VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

faculty of English language teacher education

TRAN THI HUONG GIANG

Developing learner autonomy in

vocabulary learning for first-year
mainstream students at ED, ULIS, VNU

summitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of bachelor of arts (tefl)

Hanoi, May 2010

1
 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

faculty of English language teacher education

TRAN THI HUONG GIANG

Developing learner autonomy in

vocabulary learning for first-year
mainstream students at ED, ULIS, VNU

summitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of bachelor of arts

supervisor: luc dinh quang, ma.

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 Acceptance page

I hereby state that I (Tran Thi Huong Giang, Group 06.1.E1), being a candidate
for the degree of Bachelor of Arts (TEFL) accept the requirements of the
College relating to the retention and use of Bachelor’s Graduation Paper
deposited in the library.

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper deposited in the
library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in
accordance with the normal conditions established by the librarian for the care,
loan or reproduction of the paper.

Signature

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is my pleasure to thank those who made this thesis possible.

Firstly, I owe my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Mr. Luc Dinh Quang,

whose encouragement, guidance and support from the initial to the final level
enabled me to develop an understanding of the subject.

Secondly, I would like to thank Ms. Nguyen Thi Thom Thom, who gave me
continuing encouragement and initial suggestions for my research topic.

Thirdly, I am heartily thankful to my classmates, who gave me easy access to

the surveyed classes in which they were doing their practicum.

Fourthly, this thesis would not have been possible without the enthusiastic
participation of teachers at Division I and first-year mainstream students at
English Department, ULIS, VNU.

Fifthly, it is an honor for me to acknowledge the facilitation and support from

the Department while I managed to finish the paper.

Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in any
respect during the completion of the study.

Tran Thi Huong Giang

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 ABSTRACT
The concept of learner autonomy has long been introduced and applied to the
process of language learning. However, it does not often reach its intended
outcome. As one of the first attempts to explore the application of learner
autonomy in the context of vocabulary learning of first-year mainstream
students at English Department, ULIS, VNU, this paper seeks to explore the
current techniques utilized by teachers and learners in fostering learner
autonomy in vocabulary learning and students’ perceptions about those
techniques. The paper begins by reviewing the current literature on learner
autonomy, vocabulary learning and related studies. The investigation then
involved the participation of 5 teachers and 156 students who undertook the
triangulated data collection method of interviews, questionnaires and classroom
observations. The analysis of the collected data demonstrated some mismatches
in teachers’ and students’ expectation in the process of developing learner
autonomy within the learning of vocabulary. In addition, it revealed direction
that may have been overlooked and areas that have not been well supported in
the development of learner autonomy in vocabulary learning such as
metacognitive skills and technology training for the students. Thus, to facilitate
further application of learner autonomy in vocabulary learning, attention should
be paid to 1) allocating more time on learning skills and Internet exploration
training, 2) building the mutual understanding between teachers and learners and
3) carrying out group work in a more conscious and tactful way.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE

Acknowledgements 1

Abstract 2

List of figures and tables 7

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Statement of the problem and rationale for the research 12
2. Aims and objectives of the study 13
3. Scope of the study 14
4. An overview of the rest of the paper 15

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Learner autonomy 18
1.1. Definition of learner autonomy 19
1.2. Classifications of learner autonomy 21
1.3. Application of learner autonomy in the classroom 22
1.3.1. Justifications 22
1.3.2. Approaches to learner autonomy and an integrated model 26
1.3.2.1. Learner-based approach 27
1.3.2.2. Teacher-based approach 31
1.3.2.3. An integrated model 36
1.3.3. Constraints 38
1.3.3.1. Cultural beliefs and values 39
1.3.3.2. Inadequate materials 39
1.3.3.3. Other factors 40

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 1.3.4. The application 40
1.3.4.1. In the world 40
1.3.4.2. In Vietnam 41
2. Vocabulary and vocabulary learning 41
2.1. The importance of vocabulary 41
2.2. Vocabulary learning 42
2.2.1. Ways of acquiring vocabulary knowledge 42
2.2.2. Aspects of vocabulary learning 43
2.2.3. Categories of vocabulary learning techniques 43
2.2.4. Assessing the effectiveness of vocabulary learning 46
techniques
2.2.5. Difficulties in promoting vocabulary 47

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
1. Participants 48
1.1. Teachers of English 48
1.2. First-year mainstream students 49
2. Data collection instruments 49
2.1. Questionnaires 49
2.2. Interviews 51
2.3. Classroom observation 52
3. Data collection procedure 53
4. Data analysis methods and procedure 55

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND FINDINGS

1. Research question 1 – What are the students’ perceptions of 57

themselves as autonomous learners?
1.1. General attitude toward learner autonomy 57
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 1.2. Affective factors 60
1.3. Attitudes towards tasks and assignments 63
1.4. Metacognitive skills 66
1.5. Students’ behaviours as autonomous learners 68
2. Research question 2 – What techniques have been utilized by 71
the students for their learning vocabulary autonomously?
2.1. Students’ sources of vocabulary learning 71
2.2. Techniques utilized by the students to learn vocabulary 73
2.3. Preferred learning environment 74
3. Research question 3 – What techniques have been utilized by 75
the teachers in order to foster learner autonomy in vocabulary
learning? How are the techniques perceived by the students
in terms of effectiveness, motivation and conditions of successful
utilization?
3.1. Techniques utilized by teachers to foster learner autonomy in 75
vocabulary learning
3.2. Students’ perceptions about teachers’ problems in vocabulary 78
teaching

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
1. Major findings of the research 80
2. Pedagogical implications 81
3. Limitations 87
4. Suggestions for further studies 87

APPENDICE
Appendix 1: Definitions of learner autonomy in second language learning 89
Appendix 2: Roles of teachers and learners towards learner autonomy 90

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Appendix 3: Noted study 91
Appendix 4: A personal reflection 92
Appendix 5: Student Survey Questionnaire 93
Appendix 6: Teacher Survey Questionnaire 98
Appendix 7: Questions for Semi-Structured Student Interview 103
Appendix 8: Questions for Semi-Structured Teacher Interview 104

BIBLIOGRAPHY 105

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 LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES AND CHARTS

Figures PAGE

Figure 1: Criteria of the autonomous learner 20

Figure 2: Relationship among learner autonomy, intrinsic motivation 25

and efficiency

Figure 3: Prerequisites of learner autonomy from learners’ aspect 28

Figure 4: A Framework for Developing Autonomy in Foreign Language 31
Learning
Figure 5: The continuum of challenge and support in relation with 33
students’ knowledge

Figure 6: Levels of developing learner autonomy 35

Figure 7: A simplified model of a teaching/ learning sequence 36
Figure 8: An integrated model of promoting learner autonomy 37

Tables
Table 1: Classification of the students’ major 49
Table 2: Areas of investigation in each part of the questionnaires 50
Table 3: Different parts of the observation checklist and their 52
theoretical basis
Table 4: Students’ responses for part 2 in the student questionnaire 68
Table 5: Students’ perception of teachers’ activities to help them develop 76
learner autonomy in vocabulary learning
(Questions 1-7, part 3, Student Questionnaire)
Table 6: Implications for some issues emerging from the research 84

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Charts
Chart 1: Students’ attitudes towards teachers’ and learners’ roles 58
Chart 2: Students’ perceptions of the importance of vocabulary learning 60
Chart 3: Students’ main goals in learning vocabulary 61
Chart 4: Students’ perceptions of their mastery of vocabulary 62
Chart 5: Attitudes towards tasks and assignments 63
Chart 6: Students’ report on their usual time to learn vocabulary 65
Chart 7: Students’ perceptions of worthy-learning vocabulary items 66
Chart 8: Students’ usual sources for vocabulary learning 71
Chart 9: Techniques utilized by the students to learn vocabulary 73
Chart 10: Students’ preference of learning environment 74
Chart 11: Students’ perception of teachers’ activities to help them develop 76
learner autonomy in vocabulary learning
Chart 12: Main problems in teachers’ vocabulary teaching 78

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Statement of the problem and rationale for the research

It is widely known from a Chinese proverb that “Give a man a fish, he can eat
for one day; teach him how to fish, he will benefit for a life-time.” The idea of
striving to learn the process, not the product, has been noted since the ancient
time. Over the history, many great thinkers such as Galileo, Rousseau, Dewey,
Kilpatrick, Marcel, Jacotot, Payne and Quick have touched upon the importance
of autonomy by elaborating their ideas on education in different times
(Balcikanli, 2008). However, in the language classrooms, it was not until 1981
(when Holec introduced the concept and coined the term “learner autonomy”)
did training students on how to learn receive the serious attention from teachers
and educators. Just as “communicative” and “authentic” were frequently
mentioned during the 1980s, learner autonomy was fast becoming the attention
focus in the 1990s (Broady and Kenning, 1996; Little, 1990).

Since then “learner autonomy” has been extensively researched. There is a large
body of both theoretical and empirical research, all points out desirable benefits
of learner autonomy. However, much of the discussion has focused on how to
achieve learner autonomy through different instructions (Allwright, 1981;
Blanche & Merino, 1989; Blue, 1988; Cram, 1997; Dickinson, 1988; Ellis &
Sinclair, 1989; Harris, 1997; Oscarson, 1997; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990) with
little following research on how those guides have been carried out and applied,
how effective they are in the real classrooms. The contradiction is that with the
purpose to help learners assume great control over their own learning, it is
important to help them become aware of and identify not only the strategies they
could potentially use but also the strategies they already use (Wu & Cao, 2004,

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p.1). The second point to be noted is that: although research on learner
autonomy in language learning in general is much, research focusing closely on
learner autonomy in vocabulary learning is few and far between. This is
inappropriate because vocabulary is central to language learning and learners’
abilities to build, expand and refine their vocabulary on their own outside their
classrooms can be the deciding factors in their language learning success.
Lastly, despite being discussed and implemented in many countries, the
application of learner autonomy in Vietnam educational setting remains limited
and awkward due to different reasons.

