inefficiencies and deviations from planned progress are
necessary for recovery and corrective action.[6][15]

Effective control of labour costs is done by proper documenting of man-hours for

accomplished works. In table 4.4 the labour cost and production data of formworks at
a specific point of the project is calculated and compared with estimated amounts.

56

Estimates
Estimated amount of work: 50 000 square feet contact area
Estimated productivity: 1Oman-hours/1 00 square feet
Estimated man-hours: 5000
Project Data:
1250 man-hours to date= 25% of estimated hours
20% of work performed[10 000 square feet]
Project Cost Overrun
20% of work makes 1250 hours then 100% ofwork will be
completed in 6250 hours
Project hours=
6250
Estimated hours=
5000
Estimated overrun in hours= 1250
Table 4.4 Cost control calculations [15]

In table 4.4 it is assumed that labour hours are proportional to the wall formwork
performed and it appears that there is a noticeable cost overrun. The management
should be notified of such overruns. An early detection of cost overruns can prevent
the project to go out of control and enables the inefficiencies to be tracked and
stopped.

Comparison of actual costs with estimated costs does not always serve as an indicator
to performance. I?xcessive overtime labour costs may be hidden by higher
productivity. When a bricklayer works with overtime at a higher productivity rate
than normal, the unit cost, calculated for each brick, may appear same as the unit
cost of the brick which is laid at a normal rate without overtime.

4.4 Quafity :Management

Quality is the degree to which a product or service conforms to a set of predetermined
standards related to the characteristics that determine its value in the marketplace and
its performance of the function for which it was designed. [19] Quality and
productivity are complementary. It has been proven that programmes that attempted
to improve both simultaneously are the most successful. [1] The client wants to get a
quality end product. This leads contractors to carry out a quality management
programme.

57

Project quality will influence the success of the project. Quality involves completing
the task correctly to meet the specifications. If a quality product is to be the aimed
then in order to achieve it efficiently the task must be performed correctly the first
time. Pride of workmanship in producing a quality product can also contribute
positively to project success[31].

The following points are indicators of how an organization is performing in the

management of quality[3 i]:

1. Level of Quality Included in Design. or Plan

The designers, planners and management of a project must be aware of the fact that
this function alone can determine more than any other quality of the product. The
planners

must have enough experience, information and resources to allow for

enough competent tradespeople to be on the site at the required time with the correct
tools and adequate material to produce a quality product.

2. Material Control System

Material must meet specifications and the correct material must be used in the
appropriate application.

3. Competence of Workers and Supervisors

Workers must be qt!alified to do the work and supervisors must be experienced.
4. Pride of Workmanship

Quality work should be recognized and commended by supervisors and a reward

system is not out of the question. The "quality attitude" should be promoted and
workers empowered to produce a quality job.
5. Timing of Quality in Project Life Cycle
The QC Manager should ideally have input to a project very early in a project life
cycle in order to identify areas where quality might be compromised. Once again the
QC Manager must have the authority to act.

58

4.5 Poreman (])e{ay Surveys

Asking the workers themselves is often regarded as the best means of acquiring
information about production problems. The causes of production problems are
identified and

reflect~d

on the survey form by foreman. [1] The foreman delay survey

is a tool that can be used to detect productivity problems in construction aiming to

determine the effect of factors outside the foreman's control such as lack of
equipment and delivery delays. There is no standard format for these surveys and
most of them are adjusted to particular situations. The use of these surveys may give a
boost to construction productivity if properly conducted analysed and responded by
management. Details of the survey should be communicated to all involving foremen
before implementing the survey. It should be clearly indicated that the programme is
intended to highlight the problems outside the foremen's control and is not an
evaluation of their own performance.

A sample of foreman delay survey is given in table 4.5. Different kinds of problems
causing delays are listed . The list can be different from project to project. The
foreman is expected to fill this form but a qualified person acquainted with the work
can fill it out as well. The form is filled at the end of each working day but on large
projects it is usuallf not necessary to run the survey daily over a long period. The
number of hours and the number of workers involved in each delay is recorded. The
forms are collected each day and the tabulated results are returned to the foreman
along with summary reports at planned intervals. Some advantages of a foreman delay
survey are(4]:

It is cheap, requiring only about 5 minutes of the foreman's time

It can easily provide information from the entire project.

It can pinpoint the specific delays causing the loss of productivity.

It enables communication between workers and management.[4]

59

FOREMAN DELAY SURVEY FORM

Date:
Work Area:
Trade:
Problems causing delay

Supervisor:
Number in team:
Number of Number o Total
man hours
hours lost men
lost

1a Waiting for materials[ On-site delivery]

1b Waiting for materials[outside delivery]
2 Waiting for tools and equipment
3 Lack of access
4 Plant breakdowns
5a Changes/redoing work[design errors]
5b Changes/redoing work[site errors]
6 Move to other work area
7 Waiting for information
8 Lack of continuity
9 Overcrowded work areas
10 Inclement weather
11 Other
Comments

Table 4.5 Foreman Delay Survey [1]

Productivity Improvement By Foreman Delay Surveys

After collection of data over a sufficient period of time, the data is summarised and
percentage of delays are tabulated. It can be shown on a pie chart as well. The
summary results should be discussed with the foremen participated in the survey to
identify the causes of delays. Then the management should take necessary actions
accordingly. By effective planning and application of method study techniques,
further productivity improvements can be achieved. A subsequent foreman delay
survey should indicate whether the corrective actions have proven effective or not.

60

FOREMAN DELAY SURVEY

SUMMARY FORM
Date:

Project:
Supervisor area:

r:-

+-'

Q)

r:-

::J

(/)

.Q..

co

ow

(/)

Q)

c.
....

Problems causing delay

Waiting for materials[On-site delivery]

+-'

co

.2
c
co
.J::
u
Q)
~

(!)

....

Ol

c
c

:p

"ffi

a..

0
~
Q)

....J

~
w
(.)

f2

w
c..

Q)
+-'

(/)

Waiting for materials[outside delivery]

Waiting for tools and equipment
Lack of access
Plant breakdowns
Changes/redoing work[design errors]
Changes/redoing work[site errors]
Move to other work area
Waiting for information
Lack of continuity
Overcrowded work areas
Inclement weather
Other
TOTAL
'

PERCENTAGE

Table 4.6 Foreman Delay Survey Summary Form [1]

61

0:::

4. 6 Conc[usion
In order to meet the productivity targets for a project it is necessary to start the
productivity improve in planning stage. Well prepared plans minimize the losses in
time as well as other 'resources.

