POWE

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From Materials Evaluation, Vol. 67, No. 5, pp: 490-498.
Copyright 2009 The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

R MT
Electric Power Applications of
Magnetic Particle Testing
by Anmol S. Birring

Editors note: the following feature is derived from the recently published
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 8, Magnetic Testing. It
has been modified slightly for presentation in Materials Evaluation.

agnetic particle testing (MT) is extensively used in power

plants because a large number of components are made out
of ferritic steels. Ferromagnetic materials allow application of
magnetic particle techniques, including wet fluorescent, wet
visible and dry powder. The most frequently used of these, because of its high
sensitivity, is the wet fluorescent magnetic particle technique.

Test Procedure
The test procedure is the most important document for any nondestructive
examination. The test procedure for magnetic particle testing in a power plant
must be written in accordance with Section V, Article 7, of the ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code (ASME, 2007). The procedure must address the
essential variables and the nonessential variables whenever they are
required. Power plants consist of a range of components; wherever possible,
individual procedures should be written for each the major components. The
major components of a power plant are: the boiler; headers and steam lines;
steam and gas turbines; feedwater heaters, tanks and condensers; auxiliary
equipment (pumps, valves and fans); and structural steel.
The test procedures must describe how the magnetization and magnetic
media are applied. The visible magnetic particle medium is viewed under
ambient light whereas the fluorescent medium is viewed under ultraviolet
radiation. When performing visible particle testing, best results are obtained
when the light intensity is at least 1000 lx (100 ftc). Small and tight discontinuities will be missed at lower light intensities. Ultraviolet radiation intensity

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shall be at least 1000 W/cm2 with background

lighting of at least 20 lx (2 ftc). It is important to note
that the 1000 W/cm2 minimum light intensity must
be achieved at the surface of the part being tested.
Depending upon the spot size of the ultraviolet light,
the light must be scanned so that every area
examined is illuminated at or above the 1000 W/cm2
light level. Magnetic fields are applied using yokes,
coils, prods or leeches.
All the equipment must be calibrated in accordance with the requirements of Article 7. This
equipment calibration includes lift tests of yokes, calibration of ammeters and light meters, and checks of
ultraviolet radiation intensity. When the magnetic
medium is prepared, each test shall include verifying

Magnetic particle testing procedures used in the

power plant should also be included in the specific
test. Individual specific tests can be administered for
each major component. As a minimum, testing of
turbine components should include a separate
specific test. Inspectors with no power plant experience can miss discontinuities in turbine components if
no additional training is provided.
Just as in specific tests, the practical test must
include discontinuities representative of power plant
damage mechanisms. When possible, practical tests
must include tests on actual components with cracks,
such as turbine blades, boiler tubes and pipe weld
samples. Cracks in turbine components can be very
tight, and an inspector with inadequate training could

The test procedures must describe how the

magnetization and magnetic media are applied.
the concentration and strength of particles according
to Article 7. Particle concentration and strength are
also discussed in ASTM E 1444 (2005), but that
standard is not cited in the Code.

Inspector Training
The quality of the testing performed by an inspector
depends upon that inspectors basic NDT training.
Personnel performing magnetic particle testing are
trained and certified according to SNT-TC-1A or applicable codes (ASNT, 2006). Training must cover all
subjects included in the SNT-TC-1A outline, with additional specific and practical training to cover the power
plant components. Specific training course material
should include discussion of the power plant
equipment and the type of tests to be performed. When
new MT inspectors are hired with no power plant experience, they must work with experienced power plant
inspectors to become familiar with the many facets of
this application. The inspectors must be introduced to
the components they will be inspecting as well as
damage mechanisms and the expected discontinuity
types. This specific training shall be detailed in the
written practice. The certification process normally
includes general, specific and practical tests. Specific
test questions must focus on power plant components
and the types of tests to be carried out.

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miss such cracks. Practical training must include application of both the yoke and coil magnetization
methods on anomalous specimens. The inspector
must show proficiency in detecting cracks using both
of these magnetization techniques, which are
commonly used in power plant NDT. Magnetic media,
namely dry powder, wet visible and wet fluorescent
particles, must be covered in the practical training and
students must be tested in each of these media.
Students must be trained on how to measure visible
and ultraviolet light intensities with the light meter.
Practical training should include the use of pie gages
and shims to check magnetic field adequacy and
direction. A Level II certificate in magnetic particle
testing does not ensure that the inspector can conduct
the power plant examinations reliably without additional specific training.
The magnetic particle testing training for power
plant components should include a description of the
components with their basic functions, as well as
general information on materials and operating parameters (such as temperature and pressure). Also,
damage mechanisms in components, likely location
and type of expected discontinuities, and the smallest
relevant discontinuity size for detection should be
covered.

