24

Chapter

LITERATURE REVIEW

In the presented chapter, a brief review of the past research carried out in the
field of regenerative electromagnetic shock absorber has been discussed in brief, for
identification of the gaps, and for proposal of the new research work listed in the present
study.

2.1

Electromagnetic Regenerative Shock Absorbers

Electromagnetic regenerative shock absorbers convert kinetic energy of

vibrations into useful electricity (Zhang et al., 2013). Depending on their structural
configuration, these systems are broadly classified in three types as,
-

Electromagnetic shock absorber with linear generator

Electromagnetic shock absorber with rotary generator

Hybrid systems with hydraulic transmission

2.1.1 Electromagnetic shock absorber with linear generator

This type of systems replace viscous damper, as present in the conventional
automotive suspensions with a linear generator. The linear generator moves with
relative motion between sprung and un-sprung mass of the vehicle directly and does not
involve any additional transmission elements.
Linear electrical devices are used to generate electricity, where the prime mover
moves through reciprocating motion within few centimeters (Ping et al., 2006, Kou et
al., 2008, Szabo et al., 2007). However, since last two decades researchers are
investigating its application as a pertinent alternative to fluid damper in conventional
shock absorbers. It is shown that when used in an automobile shock absorber, linear
generator can harvest considerable amount of electric power for the suspension
velocities; those are normally encountered on the road (Zuo et al., 2010; Zuo and
Zhang, 2013). Vibration energy scavengers consisting of electromagnetic transducers
with rare earth magnets ensure high energy output (Beeby et al., 2008).
Permanent magnet linear devices are preferred in regenerative electromagnetic
shock absorber to provide damping and regeneration. Moreover, these can also be used

25

to apply active force in the suspension system. Ability to manipulate their damping
force with low cost electronics control gives it advantage for implementing semi-active
suspension, in comparison to the conventional fluid solution (Mirzaei et al., 2001).
Liu

and

Lin

(2013)

investigated

feasibility

of

developing

suspension(regeneration) unit consisting of tubular permanent magnet linear generator.

Authors have designed an electromagnetic device which can generate maximum power
of 12 W and 400 N damping force, when fitted in a car shock absorber. Gupta et al.
(2011) conclude that large magnetic field in the air gap of linear generator ensures
efficient energy recovery. Authors have validated analytical model of the prototype
linear generator consisting of rare earth permanent magnets. During experimentation,
the prototype could harvest maximum energy of 0.28- 0.0029 W for excitation
frequency of 10Hz to 100Hz. Goldner et al., (2001) validated analytical model of a
linear electromagnetic harvester consisting of rare earth magnets. It has been concluded
that the device can convert 20-70% of the vibration energy into useful electricity, which
is otherwise lost in conventional fluid dampers.
Oprea et al. (2012) explained analytical framework for using linear generator as
a damper in vehicle shock absorber. Finite element simulations are used to determine
the generator dimensions for maximum flux density in the air gap. Authors have
observed that damping force is not exactly proportional to the excitation velocity and
few harmonics are present in the force. Design and analytical simulation of linear
generator consisting of rare earth magnets has been discussed by Zuo et al. (2010).
Authors have validated voltage waveform results of the theoretical model with
experimentation on a reduced scale prototype. It has been estimated that real size
version of the device will harvest 16-64 W of power for normal vertical suspension
velocities. Zhen and Wei (2010) have analyzed structure of linear generator for a
vehicle with mass of 1.3 ton. Theoretical calculations revealed that the disclosed device
will give maximum damping force 1145 N for suspension vertical velocity of 0.17 m/s.
However, the work does not demonstrate model of the linear generator fabricated to
verify the calculations.
Goldner and Zerigian (2005) superimposed magnetic field by two concentric
columns of magnets to achieve higher flux density in the generator air gap. Authors
have used analytical calculations and estimated maximum theoretical efficiency of the
device to be 44%. However bulky structure of the device with mass of 70 kg makes it
impractical for any commercial application.

26

Energy harvested and damping force in the linear generator increases with
higher magnetic flux density in the air gap (Zuo et al., 2010; Goldner and Zerigian,
2005). Therefore, in the previous studies much effort has been made to improve the air
gap flux density by optimizing the generator configuration with FE analysis (Mikolanda
et al., 2009; Inoel et al., 2005; Parel et al., 2010; Yilmaz and Krein, 2008; Zhao et al.,
2005). Also numerical or analytical simulation has been used to select the winding
parameters for efficient energy recovery within the desired velocity range (Baker et al.,
2004; Petkovska and Cvetkovski, 2013).
Ebrahimi et al., (2008) presented equations to compute overall dimensions of the
generator for maximum damping force. Simulations performed with the numerical
model estimated maximum damping coefficient to be 9319.5 N-s/m. In his doctoral
thesis Zador (2008), presented tubular slotted linear synchronous generator
configuration for integration with McPherson strut suspension. Finite element analysis
and analytical modeling approach has been used to optimize damping force of the
device. Simulation results show that with use of rare earth magnets, maximum force of
4000 N can be achieved for the coil relative velocity of 0.7 m/sec. Ohashi and
Matsuzuka (2005) evaluated a prototype linear synchronous generator with neodymium
magnets. It was observed that amplitude of the generated voltage is inversely
proportional to square of the excitation frequency.
Energy harvested by the regenerative shock absorber can be utilized for some
useful application like vehicle battery charging. One possible arrangement for
controlling the harvested energy, consists of rectifier diode bridges and a shunt
resistance (Paz, 2004). Moreover, this arrangement ensures continuous damping by the
electromagnetic device.
Linear generator can be used in self powered vibration control systems
(Khoshnoud et al. 2013; Tang and Zuo, 2010; Kang et al., 2003). These systems use
linear generator as the harvesting and actuating element. Depending on the input
excitation velocity, the controller adjusts the system for regenerative, drive or brake
mode. In regenerative mode, the linear generator acts as harvester to convert kinetic
energy into electricity, which may be stored in a battery. During drive mode, the
generator functions as an actuator and utilizes the recovered energy for vibration
attenuation by applying active force in the system. During brake mode, voltage across
the generator is lesser than the battery threshold voltage and the system provides
necessary equivalent damping. Simulation tests on these systems indicate that although