The need for cost control for a construction project is obvious. Changing physical
environment, changing conditions, project uniqueness, industry's dependence on
labour productivity introduce uncertainty into project plans and estimates. Early
diagnose of inefficiencies and deviations from planned progress are necessary for
recovery and corrective action.

Quality and productivity are complementary. Programmes that attempt to improve

both simultaneously are the most successful

The foreman delay survey is a tool that can be used to detect productivity problems in
construction aiming to determine the effect of factors outside the foreman's control
such as lack of equipment and delivery delays.

In addition to the topics discussed in this chapter, productivity improvement through

human resources management and labour motivation is going to be discussed in
chapter 5.

62

CHAPTER 5
Jfuman

(Rgsources :M_anagement }ln{

:M_otivation
5.1 I ntrocfuction
It is very common in construction industry that there are barriers and a distance

between management and workers. The main reason for this can be that most of the
workers are viewed as working for a job rather than a firm. A worker who worked for
a project is most likely to look for another contractor for employment when the
project is completed. This seems to be a reason for the weak bonds between the
individual worker and contractor firm. The management objective here should be to
establish strong links with the workers. Management is a crucial factor to productivity
improvement. Worker motivation is an important part of management. Most of the
burden lies on the shoulders of construction managers for this task. [15] [34]

In order to lead or organize human resources effectively it is essential to have

knowledge of the way in which they think. No two people havt:; identical reactions to
a given situation and no two people have the same ability and skills to perform a
specific task. Therefore, each individual must be treated according to his personal
characteristics. [6] The psychological and behavioural sciences have produced
theories which help us understand the behaviour of workers and motivate them for
better productivity[4] [6].

5.2 Jfuman ~sources (]>fanning ancfSe{ection

Human resources planning will ensure that the right numbers of qualified workers will
be available on the site to perform the work each day. This means that the schedule of

63

a project may be optimized by having enough workers and that the costs will be
minimized by not having too many workers.

Increase in the size of labour force is likely to reduce the productivity. The amount of
the reduction depends on whether the increase is planned or unplanned. Productivity
on big sites is lower than productivity on little ones. An increase in the size of the
labour force of 200 percent leads to a loss of productivity of more than 15 percent
even it is planned. On the other hand an unplanned increase in labour force of 100
percent may result loss of productivity of30 percent.[10]

Personnel selection methods should be based on the needs of the job. The contractor
should have a method for objectively evaluating his personnel against the
requirements of the job at the beginning of the project. The selection methods will be
based on the individual's skills and experience. A means for getting client input and
acceptance on the selection of key project personnel is required. The method should
also contain provisions for ongoing review and upgrading of personnel requirements
and qualifications throughout the project.

Personnel Rules

Management is responsible for developing rules to manage the actions and managing
all personnel on the job. Management also has the responsibility of communicating
these rules clearly and effectively to the work force.

The point which should be

considered while carrying out this responsibility are: [5]

The rules should be realistic and well thought

The rules should be applied evenly to everyone

When a worker agrees to work with a company he accepts to comply with the rules.
However he will not generally tolerate it if the rules lack of wisdom or show
weaknesses and may try to find employment elsewhere. Every worker wants to be
treated fairly and does not expect to get better treatment than others. For example if
one person is late for work because of a car breakdown and excused by management,

64

other workers may also expect to receive the same treatment when faced with such
situation. [5]

5.3 Project :Manager }Is }I Leader

Leadership has been defined [21] as 'interpersonal influence, exercised in
situations and directed through the communication process, toward the attainment
of a specified goal or goals'. The leader must have authority for the purpose of
coordinating and motivating the team for the appropriate action. The task of
coordinating the different types of human resources, among the people working in
the team, will be much easier if the team's members are inspired by personality
and example.(6] A leader must be capable of following:

Establishing good communications and keeping people informed with current

and future events. Maintaining a sense of participation in all the team
members and a belief that each of them have an important role.

Maintaining loyalty from team members by being fair and treating evenly
without any discrimination.

A major survey of ~anagers at all levels revealed that their biggest problem is people.
This includes handling conflict, motivating staff, influencing people and just getting
people to do what they must do. Working with people is one of the toughest
demands.[35]

The unique demands from a project manager concern seven areas [21]:

Acquiring adequate physical resources

Acquiring and motivating personnel

Dealing with obstacles

Making goal trade-offs

Maintaining a balanced outlook in the team

Communicating with all parties

Negotiating

65

Whenever a group of people come together for a common objective, undoubtfuly a

leader is required. Someone must organize the group and make sure the objective is
going to be achieved. Each individual within a project has a responsibility and project
manager's responsibility is the project itself. The project manager has three major
responsibilities regarding the project. These are[21]:

Responsibility to the parent organization

Responsibility to the project and client

Responsibility to project team

Being the subject of this dissertation, the project team is also under the responsibility
of project manager. Two important the demands from a project manager is motivating
the team members and communicating with them.

5.4 Communication
The works in construction projects are mostly detailed and non-repetitive. This makes
communication necessary. A project manager must be able to communicate
effectively between both workers and owners. Effective communication and good
'

productivity go hand in hand.[33]

There are different ways of communications that take place in a construction project.
It can be via telephone calls, posters and letters. A weekly meeting in which a project

manager discusses the progress with engineers and foremen is another typical form of
communication. Personal or group interests can also produce a type of
communication. For example when workers expect the end of a project they may start
to discuss among themselves the possibility oflayoffs.[15]

Much of the communication between parties within a construction is oral. Oral

communication has the advantage of involving face to face exchanges and
encouraging questions and a friendly atmosphere. But the disadvantage of oral
communication is that it can be misunderstood. So the words and symbols used in
communication should be chosen carefully considering the listener or receiver.

66

There are two parties when a communication takes place.

Sender

Receiver

The receiver of a niessage interprets it with his own knowledge or experience. If a

construction worker is told to brace a wall he is going to do it on his own experience
even it will not confol11?- what was intended with the message. The sender must be
aware ofthe nature, skills and experience ofreceiver.[l5]

It is important to start a dialogue between workers and management early at the

beginning of the project. If a positive communication climate is created the manager

can be informed of the difficulties, problems and failures the first time. Then action
can be taken immediately without any delay. The workers are the ones who can detect
the problems in detail at first hand. They can inform the management promptly and
offer their suggestions if a positive communication climate is created.[5]

The 'open door policy' and 'walking the job' are two powerful tools for good
communication and motivation as well. An open door policy is a policy in which the
manager's office door is open to all of the employees and he is willing to listen and
solve their problems. There are also many benefits of 'walking the job'. There is a
danger of workers feeling lowered due to the nature of work

~hey

are doing and this

can be a barrier for productivity. If a manager walks out of his office and show his
presence in the field, talk to the workers personally in a friendly and balanced manner
then they will feel comfortable and respected. This can result in increased
productivity as well. [5]