Magnetic Particle Testing of Power Generation

Equipment
Boilers
The function of the boiler is to convert water into
superheated steam. Components in the boiler include
waterwall tubes, superheater tubes, reheater tubes,
economizer tubes, headers and drums.

Boiler Tubes
A variety of steel alloys including carbon steel,
carbon molybdenum, chromium molybdenum and
stainless steel are used in boiler tubes. A single
boiler could consist of multiple grades of steel,
depending on tube temperature. Common tube
materials include SA-203 nickel alloy steel, temper 12;
SA-209 carbon molybdenum steel, temper 1; SA-210
medium carbon steel; UNS S30815 (SA 213) austenitic
steel, tempers 11 and 22; and austenitic stainless
steels. (SA numbers are indexed in Section IIA of the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code; UNS numbers
refer to the Unified Numbering System [SAE/ASTM,
2008]) Most of these grades are ferritic, but austenitic
stainless steel tubes are used only in the superheater
and reheater sections. The normal pressure in the tubes
is 16.6 MPa (2400 lbf/in.2) for subcritical boilers and
24 MPa (3500 lbf/in.2) for supercritical boilers. The
temperature in the boiler increases from the waterwall
tubes to a maximum in the superheater tubes. Tube
metal temperatures can be as high as 811 K (1000 F).
Because of the high temperatures, superheater tubes
are made out of chromium molybdenum and austenitic
stainless steels.
Boiler tubes are generally tested through magnetic
particle testing on a need-to-inspect basis. Testing
usually follows a failure related to surface cracking.
Magnetic particle testing is then used to determine the
extent of such damage for repair and then to perform
a root cause analysis for avoiding future failures. One
example could be a follow-up test after a tube failure
caused by quench cracking. Magnetic particle testing
is then used to survey the entire area to ensure that all
affected areas are identified and repaired. Because
this is an unusual type of failure that should not be
expected under normal operating conditions, a root
cause analysis ensures that the cause of the damage
is corrected.
Another type of discontinuity is cracking between
boiler tubes and the membrane, caused by corrosion
fatigue. Again, magnetic particle testing is used for
crack detection and for root cause analysis.
As in the examples above, there are several other
types of damage mechanisms possible in the boiler.
Cracks in boiler tubes are most commonly caused by

mechanical fatigue, corrosion fatigue or thermal

fatigue. The preferred technique for testing boiler
tubes is wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing. Dry
powder and wet visible techniques should be avoided
because of low sensitivity. An alternating current yoke
is used for magnetization because the area of interest
is the surface. Another potential area of outside
surface cracking is at the dissimilar metal welds
between ferritic and austenitic tubes. False magnetic
particle indications will result at the dissimilar metal
welds between the ferritic tubes and the austenitic
tubes. Magnetic particle testing should not be used for
dissimilar metal welds, where an inexperienced
inspector could make a mistake and make calls where
there are no anomalies. Liquid penetrant testing is
used for such tests.

Headers and Drums

Headers and drums are tested for surface cracks on
the inside and outside surfaces. Inside surface testing
of the headers is usually limited because of internals
that have to be removed for testing. Header testing is
mostly limited to the outside surface. The most
important test area for headers is the circumferential
(girth) welds. These welds should be thoroughly
examined through wet fluorescent magnetic particle
testing. Cracking is also common at the boiler tube
stub welds on the headers (Figure 1). Depending on
the header design, this area can be congested by a
large number of tubes welded to the header and can
have limited access. The inspector will have to
maneuver the yoke in several positions to get
complete testing coverage. it is recommended that,
before testing, the header be sandblasted to remove
rust and scale.

Figure 1. Header in fossil fuel power plant. Both circumferential welds and tube
stub welds are tested for outside surface cracking.

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Steam drums are tested in the same manner as

the headers. All the nozzle penetration welds and
circumferential welds are to be examined through wet
fluorescent magnetic particle testing. Before testing,
the inspector is to ensure proper cleaning of the
surface so that it is free of loose scale and oxides.

Steam Lines
Creep and fatigue are the primary causes of cracking
in steam lines.
Creep crack growth is mostly limited to longitudinal seam welds (when present), where it initiates
mid-wall. This type of cracking can only be detected by
ultrasonic testing.
Cracking in the circumferential welds initiates from
the outside surface because of bending stress.
Bending stress can be especially high at the bends
and elbows. Wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing
is the best technique for circumferential welds. This is
always performed with an alternating current yoke and
wet fluorescent particles. Figure 2 shows failure of a
main steam line at the circumferential weld. The crack
initiated from the outside surface and grew inwards to
the inside surface.