In an attempt to investigate this topic, the researcher has decided to conduct a

study on “Developing learner autonomy in vocabulary learning for first-year
mainstream students at ED, ULIS, VNU”. The researcher, with this study, hopes
to bring a real picture of what is going on in vocabulary instructions and to help
teachers make more informed decisions in facilitating their students’
autonomous learning.

2. Aims and objectives of the study

As having been noted in much research, one of the difficulties in applying

learner autonomy is the mismatch between teachers’ perceptions of their
students’ ability and the reality, which leads to the teachers’ reluctance to give
the responsibility to make decisions (also authority) in learning to the students.
Bearing this problem in mind, the research decides to carry out the research with
the first aim is to find out whether such mismatch exists in the specific context
of Vietnam. The second purpose is to look carefully into how learner autonomy
is being fostered in vocabulary learning and whether it is fostered effectively as

13
perceived by the students involved. Finally, from the picture of current issues,
the researcher hopes to propose some solutions to help teacher’s instruction
better facilitate students’ autonomy in vocabulary learning.

In brief, the study would seek to answer the following questions:

1. What are the students’ perceptions of themselves as autonomous learners?

2. What techniques have been utilized by the students for their learning
vocabulary autonomously?
5. What techniques have been utilized by their teachers in order to foster
learner autonomy in vocabulary learning? How are the techniques
perceived by the students in terms of effectiveness, motivation and
conditions of successful utilization?

3. Scope of the study

The scope of the research has been made quite clear from the research title
“Developing learner autonomy in vocabulary learning for first-year mainstream
students at ED, ULIS, VNU”.

Firstly, the research focuses on “learner autonomy”. To be more specific, it

investigates the current situation and suggestions for development of learner
autonomy within the context. The research areas include techniques used by
both teachers and students, at class and at home, in other words, all efforts that
are put into the promotion of learner autonomy in vocabulary learning for the
students.

Secondly, “vocabulary learning” here should be understood in broad sense,

which means not only the direct vocabulary instructions but also occasional
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introduction of vocabulary throughout reading, listening, speaking, writing
sessions when the necessity arises. In addition, “vocabulary learning” does not
merely mean learning new words or phrases. Rather, it also includes the
acquisition of learning skills in order to improve vocabulary ability (for example
dictionary use, memory knowledge, etc.)

Thirdly, it is noteworthy that the subjects of the study were restricted to first-
year students at English Department, ULIS, VNU. Therefore, all the
generalizations just serve to apply to the direct context.

4. An overview of the rest of the paper

The rest of the paper includes five chapters as follows:

Chapter 2 – Literature Review – provides the background of the study, including

definitions of key concepts, theories, current application and discussions of
related study.

Chapter 3 – Methodology – describes the participants, data collection

instruments as well as data collection procedures, data analysis methods and
data analysis procedures.

Chapter 4 – Results and Discussion – presents, analyzes and discusses the

findings that the researcher found out in order to answer the research questions.

Chapter 5 – Conclusion – summarizes the main issues in the paper, the

pedagogical implications concerning the research topic as well as the limitations
of the research and suggestions for further studies. Following this chapter are the
References and Appendices.

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Summary

In this chapter, the researcher has elaborated about:

1. Statement of the research problem and rationale for the study

2. Aims and objectives of the study

3. Scope of the study

4. An overview of the rest of the paper

In short, these points justify the contents and structure of the study. In addition,
they serve as the guidelines for the rest of the paper.

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 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Research concerned with the development of learner autonomy in vocabulary

learning is few and far between in the current literature. One of the most
relevant research is one by Yamping & Cao (2004) - an exploratory research. It
was carried out in Chinese context. The study lasted 6 weeks. The participants
were required to 1) report their daily approaches to the task of vocabulary
learning and 2) report and discuss features of their own approaches with other
participants. The study highlights some important strategies taken by the
teachers and students involved in the course: 1) students designed programs that
can be used for vocabulary e-learning, 2) students’ preference of using e-
learning resources, 3) memory strategies were taught and utilized, 4) students
were made aware of the helpfulness of contextual guesswork, 5) group work
greatly fostered independence (which supports theoretical claims) and 6) writing
task motivated learners to use the words they had met and motivated students to
learn even more words to fulfill the task.

Although little research directly related to the research topic has been carried
out, the literature on separate aspects, namely learner autonomy and vocabulary
learning, is profound. The sections below will be devoted to elaborating these
key concepts with an aim to providing a theoretical basis for the study.

2. Learner autonomy
2.1. Definition of learner autonomy
The term “learner autonomy” was first introduced formally by Henri Holec
in 1981 when he wrote Autonomy and foreign language learning - his
contribution to the Council of Europe’s work in adult education. Holec

17
began by defining learner autonomy as the “ability to take charge of one’s
own learning”. At the same time he also noted that this ability “is not inborn
but must be acquired either by ‘natural’ means or (as most often happens) by
formal learning, i.e. in a systematic, deliberate way” (Holec 1981, p.3). This
very first definition is valuable in that it highlights 1) the responsibility that
learners willingly accept in their learning and 2) the possibility and necessity
for training learners to be autonomous. In addition, according to Little
(2006), this definition brings us some important implications that
autonomous learners 1) are motivated learners in their commitment and
proactiveness and 2) are able to freely apply their knowledge and skills
outside the immediate context of learning. Along similar lines, Dickinson
(1987), Little (1991) and Benson (2001) reemphasized the notion of taking
responsibility for learning in their works on learner autonomy.

However, the acceptance of responsibility regarding learning cited in

Holec’s definition is considered the only first step towards learner autonomy
and the definition therefore is regarded sketchy by some other researchers.
There is another tendency of defining learner autonomy explicitly based on
the specific characteristics of the autonomous learner. Schunk (2005)
pointed out that initiative regarding learning, shares in monitoring progress
and evaluating the learning performance are essential. Pintrich (2000) added
collaborative learning as another indicator of learner autonomy, stating that
autonomous learners are willing to work with other subjects, for example
faculty and peers, to better their learning. Council of Europe (2001, p.106;
cited in Little, 2006) also included in the autonomous learner’ characteristics
the ability to discover knowledge – “heuristic skills” – which are “to observe
and participate in new experience and to incorporate new knowledge into
existing knowledge, modifying the latter where necessary”. Summarizing

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the existing literature, Naizhao & Yanling (2004, p.7) proposed a set of
ability that the autonomous learner must possess, namely the ability:
 to take charge of his/ her own learning;
 to set realistic goals and plan programmes of work;
 to use learning strategies effectively and develop strategies for coping
with new situations;
 to create and make good use of study environments; and
 to evaluate and assess his/ her own learning process.

While the above authors agreed that the autonomous learner must possess a
number of specific abilities, Barahona, Clàudia and Elisabet Arnó (2001,
p.2), Dickinson (1995, p.167) suggested that ability is not enough. In
addition, a “special attitude is expected from autonomous learners” and the
ability possessed must be “display[ed]” through their behaviours.

Learner autonomy has been given many definitions, depending on the writer,
the context and the level of debate (see Appendix 1 page 79). However, all
of them are loyal to Holec’s basic definition, which so far remains the most
cited definition. Taking into account the complexity of the concept and the
fact that learner autonomy is rarely, if ever, realized in its “ideal” state
(Little 1991, p.5), the researcher would rather take Holec’s as the main tenet.
At the same time, since the aim of the study is to find ways to foster learner
autonomy, it is necessary to keep in mind the criteria for the autonomous
learner, which can be summarized in the following figure:

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 Figure 1: Criteria of the autonomous learner

The characteristics of autonomous learners can be recognized to overlap with

those of successful learners (Bialystok, 1981; Zimmerman and Pons, 1986;
Oxford, 1986; O’Malley and Chamot, 1990), which further emphasizes the
importance of learner autonomy.

Classification of terms
Learner autonomy can be easily confused with other terms in the literature
on autonomy, some of which have been distinguished in the work of Finch
(n.d.):
1. Self-instruction: learning without a teacher (Little, 1991, p.3)
2. Individualized instruction: instructions which are designed to meet the
needs of individual learners. (Logan, 1980).

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 3. Flexible learning: the teacher or department provides materials and
activities; the learner has some choice over what to do and when, but
there is usually little negotiation about learning goals or evaluation (Page
1992, p.83; Evans, 1993)
4. Self-direction: learners accept responsibility for learning but do not
necessarily undertake the implementation of those decisions (Dickinson,
p.11).
5. Semi-autonomy: the stage at which learners are preparing for autonomy
(Dickinson, 1987, p.11)

Despite being different in meaning, these terms basically describe the

different efforts in moving towards learner autonomy. Therefore, they do not
necessarily exist completely independent. To some extent, they play a role in
autonomous learning.

2.2. Classifications of learner autonomy

As aforementioned, definitions of learner autonomy come in great
quantities and show a notable shift in emphasis. Considering those
differences, Benson (1996, p.27-34) proposed three categories of learner
autonomy in language learning:
1. technical autonomy: the act of learning a language outside the
framework of an educational institution and without the intervention of a
teacher.
2. psychological autonomy: a capacity which allows learners to take more
responsibility for their own learning; an internal transformation that may be
supported by situational autonomy without being dependent on it;
3. political autonomy: control over the processes and content of learning.

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 For the purpose of exploring the current situation, the concept of learner
autonomy in this study should be broad enough, that is, to cover all the
three aspects above.

2.3. Application of learner autonomy in the classroom

In this part the researcher will discuss briefly the reasons for fostering
learner autonomy in the language classrooms; then on some prerequisites
that must be reached before learner autonomy can be achieved. Next, the
current situation of learner autonomy application will be reviewed. Lastly,
some constraints in promoting learner autonomy will be pointed out.