A good example of communication and motivation happened in the repair project of

Sasol's Benfield Facility in which a fire broke out in March 1994.[21] A 19-footwide, 231-foot-long column had to be replaced in less than 40 days. There were no
limitations in cost and resources but time. It was stated by the management that high
premiums would be given for high team performances and every need of workers
such as transportation, accommodation and food was taken into consideration. A
communication board was posted informing the progress and was updated twice a day

67

honouring the person's name who saved time on the schedule. There were shift
change meetings everyday in which leaving shift members informed the coming shift
about the progress. Meetings were held daily to discuss the progress and to make the
plans for the next two days. People showed great enthusiasm and contributed with
their ideas to save. time on project. The result was amazing. The project was
completed only in 25 days with a saving of $21 million out of a $85 million budget.
[21]

5. 5 ?dotivation rtlieories
There are several approaches utilized by the construction industry for motivation of
workers. In the field of behavioural science some theories were established to analyze
the goals of individual workers, how that worker behaves in a group, and how a group
acts in an organization.[4][15]

5.5.1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

According to Maslow an individual will aim to satisfy some sort of needs step by step.
The order in which,the needs arranged are[4]:

Physiological needs; bodily needs such as food, water, shelter, sleep

Safety and security needs

Need for belongingness and social activities

Need for esteem and status

Need for self realization and fulfilment

5.5.2 Herzbergs Satisfiers And Dissatisfiers

Frederick Herzberg worked on different group of workers and came up with factors
those influence the worker's behaviours. He classified them under two categories[4]:

Dissatisfiers which are considered as demotivators

~

Company policy and administration

Supervision

68

Interpersonal relationships

Working conditions

Salary

Status

Security

Satisfiers which are considered as motivators

~

Achievement

Recognition of achievement

The work itself

Responsibility

Growth and advancement

5.5.3 Me Gregor's theory X and theory Y

Me Gregor suggests that human behaviour problems in industrial organizations are
caused by the management approach. The conventional approach which is
characterized by Theory X assumes that workers are unwilling to work, lacking
ambition, dislike responsibility and resistant to change. On the other hand theory Y
assumes that workers want to work, have a desire to learn and potential to improve.
They are creative, committed to company objectives and seek responsibility.[15][32]

5. 6 Safety 9vtanagement
Following the mining industry the construction industry has the second worst severity
and injury rate. In other words a construction worker is in a state of high physical risk.
Workers tend to protect themselves at a less-than-optimal productivity rate. Various
work rules may reduce the risk of accidents while constraining productivity. On the
other hand if an accident happens the negative effect on productivity is huge. Worker
morale decreases such that productivity rates drop noticeably for extended
periods. [ 15]

69

Everyone connected with a construction project should be concerned with the level of
safety that is maintained on it. Job site safety influences productivity and morale
which in tum can determine whether the project will be completed successfully or not.
As a minimum, the level of safety on a project must comply with legislated criteria.
[4]

There are many factors that contribute to a safe project. The following points are
indicators of the level of safety that a project may experience. [31]

Safety in Design

As well as a final product of a construction project, construction methods should also

be safe. The level of risk must be determined and assessed in the design stage .
Alternative designs should be considered which might be safer. Safe construction
methods should be defined and applied. Individuals should not have to redefine and
experiment with different methods for every task. Engineering controls should be
done to decrease the risks in some construction methods.

Training of Workers and Supervisors

"

There should be opportunity for both workers and supervisors to obtain safety training
on an ongoing basis as well as have access to proper safety equipment.

Planning for Methodology and Hazards

Supervisors must plan the safe performance of the task effectively and then
communicate this information to the workers.

Management Support
Senior management should take an active participatory role in the safety of company
projects. Participation in safety committees, training and meetings should occur. It is
management's job to assign responsibilities for safety, and this should be clear.

70

 Safety Training
New personnel orientation, weekly or monthly safety meetings, toolbox meetings,
safety committees and safety courses are all indicators of an organization's
commitment to safety training.

Maintenance Program
Preventative maintenance on tools and equipment involving records and logs should
occur. Workers should be made aware of the dangers of working with defective tools
and encouraged to report and flag these problems.

Emergency Preparedness
All project personnel must be able to contact emergency aid and find emergency
equipment. An adequate number of first aid trained employees must be on the job site
and drills or simulations conducted to ensure preparedness.

Records and Statistics

Learning from past mistakes and taking corrective actions are very likely to prevent
those mistakes from happening again. Information of past statistics should be used to
educate the workers in safe work practices.

5. 7 Conc{usion
In this chapter the relationship between management and individual worker has been
discussed. The selection and motivation of a worker and manager's approach to him
has been focused on. Workers expect to be treated fairly and they are motivated when
esteemed.

Safety is another important concern for labour productivity. Standards

should be met to maintain a safe work environment. The theories which were
developed to understand the behaviour and reactions of workers have also explained.

A civil engmeenng case study is gomg to be presented in the next chapter.

Productivity measurement and improvement tools that discussed previously in
chapters 3,4 and 5 are going to be applied within the case study.

71

CHAPTER6
Jl Case Study On Productivity
Improvement
6.1 Introduction
In this chapter a civil engineering case study will be evaluated in terms of
productivity. The focus is going to be on the bricklaying operation. Measurements and
analysis are going to be performed regarding bricklaying.

The project which is the subject of this study is the construction of a 'health spa'
situated in Fourways- Johannesburg. The contractor is Group Five. The construction
started in March 2004 and is scheduled to be completed at the end of July 2004. The
concreting operations of first two floors were completed and the bricklaying activities
were under way on the ground floor while the observations were made.

The reason for selecting the bricklaying operation for the study is that it is a repetitive
work throughout the whole construction process which is labour intensive.