Figure 2. Failure of main steam line at circumferential weld. Circumferential welds

must be thoroughly examined by wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing during
regular inspections. Bending stresses on outside surfaces initiate cracking at
circumferential welds.

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In addition to circumferential welds, wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing is performed at the
hanger support welds, thermocouple connections,
penetration welds and any other branch connections.

Turbines
Steam turbines in power plants can include up to
three stages: high-pressure, intermediate and lowpressure. In some systems, the high-pressure and
intermediate stages are combined into a single turbine
rotor. The main components in the turbine are the
rotor, disks, blades, shroud, inner casing and
stationary blades. Most of the components are made
of steels alloyed with nickel, chromium, molybdenum
and vanadium.
Creep and fatigue are the main damage mechanisms in the high-pressure stages, where turbines
operate at temperatures close to 811 K (1000 F). Past
the Wilson line, in the low-pressure stages, the steam
is wet and the main damage mechanism is stress
corrosion cracking with water impact erosion.
Periodic tests of turbines are usually outlined in
great detail in the technical specifications provided by
the equipment manufacturers. These documents
provide details of the equipment to be inspected,
testing schedules in operating hours, recommended
test techniques and procedures for final disposition of
test data. Periodic tests can be provided by equipment
manufacturers or by plant owners or operators.
All materials used in steam turbines are ferromagnetic, so the preferred method of surface testing is
magnetic particle testing.
Rotors are tested for cracking in the outer packing
groove, center bore and blade tip groove shoulder
(Viswanathan, 1989). Surface cracking can occur in
the heat grooves of high-pressure rotors and is
generally caused by thermal fatigue from cycling.
Cracks generally occur in the packing grooves at the
small radii of the labyrinth seal areas along the rotor.
Groove cracking is usually shallow and can be
removed by local grinding. There have also been incidences of transverse cracking in the low-pressure
rotors. Although rare, transverse cracking in lowpressure rotors initiates from corrosion pits and can
grow during service by corrosion fatigue. When such
cracking grows, it is usually detected by vibration
monitors that can shut off the turbine. Magnetic
particle testing is used on the rotor to check for initiation sites for such cracks. Rotor surfaces are commonly
magnetized with coils; head shots are also used. Coils
are wrapped to produce magnetization transverse to
the expected cracking. Shims should be used to verify
direction of magnetization and its sensitivity. A
common mistake is when the inspector places the

coils on the test object so that magnetization is

parallel to the expected cracks. Another common
mistake is insufficient magnetization. Magnetization
levels should be verified with shims.
The preferred method for rotor bore testing is a
combination of ultrasonic and eddy current testing.
Eddy current testing is sensitive to surface cracks
whereas ultrasonic testing is also sensitive to subsurface cracks. In some instances, the owners have
allowed bore testing by magnetic particle testing. In
such a case, the test is done by the central conductor
technique and with wet fluorescent particles. Magnetic
particle testing will provide an acceptable surface
inspection of low pressure rotors. However, for high
pressure rotors, magnetic particle testing is not a good
approach because the critical crack sizes are very
small and magnetic particle testing with optical
devices can miss tight and small cracks.
Turbine disks can either be integral to the rotor
body or connected to the rotor via a key. Keyway
cracking can occur in low-pressure turbines from stress
corrosion cracking. The preferred methods for inspection of keyway cracking are ultrasonic and magnetic
particle testing. Magnetic particle testing is, however,
limited to the accessible surface on the disks. When
any cracking is detected by magnetic particle testing,
thorough ultrasonic testing must be performed to
determine the extent of cracking in the keyway.
The blade attachment areas of the disk and the
blades themselves are critical areas for testing. There
are two types of designs of the blade attachment areas:
axial entry and radial entry. Only the axial entry attachment can be inspected with wet fluorescent magnetic
particle testing to detect cracks in the high-stress root
areas. Testing is done both at the attachment areas of
the disk and the blades, where cracks are very tight and
can be missed by an unsuspecting inspector. Once the
crack is detected, the blade must be removed to find
the extent of cracking. When this step is taken, the
grooves of the attachment must be thoroughly cleaned
for wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing. Figure 3
shows a crack detected with wet fluorescent magnetic
particle testing in the blade attachment area of the disk.
The attachment areas on the blades are also inspected
with wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing, but eddy
current testing is also commonly used for this. Cracks in
the blade attachment areas are very tight and may
sometimes only produce a faint magnetic particle indication. Eddy current testing will produce a well defined
signal even if the crack is very tight.
Blades in turbine and stationary diaphragms also
are inspected for cracking. Coils are used for magnetization of the blades and inspection is done with fluorescent particles. Figure 4 shows testing of turbine

Figure 3. Cracking detected by wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing in blade

attachment area of turbine. This cracking can be easily missed if the blade
attachment is not thoroughly cleaned before testing.