27

their performance is inferior to fully active systems, they are better than that of passive
systems (Nakano et al., 2003).
Suda et al., (1998) used two linear DC motors to build a self powered active
vibration control system. As illustrated in Figure 2.1, it comprises of an actuator and a
harvester, with the harvester utilizing the actuator energy for vibration attenuation by
applying active force. The control algorithm ensures than the system works as passive
damper at lower suspension velocities and switches to active mode at the higher vertical
velocities. Active vibration control system with energy generation capability, proposed
by Orkisz (2011) consists of two linear DC motors that can act as harvester or actuator.
This system uses a battery or capacitor to store the harvested electrical energy.

Figure 2.1 : Active vibration control system (After Suda et al., 1998)

Ebrahimi et al., (2011) incorporated passive eddy current damping and

electromagnetic harvester in a single unit, as shown in Figure 2.2. Authors claim that
the proposed solution integrates superior performance of the active system along with
reliability of the passive damper, in a single pack. Numerical model of the system was
validated with experimentation performed on single degree of freedom quarter car
model. Finally, FE method along with numerical simulations is used to derive the full
size damper configuration, which would achieve damping coefficient of 1570 N-s/m.

28

Moreover, it was calculated that the system will also generate about 70% of the power,
required to sustain a fully active electromagnetic damper.

Figure 2.2 : Hybrid electromagnetic/eddy current damper

(After Ebrahimi et al., 2010)

Energy flow management for an electromagnetic suspension devices have been

discussed by Stribrsky et al. (2007) and Wang et al. (2012). The discussed systems use
generator force and suspension velocity signal for implementing the system control.
When the generator force is in same direction as that of the suspension velocity, energy
from the harvester is used to apply active force in the system. Otherwise, it is
accumulated in a battery for future use. Bose company used linear generator in vehicle
suspension, which is used as the generator/actuator, as shown in Figure 2.3. However,
rather than energy generation, this system consumes about one third of power required
to operate the car air conditioner (Zhang et al., 2013). The development and integration
of energy harvesting system for a MR damper is discussed by Lafarge et al. (2012), as
shown in Figure 2.4. Electrical energy harvested by the generator is used to operate the
MR damper, with both generating and MR damper systems integrated as a single unit.
Numerical model of the quarter car system has been implemented in Matlab Simscape.
It has been concluded that the harvester produces enough power to ensure autonomous
working of the MR damper.

29

Figure 2.3 : Electromagnetic shock absorber developed by Bose

(After Zhang et al., 2013)

Figure 2.4 : Self powered MR damper (After Lafarge et al., 2012)

Vehicle shock absorber patented by Klausner and Yankowski (1975) consisted

of two electromagnets. First electromagnet has fixed polarity whereas the other operates
with active control. It has been concluded that implementation of passive and active
control methodology results in better vibration attenuation.

2.1.2 Electromagnetic shock absorber with rotary generator

A rotary generator can be used in an energy harvesting shock absorber. Ball
screw or rack-pinion arrangement with bevel gears, which convert reciprocating motion
into rotary, can be used to drive the generator (Zhang et al., 2013). Number of helical

30

gears may also be incorporated to increase rotational speed of the generator. In

comparison to direct drive linear generators, rotary harvesters operate with amplified
velocity, which results in greater power output (Gupta et al., 2007). This type of
arrangement is favored in self-powered active vibration controllers. Ball screw-nut and
bevel gear arrangements used in regenerative suspensions are illustrated in Figure 2.5 (a
and b).

Figure 2.5 : Regenerative shock absorbers (After Zhang et al., 2013)

(a) Ball screw arrangement

(b) Bevel gears arrangement

Murty (1988) constructed an electromagnetic suspension system, comprising of

three phase rotary electric alternator, with ball screw and nut arrangement. The device
incorporated variable electric load to change the damping intensity. Harold (1971) used
long spiral lead screw for converting reciprocating motion of the shock absorber into
rotary motion, which was later used to drive an electrical generator. Output energy has
been stored in a battery. Authors have controlled ride stiffness by changing resistance,
connected in series with the battery. In case of ball-screw arrangement, power
transmission section (ball-screw and helical gears) delay rotation of the generator from
that of input excitations. It has been concluded that, this delay gives some time to adjust

31

the inertia of generator rotor, resulting in lesser acceleration transmissibility (Kondo et

al., 2008).
Application of rotary electromagnetic damper in active suspension system is
demonstrated by Kawamoto et al., (2007). An electric motor is used to apply active
force with use of ball screw arrangement. Amati et al., (2011) illustrated design and
modeling of electromagnetic damper comprising of rotary DC motor and ball screw
arrangement. The system has electric terminals of the motor shunted by a variable
resistor, to control the damping characteristics. Authors have observed that at higher
frequencies, electromagnetic damper acts as a mechanical spring. With damping
coefficient-to-weight ratio at 2000, good compromise has been achieved between mass
and the damper force. Integration of full scale version of the system in McPherson
suspension has been also discussed in the paper.