Some of the tools discussed previously for productivity improvement in chapters 3,4
and 5 will be utilized in running the case study. These tools include:

Time study

Work sampling

Foreman delay surveys

Method Study

72

blockB
block A
:brb

~
(bridm

J
:brb

Figure 6.1 Site Layout

6. 2 crime Study
Before carrying out the time study a general observation was made by author to
determine the elements of the operation and to plan for data collection. Once the
initial observation had been made the equipment and data collection forms were
prepared. The equipment used in the study was a stopwatch, a study board, pencil and
a calculator. A layout of the construction site was also maintained and the working
conditions were noted such as weather, temperature and site conditions. (Figure 6.1
and table 6.1)

73

Brief description of job: Bricklaying to ground floor Blocks A

andB
Site conditions : Average
Weather: Cool and bright 14 degrees C
Team
A: bricklayer
B: bricklayer
C: bricklayer
D: bricklayer
E: bricklayer
F: labourer [carrying bricks]
G: labourer [carrying mortar]
Equipment used
Trowels
Wheelbarrows
Hollow steel tube[Profile]
Spirit Level
String
Chalk
Materials Used
Standard Clay Brick
Mortar for bricks
Table 6.1 Brief description of site conditions and materials

Elements of the time study were determined as:

Fetch mortar
Fetch brick
Measure
Align the profile
Lay brick
Distribute bricks
Distribute mortar
Align the string

74

Before recording, the purpose of the study was explained to the workers and during
recording, the readings and ratings were discussed with foreman. The actual observed
times were recorded and the ratings were given for each worker by using table 3.5 and
observation ofworke(s performance as explained in section 3.4.2.l.(Chapter 3). They
were tabulated as seen on table 6.2

Upon the completion of on-site data collection the forms were studied and standard
times were established by adding time allowances.
TIME STUDY OBSERVATION SHEET
Team: A,B,C,D,E bricklayers G,F labourers
BT
CT OT
'min) l(min) 'min)
R
ELEMENTS
Start time
0
3,2
A,B,C align the profile 100
9,6
3,2
IT
D,E wait
3,2
3,2
100
F fetch brick
3,2
100
G fetch mortar
3,2
3,2
100
3
A,B align the string
6

A,B align the string

CT
OT
It min) 'min) BT (min)
11,5
2
IT
2
4
100
2
1,8
90
2
13,7
100
~5

D,E wait
C measure
F fetch brick
G distribute brick

IT
90
100
100

2,7
3
3

D,E lay brick

C measure
Fwait
G distribute mortar

100
100
IT
100

A,B,C,D,E lay brick

F fetch brick
G distribute mortar

90
100
90

2
2
2

9
2
1,8

A,B,C lay brick

D, E wait
F, G distribute brick

1oo

3
3
3
'

ELEMENTS
Start time
A,B,Cwait
D,E lay brick
F fetch brick
Gwait

6,2

90
90
IT

5
2,5
2,5

IT
90

2,3
2,3
2,3

6,9

1,5
1,5
1,5

7,5
1,35

16

2,07

18,5
2
2
2

5,4
1,8

A,B,C,D,E lay brick

D distribute brick
Ewait

100
90
IT

10,2

20
A,B,C,D lay brick

100

4,05

E wait

IT

1,5

1,5

F Distribute bricks

100

1,5

1,5

Gwait

IT

A,B wait

IT

1,5

C,D,E lay brick

90

1,5

F fetch brick

100

G fetch mortar

100
11,7

Amount of work performed: 2m

2,5
2,5
2,5
2,5
16,2

8,2
A,B,C,D,E lay brick
F fetch brick
Gwait

24

R:RATE CT:CLOCK TIME OT:OBSERVED TIME BT:BASIC TIME IT:IDLE TIME

Table 6.2 Ttme study sheet

75

After the observations and completion of time study observation sheet a time study
abstract sheet was' prepared by adding all the basic times on time study observation
sheet for each activity. Then total basic time is calculated. The actual amount of
bricks laid during the period of time study was 2m 2 The unit basic time is calculated
as per square meter. Bence total basic time is divided by two.

TIME STUDY ABSTRACT SHEET

BASIC TIMES min
ELEMENTS

Fetch mortar
Fetch brick
Measure
Align the profile
Lay brick
Distribute bricks
Distribute mortar
Align string

3,2 1,5
3,2 3

Unit BT(min)

4,7

2,35

1,5 1,8 1,8 15,1

1,8

Total BT(min)

7,55

2,7 2,5

5,2

2,6

9,6

9,6

4,8

53,35

26,675

10,42

5,21

4,3
11

2,15
5,5

5,4

4,05 4,5

2,07 4

6,9 7,5 16

1,35

1,8 2,5
6
5

Table 6.3 Time study abstract sheet

A table for relaxation allowances was prepared similar to the table 3.8. The
percentages for allowances were determined by considering the nature of each
activity.
RELAXATION ALLOWANCES
Operation: Bricklaying

Date:

07.06.2004

Total%

Standard times
[min/m2]

>.
()

% Relaxation

c:
Q)

0>

Ill

ro

c:

ELEMENTS

Fetch mortar
Fetch brick
Measure
Align the profile
Lay brick
Distribute bricks
Distribute mortar
Align string

c:
>. :PQ)
c: c: ()
.9 0 c:

Ill

Ill

Q)

::I
......

Basic times 0"0

~ Q)
Q) Q)
[min/m 21
O..c:

c:

c:

a..

:p

c:

:0

c:

~ o~=
ro

(.)

u ro

c:

2,35

10

26

2,96

7,55

10

26

9,51

2,6

18

3,07

4,8

19

5,71

26,67

26

33,60

5,21

19

6,20

2,15

19

2,56

5,5

17

6,44

Table 6.4 Relaxatwn allowances

76

6.3 WorftSampfing
Work sampling is a technique that can be used economically and effectively to study
productivity on construction projects(section 3.4.2.2). In this project it is applied to a
bricklaying team. W o'rker status was evaluated in five different forms as:

Bricklaying
Carry bricks
Carry mortar
Idle
Measure and align

Work study was done during a normal workday with 10 minutes intervals and it was
tabulated as shown in table 6.6. The 49 readings taken between 7:00 and 8:00 were
used as pilot study to determine the sample size. The proportion for each activity then
determined as shown in table 6.5. The following calculations were done as given in
chapter 3.

The equation used to determine the sample size for a specific accuracy given in
chapter 3 is as follows:
2

N=4P[l-P]IL

......................................................................... (6.1)

N: number of observations
P: percent working
L: sampling error
Once the data from the pilot study had been collected, the size of the sample for 95 %
accuracy was calculated as:
N=4

0,45 [1-0,45]/0,05 2 ............................................................ (6.2)

N=396 observations
The largest category proportion is 45%, soP is taken as 0,45
Element
Bricklaying
Carry bricks
Carry mortar
Idle
Measure & align
Total

Element count

Proportion %

22

45
12
10
24

5
12
4
49

100

Table 6.5 Pilot study data

'7'7

WORK SAMPLING OBSERVATION SHEET

Contract:

HEALTH SPA

Time started: lo?:OO

loate

Job description:

Brickwork

Time finished:l17:00

11006.2004

Fourwavs!Johannesburc
Location:
conditions:
Site
Activity Codes: 1 Bricklaying 2 Carrying bricks 3 Carrying Weather: Sunny Cool
Mortar 4 Idle 5 MeasurinQ&Aiignin
Labourers Remarks