Figure 4. Wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing of turbine blades.

Magnetization is performed by coils. (Testing is done with ultraviolet irradiation,
but this photograph was taken in visible light.)

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blades. The coils are wrapped around the blade for

magnetization. Wet fluorescent particles are sprayed
for detection of cracks. Figure 5 shows testing of
stationary blades in a diaphragm. Once the blades
are removed, they are individually inspected with
wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing using coils
or a yoke. Again, it is very important to check the
direction and intensity of magnetization using
shims.
The shroud of the turbine blade is also inspected
with wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing.
Cracking can also occur in the tenon roots under the
shroud. This area is not accessible for magnetic
particle testing, so tenons are tested ultrasonically.
Cracks are commonly found in the inner casing
and steam chests. These cracks caused by creep
fatigue or thermal fatigue are generally open and
easily detectable with visual testing.
High temperature bolts hold the steam chest to
the base. Cracking in the threads can occur because of
metallurgical causes, poor design or poor tightening
procedures. The two most common modes of failure
are creep fatigue and brittle fracture. Ultrasonic testing

Figure 5. Wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing of stationary vanes of steam

turbine. Prepared fluorescent magnetic medium is sprayed while magnetic field is
applied by coils. Inspector uses coils for magnetization. (Testing is done with
ultraviolet irradiation, but this photograph was taken in visible light.)

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is the most common method of testing, done by

placing a straight beam probe on top of the bolt. Once
a suspect indication is detected, a follow-up wet fluorescent magnetic particle test is performed on the
threads.
All rotary components of the turbine must be
demagnetized after magnetic particle testing.
Industrial gas turbines are different in construction
from steam turbines. Firing temperatures in the industrial gas turbines are significantly higher than the
steam turbines and approach 1144 K (1600 F).
Because of high temperatures, there is wide usage of
cobalt based and nickel based superalloys
(Viswanathan, 1989). Most of the components of the
gas turbine are therefore nonferromagnetic and do not
allow application of magnetic particle testing.
Fluorescent liquid penetrant testing is the primary test
method for gas turbines.

Feedwater Heaters, Tanks and Condensers

Certain areas of the feedwater heater are prone to
cracking, especially the welds between the divider
plate and the shell. Cracks can also be found between
the tube sheet and the shell. These cracks are caused
by fatigue and will be more common in units that have
higher use cycles. Wet fluorescent magnetic particle
testing can be used for such tests; however, because
of space restrictions, liquid penetrant testing is also
used.
Deaerator tanks are inspected regularly, preferably
with wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing. Testing
is done from inside the tank with alternating current
yokes. The areas to inspect are the welds around the
manhole, nozzle penetration welds, circumferential
welds and longitudinal seam welds. Surfaces must be
thoroughly cleaned before testing.
Condensers operate at almost no stress from the
process; the only stress is from structural loads.
There is, therefore, minimal magnetic particle testing
of condensers performed on a regular basis. Testing
is only done if there is a structural failure in the
condenser. This testing is done to assess the
damage and inspect the surrounding area for similar
damage.
Auxiliary Equipment
Auxiliary equipment generally includes pumps, valves
and fans. Cracking can occur in the impellers,
stationary vanes and pump shafts. Pump shafts must
be inspected at the keyways, at the diameter transitions and at the thread. Liquid penetrant testing is
used when pump shafts are made out of stainless
steel. Wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing is
performed on the pump casing. Large, swiftly rotating,

circulation fans are inspected by wet fluorescent

magnetic particle testing to detect high-cycle fatigue
cracking.
Other methods, such as eddy current testing and
vibration analysis, are important but not discussed
here.