2.3.1. Justifications
Learner autonomy appeared as a response to the historical, scientific,
political and social changes that happened during the twentieth century,
which includes:
1. the emergence of “autonomy” as an educational ideal, with a direct
influence on adult education in Europe;
2. developments in technology contributing to the spread of autonomy
and self-access;
3. rising internationalism since the second World War;
4. adult learners and different learning needs, resulting in flexible
learning programmes with varying degrees of learner-centredness and
self-direction;
5. commercialization of much language provision, together with the
movement to heighten consumer awareness, leading to learners as
consumers, making informed choices in the market;
6. increase in school and university populations, encouraging the
development of new educational structures for dealing with large

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 numbers of learners. Some form of self-directed learning, with
institutional support in the shape of counseling and resource centres,
has been found helpful.
(Gremmo 1995, p.152)

In response to the above changes, learner autonomy lent itself as the best
solution. It is not difficult to come to a consensus among scholars about the
benefits of fostering learner autonomy.

Firstly, according to Deci (1995, p.2; cited in Little, 2006), “feeling free and
volitional in one’s actions” is a basic human need. More specifically,
learners need and have the right to make choices about their learning
(Cotterall, 1995, p.219). This argument came up as a result of the humanistic
approach and learner-centred approach in language education in the 1980s
and 1990s.

Secondly, learner autonomy stems from the idea that one function of
education is to equip learners to play an active role in the society. Tracing
back to the birth of learner autonomy, it was first introduced by Holec with
the purpose of freeing man to be the master of his environment. Generally
that is from the idea of man “product of his society”, one moves to the idea
of man “producer of his society” (Janne 1977, p.3; cited in Holec 1981, p.1).
Holec stated that in order for this to come true, the educational system needs
to find way to train learner’s capacities by “developing those abilities which
will enable him to act more responsibly in running the affairs of the society
in which he lives”. In other words, learner autonomy seeks to prepare
learners to become active, dynamic individuals from inside to outside the
classrooms. This idea is in agreement with Knowles’ proposal in 1975 of

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philosophical reason for advocating learner autonomy, in which he stated
that learners need to be prepared for a rapidly changing future, which
requires independence in learning as a vital factor for effective functioning
in society. Learner autonomy, in this way, provides and trains learners to
accept their responsibility and have the strategies in their hands for lifelong
learning.

Thirdly, it has been proposed that learner autonomy solves the problem of
motivation in learners and boosts efficiency in learning.

Our intrinsic motivation and proactiveness nourish, and in turn, are

nourished by autonomy (Little, 2006). As observed in cases, intrinsically
motivated learners naturally find ways to maximize their autonomy by
setting objectives, trying different learning strategies, collaborating and
reflecting. Their learning is efficient and effective; if not to say “all learning
is likely to succeed to the extent the learner is autonomous” (Little, 2006).
As a result, their success in learning strengthens their intrinsic motivation.

Efficiency

Learner autonomy Intrinsic motivation

Figure 2: Relationship among learner autonomy, intrinsic motivation
and efficiency.

(The interactive relationship between learner autonomy and intrinsic

motivation will be discussed at a further depth in the next section about
premises of learner autonomy)

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In terms of efficiency, learner autonomy is widely believed and proved to
predict academic performance. As all learning is highly individual, there is a
natural tendency for the learner to take control over his or her own
learning.From research into individual learner differences it can be
concluded that effective learning occurs when learners are free to learn in the
ways that suit them best. As Marton and Saljo (1976, cited in Ade-ojo, 2005:
192) pointed out, “students who take on greater responsibility for their own
learning are more likely to take a deep approach to learning, which in turn
leads to greater achievement”. In addition, being an autonomous learner
means being reflective and critical. The desire to foster learner autonomy,
therefore, rests on the pedagogical claim that in formal educational contexts,
reflectivity and self-awareness produce better learning. Furthermore, the
efficiency as a result of learner autonomy also means that knowledge and
skills acquired in the classroom have become innate. Thus, they can be
easily accessible and applicable to situations that emerge outside the
classroom (Little, 2006).

Basically there are three reasons for fostering learner autonomy in the
classroom, which are: 1) the basic need of a human being to be free as a
learner, 2) the need to train learners to become dynamic, adaptable,
autonomous, to act responsibly, and to pursue lifelong learning in modern
society and 3) the need to produce efficiency and effectiveness in learning
within a limited time and space. Learner autonomy, generally, exists as one
of the requirements of the currently advocated approaches, namely
communicative approach and learner-centred approach.

2.3.2. Approaches to learner autonomy and an integrated model

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The general agreement on the beneficial effects of learner autonomy does not
hide the fact the learner autonomy is not easily applicable. Benson (2001: 107)
proposed six main approaches to learner autonomy:
1. resource-based approach,
2. technology-based approach,
3. learner-based approach,
4. teacher-based approaches,
5. classroom-based approach,
6. curriculum-based approach.

The first two approaches are inextricably entwined: self-access centers,

selfinstructional materials and distance learning often rely on CALL (Computer
Assisted Language Learning) and CMC (Computer Mediated Communication)
via the Internet.

The last two approaches mainly deal with the relationship between teachers
and learners in the classrooms and with the syllabus. These approaches, if
elaborated in great details, will lead us to move too far from the scope of this
research. Therefore, they will be touched upon in the section about constraints.

Learner-based and teacher-based approaches deal with the two most

prominent forces in the teaching-learning process. Scholars have identified some
prerequisites that need to be met before learner autonomy can function.

Learner-based and teacher-based approaches are the most important and relevant
to the research topic. Thus, it is vital to look more closely at these two
approaches:

2.3.2.1. Learner-based approach

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For many researchers and practitioners, promoting learner autonomy is
synonymous to explicit training of learning strategies. While learning strategies
plays an important role in learner autonomy, it is necessary to avoid the pitfalls
of an overemphasis on explicit strategic instruction in learner development. In
fact, the learner must be “equipped” in many aspects so as to “take charge of
their learning”.

The chance of students training themselves to be autonomous depends on two

factors, that is their willingness and their ability to do so. One important
argument was presented by Littlewood (1996, p.98) who remarked: “Students’
willingness to act independently depends on the level of their motivation and
confidence; students’ ability to act independently depends on the level of their
knowledge and skills.” The researcher would rather suggest the term
“knowledge of the language” and “knowledge of learning strategies” to be used
interchangeably for “knowledge” and “skills” respectively in Littlewood’s
remark. This hopes to bring a clearer distinction between the two terms. The
idea can be summarized in the following figure:

Learner
autonomy

Learner’s willingness Learner’s ability

Knowledge Knowledge
of the of learning
Motivation Confidence
language strategies

Figure 3: Prerequisites of learner autonomy from learners’ aspect.

27
It is now necessary to further analyze the four prerequisites displayed in the
chart.

Motivation
It has been mentioned in the previous part that learner autonomy promotes
motivation. However, it should be noted that in order to develop learner
autonomy, the students must possess a certain level of motivation as their
springboard. Otherwise, the chance is small if they will benefit from learner
autonomy training activities. This requirement of motivation explains why
learner autonomy may not be consistent across subjects and through times due to
lack of motivation to a specific subject, hunger, hot weather and so on; and
therefore, autonomous learners may not be always autonomous. (For the report
of a related research on motivation in learner autonomy, see Appendix 3, page
81)

Strategy training or learner training

Confidence
Taking responsibility of learning independently of a teacher, to some extent,
means taking risk. Thus, students are supposed to possess a certain degree of
confidence, which can be the result of linguistic proficiency or successful
learning experience in the past. For example, it is unlikely a student with poor
academic confidence would easily become an autonomous learner.

Knowledge of the language

The students’ proficiency, besides contributing to their confidence in language
learning, is the basis for fostering learner autonomy:
…we learn to speak only by speaking, to read only by reading, and so on. Thus in
formal language learning, the scope of learner autonomy is always constrained by
what the learner can do in the target language; in other words, the scope of our

28
 autonomy as language learners is partly a function of the scope of our autonomy as
target language users.
(Little, 2006:2)
Exposed to the same material, students at the advanced level are more likely to
better exploit the material than ones at the elementary level. Also, proficient
students have a better tool, that is the knowledge of the language, for their
critical judgments, reflection and evaluation. The implication here for language
teachers is that: training learners to be autonomous is a process that goes side by
side with training learners to be proficient in the language.

Knowledge of learning strategies

Learning strategies can be understood in a broad sense or a narrow sense. In
broad sense, learning strategies are “any means learners use to transform the
external input into internal and personal resources and skills” (Willing, 1988). In
this research, it is more appropriate to consider the narrow sense of learning
strategies so that a deeper look into the matter can be taken. In narrow sense,
learning strategies is the “behaviours learners engage in to learn and regulate the
learning of second language” (Rubin & Wenden, 1987: 6).

Learning strategies are normally classified into cognitive, metacognitive, social

and communicative strategies. A learner who finds a difficult word in a text and
succeeds at inferring its meaning from the context would be putting a cognitive
strategy in operation. Setting goals and objectives, planning and organizing
language tasks, directed attention and self-management are regarded as
components of metacognitive strategies (Oxford, 1989). Therefore, a student
keeping a record of the material covered in each lesson is making use of a
metacognitive strategy, consciously or unconsciously (Martínez, 1996). Fillmore
(1979) believes that counting on friends for help, participating in group
conversations and cooperating with others are examples of social strategies.

29
Communication strategies are plans and behaviors to help getting the message
across such as paraphrase, avoidance, restructuring, code-switching,
foreignizing, literal translation and repetition.

Figure 4: A Framework for Developing Autonomy in Foreign Language

Learning (Littlewood 1996, p.432)

2.3.2.2. Teacher-based approach

Training learners to be autonomous is not an overnight process. Traditionally,

the stage has been mainly for the teacher. The switch of roles of teachers and
learners from traditional classrooms to learner-autonomy based classrooms
poses great difficulty for not only the learners but also the teachers. Because
learners are not born to know “how to diagnose their own needs for learning,
formulate their own learning objectives, identify learning resources and planning
strategies for taking the initiative in using those resources, assess their own
learning, and have their assessments validated” (Knowles, 1980:44, cited in
Balcikanli, 2008:2), the teachers’ job now is to help learners gradually know
how to and actually get to do all those tasks for their learning. The literature on
learner autonomy provides valuable information on what the teachers should do.
30
The continuum of challenge and support
In 1997, Mariani proposed a dependence-independence continuum in
developing learner autonomy. She suggested that learner autonomy and learner
dependence need to exist in balance as “the self-regulation at one end need to be
balanced by the feeling of safety and security at the other”. Therefore, teachers
should link autonomy and dependence with two parallel concepts: challenge and
support. In order to promote autonomy, the teachers need to challenge the
students while in order to provide security, the teachers need to support them.
Tasks that allow freedom such as open tasks, creative tasks, or peer correction
are some of the challenges. On the other hand, modeling or demonstration, for
example, offer support.