Time

Brickla ers

07:00

A
5

07:10

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
4

07:20
07:30

3
4

5
6
7

07:40
07:50
08:00

1
5
4

5
1

4
1
1

5
1

2
2
2

3
4
3

8
9

08:10
08:20

1
5
1
4

4
1

4
4

1
4

4
4

2
2

3
3

10

08:30

11
12
13

08:40
08:50

14
15
16

Round No

17
18

1
4

D
4

G
3

1
1

1
1

4
1

1
1

4
2

4
3

09:20

1
1
4

1
5

4
4

09:30
09:40

2
2

3
4

09:50
10:00

1
4

1
1
4

1
4
1

1
1
1

1
1

2
2

3
3

1
1

1
1

4
1

2
2

21

1
1
5

1
1
1

3
4
3

22
23

10:50
11:00

1
1

1
4

4
1

4
1

1
4

2
2

3
4

24
25
26

11:10

11:20
11:30

4
5

4
1

4
4
1

4
4

1
4

2
2
2

3
3

27

11:40

28

11:50
12:00

1
4

1
4

1
1

12:10
12:40

1
4

1
4

1
1

4
1

4
1
1

34

12:50
13:00
13:10

1
1
4
1
1

35
36
37

13:20
13:30
13:40

1
4
1

1
1
1

1
1
4

38
39

13:50
14:00

1
4

4
4

1
4

29
30
31
32
33

40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51

14:10

14:20
14:30
14:40

1
1

1
4

14:50
15:00

4
1
1

1
1
5

5
1
1

15:10
15:20
15:30

5
1
1

1
4
1

15:40
15:50

1
1

1
4

1
1
1

2
4

2
2
2

3
4
3

2
2

3
3

1
5

2
4

3
4
3

5
1

2
2

3
3

2
4
2

3
3

1
1
1

5
1

4
5

4
1

2
2

1
4
1

5
5
1

2
2
2

1
5
1

1
4
1

2
2
2

1
1

3
3

5
1
5
5

16:00

16:10

16:20

54

16:30

55
56

16:40
16:50

1
4
1

57

17:00

1
4
5
4

52
53

5
1
5
1
1

1
5

1
1
1

Pilot study over

10:10
10:20
10:30
10:40

19
20

Average

3
3
3
4
3
3
3
3
3

4
5

4
4

4
4

2
2

3
3

Table 6.6 Work Sampling

78

Operation
Bricklaying
Carry bricks
Carry mortar
Idle
Measure & align
Total

Frequency
166
48
46
97
42
399

Accuracy
Percentage of total P [L]
41,6
4,9
12
3,3
11,5
3,2
24,3
4,3
10,6
3
100,0

Maximum
Minimum[%] [%]
36,7
46,5
8,7
15,3
8,3
14,7
20
28,6
7,6
13,6

Table 6.7 Work Sampling Summary Table

A work sampling summary table is prepared as seen in table 6. 7 and the percentages
of effective, contributory and idle times are used to calculate the 'labour utilization
factor'[6]

Productive activities I Total

Labour utilisation without contributory activities

observations
=

166 X 100 I 399

= 41.6 % ......................... (6.3)

+

Labour utilisation including contributory activities = [Productive activities

0,25xContributory activities] I Total observations

= (166 + 0,25 X

136) I 399

=50 % ............................... (6.4)

6.4 Poreman (])e{ay Survey

Delays are one of the major causes of low productivity. It is important to record them.
This is most easily done simply by noting at the end of the working day the duration
and cause of all interruptions. [ 10]

The foreman delay survey is a tool that can be used to detect productivity problems in
construction. It aims to determine the factors that cause the delays and unproductive
works.[4]

The survey in the current case study was conducted on 5 consecutive days over the
bricklaying team . The survey form which was filled out on the first day is given as

79

6.8. Delays more than 10 minutes are counted for each activity on the list and were
reflected on foreman delay survey at the end of the day. By adding up all the data
collected over 5 days a foreman delay summary form is prepared as shown in table
6.9

FOREMAN DELAY SURVEY FORM

Date: 03 June 2004
Work Area: Ground Floor
Trade: Bricklaying
Problems causing delay

Foreman: David
Number in team: 7

Waiting for tools

Number of Number ofTotal

hours lost men
man hours
lost
0,25
0,75
3

Waiting for measurement

0,4

1,2

Waiting for bricks

0,7

2,8

Waiting for mortar

Redo work [alignment, measurement]

0,2

0,6

Redo work [bricklaying]

0,2

0,8

Late starts early quits

0,2

0,4

Waiting for other materials

0,2

0,6

Move to other work area

Waiting for information
Wait for other team members

0,25

0,8

Comments

Table 6.8 Foreman Delay Survey Form

80

FOREMAN DELAY SUMMARY FORM

Date:
2004

Project: Healt Spa

June

Supervisor area: Brick walls

0)

0)

:;..
co
32
u

c:

1.0
N
N

(J)

Man hours

Waiting for tools

3,5

Waiting for measurement

co

c:::
w
a.

8
1.0

...-

~
w
()

_.

0..

U)

;::

Problems causing delay

C)

:.e0

C"')

4,5

1,43

3,9

3,9

1,24

Waiting for bricks

14,5

14,5 4,6

Waiting for mortar

3,5

3,5

1,11

Redo work [alignment, measurement] 3,2

3,2

1,02

Redo work [bricklaying]

1,59

Late starts early quits

2,5

1,1

3,6

1,14

Waiting for other materials

0,4

0,4

0,8

0,25

Move to other work area

1,6

0,3

1,9

0,6

Waiting for information

1,4

0,4

1,8

0,57

Wait for other team members

2,8

3,8

1,21

TOTAL

42,3 4,2

PERCENTAGE

13,4 1,33

46,5 14,8

Table 6.9 Foreman Delay Survey Summary Form

Each workers works 9 hours a day. Total manhours for 5 bricklayers for 5 days is:
5x5x9 = 225
Total manhours for 2 labourers is:
2x5x9 = 90

As seen from in table 6.9 the biggest proportion is 14,5 which is caused by 'waiting
for bricks' . Taking this information into account a method study is carried out on
transportation of bricks.

81

6. 5 JvletliodStudy
Method study is the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and
proposed ways of doing work in order to develop and apply easier and more effective
methods and to reduce costs. [2] The steps to perform method study were explained in
chapter 3 and are going to be utilized on the current case study.

Step 1: Selection
The activities of brick movement were selected to be analysed by the method study.
The bricks are carried to blocks by wheelbarrows. The wheelbarrow used for bricks is
the same type is used for mortar. The purpose is to investigate the movements of
wheelbarrows transporting bricks from storage area to the blocks.