Design, modeling and testing of

retrofit regenerative shock absorber consisting of bevel gears and rack-pinion, has been
presented by Li et al., (2013). Special care has been taken while fabricating the
prototype by preloading the rack and use of teflon ring, to minimize the gear backlash
and frictional force. Since failure of the mechanical gears will result in zero damping
force, thorough evaluation of contact fatigue and teeth strength has been recommended.
Authors have observed that up to 162 W of power is dissipated in each car shock
absorber, whereas the prototype device could generate peak power of 68 W and average
power of 19 W. In the theoretical modeling, rotary generator is assumed to be a
torsional damper and inertia of the system is considered together with the gear
transmission as equivalent mass. Damper asymmetry has been achieved with
combination of rectifier diodes and electrical resistances in the disclosed device. A
smaller gear transmission ratio has been recommended to achieve higher efficiency and
good compactness.
Choi et al. (2009) have used rack and pinion mechanism to amplify relative
displacement in the shock absorber. An electric generator is driven by the pinion and the
output energy is used to sustain semi-active suspension system employing
electrorheological fluid. It was observed that voltage generated using the amplification
mechanism is about 1000 times the voltage generated without amplification.
Possible use of the electromagnetic device includes their application in active
control systems. Such devices harvest the vibration energy at higher suspension
velocities, which is later used to apply active force. An electro-chemical solution for
this methodology includes use of an electromagnetic generator/actuator with capacitor

32

and accumulator (Zheng et al., 2008). The generator/actuator assembly consists of

brushless DC motor with lead screw arrangement. The disclosed device consists of an
electronic capacitor, which stores the vibration energy immediately after the vertical
excitation. The control algorithm operates with a sensor used to measure suspension
deflection and use the capacitor energy either for applying active force or the energy is
stored into an electro-chemical accumulator (battery). When needed the accumulator
energy can be used for active control or to run other electrical equipments in the vehicle.
Since this system used original vehicle battery as the accumulator, no additional weight
is imposed for implementing the regenerative suspension.
Coil configuration is an important consideration in design of electromagnetic
harvesters. Voltage and useful power output from the electromagnetic device depends
on the coil copper wire diameter and number of turns. Referring to Figure 2.6, number
of turns in the coil is governed by copper wire diameters and density with which the
coils are wound. The copper wires do not fill the coil volume completely and percentage
of copper wires filled in the coil is given by the term called coil filling factor (Cekov
and Bossche, 2005).
Coil filling factor =
where

Aw i r e N c
Ac o i l

Nc

: number of copper wire turns in each phase

Acoil

: overall cross section area of the coil

Awire

: cross section area of the copper wire

(2.1)

Coil filling factor should be higher for better power output from the
electromagnetic devices. The coil filling factor depends on tightness of winding,
accuracy of the winding machine and shape of the coil. Filling factor for the round
conductors is in the range of 0.4-0.6 (Priya and Inman, 2009).

Figure 2.6: Copper wires in the armature coil

33

High density rare earth magnets are recommended for electromagnetic

harvesters used in vehicle shock absorbers (Furlani, 2001). These magnets are 7-8 times
stronger than conventional ferrite magnets and ensure higher energy recovery with a
much compact size (Jensen and Mackintosh, 1991; Jiang and Lang, 2007). However,
since these possesses very high magnetic coercive force (up to 10800 KOe), special
precautions needs to be followed during their assembly to avoid human injury and
damage to the magnets.
Rare earth magnets are composed of lanthanide group of elements. The two
lanthanide materials preferred for magnets are Neodymium (Nd) and Samarium (Sm).
Most common commercially available magnet materials are Neodymium-Iron-Boron
(Nd-Fe-B) and Samarium Cobalt (Sm-Co). These magnets are available in bonded and
sintered form, with sintered form having higher field strength than the other type.
Sintered NdFeB magnets are generally coated to avoid corrosion (Jensen and
Mackintosh, 1991).

2.1.3 Hybrid systems with hydraulic transmission

Regenerative shock absorbers consisting of ball-screw and rack-pinion
arrangement with planetary gear box include large number of elements in motion
transmission, which limits performance of these systems. Also frequent reversing
because of the shock absorber motion, loses significant power due to inertia loss of the
rotating components. On the contrary, hybrid hydraulic electromagnetic systems use
pressurized fluid for velocity amplification. These systems have improved efficiency
due to absence of inertia effect, which increases the generator speed without time delay
and does not involve energy loss due to frequent reversing.
Regenerative hybrid electromagnetic damper, called GenShock developed by
Levant Power Corporation, is shown in Figure 2.7. It consists of rectifier pipes,
hydraulic motor and an electrical generator (Web1). As piston reciprocates inside the
cylinder due to external stimulus, high pressure fluid flows through rectifier pipes to the
hydraulic motor, converting linear motion to rotary. The hydraulic motor is connected
to the rotary electrical generator. Rectifier pipes ensure consistent direction of rotation
for the hydraulic motor, and eliminate loss of energy due to frequent reversing. This
arrangement gives higher power output in comparison to the rotary electromagnetic
harvesters with mechanical gears.

34

Figure 2.7 : Hydraulic transmission in hybrid regenerative damper

(After Web1)
Hydraulic Electromagnetic Shock Absorber (HESA) proposed by Fang et al.
(2013), shown in Figure 2.8 consists of check valves, accumulators, hydraulic motor
and an electric generator. During its working, high pressure fluid flow from the damper
cylinder to accumulator through the check valves, due to linear movement of the piston.
Difference in pressure settings of the check valves ensures desired damper asymmetry.
Pressurized fluid, as it leaves the accumulator with reduced pressure variations, drives
the hydraulic motor, which in turn rotates the electrical generator. It has been reported
that, use of hydraulic accumulators ensures lesser frequency fluctuations in the
harvested electrical energy.