The idea can be envisaged with two circles. The inner one refers to the familiar
territory in a learner’s knowledge and the outer one illustrates the unfamiliar
territory. According to Mariani (1997), working towards the inner circle help
promote dependence and security while working towards the outer circle help
foster autonomy. Using scaffolding strategies and gradually removing them is an
example of the continuum from support to challenge, which embodies the
principles of learning and teaching for autonomy.

31
 The unknown zone

The known
zone

The continuum of challenge and support

Figure 5: The continuum of challenge and support in relation with
students’ knowledge

Links between teacher autonomy and learner autonomy

Since learner autonomy has recently acquired a prominence in discourse on
second language education, the discussion of teacher autonomy sets out to
follow as one of the critical factors that affect learner autonomy. From the angle
as a prerequisite for learner autonomy, it has been proposed that teachers need to
have certain qualities in order to promote learner autonomy (Smith, 2000:5):
1. A capacity for self-directed teaching.
2. Freedom from control over their teaching.
3. A capacity for self-directed teacher-learning.
The capacity for self-directed teaching generally includes the ability to “apply to
teaching reflective and self-managing processes” (Little, 2000).

32
The freedom from control over teaching must be understood in a broad sense. In
some contexts it is possible for the teacher to negotiate what to teach, how to
teach and when to teach based on the learners’ needs. However, it is obligatory
for the great majority of language teachers to shape their courses according to
official curriculum guidelines, sometimes elaborated in great detail. Total
learner autonomy, therefore, does not exist. This in no way undermines the
principle of teacher freedom in promoting learner autonomy. First, each teacher
will necessarily have his/her own understanding of the curriculum and his/her
own approach to its delivery, “though the syllabus may be the same, the lessons
are not” (Salmon, 1988:37). Secondly, when the curriculum may not be
negotiated, the extent to which its goals must be reached can be put on the
discussion (Little, 2007), “a development towards greater control of the learners
over their own learning can be initiated by classroom discussions about learning
outcomes” (Dam, 1999). Finally, teachers need to be aware of different levels
of learner autonomy, originally proposed by Nunan (1997):

33
5. transcendence learners move beyond classroom setting for independent
learning

4. creation learners set up their own goals and plans for self-directed
learning

3. intervention learners are encouraged to modify and adapt their goals,

learning styles and strategies

3. involvement learners are actively involved in the learning

1. awareness learners are made aware of pedagogical goals, contents and

strategies

Figure 6: Levels of developing learner autonomy (Nunan, 1997, pp.192-203)

Finally, the capacity for self-directed teacher-learning bears the same ground
with the teachers’ willingness and ability to be researchers in their own
classrooms, to reflect and learn from their own teaching experiences and to self-
educate. According to Little (2000), “it is unreasonable to expect teachers to
foster the growth of autonomy in their learners if they themselves do not know
what it is to be an autonomous learner”. (For a personal reflection on the matter,
see Appendix 4, page 82)

34
 1.3.2.3. An integrated model
Dam (1999) proposed a model about how to move from a teacher-directed
environment towards a possible learner-centered environment:

Figure 7: A simplified model of a teaching/ learning sequence

(Dam, 1999:116)
Rather than looking at teaching/ learning as a linear consequence, Hansen (n.d.)
thought of integrating different learner autonomy approaches into a unified
model of teaching and learning:

35
 Figure 8: An integrated model of promoting learner autonomy (Hansen,
n.d., p.36)
Compared to Dam’s model, Hansen’s proves to be more adequate in that it
emphasizes the continuous circle of interaction among forces involved in the
teaching-learning process.

What the teachers can do

Over the past two decades, a sparkling interest has been evident in the study
of how to promote learner autonomy. Generally there is a consensus that
learner autonomy is not inborn. Rather, it must be and can be trained through
learning experiences, through “learner’s dialogue with the world to which he
or she belongs” (Little, 1994, p.431). The above approaches have been
realized into specific strategies. Of the most practical are Brajcich’s ideas:

1. Encourage students to be interdependent and to work collectively. The less

students depend on their teacher, the more autonomy is being developed.
2. Ask students to keep a diary of their learning experiences. Through practice,
students may become more aware of their learning preferences and start to think of
new ways of becoming more independent learners.
3. Explain teacher/student roles from the outset. Asking students to give their
opinions on the issue of roles could be beneficial.
4. Progress gradually from interdependence to independence. Give the students
time to adjust to new learning strategies and do not expect too much too soon.

36
 5. Give the students projects to do outside the classroom. Such projects may
increase motivation.
6. Give the students non-lesson classroom duties to perform (taking roll, writing
instructions, notices, etc. on the board for the teacher)
7. Have the students design lessons or materials to be used in class.
8. Instruct students on how to use the school's resource centers: the school library,
the language lab, and the language lounge.
9. Emphasize the importance of peer-editing, corrections, and follow-up
questioning in the classroom.
10. Encourage the students to use only English in class. Tell the students that this is
a great chance for them to use only English, and few opportunities like this exist for
them. Part of the role of the language teacher is to create an environment where
students feel they should communicate in the target language and feel comfortable
doing so.
11. Stress fluency rather than accuracy.
12. However, do allow the students to use reference books, including dictionaries
(preferably English-English with mother-tongue annotations), in class.
(Adapted from Brajcich, 2000:1)
These ways in which a teacher can incorporate learner training into a regular
classroom can easily be used in any classroom in order to have the learners
develop their own autonomy. These strategies are specific. They act as
guidelines for teachers finding themselves newcomers in the work of
developing learner autonomy. However, in the long run, teachers need to
train themselves for certain qualities, and this leads us to the concept of
teacher autonomy.

1.3.3. Constraints
Although learner autonomy is strongly advocated, its practices are still hindered
by many traditional factors. The most accountable are cultural beliefs and values
and inadequate materials.

1.3.3.1. Cultural beliefs and values

37
Beliefs and values mostly prevent Asian teachers and learners from the
development of learner autonomy, mainly from classroom-based approach,
which deals with the relationship, the roles between teachers and learners in the
classroom. The traditional voice of China-oriented educational cultures has been
one of obedience to authority, that is students were expected to obey, and not
challenge; to listen, absorb an then regurgitate when asked (Littlewood,
1996:45). In the shift towards learner autonomy, it is vital to changes to
teachers’ and learners’ minds about their roles in the classroom. It must be
admitted that when dealing with cultural beliefs, it is no easy task (for a
comparison of teachers’ and learner’s roles in the traditional and in a learner-
autonomy classroom, see Appendix 2).

Asian countries, including Vietnam, are bound by a very strong adherence to

Confucian values, which strongly emphasize ‘face’ (dignity and honour) and
self-effacement (modesty) (Yanling, n.d., p.2). This explains why students
normally refuse to take an active role in the classroom and normally deny
making progress when reflecting or evaluating their learning.

1.3.3.2. Inadequate materials

The inadequacy of materials must be understood in two senses:
1. lack of learner-autonomy-oriented materials
2. the overemphasis of materials on academic issues with much less
learning for application.
When students do not see a practical purpose of learning, or even when they do,
but lack tools to learn, the application of learner autonomy hardly finds way to
work.
1.3.3.3. Other factors

38
While the above two reasons are the most prominent about the difficulty in
applying learning autonomy, other contributing factors include:
 students’ low level of exploiting technological tools
 lack of standard self-access centres and supportive staff.

1.3.4. The application

With the realization of its benefits, learner autonomy has been welcome and
applied in many countries including Vietnam. Very often it goes side by side
with technology and the Internet as “Computer Assisted Language Learning has
strongly related to autonomous learning since its inception” (Benson, 2001).

1.3.4.1. In the world

Learner autonomy has been the main aim of many short-term and long-term
projects.

Up to 2000, 16 organizations and European countries including Austria,

Switzerland, Czech Republic, Germany NRW, France CIEP, Finland, UK CILT,
Hungary, Italy UMBRIA, Ireland, Holland, Portugal, Russia, Sweden, Slovenia,
Turkey, CERCLES, EAQUALS and the European Language Council conducted
a lot of European Language Portfolio (ELP) Projects (Demirel, 2005). All these
projects aimed to develop learner autonomy with a communicative, action-
based, learner-centred approach. They were designed to make the language
learning process transparent to learners. The experiences were also reported,
analyzed and provided for research purposes. Besides, small-scale application of
learner autonomy by teachers and educators are numerous.

1.3.4.2. In Vietnam

39
Since Vietnam opened its door economically and culturally to the world at large,
the national English teaching has made much progress. Much attention has also
been paid to learner autonomy. However, the application remains rather limited
to curriculum-based approach. At the university/college level, it is realized in
the form of credit-based curriculum. At the high school level, learner-autonomy
is realized in classroom-based approach. Students at some schools (such as
Nguyen Tat Thanh, Phan Huy Chu, Nguyen Gia Thieu in Hanoi) are allowed to
mark their teachers’ performance at class (Ha & Ha, 2010). However, intensive
attempts to promote learner autonomy specifically in vocabulary learning have
not been recorded.

So far relevant literature on learner autonomy has been thoroughly reviewed to

provide a theoretical basis for the study. In the next section, theories on
vocabulary and vocabulary learning will be looked into because they are also, as
the research topic suggests, major issues in the study.