Step 2: Recording
The operation was studied using a string diagram[!] drawn on a scale plan of the
area. Wheelbarrow paths are shown on the plan in figure 6.2 .

Step 3: Critical Examination

The recorded facts must be systematically examined. This is done by asking
questions. Basically five questions are asked for the examination procedure. What?
<.

Where? When? Who? How? are the questions also known as primary questions[6]
Then the question 'Why' is asked following each primary question.

Once the operation has been recorded, activity is subjected to a systematic and
progressive series of questions. The questioning process is tabulated in table 3.4.

82

813
I

B14
I

81
83

82
84

85
87

86
88

89

810

811
815

1 A15

A1

,812
816

A16 A171

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

AS

A9

A10

A11

A12

A13
A181

A2

kem

A14
/A19

'A20

/
briclm

'
kem
Figure 6.2 String Diagram of brick transportation [initial configuration]

Purpose What is achieved? Supplying bricks to build walls of blocks A

and B. Is this necessary? Yes. What else could be done? Nothing else.
What should be done? Supplying bricks for walls.

Place Where is it done? Loading at the brick storage area and carrying to
the walls to be built. Why there? The construction is surrounded by roads
and it is the only appropriate area. Where else could it be done? Close to
the construction site. Where should it be? There is alternatively a small
space for storing bricks on the opposite comer of the current brick storage
area.

83

Sequence When is it done? After concreting of the upper floor is

completed. Why then? The ground will be strong enough to carry the load
and it will only be possible to complete the wall when ceiling is finished.
When else could it be done? No other alternative exists. When should it be
done? No reasonable alternative

Person Who does it? The worker who was assigned for the task. Why
him? He is the one assigned for that work. Who else could do it? When the
worker is absent the other worker who was assigned for carrying mortar
can do it. Who should do it? The one assigned for bricks.

Means How is it done? Bricks are transported by standard wheelbarrows

through the path shown on the plan. Why that way? The wheelbarrows are
the only available equipment for the work and the path is between the
bricks and the blocks. How else could it be done? Specially designed brick
handling trolleys can be used and an additional place for storing the bricks
can be considered. How should it be done? It should be done by using the
brick handling trolleys to reduce loading time as well as to increase the
amount of bricks carried at once. A second brick storage and route will
decrease the distances and transport durations.

The questioning process includes some unnecessary questions as well. That is for not
to miss any point, but some of the questions can be ignored.

Step 4 : Develop
As identified in step 3, the possibility of an additional brick storage area was
considered and a diagram was developed for this arrangement as seen in figure 6.3.
Considering the distance savings and the utilisation of a new trolley, the possible
outcomes of the new method were evaluated.

The total number of bricks to be laid for the ground floor was estimated as 96200.
The number of bricks that a standard wheelbarrow can carry at one time is 30
The number of bricks that a specially designed trolley can carry at one time is 40
The required rounds with a wheelbarrow= 96200 I 30 = 3207
84

The required rounds with a trolley = 96200 I 40 = 2405

So using a trolley proves to be more efficient as it will reduce the number of rounds
from 3207 to 2405 for ground floor

813

814

81
83

82
84

85
87

86
88

89

810

811
815

1 A15

A1

812
816

A16 A171

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

AS

A9

A10

A11

A12

A13
A181

A2

kem

A14
/A19

'A20

......,

bricks

'

...1

'

kem
Figure 6.3 String Diagram of brick transportation [proposed configuration]

With the proposed configuration a new brick storage area is introduced to carry the
bricks to the destination points as shown on figure 6.3. The distance savings from
brick transportation is tabulated in table 6.11 using approximate distances between the
points and brick storage area. The main cause for delay was detected as 'waiting for
bricks' by foreman delay survey. This new configuration can minimize delays and
result an increase the number of bricks laid per hour.

85

Distance from initial Distance from proposed Distance savings

storage area[m]
Block no. storage area[m]
l[m]

A1

24
4
A3
28
A4
8
AS
32
A6
12
A?
35
A8
16
A15
22
A16
14
A17
6
TOTAL
Table 6.10 Distance Savings
A2

47
47
43
43
39
39
35
35
42
27
42

23
43
15
35
7
27
0
19
20
13
36
238

6. 6 Conc{usion
A civil engineering case study is discussed and evaluated in this chapter in terms of
productivity. Some of the tools discussed previously for productivity improvement in
chapters 3,4 and 5 are utilized in running the case study. Foreman delay surveys
helped to detect the causes of delays. Considering the causes of delays method study
tool is utilized and a proposed configuration of brick transportation is formed.

In chapter 7 a summary of current research is going to be presented together with the

findings and recommendations for productivity improvement.

86

CHAPTER 7
Concfusions ana CJ?s,commenations
7.1 Summary of rJ/ie Literature Study

Productivity is a key factor for success. The construction industry is considered as a

low productivity industry. Labour has a big share from overall costs in most of the
construction projects. A contractor will surely benefit by reducing the labour costs by
increasing productivity so that the contractor should become strong and more
competitive in market. Increased productivity will also serve the clients as the unit
prices can drop.[1][10][15]

Productivity measurement and analysis are necessary for productivity improvement. It

enables the evaluation of existing methods of work and provides a guide towards
better methods for improved productivity. It should be done on a regular basis to
obtain estimating data and improve productivity as well as performance.

There are some tools which are commonly used to

mea~ure

and analyse the

productivity in construction projects. Process charts give a clear picture of the activity
being studied and method study searches for better ways for more productivity. Time
study is the method for establishing standard times for specific type of work and can
be used for multi-purposes. Work sampling is not a direct measurement of
productivity but it can be used in productivity estimation.[4][[6]

The main causes of productivity losses include[10][33]:

Inadequate selection, training and motivation of workers

Delays and interruptions

Working overtime

Improper management practices

Poor planning and design

87

Lack of communication

The areas that management should focus on to increase productivity can be classified
as:

Planning
Quality
Motivation
Communication
Safety

7.1 Summary of rtfie Case Study.

The project for the case study is the construction of a health spa situated in
Johannesburg. The contractor is Group Five which is one of the leading contractors
in South Africa. Even though the size of the project is small, the results of the
research may contribute to make comparisons and conclusions about the productivity
of the ongoing project which is the subject of this research, other similar projects as
well as projects of bigger scale.