Structural Steel
Extensive tests of structural steel are performed
during power plant construction. Almost all of the
structure is steel, so there is extensive magnetic
particle testing of the welds. Structural steel is
inspected by either dry powder or visible magnetic
particle testing. Both tests are done using an alternating current yoke. Prior to testing, the surface
must be cleaned of loose scale and dirt. White
contrast paint should be used for wet visible

Class 2 Components; and other sections for other

components
The rules identify components for examination in
the inservice inspection plan. These components
include power plant items such as vessels, containments, piping systems, pumps, valves, core support
structures and storage tanks, including their support
structures. Section XI does not ask for a specific test
method but divides examination methods into three
types: visual, surface and volumetric. When a
surface method is specified, the examination may be
carried out by either magnetic particle or liquid
penetrant testing. The selection and application of a
specific method is the responsibility of the owner.
The owner is responsible for preparation of written
instructions and procedures for examination. When
a surface test is specified for nonmagnetic or

the rules for testing of nuclear plant

components are very specific
magnetic particle testing. Magnetic particle testing
of the structure is also performed during modifications of the plant. Structural steel tests are
performed in accordance with AWS D1.1 (2006).
While structural steel tests sound simple, inspectors
must be trained to detect cracks within the weld
ripples. Also, if not applied correctly, excess dry
powder can cover the cracks.

Requirements for Nuclear Power Plants

Rules for inservice tests of nuclear power plants are
governed directly by Section XI of the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code (2007). Section XI provides
detailed and specific requirements for testing of
components. Section XI opens with a chapter that
clearly defines two terms: examination and inspection.
Examination is defined as performance of all nondestructive testing methods. Inspection denotes verifying
the performance of examination by an authorized
nuclear inservice inspector representing an authorized
inspection agency or a state or municipality having
jurisdiction over the nuclear power plant. Section XI,
Division 1, consists of subsections covering the
following aspects of rules: IWA, General
Requirements; IWB, Class 1 Components; IWC,

dissimilar metal components, the only choice is

liquid penetrant testing. However, either magnetic
particle or liquid penetrant testing can be selected
by the owner for application on ferromagnetic
materials. Magnetic particle tests in a nuclear plant
are conducted in accordance with Section V, Article
7, of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
(2007).
Subsections IWB and IWC of Section XI identify
components for surface examination. IWB covers
reactor vessel nozzle-safe-end welds and reactor
vessel nozzle-safe-end welds, piping, pumps and
valves. IWC covers nozzles, nozzle-to-shell welds, reinforcing plate welds to nozzle and vessel, pump casing
welds, valve body welds, piping circumferential welds
and piping longitudinal welds.
For each of the components identified for testing,
Section XI also includes the first and successive examinations in ten-year intervals.
When indications are detected, detailed information is included in the code on the acceptance criteria
(ASME, 2007). Discontinuities detected through
Section XI surface examinations are treated as cracks
or linear discontinuities. When linear discontinuities
are detected by magnetic particle or liquid penetrant

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testing, the specific allowable indication length is

included, which depends on nominal wall thickness.
Acceptance criteria differ for preservice and inservice
examinations.
The above discussion on nuclear plant examination shows that the rules for testing of nuclear plant
components are very specific. Inspection personnel in
nuclear plants must therefore be very familiar
with the procedures and must follow written
instructions.
Many systems outside of containment are similar to
those in fossil plants, so the discussion of fossil plant
tests pertains to them too.

Conclusion
Power plants consist of a variety of components that
must be inspected reliably. Tests in power plants
cover a wide range of test sensitivity, from testing of
welds in structural steel to tight cracking in turbines.
Inspectors working in the power plants must be
familiar with damage mechanisms and types of
discontinuities that can be expected in various plant
components. Training is necessary in addition to the
basic magnetic particle testing training according to
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A (ASNT, 2006)
or CP-189 (ANSI/ASNT, 2006). w
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AUTHOR
Anmol S. Birring: NDE Associates, 515 Tristar Dr., Webster, TX
77598; (281) 488-8944; e-mail nde@nde.com.
REFERENCES
ANSI/ASNT, ANSI/ASNT CP-189: Standard for Qualification
and Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel,
Columbus, Ohio, American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, 2006.
ASME, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, New York, ASME
International, 2007.
ASNT, Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A: Personnel
Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing,
Columbus, Ohio, American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, 2006.
ASTM, ASTM E 1444: Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle
Testing, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, ASTM International, 2005.
AWS, AWS D1.1.: Structural Welding Code Steel, Miami,
American Welding Society, 2006.
SAE/ASTM, SAE HS-1086/ASTM DS 56H: Metals and Alloys in
the Unified Numbering System, 11th edition, Warrendale,
Pennsylvania, SAE International, 2008.
Viswanathan, V., Damage Mechanisms and Life Assessment
of High Temperature Components, Materials Park, Ohio, ASM
International, 1989.