2. Vocabulary and vocabulary learning

2.1. The importance of vocabulary
“Without grammar very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary nothing can
be conveyed.” (Wilkins, 1972: 111 cited in Thornbury, 2002)

Vocabulary is considered central to language learning. Vocabulary is the means

for successful reading, listening, writing, speaking and it is also a major content
of what to be learned. Very often the knowledge of vocabulary is cumulative,
which means the more words one have, the easier it is to move forward; and true
is the opposite. It is, therefore, important that learners be equipped with enough
vocabulary while they move along their learning path. In the early stages, about
2,000 high frequency words are learned without much difficulty (Wu et al,
2004). However, a 5,000 word base is a minimal requirement and for non-
40
specialized, academic reading, 6,500 words are needed (Laufer, 1997; Nation,
1990; Groot, 1994; Hazenberg & Hulstijn, 1996 cited in Yamping et al 2004).

To equip students with that enough vocabulary is not an easy task for language
teachers. This is due to limited class time, the varied student levels, the question
of authenticity and motivation factors. In solving these problems, learner
autonomy lends itself as a satisfactory answer.

In this study, the concept of “knowing a word” involves not just the ability to
understand the word but also the ability to use the word communicatively in the
four language skills. In other words, knowledge of a word, in this research, goes
beyond declarative knowledge (knowing what) to procedural knowledge
(knowing how).

2.2. Vocabulary learning

2.2.1. Ways of acquiring vocabulary knowledge
There are two major ways in which students acquire new vocabulary: incidental
acquisition and direct study. Incidental vocabulary acquisition is a common
means of learning new vocabulary, especially for proficient readers. Direct study
is the more efficient, particularly for high-risk students with poor vocabularies.
Thus, it is suggested that teachers begin with direct instructions, gradually move
towards incidental acquisition, leaving more autonomy for students towards the
end.

2.2.2. Aspects of vocabulary learning

It is necessary to be aware that there are two types of mental processing
involved in the task of vocabulary learning (Schmitt and Schmitt, 1993:28), that
is:
41
 1. Discovering the meaning of a new word
2. Practicing and memorizing the ‘discovered’ word
Similar categorizations have been mentioned by other authors, such as “storage
encoding/ retrieval encoding” and “addition of new information to memory/
assimilation of the new information to existing knowledge” (Cook and Mayer,
1983) or “increasing vocabulary” and “establishing vocabulary” (Nation, 1990).

2.2.3. Categories of vocabulary learning techniques

There are basically two ways of classifying vocabulary learning techniques.

Firstly, based on the above two types of mental processing mentioned in part
2.2.2, vocabulary learning techniques are divided into two types accordingly:
ones for “discovering” and ones for “practicing and memorizing”. In a study
carried out in Japan, Schmitt and Schmitt (1993) examined the reference books
and textbooks, intermediate-level students were asked to write a report on their
vocabulary learning techniques and teachers were asked to review the report.
The researchers came up in the end with a list of 36 vocabulary learning
techniques, which were then divided into two categories as to which kind mental
processing they support:

Initial Learning of New Word’s Studying and Remembering The

Meaning Word’s Meaning Once It Is Known
USE REFERENCE MATERIALS REPETITION
Bilingual dictionary Written repetition
Monolingual English dictionary Verbal repetition
ASK OTHERS FOR INFORMATION/ WORK STUDY THE FORMAL AND
WITH OTHERS GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS OF A WORD
Ask classmates Study the spelling of the word

42
 Ask teacher for English paraphrase or Study the way the word sounds
synonym Study the word’s part of speech
Ask teacher for translation Study the word’s root, prefixes and suffixes
Ask teacher for a sentence using the new word (MAKE AND) USE STUDY AIDS
Learn meaning during the group work Take note in class about new words
ANALYZE WORDS FROM AVAILABLE Use word lists to study new words
INFORMATION Use Flash Cards to study new words
Look at pictures or gestures to understand Use the vocabulary section in your textbook
meaning Use the configuration technique to remember
Check part of speech (noun, verb, etc.) word form.
Guess meaning from reading context PRESERVERANCE
Check prefixes, suffixes, and word roots to Continue to study the word over a period of
discover meaning time.
CREATE SYSTEMS TO ANALYZE WORDS USE OF PHYSICAL ACTIONS
Attempt to guess where a new word’s Use physical action when studying words
meaning lies along a ‘scale’ of gradable adjective Say the new word aloud when studying it
meanings. (burning-hot-warm-cool-cold- MANIPULATION OF MEANING
freezing) Use the new word in sentences
USE KNOWLEDGE OF OTHER LANGUAGE Paraphrase the meaning of the new word
Cognates CREATE SYSTEM OF ASSOCIATIONS
AVOIDANCE Study the word’s synonyms and antonyms.
Skip or pass new words Learn the new words in an idiom together at
the same time
Connect the new word to some situation in
your mind
Use ‘scales’ to study gradable adjective sets
Associate the words with others in the same
topic
Associate the words to others which are
related to it
WORK WITH OTHERS
Have your teacher to check your word lists
and flash cards for correctness.
Study words with a group of students
IMAGING
Make an image of the word’s meaning

43
 Imagine the word form and its spelling in your
mind
Use the keyword approach
USE OF KNOWLEDGE OF OTHER
LANGUAGES
Cognates
(Adapted from Schmitt and Schmitt (1993, pp.28-29)

Secondly, based on utilization of contextualization, vocabulary learning

techniques can be divided into four groups (Oxford and Crookall, 1990):
1. Decontextualizing techniques: Techniques that remove the word as
completely as possible from any communicative context: word list, flash cards,
dictionary use.
2. Semi-contextualizing techniques: Techniques that allow some degree of
context but fall short of full contextuality, new words may be linked with
something that is meaningful to the learner, but they are not used as part of
naturalistic communication: word grouping, word or concept association, visual
imagery, aural imagery, keyword, physical response, physical sensation,
semantic mapping.
3. Fully contextualizing techniques: Techniques that embed the new
words in a more or less normal communicative context: reading and listening
practice, speaking and writing practice.
4. Adaptable techniques: Techniques that can reinforce other techniques at
any part of the contextuality continuum: structured reviewing.

2.2.4. Assessing the effectiveness of vocabulary learning techniques

Although a list of vocabulary learning techniques has been available, it is
difficult to assess which technique is the more or less useful. Oxford (1989)
proposed that the usefulness of a technique is very much dependent on a variety
of factors: the target language being learned, the degree of a learner’s self-
44
awareness of his or her strengths, needs, study style, the learner’s sex, the
learner’s attitudes and motivation, the learner’s personality type, etc. However,
it is generally agreed that the more mental manipulation put in processing the
information, the more effective the processing is. Using Craik’s Levels of
Processing Model (1972, 1975), a “depth of processing” continuum can be
drawn as follows:
Superficial Processing/ Deeper Processing/
Shallow Learning Greater Learning

Although more empirical research is needed to confirm this, it can be noticed

that some techniques clearly require less mental manipulation than others. For
example, simple repetition of words is less demanding than creating association
between new and old knowledge. This “depth of processing” continuum can be
applied to selecting and instructing vocabulary learning techniques to students,
ensuring a combination of both ends.

2.2.5. Difficulties in promoting vocabulary

In order to promote vocabulary learning, it is necessary to be aware of the
difficulties involved:
1. Learning a word is much more than learning a definition. From knowing
the word to using it correctly and effectively is a long path.
2. Oral and written language are different. Written language is normally
decontextualized, it relies much on word choice for successful
communication and therefore, it requires much richer vocabulary to
understand.
3. Different types of words require different instructions. According to Stahl
(1986), vocabulary instruction must: a) give both definitions and context,
b) encourage deep processing and c) provide for multiple exposures to the

45
 instructed words. However, doing all those tasks is quite time-consuming.
It should be taken into consideration that which words are worth doing so
and which ones can do with a brief explanation.
4. Teachers may overestimate the helpfulness of context. Actually how far
the context can help depends largely on learners’ proficiency level (Nagy,
2005).

Summary
In this chapter, theoretical basis related to learner autonomy, vocabulary,
vocabulary learning and learner autonomy in vocabulary learning has been
reviewed. These theories will serve as the foundation for the researcher to form
and carry out the study according to specific methodology that will be
elaborated in the next chapter.

46
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
In the preceding chapter, the literature on the research topic was reviewed for
the theoretical basis of the study. In order to lay a practical background for the
study, the research was carried out with strictly justified methods of data
collection and analysis. This chapter serves as a report on those procedures.

1. Participants
The process of data collection involved the participation of both teachers of
English and first-year mainstream students at ED, ULIS, VNU. Personal
information of all participants was kept confidential and anonymous for ethical
reasons.

1.1. Teachers of English

Although the study aims to find out matters of learner autonomy, the roles of
teachers cannot be separated. Instead, teachers are considered to play an
important part in guiding and monitoring the development of learner autonomy
in their students. The study, therefore, invited for the participation of 5 teachers
in the Division I, English Department. The purpose is to bring a different
perspective about the matter and to see how the matter is perceived similarly and
differently between teachers and students. The teachers invited are both those in
charge of the classes surveyed (3 teachers) and those are not (2 teachers). For
teachers in charge of the classes surveyed, the information from them serves to
clarify, justify and bring insights into the matter investigated. For teachers who
are not in classes surveyed, their information confirms briefly the situation in
other classes and increases the representativeness of the data.
1.2. First- year mainstream students

47
Since the study focuses on the autonomy of learners in vocabulary learning, the
participation of students in the study is very important. A number of 156
students took part in the survey. This is the number of students who actually
handed back the questionnaires. From those 156 students, 10 were chosen
randomly for the interview afterwards. Following “stratified random sampling”,
all the students were from different classes in the mainstream system. The
students reported to have studied English for at least 4 years and at most 12
years, with the majority of them voted for a studying period from 7 to 8 years.
These students are regarded as the primary target of research because 1) they are
the ones facing with the matter of learning vocabulary most and 2) they are often
regarded as “beginners” to the concept of learner autonomy introduced at the
university. For a classification of the students’ major, see Table 1
Major Teacher Training 141
Interpreter Training 15
Total 156

Table 1: Classification of the students’ major

2. Data collection instruments

For a collection of sufficient reliable and valid data for the study, questionnaires,
interviews and classroom observation were utilized as methods of the qualitative
approach.