Figure 2.8 : Hydraulic electromagnetic shock absorber

(After Fang et al., 2013)

35

Zhang et al. (2013) have revealed that reliability is a key factor in developing an
electromagnetic suspension. It has been concluded that both vibration isolation
performance and harvesting efficiency of regenerative shock absorber are affected due
to inertia of its components. Primary purpose of a suspension system is to provide better
vibration control. However, when using regenerative electromagnetic shock absorber,
there is always some conflict between harvesting efficiency and shock absorber
performance (Zhang et al., 2012).

2.2

Fluid damper modeling

Fluid dampers dissipate vibration energy by throttling viscous fluid through

restricted orifices in the piston. Accurate modeling of the damper is essential for
suspension design and analysis. Moreover, it is also aimed at reducing time and cost in
developing new products (Lee, 1997).
Jiuhong et al., (2008) analyzed fluid flow between two parallel plates with
approximate numerical analysis. Based on the analysis, theoretical model has been
derived to calculate performance parameters of the damper. Mollica and Youcef-Toumi
(1997) developed dynamic model of a monotube shock absorber. Authors have included
laminar flow, cavitation and fluid inertia effects to identify interaction between
mechanical and fluid elements of the damper. Accuracy of the analytical model has
been verified within the stimulated frequency range of 0.5-3.3 Hz. Further, Bond Graph
method has been used to derive simple analytical model of the monotube damper. Nonlinear parametric model of the monotube damper, proposed by Liberati et al., (2004)
was able to compute the damping force with high accuracy. Authors have interfaced the
numerical model to ADAMS virtual prototyping.
Zhou et al., (2008) introduced governing differential equations for deformation
of the shim valves, which are solved with suitable boundary conditions to develop
analytical model of the fluid damper. Simulation results from the analytical model are
then used to establish characteristic model by piecewise linear function. Shim valves as
shown in Figure 2.9, are used in automobile dampers to control piston valve fluid flow
area (Kulkarni et al., 2013a; Kulkarni et al., 2013b). Deformation of the shim valves has
been used to calculate oil flow rate through the valves and damping force. Further, this
analytical model has been validated with FE fluid flow analysis.

36

Figure 2.9 : Shim valves in fluid damper (After Dixon 2007)

Eyres et al. (2005) outlined several methods for modeling of fluid damper
comprising of spring loaded relief valve.
Referring Figure 2.9, damper force in compression stroke is calculated as,

F (t ) = ( P1 P2 ) A p + F friction
where, P1
P2

(2.1)

: compression chamber pressure

: rebound

chamber pressure

Ffriction : friction force

Ap

piston area

Pressure difference between compression and rebound chamber is due to viscous

frictional losses because of the flow through orifice and at the exit of orifice. Numerical
model has been used to evaluate the laminar and turbulent frictional losses for
computing the damping force. Dynamics of the spring loaded bypass relief valve has
also been considered in the model (Eyres et al., 2005).
Analytical approach uses computation of viscous and turbulent pressure drops at
the piston valve for finding the damping force (Zhou et al., 2009). Numerical
simulations with NASTRAN software have been used to derive the damper valve
configurations for desired performance by following fluid structure modeling approach
(Czop et al., 2012). Authors have recommended use of few simplification assumptions
for reducing computation time. Two dimensional unsteady Eulers equation has been

37

used to construct numerical model of hydraulic shock absorber (Koren et al., 1995). The
damper performance has been improved by reducing turbulence effect in the fluid flow
with simulations on dynamic model in Ansys CFX software (Czop et al., 2011).

2.3

Stroke Dependent Damper

Stroke sensitive damper construction changes force intensity depending on the

shock absorber displacement. It can be observed from force-displacement curve

illustrated in Figure 2.10 that, stroke sensitive dampers give lesser force intensity for
displacement near its mean position. This ensures better ride comfort at lower excitation
velocities. However at higher suspension velocities, larger shock absorber displacement
ensures elevated force, so that tire does not lose contact with the ground.

Figure 2.10 : Force displacement curve for stroke sensitive dampers

(After Lee and Moon, 2006)

Lee and Moon (2006) developed analytical model of Displacement Sensitive

Shock Absorber (DSSA), which offers two modes of damping (soft and hard),
depending on position of the piston inside the damper cylinder. Construction of DSSA
is shown in Figure 2.11, which has additional flow passage in the cylinder wall, near the
equilibrium position of the piston.
Additional flow passage near equilibrium position of the piston in DSSA, shown
in Figure 2.11 ensures lower force level for small amplitude road disturbances.
However, as the piston moves away from its mean position, annular clearance between
piston and cylinder is reduced to ensure higher force level. Analytical model of the

38

damper is constructed with flow continuity equations, which has been validated with a
prototype on quarter car test rig.

Figure 2.11 : Displacement sensitive fluid damper

(After Lee and Moon, 2006)

Stroke dependent damper model proposed by Etman et al., (1997) consist of dry
friction and fluid damper. The device is investigated for acceleration transmissibility
and damping force characteristics with numerical simulation on two degree of freedom
quarter car model. It was observed that stroke dependent damping reduces heavier
discomfort, at larger suspension velocities, resulting due to incidental road disturbances.
Authors have suggested that stroke dependent damping characteristics can also be
achieved with provision of extra bypass channels and valves in the fluid damper.
Ellifson et al. (2013) has designed a stroke dependent damper with the cylinder divided
into primary and secondary volume. For the shock absorber displacement near its mean
position, primary volume controls damping, which gives lower force intensity. On the
other hand, higher force level is achieved for piston displacement away from its
equilibrium position, where secondary volume governs damping intensity. During this
part of the piston stroke, the device is designed to deliver higher force level. Cox (2014)
further added an adjustable metering valve to control damping force of the secondary
volume.