The specific activity which was studied is bricklaying. The reason for selecting the
bricklaying is:

It makes up a large proportion of the contract value

It has a repetitive nature throughout the construction process

It involves large quantity of material [bricks, mortar]

Some of the tools explained in this research are utilised in case study. These tools are:

Time study

Work sampling

Foreman delay surveys

Method study

88

Time study is performed to determine the standard times for the bricklaying
operation. The data derived from time study serves as a criterion for rest of the
construction.
Work sampling observations are done to provide a picture of activities and
productivity status. The data collected from work sampling is used to determine the
labour utilisation. It was calculated as 50% showing the potential for productivity
improvement.

After obtaining the labour utilisation factor, foreman delay surveys were implemented
to detect the causes of low productivity. It was found that the bricklayers' work was
interrupted due to waiting for bricks. The problem might have been overcome by
adding an extra labourer for carrying bricks but to solve this problem in a cost
efficient way, a method study was conducted. The results of method study can be
summarized as:

using a specially designed trolley for bricks and

allocation of an additional storage area for the bricks

7.3 ~commenaations ana Conc{usions

The following may be concluded and inferred from the literature and case study:

Foreman plays an important role in site activities. The presence of a foreman

is essential for labour to be most productive. When the foreman is present, a
decision regarding ongoing activity, when needed, can be made without delay.
He is the one to detect the areas of low productivity correctly and report to the
management. Foreman delay survey is an ideal tool for detecting areas of
delay and taking corrective action. Delays are a major cause for productivity
loss. In order to measure the effects of delays, it is necessary to measure the
productivity daily

Work sampling technique can be used in productivity estimation. Cost control

and estimation is also necessary for early diagnose of inefficiencies and

89

deviations from planned progress . To prevent unwanted situations, changes

and interruptions which cause low productivity, a detailed planning should be
done prior to project commencement and revisions should be done while the
work progresses.

Productivity and quality are complementary. The most successful programmes

are those to improve both simultaneously. Safety is another major determinant
of productivity. standards should be met to maintain a safe working
environment.

Project manager is the most responsible for productivity. He should ensure and
maintain the participation and motivation of team members. He should
maintain loyalty from team members by being fair and treating evenly with an
open door policy. A friendly environment in which the barriers between
management and workers were removed, will result in better productivity. It
is important to start a dialogue between workers and management early at the
beginning of the project to detect the difficulties, problems and failures at the
first time. Strong communication links between project members and units are
necessary for a desired level of productivity achievement. Weekly meetings
should be organised in which all the responsible staff participate .
.

'

From both literature and case study, it can be concluded that productivity can be
improved at almost all levels of a construction project. For further research the factors
that have significant impact on productivity should be analysed in detail. Productivity
of various civil engineering projects could be measured and comparisons could be
made to determine the areas in which productivity differs most and the areas which
have the potential to improve.

90

1) Paul 0. Olomolaiye,1998, Construction Productivity Management, Longman

2) Joseph Prokopenko, 1987, Productivity Management, ILO, Geneva
3) R.Morton

and D. Jaggar, 1995, Design and The Economics of Building,

E&FN Spon
4) James J. O'Brien and Robert G. Zilly, 1991 Contractor's Management
Handbook, Me Graw Hill
5) Robert H. Warren, 1989, Motivation and Productivity In The Construction
Industry, Van Nostrand Reinhold
6) Roy Pilcher, 1992, Principles of Construction Management, Me Graw Hill
7) H. Randolph Thomas, Labour Productivity And Work Sampling: The Bottom
Line, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol.117

No3 ,

September 1991, ASCE

8) C.W.Emory and D.R.Cooper, 1995, Business Research Methods, 5th Edition,
Irwin
9) D.Scott Sink, 1985, Productivity Management: Planning, Measurement and
Evaluation, Control and Improvement, John Wiley & Sons
10) Malcolm Homer and Roy Duff, 2001, More For Less - A contractor' guide to
improving productivity in construction, CIRIA
11) G. Winch, 1985, Production Of The Built Environment, Berg
12) G.D. Holt, 1995, A Methodology For Predicting The Performance Of
Construction Contractors, PhD Thesis, University OfWolverhampton, UK
13)Alan Heap, 1987, Improving Site Productivity In The Construction Industry,
Geneva, ILO
14) Louis Edward Alfeld, 1988, Construction Productivity On Site Measurement
And Management, Me Graw Hill
15) James J. Adrian, 1987, Construction Productivity Improvement, Elsevier
16) Center For Construction Industry Studies Report No.7, Under The Guidance
Of The Workforce, March 1999,
17) Harold E. Dolenga, , Productivity: Problems, Paradigms And Progress, SAM
Advanced Management Journal, Autumn 1985, New York

91

18) David G. Mayes, 1997, Sources Of Productivity Growth,

Cambridge

University Press
19)Everett E. Adam, Jr. James C. Hershauer, 1981, William A. Ruch Productivity
and Quality, Measurement as a Basis for Improvement Prentice- Hall, Inc.,
New Jersey,
20) Harry Lampert, 1990, Productivity In The Construction Industry In The
Republic Of South Africa- A Holistic Approach to Resources Utilization, PhD
Thesis, Johannesburg, Wits Universtiy
21) Jack R. Meredith and Samuel J. Mantel, 2003, 5th Edition, Project
Management A Managerial Approach, John Wiley & Sons
22) David

Arditi,

Construction

Productivity

Improvement,

Journal

Of

Construction Engineering and Management, March 1985

23) Neil N. Eldin and Stephan Egger, Productivity Improvement Tool:
Camcorders, Journal Of Construction Engineering and Management, March
1990
24) Ting-Ya Hsieh, Impact of Subcontracting On Site Productivity: Lessons
Learned In Taiwan, Journal Of Construction Engineering and Management,
April1998
25) Sherif H. Farghal and John G. Everett, Learning Curves: Accuracy In
Predicting Future Performance, Journal Of Construction Engineering and
Management, March 1997
26) H. Randolph Thomas and Karl A. Raynar, Scheduled overtime And Labor
Productivity: Quantitative Analysis, Journal Of Construction Engineering and
Management, April 1996
27) John A. Kuprenas and Abdallah S. Fahouri, A Crew Balance Case Study Improving Construction Productivity, CM eJoumal, January 2001
28) H. Randolph Thomas and Carmen L. Napolitan, Quantitative Effects Of
Construction Changes On Labor Productivity, Journal Of Construction
Engineering and Management, September 1995
29) I. H. Seeley, 1993, Civil Engineering Contract Administration And Control, 2nd
edition, Macmillan
30) http://gilbrethnetwork.tripod.com/bio.html
31) Project Evaluation Tool, Construction Productivity Improvement Report, May
2002

92

32) A Kind Word For Theory X, Journal of Public Administration Research and
Theory, Vol 13, 2003
33) Michael Fielding, Changing Communication Needs, Productivity SA, NPI
May/June 1998
34) Rapidly Increasing Productivity and Living Standards, Productivity Focus
1997, NPI
35)Norman Kemp, Personal Productivity- Achieve Your Goals, Productivity SA,
NPI, November/December 1999

93

APPENDIX
Gantt charts
Construction site safety log sheet

94

COMPANY: ...................................................................
DATE

IDENTIFY

REPORT

PROJECT/SITE: ............. _....