2.1. Questionnaires
Two types of questionnaires were used during the survey, one for the teacher
and the other for the students (See Appendix 3 and 4). They were both written in
English, began with a brief explanation of the research topic and a request for
personal information. On the four following pages, the researcher proposed a

48
combination of both open-ended and close-ended questions to facilitate the
comprehension of the collected information and data analysis.

Each part of the questionnaire is designated for a particular area of investigation

as follows:
Teachers’ questionnaire Students’ questionnaire
Part 1 General understanding about learner autonomy and vocabulary learning
Part 2 Characteristics of the students as Characteristics of the students
autonomous learners (perceived by as autonomous learners
teachers) (perceived by students)
Part 3 Facilitation of teachers in fostering Facilitation of teachers in
learner autonomy in vocabulary fostering learner autonomy in
learning (perceived by teachers) vocabulary learning (perceived
by students)
Part 4 Techniques utilized by students to learn vocabulary for their own
Part 5 Notable issues in promoting learner Notable issues in vocabulary
autonomy in vocabulary learning and learning and suggestions for
suggestions greater promotion of learner
autonomy
Table 2: Areas of investigation in each part of the questionnaires

2.2. Interviews
The interviews, like the questionnaires, can be divided into two types which are
for the teachers and for the students respectively. Both kinds of interviews
consist of open-ended questions. In addition, the interviews were semi-
structured. The purpose is to maximize the information collected through greater

49
flexibility for the interviewer and adequate control over the course of the
interview for the interviewees. (For questions utilized in the interviews, see
Appendix 7 and 8)

The interviews were conducted in the form of informal recorded talks. All of
them were conducted in Vietnamese so as to create a comfortable atmosphere
for the interviewees, to maximize the information gathered and the
understanding between the researcher and the interviewees. In addition, all
interviews began with a short talk on related issue with a view to building the
rapport and leading the interviewees naturally to the subject matter.

The interviews with the teachers aimed to elaborate on what the teacher has
done to promote learner autonomy in vocabulary learning within their
classrooms, what special issues have arisen and their suggestions. In the
teaching and learning process in general, not everything the teachers plan and
carry out can reach and become part of the students’ knowledge. Therefore,
information from the teachers’ side is necessary to put up a complete picture of
what is going on in the classrooms.

Likewise, not everything the students get is the direct result of the teachers’
intention. Therefore, the interviews with the students provided chances to look
at the matter from the students’ side so as to bring a two-fold benefit: 1) for
students themselves to get aware and speak out their opinions about the matter
of learner autonomy in their vocabulary learning and 2) for teachers to get
informed about what their students actually do, get, need and how they evaluate
what the teachers have done for them. Another reason is that for most of the
open-ended questions in the interview, the researcher got very brief and sketchy
answers, which need to be further clarified in the interviews.

50
2.3. Classroom observation
Taking advantage of the practicum, the researcher decided to observe some of
the first-year mainstream classes. Due to the nature of the research questions,
which seek to answer a long-term and continuing phenomenon, observation of
some classes for some periods does not provide a satisfactory explanation and
finding. However, it serves as an extra source of information which solidifies the
information gathered from the questionnaires and the interviews. In addition,
classroom observation works as a way of looking at the matter from the
researcher’s perspective in addition to the teachers’ and students’. This helps to
increase the validity of the information gathered and the finding drawn.

The observation checklist consists of three parts, which are: student profile,
teacher profile and classroom profile. The criteria for the evaluation were taken
mainly from the literature review

Part Theoretical basis Page at the

literature review
Student profile Characteristics of autonomous learners 6-8
Levels of developing learner autonomy 22-23
Teacher profile What teachers can do to promote learner 25-26
autonomy in the classrooms
Classroom Constraints of learner autonomy 26
profile application in the classrooms

Table 3: Different parts of the observation checklist

and their theoretical basis

51
3. Data collection procedure
The procedure of data collection could be put into four phases as follows.

Phase 1: Preparation
In this phase, the researcher managed to 1) design the questionnaires, the
interview questions and the observation checklist; 2) pilot the questionnaires and
the interview questions with three students; 3) make adaptations and finalize the
design of data collection instruments and 4) set up schedule for collecting data.
The most noteworthy consideration in this phase is that: Thanks to the pilot
process, the questionnaires were restructured and put into subsections so that
different parts are clearer, better linked and better corresponded to the research
questions.

Phase 2: Disseminations of questionnaires

Teacher questionnaires
In this phase, the researcher contacted via email 8 teachers at Division 1,
English Department, CFL, ULIS. After receiving the acceptance of 5 teachers,
the researcher telephoned each teacher. The purpose, the nature of the research
topic were explained and confirmation of confidentiality was made. Soon after
that, the questionnaires were sent to the teachers via email as they suggested. In
a few days, the completed questionnaires were sent back.

Student questionnaires
After getting the timetable for first-year students, the researcher chose the
classes randomly to survey. The questionnaires were handed out to the students
at the beginning of the class time. The researcher briefly explained the purpose
and the terms to the students. Confirmation of confidentiality was also made so
that the students would be more willing to state their opinions in the

52
questionnaires. The students were encouraged to look quickly at the
questionnaires and questions for clarification were encouraged to be raised.
Then the researcher suggested the classes finish the questionnaires in their break
time and the monitors collect all the papers. After that, the researcher contacted
the monitors to get back the questionnaires.

Phase 3: Carrying out the interviews

Teacher interviews
At the time of sending the questionnaires to the teachers via email, the
researcher also asked for convenient time to conduct the interviews. Shortly
before each appointment, the researcher telephoned the teachers to confirm.
Each interview began with a short informal talk, in which the teachers were
reminded of the questionnaires and questions about the research topic were
encouraged. Then permission was asked to record the interviews. During the
interviews, questions were asked one at a time and neutrality was kept
consistently. Whenever unexpected answer came up or new aspects were
revealed, extra questions were added accordingly to exploit in-depth information
from the interviewees. The interviewees were encouraged to speak out whatever
they thought about the subject matter. However, reorientation was made when
necessary so as to bring focus onto the investigated areas.

Student interviews
Getting personal contacts from the questionnaires, the researcher asked for the
participation of ten students in the interviews. The procedures of conducting the
student interviews were similar to those of the teacher interviews.

Phase 4: Observation

53
Thanks to the practicum with first year students at ED, CFL, ULIS, the
researcher asked for permission to observe four classes. An observation
checklist was completed. Besides, further notes were taken and revised. Short
discussion about the lessons was conducted with the teachers and the students
right afterwards to get the immediate general impression and feedbacks.
Information was refined within the day to get the next observation better
structured and informed.

4. Data analysis methods and procedure

The collected data was first classified according to the research questions. The
students’ responses were considered first. Teachers’ responses were analyzed in
comparison and contrast with the students’ responses. Interview responses and
classroom observation served to solidify the conclusion.

The questionnaires had already been divided into sections from the design stage
basing on the research questions. Therefore, it was convenient to classify the
information gathered. Data collected from the questionnaires was then
synthesized and illustrated by diagrams or tables according to each research
question.

As for the data collected from the interviews, they were first transcribed. The
information was then classified to see which area of the research it supports so
that the researcher could refer to for more information when necessary.
Transcripts sometimes were quoted to support the findings and mostly to bring
suggestions in chapter 4 – RESULTS AND FINDINGS.

With regards to the observation, notes from each class session were selected and
put into comparison with the data collected from other instruments above. After

54
analyzing the information from questionnaires and interviews, the researcher
referred to observation notes to enable the reliability and validity of the data.

The above method and procedures of data analysis were useful in that they
helped the researcher obtain comprehensive and rich data. From such data,
surprising and interesting results were found out and will be presented in the
next chapter – RESULTS AND FINDINGS.

55
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
While the previous chapter elaborates on the methodology of the research, this
chapter presents the results revealed through the analysis of the collected data. It
is noteworthy that the findings will be considered with reference to the current
literature, so as to reinforce the existing arguments or to underline new findings
on the research topic. Students’ responses here and there will be contrasted with
teachers’ so that mismatch will be pointed out. For other issues that are agreed
upon, they will be reported as from the students’ perceptions only in order to
avoid repetition.

1. Research question 1 – What are the students’ perceptions of themselves

as autonomous learners?
1.1. General attitude toward learner autonomy
 Students’ responses
Although the number of students involved in the research is quite large, their
perceptions about the matter of learning vocabulary autonomously do not vary
very much. First of all, the researcher intends to elicit, to some extent, the
characteristics of the students as autonomous learners, mostly from part 1 and
part 2 of the student questionnaire and the interviews.

When asked about the role of teachers and students in deciding what, how and
when to learn, most students supported the idea of learner-centred with the
facilitation of teachers.

56
 4% 2%
12%
Teachers decide

Learners decide

Teachers and learners

discuss
No answer

82%

Chart 1: Students’ attitudes towards teachers’ and learners’ roles

128 of the students (82%) believed that teachers and students need to cooperate
with each other in deciding what to learn, how to learn and when to learn. In the
question that follows, their justifications of choice fall into these categories:

Interest and motivation

“It can make student more interested in learning…sometimes, they don’t know to learn
efficiently. Therefore, they should discuss with their teachers to get their help.”

Relationship
“…learners and teachers can understand each other”
“…to create comfortable atmosphere”

Content
“If teachers choose what to learn, students won’t have chance to raise their voice about
what they are interested in. If students have right to choose what to learn, they won’t
know which topics are necessary for them.”

57
Effectiveness
“Each student has his/her own interest. If students learn words relating to their own
interest they usually attach words to their field, so it’s easy for them to memorize new
words. But teachers should also recommend which words they should learn to broaden
their horizons of word power.”

“The purpose of discussing is to find the most effective and the most suitable way to
learn vocabulary.”