39

2.4

Mechanical Motion Amplification

Mechanical motion amplification has been identified as effective solution in

increasing sensitivity of transducers and vibration attenuation systems. Flexure based

displacement amplification mechanisms are used to improve harvesting efficiency of
piezoelectric devices (Buchwald et al., 1992; Kim et al. 2011; Moler et al., 2012). A
five bar symmetric compliant motion mechanism was developed for increasing
sensitivity of a piezoelectric transducer (Ouyang et al., 2005). The device provided
amplification ratio of 24.4 with much compact size. Authors have recommended use of
the disclosed mechanism for other applications in velocity amplification. Zeimpekins et
al., (2012) replaced conventional cantilever beam arrangement in a Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS) transducer with a micro-machined mechanism. For the
identical natural frequency, the proposed mechanism could give higher amplification
(up to 40) in comparison to the conventional arrangement. Hadas et al., (2009) varied
stiffness of an electromagnetic energy harvester to increase its sensitivity. It was
concluded that increasing sensitivity of the device results in higher energy output or
reduction in size and weight.
Displacement in the vibrating structure can be magnified to ensure effective
implementation of the damping devices. Taylor and Constantinou (2003) designed
vibration attenuation system, consisting of toggle brace mechanism and fluid dampers.
Toggle mechanism magnified relative displacement in the structure and increased
effective stroke of the fluid dampers. It has been highlighted that besides being simple
in design, economical and reliable, the disclosed solution allows for incorporation of
small diameter and larger stroke dampers. Huang (2004) investigated design parameters
of the toggle brace mechanism, to achieve the desired force intensity. Huang and
McNamara (2009) evaluated motion amplification in a scissor-jack type amplification
device. Simulations performed on the mathematical model indicate that, the viscous
damper operating with amplified motion shows significant improvement in damping
efficiency.
Vehicle suspension proposed by Hendrowati et al. (2012) consists of
piezoelectric generator and force amplifying mechanism, shown in Figure 2.12. Authors
have investigated the device for acceleration transmissibility and generator voltage, with
simulations on quarter car model. Numerical analysis revealed that the disclosed
arrangement will increase the voltage output by 175%.

40

Figure 2.12 : Force amplification mechanism (After Hendrowati et al., 2012)

Restriction of movement for the inertial mass, within available suspension stroke
limits electrical power generated by the linear electromagnetic devices. To overcome
this limitation, Moss et al. (2014) proposed hybrid rotary-translational motion
amplification device, which uses mechanical advantage to achieve significant
improvement in power density.

2.5

Experimental Studies
Validation of theoretical study on vibration analysis is accomplished by

introducing some forcing function into the system. Experimentation is performed to

examine response of the device under test for defined vibration input to reveal important
characteristics like motion and force transmissibility. Hota and Vakharia (2014)
explained performance parameters for evaluation of vibrating shaft. Authors have used
single degree of freedom lumped mass formulation to analyze peak transmissibility
under different modes. Shah et al. (2014) analyzed vibration signal to study dynamic
behavior of the machinery using NX software. Williams et al., (2005) validated
numerical study of adaptively tuned vibration absorber system with two degree of
freedom analytical model. The disclosed device could achieve significant reduction in
steady state vibrations with approximately 15 % variation in the system natural
frequency.
Vibration evaluation of automotive shock absorbers on test rig investigates its
dynamic performance over the preferred frequency range. During experimentation on
the shock absorber, force is applied with an electrical or hydraulic actuator at one end,
whereas the other end is fixed or supporting sprung mass. Scotch yoke mechanism is
also used in the shock absorber test rigs to convert rotary motion of the prime mover
into reciprocating. It is preferred over reciprocating engine mechanism and cam-

41

follower system to achieve true sinusoidal motion (Dixon, 2007). Moreover, the scotch
yoke mechanism has lower height and gives less vibration. Accelerometers are used to
measure movement at both the ends and load cells are used to record the damping force.
The purpose of this testing is to validate vibration attenuation and road holding ability
of the shock absorber. Test rig proposed by Peng et al., (2014) shown in Figure 2.13,
consists of the damper driven by upper reciprocating mass through a hydraulic actuator.
Lower end of the damper is connected to the frame and held stationary. Upper mass
moves through sinusoidal excitations of 10 mm amplitude at 1 Hz frequency. Load cell
has been used to record the damping force. Later, hysteresis loop has been plotted to
study energy dissipating characteristics for different damper settings.

Figure 2.13 : Shock absorber test set up (After Peng et al., 2014)
Ping (2006) and Lambert (2004) evaluated motion and force transmissibility of
the shock absorber with experimentations on an electro-dynamic shaker, shown in
Figure 2.14. Lower end of the shock absorber was mounted on the shaker table, whereas
the upper end was supporting a mass block. Accelerometers were mounted on the
shaker table and mass block with data acquisition system for recording the sensor
signal. Authors have investigated displacement transmissibility and acceleration
transmissibility of the prototype to evaluate actual performance or working
characteristics of the shock absorber.

42

Figure 2.14 : Test set up with an electro-dynamic shaker (After Ping, 2006)

Talbott and Starkey (2002) performed experimental evaluation of shock

absorber with test bench, shown in Figure 2.15. The arrangement comprises of
hydraulic linear actuator, load cell, displacement transducer and data acquisition system.
Force-displacement and force-velocity curves were evaluated at various excitation
frequencies to check accuracy of the shock absorber numerical model.