PRINT

PROJECT MANAGER OR SUPERVISOR

NOTICED:
LOCATIONIITEM
ACTIVITY/SITUATION

UNSAFE ACT/CONDITION

YOUR NAME&

SUB-STANDARD SITUATION

DESIGNATION

ANY POSITIVE OBSERVATION

'

ACKNOWLEDGE REPORT
WHAT ACTION TAKEN TO RECTIFY

SIGNATURE

DATE

Group Five Building

NICOL GROVE OFFICE PARt<

Health Spa Contractual Programme
Standard Barchart
Selection: 11\/hoie program

----

tg:~~ ~:~~~~f~s~~~~:ns19440 Final Paint

~445 Clean & handover

Current

;_

j_

;:,tart

rmrsn

FMarch
22!1~

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j! __~
1 __ 231

2004

,r
-

14! _ -~11_ __21l

71

---C .~ -

:- -

4_6__ Gr~und Floor

H15o 1st Floor

INTALLATION

:~~-----

H~~G~~pz~~~ER

plaster

----

.. _____

Car~rt!Y

.
::

-~~~i_(iis 2nd FJ!.__

Pamting_

~ln_~lix&finishes ___ ~--c;_1ean & Handover -- _ _ __

~~ ~:~~:~~gg:; ~~~g:~~gg:

....!:.

"

OJooHA'NooVIfR"o"Al'Es_________

.'1L.910 CO!'iCB.~TE FRAME ____

L0.20 BUlL.PJ.NG SEAJ._@___ .
L030 FIRST HANDOVER

.m

14/05/2004 i 17/0512004
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2: 18/05/2004 : 19/05/2004
1 \ 24/05/2004 \ 24/05/2004
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- -------+_-1=9C_Q~06/2004 ! 30/06/2004
~010 PARKING & FENCING __ _ ___
19\ 0_4106/2004 i 30/06/2004
'J:<020 ClearArea&Fenceline______
!<030 Fonn levels
__ __
J:<040_1:ectFence
_ _ ___
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-----
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!:f]9()_ !!_Floor
_____ ___
3\18/06/2004:22106/2004

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111

\ :
. ~

32! 13/0512004 i 25/06/2004

H010 ELECTRICAL RISERS
32i 13/0512004 i 25/06/2004
H020 _Pain~DB Cupb Basement
2! 13/0512004! 14/05/2004
f:W3o Paint I Carp. DB Cupb Ground Floor
2! 17/06/2004 ' 18/06/2004
!!~.o_ Paint/ Carp-'-Q_B Cupb 1st_Fjoor_____
21 18/06/2004\21/06/2004
H050 Cables & DB Basement
3\ 21/06/2004 i 231()6/2004
_[o6ocables & DB GiOUridFToor___
3i 22io612oo4 i 24/06/2oo4
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.... _ _ _
3~23/06/2004 i 25/06/2004 ..':

H~12g~~=':"aEJ:2JECTIO~

41

3 i 29/06/20041 01/0712004
1: 30/06/2004 I 30/06/2004

HOOD SERVICE SHAFTS & ROOMS

_,

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Page4of4 ________________ -----------------

"14m

.. _.
OM 203735

Group Five Building

NICOL GROVE OFFICE PARK

Health Spa Contractual Programme
Standard Barchart
Selection: Whole program

G420
G430
G440
f445

Current
! Durn i Start
Finish
__ [
25/06/2004 29/06/2004
~
4! 26/06/2004 01/07/2004
j
3! 29/0612004 01/07/2004
-1 30/0612004 30/06/2004

Activity Description
External Sun Screens
lnslall Balu~ading
Final Paint
Clean & handover

2004

"

.]_J~.: ~~~g~~~gg: ~~~g~~~gg:

1
H;2o_._.FiRE-.P.-ROTECTION
IN..S. T.-.AL. LA ilON
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~~~
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---------'-------3:

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-~--2- _20/05f2004 21/05/2004
1
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Brickwork

~Taster~------

Handrails________
screeci-s~----

-=

-- ------- ------

-: __

-carper'!~-------

~e_r..fji!s 2nd Fjx

P_ainti11_g_______
f'inal F_i~finishes __
(;lea11_ & Handover

KOOoEXTER>iAJ. WORKS

~ ..

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r,~

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11

HOOO SERVICE SHAFTS & ROOMS

32! 13/0512004 25/06/2004
1
H010 ELECTRICAL RISERS
32j 13/0512004 25/06/2004
~?Q__~-!fl.tif~_D_B Cupb B!_sement _______
2L 1310512004 14/0512004

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3!

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-~-04/06/2004! 30/06/2004
-K020 Clear Area & Fence Lin~e --~04/06/2004 i 08/06/2004
3: 07/06/2004 ; 09/0612004
K030 Fonn levels
K046 ~rectFence
_
_
1--4Ji8to6/2004 ; 11/06/2004
KOSO El_<?x <>_ut for layerwoJ!5__ . _________ 1
3 09/06}~004 ; 11/06/2004
f'<060 lnsta_ll undergr_oun_Q__~rv_ices_ _ n _
2 10/06/2004 : 11/06/2004
11.u 1u Construct Layerworks
,
3 11/06/2004 115/06/2004

j
1

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K100
K 11 o
K130
K150

l:onstru~.Kert>rn9.. ~ catch pits

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Landscaping
Road_rn~_!l<_i_r)gs_ ______
Clean & Handover

3. ]6./66./2004 '_. 18/06/2004

5:21/06/2004 i 25/06/2004
~-23/06/2004 ; 28/06/2004
___ ~;]8/06/2004 ! 29/06/2004
1 30/06/2004 ; 30/06/2004

____

t~oo HANOO~;~~=-~--~~-=n==l~2;- 26105/2004:02107/2004

'!.010
L020
L030
L040

CONC_BETE FRAM~_
BUILDING SEALED .
FIRSTHANDOVEFf___
FINAL COMPLETION -

_ _ _ j:=_]~26ib5t2004; 26/05/2004
j
1. 10/06/2004: 10/06/2004
----,-----.F01/0712004: 01/07/2004
- - - - ~---r 02167/2004 02/07/2004
..

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@nted 15:45:00 15 June 2004

1. 08c22 SitePian Construction Planning System

__

Page 4 of4
-

---------------

OM '03735