“Everybody has a chance to learn from each other.”

(Quoted from students’ answer to question 5
in Student Survey Questionnaire, part 1)

It is demonstrated through the students’ responses that they are well aware of the
benefits of cooperation and active roles of both teachers and learners in the
learning process. For the minority that chose option A and B for the question,
they did not provide the follow-up explanation for their choice.

 Teachers’ responses
All teachers surveyed agreed that teachers and learners should cooperate in
deciding what to learn, how to learn and when to learn vocabulary. However,
teachers’ ideas are slightly different from learners’. While the students wished to
go hand in hand with teachers, teachers emphasized that students explore the
matter for themselves first, before asking for advice from teachers.

Discussion
In short, teachers and students shared the same opinion towards a cooperated
effort from both sides. However, they expect different kinds of cooperation. This
leads to the fact that students complained they “did not get enough help from

58
teachers” while teachers considered their students somewhat too “passive” as
from the interviews.

1.2. Affective factors

 Students’ responses
Motivation
Perceptions of vocabulary necessity
Most of the students believe that learning English vocabulary is very important
(83%) and the rest think that it is important (17%). No participants negated the
essence of vocabulary learning.

0%
17%
Very Important

Not important at
all
Important

83%

Chart 2: Students’ perceptions of the importance of vocabulary learning

Goals in learning vocabulary

In terms of the goals for learning vocabulary, it is noticeable from the result that
a relatively high percentage of students identified their goal as to develop their
English in general (38%) and to better their communication (27%). However,
22% of the students did not give an answer concerning their goals.

59
 60
60
For communication
50
42 For general development
40 of English
34
For exams and tests
30 26

20 For broadening
knowledge in other fields
10 No anwer
2
0

Chart 3: Students’ main goals in learning vocabulary

The interviewed students went further to explain that they know vocabulary is
necessary, but they do not feel there is a need to learn now:
“I believe that I myself can learn vocabulary without a teacher pushing by my
side. And we know that learning vocabulary is important. But we need a
stronger reason to learn, because the existing vocabulary is enough for us to
survive without learning more.”(Translated from a student’s answer in the
interview)

Confidence
Although the students realized the importance of vocabulary learning, they gave
a relatively modest self-assessment on their mastery of vocabulary.

60
 10% 0%
27%

Poor
Fair
Good
Excellent

63%

Chart 4: Students’ perceptions of their mastery of vocabulary

The third question in part 1 of the questionnaire asks for the students’ self-
assessment of their vocabulary competence. Of 156 students surveyed, 42 (27%)
stated that they are poor at English vocabulary and 98 (63%) thought that their
vocabulary is fair. A minority (10%) confidently said that their vocabulary is
good and no one reported an excellent mastery of vocabulary. However, this
result is just the perceptions of the students. Therefore, the conclusion may fall
into two cases or a combination of both:
1. The vocabulary competence of the students is really modest.
2. The students are affected by the cultural beliefs and values, which highlight
modesty.

Whether the students’ mastery of vocabulary is really poor and fair is a difficult
matter as it is difficult to fix a scale of ‘how good is good’ that can be agreeable
to everyone. Therefore, there is a call for further empirical research at this.
However, it can be concluded that the students do not feel very confident of
their vocabulary. With reference to the characteristics of autonomous learners
that have been reviewed in the literature, this result does not provide a positive
picture about learner autonomy in vocabulary learning of these students.
61
 Teachers’ responses
Generally teachers demonstrated a deep understanding about their students’
problems, that is students understood the importance of vocabulary learning but
still had low motivation to learn. The confidence level is also not high.

Discussion
One paradox found in this part is that: Although the students find their
vocabulary fair or even poor, they are satisfied with the existing level. On one
hand, as from the classroom observation, it was noted that the in-class tasks
were not challenging enough. This leads to the fact that students felt they had
sufficient vocabulary to survive to the final exam. On the other hand, there was
no “reward” or “punishment” to develop students’ extrinsic motivation.

1.3. Attitudes towards tasks and assignments

1%
18% Get it done soon
according to the
requirement
Do it as a boring duty

Copy others

81%

Chart 5: Attitudes towards tasks and assignments

The chart illustrating the result from the student questionnaire shows that 81%
of the students are motivated to finish tasks and assignments related to
vocabulary. This can be interpreted as a result of either extrinsic or intrinsic
motivation.
62
Teachers’ responses in the survey supported the idea of extrinsic motivation.
The teachers reported through their questionnaire that when there is an
assignment or a task, their students first show their care for assessment and
marks without a clear indicator for intrinsic motivation. In the interviews,
teachers also emphasized that their students lack a continuing motive to learn
vocabulary.

Students’ responses, on the other hand, show a different tendency towards

intrinsic motivation. Chart 6 on their usual time to learn vocabulary does not
present a high consideration for assessment and marks. Only 22 out of 156
students stated that exams pushed them to study vocabulary. The highest
percentage (46.15%) learned a vocabulary item when they considered it
interesting. A nearly as many students suggested that they learned vocabulary
when they felt like to do so. In addition, 52 students (33.33%) learned
vocabulary whenever they had time.

Whenever I have time

80
72
70 When my teacher
60 asks me to
60
52 Before exams
50

40 Sometimes when I
like to
30
22 When I meet an
20 interesting vocabulary
item
10 Never
4
0 0

Chart 6: Students’ report on their usual time to learn vocabulary

63
Discussion
In general, students reported that their interest in vocabulary learning was
sometimes triggered. They felt like learning “when the words were considered
vital for communication” or when “there is something special about the word”.
However, the problem is how often they found a word interesting or how often
they felt like learning vocabulary. The interview with the students revealed that
they rarely felt that kind of motivation. Accordingly, they accomplished tasks
and assignments with a feeling of necessity to do so and as a requirement of the
course, without an intentional effort to find out “something special” in what
they are doing. This shows a very preliminary level of learner autonomy in the
students. On the other hand, teachers, by assuming that their students’ interest
was marks and assessment only, overlooked the chance to enhance their real
interest in the process of vocabulary learning.

1.4. Metacognitive skills

Knowledge about vocabulary learning

Every item I meet

70
64
60 60 Items appearing in my
textbooks
50 Items that teachers ask me
to learn
40 36 Items that I repeatedly meet
30
22 Items that I like
20
Items relating to the topic
10
4
1 1 Items that I meet in
0
communication

Chart 7: Students’ perceptions of worthy-learning vocabulary items

In the previous question, students stated the fact that they learn best when they
find a word or phrase interesting. However, in this question, they invalidated the
role of their interest in deciding what word or phrase to learn. Only 2.6% (4
64
students) said words that they like are worth learning. With regard to the above
question, this perception needs to be changed. Students should be guided in the
way that works best for them. Therefore, instead of merely telling the students
that a word is worth learning, teachers and educators should pay attention to
demonstrating the beauty of the word itself and then moving on to emphasize its
essence.

Another issue in the students’ metacognitive skills is their dependence and

unselectiveness in learning a word. A quite high number of them leave the
decision to the course book or teachers (36 and 22 students respectively) Up to
about 41% of them believed that every vocabulary item that they meet would
worth learning. Only 38.46% were well aware that an important word is one
repeatedly met.

Knowledge about memory

Knowledge on memory is still inadequate for all students surveyed. All of them
asserted that memorizing new words is troublesome and discouraging them from
trying on. Most of them were confident with their short-term memory but felt
unable to bring the words to long-term memory. When asked whether memory
knowledge had been introduced to them, students said they did receive help
from teachers on this matter, however “the teachers kind of touched on the
matter and so what they said quickly slipped out of my head, I don’t have strong
impression on what they said to strengthen my memory”.

Skills of using dictionary

Students from the interview remarked that they had been instructed how to full
exploit a dictionary by “referring to not only the definition but also examples,
common phrases, synonyms and antonyms, etc.”. They were also introduced

65
high quality dictionary such as Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary or
Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. However, it was reported from most
students that “I know it’s good but I do not think I should spend so much money
on a dictionary while I can do well with a much cheaper one” (Quoted from a
student’s answer in the interview). When being asked about whether they had
been introduced the e-version or online version of those dictionaries, the
students answered they had not. When the researcher brought in the information,
the students expressed their willingness to use the online version.

Discussion
In short, the students are not well equipped with knowledge and skills of
learning effectively. It is understandable that due to the limited time at class,
teachers cannot instruct every aspect of learning to the students. However, here
rises the question of openness in the relationship between teachers and students.
While students are unwilling to cooperate and teachers cannot reach students’
problems, it can be considered one of the reasons why the development of
learner autonomy is still struggling at an awkward stage.

1.5. Students’ behaviours as autonomous learners

While part 1 of the questionnaire concentrates on the general attitude of teachers
and students towards learner autonomy in vocabulary learning, part 2 works
with more details on the matter. One shortcoming of this part is that some
questions are skipped, so the total response for each question is not even.
Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly Average
disagree agree

66
 (1pt) (2 pts) (3 pts) (4 pts) (5 pts)
Q1 4 20 35 71 16 3.51
Q2 2 24 36 68 20 3.53
Q3 8 60 36 36 8 2.83
Q4 10 18 52 60 16 3.35
Q5 2 20 42 56 22 3.24
Q6 32 62 32 8 2 2.16
Q7 10 22 80 22 2 2.88
Q8 10 68 36 22 0 2.51
Q9 2 14 26 76 16 3.67
Q10 4 42 46 44 20 3.22
Q11 8 14 38 70 10 3.43
Q12 1 23 34 68 12 3.49
Q13 2 22 34 74 14 3.52
Q14 0 26 26 52 22 3.55
Q15 4 14 24 78 24 3.67
Table 4: Students’ responses for part 2 in the student questionnaire

The most striking feature of the table is that it shows a positive trend towards
learner autonomy. A majority of students generally set goals for themselves in
each study period. They try to work with difficult vocabulary items for
themselves. This can be considered the result of teachers’ effort that “When my
students find a word which is difficult to understand, I try to help them figure it
out for themselves rather than giving immediate answer”. No one has special
problems working in groups. Although most teachers were uncertain, the
students also reported that they are willing to go beyond teachers’ instructions,
willing to discuss their progress and willing to resort to different sources such as
self-study books or school library to improve their vocabulary. However, they
67
all are not very willing to contact teachers for help in vocabulary learning
(question 10) although teachers have offered to lend a hand. This result supports
the discussion in the part above about metacognitive skills (page 55). In
addition, 60 students assessed that new words prevent their communication and
36 students were uncertain, although from teachers’ side, they reported that they
had taught their students how to compensate for unknown words during
communication.