Figure 2.15 : Quarter car test rig (After Talbott and Starkey, 2002)

Theoretical analysis of wire gauze fluid damper has been performed with
Runge- Kutta method (Ping et al., 2006). Authors observed that the wire gauze
construction effectively attenuates vibrations. Moreover, it also has strength to sustain
violent impact. Two degree of freedom numerical model evaluated nonlinear stiffness
and damping of the wire gauze, throttle fluid force, flow inertia, friction and spring

43

force to compute performance parameters of the shock absorber. The theoretical model
analyzed coupling between fluid and dry friction damping for accurate simulation
results. Lumped mass formulation has been used to build numerical model of the shock
absorber with an additional bypass valve (Czop et al., 2011). Authors evaluated
throttling losses in the piston and bypass valve to find the fluid damping force.
Numerical model of the damper is then validated by testing performed on servo
hydraulic tester for acceleration transmissibility, displacement transmissibility and force
measurement. Geluk (2005) evaluated effect of dry friction on performance of fluid
shock absorber with an analytical model. Single degree of freedom test set up has been
used to measure damping force and acceleration, within 1.5-3 Hz frequency range.
Reineh (2012) validated dynamic model of a racing car shock absorber with single
degree of freedom testing on a dynamometer for displacement, force and pressure
measurement.
Guglielmino et al. (2008) performed the experiments to measure frequency
response of sprung mass acceleration with harmonic vertical excitations applied to the
tire. The experiment results are reported in Figure 2.16. It can be observed from Figure
2.16 that the acceleration increases up to certain frequency and then reduces slightly.
Thereafter, the acceleration further increase with frequency. In another work, Demic et
al. (2002) presented comfort analysis curve shown in Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.16: Acceleration frequency response to sinusoidal

displacement input to the wheel (After Guglielmino et al., 2008)

44

Figure 2.17 : Comfort curve in vertical direction (After Demic et al., 2002)

It is observed from Figures 2.16 and 2.17 that acceleration increases up to

certain value of frequency and then slope of the curve reduces. Thereafter, the
acceleration increases with frequency. A typical acceleration Frequency Response
Function curve (FRF) has peaks and valleys. The valleys in the FRF correspond to antiresonance frequencies (Lien and Yao, 2000). It is observed that acceleration amplitude
reduce at the anti-resonance frequencies (Harsha, 2015).

2.6

Mathematical Modeling and Simulation

Mathematical model is simplified analytical or numerical representation, which

is used to study characteristics of the system (Bender, 1977; Nguyen, 2010). The model
has defined input or independent variables and it seeks to compute output or dependent
variables with some simplifying assumption. Equations that range from simple algebraic
to higher order ODEs are used in formulating the model.
Numerical modelling is used for prediction and analysis of mechanical systems
(Desai & Kaware, 2012; Rao, et al. 2012; Liang et al., 2009). Numerical simulations
have been performed on a vibration control system comprising of MR damper and
shape memory alloy (Aravindhan and Gupta, 2006, 2010). Authors evaluated single
degree of freedom FE model in Matlab to calculate the damper force. It was reported
that higher current in MR damper coil gives considerable reduction in motion
transmissibility. Shelke and Venkatachalam (2011a, b) extended analytical simulations
to optimize copper loss in an electromagnetic bearing. All types of losses have been

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analyzed including the copper loss to find the air gap width for optimum performance of
the system.
Prabhakar et al., (2001) extended FE method to model a bearing system passing
through its critical speed. Time response of the system has been revealed by defining
the coupling as a frictionless joint with stiffness and damping. A set of steady state and
dynamic equations have been used for theoretical formulation of lubricated ball
bearings (Sarangi et al., 2004). Authors have used finite difference method for
calculating load capacity, damping coefficient, stiffness and pressure distribution in the
bearing. Singh and Gupta (1994) presented FE formulation of a composite beam to
analyze bending mode vibrations. Performance characteristics of non-recessed hybrid
journal bearing have been computed with numerical modeling using FE formulation
(Awasthi et al., 2007). A general procedure for design of piezoelectric smart structure
for use in active vibration control has been developed by Chhabra et al., (2011).
Numerical modeling of the vibrating system is used to find optimum location of the
piezoelectric mass on the vibrating body. Arora et al., (2011) applied FE numerical
analysis in design of mechanical components. Bhushan et al. (2002) performed dynamic
analysis to study stability of a pressure dam bearing.
A nonlinear dynamic model of the fluid shock absorber is constructed with
analysis of internal fluid dynamics (Yang et al., 2007). The mathematical model
calculated total force by evaluating damping contribution by throttling of the fluid, flow
inertia, structural damping and frictional force. Later the model has been used to
evaluate effect of key parameters like oil viscosity, damping area and excitation
amplitude on the shock absorber performance. Talbott and Starkey (2002) evaluated
piston valve fluid flow and shim stack stiffness characteristics to derive numerical
model of the fluid damper. Newtons method has been used to solve number of nonlinear governing equations with Matlab computer code. Li et al., (2009) performed
electromagnetic analysis of a biomechanical energy harvester. The analytical model has
been used in deriving configurations to achieve significant energy recovery from human
motions.
Waters et al., (2009) adopted single degree of freedom numerical model to
evaluate an automobile shock absorber. Authors have checked potential benefits of
changing damping level for reducing peak acceleration transmitted to the sprung mass.
For impulsive force, significant reduction in acceleration was achieved with lower
damping level. Analytical model of the variable shock absorber with an adjustable

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bypass valve has been implemented in Matlab Simulink (Park et al., 2005). Solenoid
electromagnetic valve, spool plunger and fluid flow sub model have been integrated in
the Matlab model to determine pressure differential across the piston and damping
force. The derived model has been verified with experimentation on a prototype at 0.3
m/s piston speed. Clancy (1996) derived mathematical model for a current controlled,
permanent magnet driven electromagnetic shock absorber. Author have used single
degree of freedom quarter car model for evaluating the shock absorber. Matlab program
has been used to estimate the actuator current for desired control approach. A shock
absorber has been represented with MODELICA software by Hou et al., (2011).
Governing equations have been solved analytically to calculate flow through the piston
valve, pressure differential and damping force. Physical performance of a racing car
shock absorber has been investigated with one dimensional AMESim numerical
simulation tool (Reineh, 2012). Model of the shock absorber has been developed by
integrating mechanical, hydraulic and electronic subsystems to reveal effect of each
subsystem. AMESim has custom blocks for hydraulic elements like orifice and check
valves. Pressure drop across the fluid elements has been evaluated to calculate damping
force of the shock absorber. Effectiveness of an external adjusting valve to control
damping characteristics has also been investigated with the theoretical model.
Palm (2013) analyzed dynamics of a vehicle suspension with physical modeling
in Matlab Simscape. Authors have demonstrated quarter car model to study effects of
change in suspension parameters on dynamics of the system. Kazemi and Jooshani
(2012) evaluated quarter car model of a car suspension with Matlab Simscape model.
Incorporation of Stewart robot in the suspension has been investigated for comfort and
road holding ability. Tandel et al. (2013) presented multi body dynamic analysis of a
double wishbone suspension. Physical modeling of the system has been performed in
Matlab Simscape. Matlab Simscape is used to solve dynamic vibration analysis problem
involving a spring, mass and damper (Estandiari, 2014).
Lepikhin et al. (2014) used Matlab Simscape to model two linked robot
manipulator. Authors have presented kinematic and dynamic analysis to derive control
law for the system. Six degree of freedom robot manipulator has been investigated for
kinematic and dynamic behaviour (Naidin et al., 2011). The manipulator model
comprises of mechanical components, revolute joints and hydraulic elements. Simscape
has been used for kinematic and dynamic analysis of gear box and drive train systems
with rotary components (Dhupia et al., 2013; Enocksson, 2011).

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2.7

Equation Solving
Quarter car lumped parametric model involves linear second order differential

equations. Exact solution of this model is not possible, since variable being solved is
implicit in these equations. Instead, these equations can be solved with numerical
algorithms like Runge-Kutta method. Complex numerical model of the fluid damper
developed by Eyres et al., (2005) uses fourth order Runge-Kutta method. ODE also can
be easily solved with commercial software like Matlab, Modelica or Maple. Kulkarni et
al., (2012) implemented shock absorber model in Radioss block explicit solver.
Arbitrary Lagrangian- Eulerian formulation has been used to evaluate fluid flow,
pressure differential and valve displacement. It was possible for the authors to use
output from the derived model as initial guidelines in selecting the valve configuration.
Sung and Hsiang (2008) used a commercial non linear analysis program SAP2000N for
simulation of energy dissipation in the displacement dependent fluid damper. The fluid
damper comprised of hydraulic jack, check valve, relief valve and throttle valve.
Physical model of the shock absorber was defined in SAP2000N with connections
between spring, viscous dashpot and friction elements. Florin et al., (2013) analyzed
comfort and handling performance of a vehicle shock absorber with quarter car model
in Matlab Simulink. The two degree of freedom model was evaluated with step input to
calculate tire deflection and car body displacement. Authors have observed that the
simulation results are in close agreement to that of the output from state space and
transfer function numerical models. More advanced software like Matlab Simscape and
AMESim have mechanical and hydraulic design libraries that reduces modeling time
and gives greater flexibility in the design. Polach and Hajzman (2010) investigated
multibody model of semiactive damper with Alaska simulation tool.
Awasthi et al., (2006) applied Newton-Raphson method for FE formulation to
solve Reynoldss equation, governing flow of the lubricant. Due to scarcity of published
data, numerical model of the system has been developed using Matlab 12. Simulations
on this model are then used to derive bearing specifications for desired performance
characteristics.
Numerical integration methods are widely used for the range of applications
including automotive suspension analysis. Numerical analysis involves estimation for
vibration analysis parameters with certain time step. Selection of the time step is very

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crucial for accuracy of the solution. The critical value of the time step depends on
maximum frequency of interest and is given as (Sinha, 2014; Roa, 2011);

tcr =

1
10 f max

where fmax

(2.2)

: maximum frequency of interest

Numerical simulation time step should be less than or equal to the critical time
step. It is recommended to choose the analysis time step from a well defined interval,
which should not be too small or large. Maximum frequency of interest for the
suspension analysis is about 10 Hz (Dixon, 2007; Engelhardt, 1999). Therefore
according to Equation 2.2, simulation time step for vehicle suspension analysis is taken
in terms of mili-seconds (Collette and Preumont, 2010).
Engelhardt (1999) performed dynamic analysis for motion and acceleration
transmissibility of a vehicle suspension. Maximum frequency of interest in the analysis
is 10 Hz and the recommended minimum time step is 0.01 s. Predictive control model
proposed by Cseko et al. (2011) incorporated semi-active suspension control
methodology with simulation time step of 0.010 s. Giorgetti et al. (2006) have used time
step of 0.010 s for quarter car numerical analysis of semi-active suspension system.
High speed train bogey suspension analysis is performed with time step of 0.010 s
(Herrero, 2013).

2.8

Gaps identified
In the last sections, complete review on construction, design, analysis and

testing of regenerative electromagnetic shock absorber have been presented. Also

theoretical modeling of automotive shock absorbers, fluid dampers and stroke
dependent damper have been discussed. Based on the literature surveyed, following
conclusions can be drawn.
1.

With use of linear generator as the harvesting/dissipative element in vehicle

shock absorber, frequency of the generated voltage waveform is different from the
excitation frequency (Zuo et al., 2010). This leads electromagnetic damping force
frequency to differ from the excitation frequency, which gives ON-OFF effect on the

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electromagnetic damping force (Oprea et al., 2012). However many authors have not
investigated its effect on comfort and handling of the vehicle.
2.

Damping force of electromagnetic devices significantly depends on the electrical

load (Amati et al., 2011). Harvested energy from a passive regenerative shock absorber
with linear generator can be used for some useful application (e.g. Automobile battery
charging). However, in this case damping coefficient of the shock absorber will
significantly change with variation in the electrical load resistance, resulting in
inconsistent damping performance.

3.

Possibility of zero damping force in case of armature winding or supporting

hardware failure is one of the major drawbacks of existing systems. These aspect
necessitates use of fluid damper as additional dissipative element in a regenerative
shock absorber. Design damping coefficient of fluid damper that can be used along with
the linear generator has not been discussed by the researchers.
4.

Existing electromagnetic shock absorbers have limited feasibility for application

in a vehicle suspension because of higher mass and bulky structure (Goldner and
Zerigian, 2005; Fang et al., 2013). Attempts are being made to build lighter energy
harvesting shock absorbers with use of rotary generator, which includes use of ball
screw arrangement or rack and pinion to convert linear motion in to rotary motion (Li et
al., 2013; Amati et al., 2011). For increasing transmission ratio number of helical and
bevel gears are also included in the system. Balls screw harvester gives poor
performance at higher frequencies (Zuo and Zhang, 2013). Presence of backlash and
possibility of cracks seriously affects reliability and durability of regenerative shock
absorbers with mechanical gears. Also use of number of transmission elements along
with gears affects dynamics of the system, increases cost and limits harvesting
efficiency.
5.

Much research has been carried out on development of self sustaining active

suspension system. However, these systems are complex and involve costly sensors and
supporting electronics hardware. Moreover, most of the harvested energy is consumed
in applying active force by the actuator.

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6.

For a fluid damper, flow clearance area and cracking pressure of the valves

decide damping coefficient, which is fairly linear (Eyres et al., 2005). However, effect
of armature coil parameters and electrical load on mechanical non-linearity of the
electromagnetic damping coefficient still needs to be studied.
7.

Primary purpose of vehicle shock absorber is better vehicle comfort and

handling. However, in using regenerative electromagnetic suspension, there is conflict

between suspension performance and energy harvested (Zhang et al., 2013). In this
regard, some justification is required for loss of vibration control to the amount of
electrical energy harvested by the regenerative electromagnetic shock absorber.

2.9

Objectives of Research Work

Objectives and scope of the present study have been defined based on gaps

observed in the literature review. Development of the regenerative electromagnetic

shock absorber will be undertaken with consideration of presently available resources.
Objectives of the present work are to develop a regenerative electromagnetic shock
absorber, which will harvest significant amount of energy for normal running conditions
of the vehicle. Moreover, the proposed system will work without power driven actuators
or sensors. Study deal with design, analysis and performance evaluation of the proposed
system.

The approved objectives of the present research work are as follows:

1.

To study theoretical aspects of electromagnetic damping.

2.

To study theoretical aspects of displacement sensitive fluid damping.

3.

To build shock absorber that will economically harvest the energy lost in
vehicle suspension without compromising safety and comfort criteria.

4.

To validate theoretical study of electromagnetic and fluid damping.

5.

To perform theoretical analysis of the proposed shock absorber using

quarter car model.

6.

To validate the above theoretical analysis by testing a suitably scaled

prototype of the shock absorber on test rig.

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2.10 Scope of Research Work

Scope of the research work is outlined as:
1.

As discussed in the literature review, a regenerative shock absorber combining

electromagnetic and fluid damping has not been studied. Hence, the present work deals
with design and development of new hybrid electromagnetic hydraulic shock absorber.
Moreover, velocity amplification has also been incorporated in the system, which
significantly increases power output from the presented device.
2.

Linear generator has been used as the harvesting element in proposed shock

absorbers. A dynamic model of the linear generator is developed using FE analysis and
numerical simulation. Essential electro-mechanical characteristics such as voltage,
current and coil braking force have been evaluated. Further, experimentation has been
performed on a prototype consisting of rare earth magnets to validate the theoretical
model.
3.

Harvested electrical energy of the generator will be used to charge a battery. It is

reported that, braking force on the generator coils will be effective only when the coil
voltage is greater that the battery threshold. Therefore, the linear generator will be
connected to the battery through a control circuit, which will consist of electrical
switches and a resistance, to ensure continuous braking force.
4.

Next design and analysis of EMHSA-1 is discussed, which consists of a fluid

damper and electromagnetic energy harvester with rare earth magnets. Important
conclusions have been drawn based on numerical analysis supported with experimental
validation.
5.

Focus of the presented research work is to develop an energy efficient

suspension/generation unit, which can replace conventional fluid shock absorbers

without increased weight penalty on the vehicles. For which, design and analysis of
EMHSA-2 is presented. Innovative feature of this device is use of mechanical links for
motion amplification and incorporation of displacement sensitive fluid damping. The
presented solution (EMHSA-2) has been designed to deliver better energy dissipation
characteristics and improved fail-safe nature. While designing the energy harvesting
shock absorber, due consideration has been given to the weight, whilst accounting
damping factor and energy harvested.

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6.

Computer code has been developed that evaluates energy harvested and other

dynamic parameters of the shock absorbers. Essential performance characteristics which

have been evaluate includes motion transmissibility, acceleration transmissibility, rms
tire deflection and damper hysteresis curve.
7.

Experimental test set up has been developed to measure and validate

performance characteristics of the proposed system. Accelerometer, Fast Fourier

Transform (FFT) analyzer, Load cell, Linear-Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
and Analog-to-Digital Convertor (ADC) has been used in the experimental set up. More
emphasis is given on comfort and vehicle handling evaluation, alongwith the power
harvested.
8.

Numerical simulation results have been compared with experimental findings.

Also the investigations on numerical analysis of full scale version have been carefully
compiled and illustrated in the form of graphs. Many important conclusions have been
drawn based on the present investigation results.