Discussion
This part generally explores the actual behaviors of the surveyed students as
autonomous learners. Positive results concerning goal setting, group work,
willingness to expand and reflect on the learning process have been revealed.
This can be explained as the result of teachers’ making objectives explicit to the
students at the beginning of the semesters through course outline, encouraging
group work and integrating reflection as a requirement in the course. However,
the problem remains that students feel reluctant to ask for support from teachers.
This should be considered the ‘reservedness’ characteristic of Asian learners,
rather than ‘passiveness’. As from classroom observation, the students could be
very active participating in exciting class activities, but did not feel at ease to
ask questions. This feeling gradually wore off after some extracurriculum
sessions in which teachers and students got more understanding about each
other.

Summary
In response to research question 1, different characteristics and perceptions of
the students regarding learner autonomy in vocabulary learning have been found
out, both positively and negatively. The results have been thoroughly analyzed

68
and explained with reference to the opinions expressed in the interviews and the
observation of the researcher. The next part will explore in greater detail the
current situation of learner autonomy in vocabulary learning through the
techniques that the students employed.

2. Research question 2 – What techniques have been utilized by the students

for their learning vocabulary autonomously?
The answer for this question is mainly drawn from the in-depth interviews with
the students. Information from part 4 of the questionnaires serves as the
foundation to move to the interviews.

2.1. Students’ sources of vocabulary learning

90 86
80 76
74
Television
70 64 The Internet
60
Course materials
50 Newspapers and magazines
40 Novels
40
30 28 30 Comic books
E-materials
20
Others
10 6
0

Chart 8: Students’ usual sources for vocabulary learning

One surprising result about students’ main vocabulary learning sources is that:
comic books are well preferred to novels – the traditionally suggested. This

69
result is in agreement with one previous research by Chi, N., Giang, T., Linh, N.
& Phuong, B. (2009). In this research fast-track students at ED, CFL, ULIS
reported that they would rather read comic books for practical and every day
vocabulary than read novels for complicated and literary words. In addition,
pictures in comic books motivate and aid their memory. The result demonstrated
in the above chart suggests a similar attitude of mainstream students. However,
more empirical research is needed to confirm this result.

From the chart, it is obvious that the Internet is the leading source for the
students (55.13%). Course material is considered nearly as important by 48.72%
of the students. Next come newspapers and magazines. Television is considered
an usual source by only 64 students. There is also a potential for the use of e-
materials, although they are not as widely used but shows signs of being known
and accepted by the students.

Discussion
The result on students’ sources of vocabulary learning shows a potential
emergence of the Internet as the main learning resource. This is understandable
because access to the Internet is now easily available and it caters for all
traditional learning materials such as newspapers, magazines, books, songs,
videos, etc. – now exist as downloadable files. In addition, the trend is that
students are looking for authentic materials such as the Internet, television,
newspapers and magazines, which is a sign of better awareness about learning
for communication and practical usage.

70
2.2. Techniques utilized by the students to learn vocabulary
Keep a notebook of new vocabulary items and
90 review regularly
84 Read the course book several times
80
74 Do vocabulary exercises in books I find for
myself
70 66 Make a sentence with every new word

60 56 Design vocabulary exercises for myself

50 Try to read and listen in English as much as

44
possible
40 Make a map showing the relationship of words
that need to be learned
30
30 Use flashcards
22 22
20 Draw pictures related to words
12
10 10
Invent rhymes related to words
2
0 I don't learn vocabulary

Chart 9: Techniques utilized by the students to learn vocabulary

The above chart illustrates the result from question 2 (part 4) in the student
survey questionnaire. According to this chart, most students (53.85%) keep a
notebook of words and phrases and review regularly. Other students, as asked in
the interviews, do keep such a notebook but do not have the motivation to look
at it again. 74 out of 156 students do exercises in vocabulary books they find for
themselves and 66 try to expose themselves to English as much as possible. This
coincides with the result from teachers’ questionnaire, in which teachers
reported to have suggested students to keep vocabulary notebooks, do
vocabulary exercises and throw themselves into an English environment through

71
listening and reading. It can be seen that such guidelines have been effective to
the students.

On the other hand, some techniques suggested by teachers have not been well
applied by the students. According to teachers, drawing pictures and maps to aid
memory have been recommended. However, the chart above shows a modest
application by students (22 students draw pictures and 10 students draw maps to
learn new words). This result is understandable because these techniques,
though recently advocated and supported by much research on memory, remain
quite unfamiliar to Vietnamese educational context. Therefore, should teachers
and learners desire a better work of memory, they need to work more closely
with this instead of teachers stopping at giving a suggestion.

Discussion
In brief, traditional methods are still widely used by the students. Their
effectiveness cannot be denied. However, new methods drawing on advances in
learning skills such as Mind Maps, Holistic Learning, etc. should be introduced
more thoroughly to the students through workshops and training sessions.

2.3. Preferred learning environment

72
 70 68
62 Listen to
60
teachers' lecture
50 46
Learn by myself

40
Discuss with my
30 classmates
24
Work in pairs or
20 in groups
10 8 Come to tutorials

Chart 10: Students’ preference of learning environment

The chart shows that about 43.59% of the students liked to work by themselves
when learning vocabulary. The students also wanted to discuss with their
classmates when necessary (39.74%) or listen to teachers’ instructions (29.49%).
However, not many of them felt like working in pairs or in groups (15.38%).

Discussion
The above result suggests that the students value independent learning and
friendly discussion with classmates much more than arranged pair work or
group work. The responses from the interviews explained that pair work or
group work organized in class were often run too fast for the students to
understand deeply what was going on. “Group work was often carried out for
fun rather than effectiveness in learning”. It is suggested that teachers should
bear this result in mind when conducting group work in class.

Summary
In an effort to answer research question 2, the researcher has explored the
techniques currently exploited by the students, their preference and trendy
learning styles. In order to bring out a complete picture about the teaching-

73
learning process, the next part will present the efforts having been made by
teachers in the development of learner autonomy in vocabulary learning.

3. Research question 3 – What techniques have been utilized by the teachers

in order to foster learner autonomy in vocabulary learning? How are the
techniques perceived by the students in terms of effectiveness, motivation
and conditions of successful utilization?
3.1. Techniques utilized by teachers to foster learner autonomy in
vocabulary learning

Read the word and give definition

100
94
Give examples of words
90 88

80 76 76
Organize group work

70 Organize games
62
60 58
Have students read
newspapers/magazines/books in English
50 46 Introduce vocabulary learning software

40
Introduce ways to learn vocabulary effectively at
30 24
home
Encourage students to learn vocabulary at home
20
10 Introduce different sources from which students
10 can learn new words
1 Design vocabulary exercise
0

Chart 11: Students’ perception of teachers’ activities to help them develop

learner autonomy in vocabulary learning
It can be seen from the chart that games are widely used by teachers to motivate
students to learn vocabulary. 94 out of 156 students stated that games were
organized to help learning. Group work was also favored by teachers seeing that
76 students reported this kind of activity. Traditional methods such as read the
word, give definition and examples were also popular, although these methods
should be gradually limited to move towards more learners’ independence. 62
students reported to have been encouraged to learn vocabulary at home and 58
74
were introduced ways to learn vocabulary effectively for themselves. A fewer
number of students said they were given sources for learning new words (46
students), about half of whom were introduced vocabulary learning software.

The following table shows the students’ responses to question 1-7 in part 3 of
the questionnaires (For details on the questions, see Appendix 3). It
demonstrates in greater details what the students thought about their teachers’
activities:

Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly Average

disagree agree
(1pt) (2 pts) (3 pts) (4 pts) (5 pts)
Q1 2 20 36 84 10 3.53
Q2 6 22 26 82 14 4.51
Q3 4 6 17 70 28 3.89
Q4 4 12 38 76 20 3.64
Q5 4 16 46 48 32 3.6
Q6 8 26 26 48 14 3.28
Q7 2 14 30 82 14 3.65

Table 5: Students’ perception of teachers’ activities to help them develop

learner autonomy in vocabulary learning
(Questions 1-7, part 3, Student Questionnaire)
A quick look at the table gives a general impression that teachers did a good job
in promoting learner autonomy. The highest point is for question 2, which is
concerned with reflection chances provided by teachers. Up to 82 students
agreed and 14 students strongly agreed that they were given opportunities to
reflect on their vocabulary learning process. More importantly from question 1,
75
84 students agreed and 10 strongly agreed that their teachers gradually let them
take control of their own learning. Other questions also show positive results
that the teachers helped the students to be aware of their active role in the
success of vocabulary learning, encouraged interaction and group work, helped
students build up self-confidence in learning and instructed students to exploit
resource centers. However, there are still many students remained uncertain,
which shows that their awareness about class activities is not very high.

Discussion
In short, the students acknowledged the activities held by their teachers to help
them develop learner autonomy in vocabulary learning. Teachers’ efforts are
highly appreciated in promoting a fun and collaborative learning environment,
encouraging and providing information regarding students’ self-study. More
importantly, it has been noted about teachers’ willingness to gradually give
authority and control in teaching-learning process to the students. However,
there is still one problem concerning the issue of motivation, which will be
elaborated in the next part.

3.2. Students’ perceptions about teachers’ problems in vocabulary teaching

80 76
Limited
vocabulary
70
Poor
60 pronunciation
50 Ineffective
demonstration
40 36 34 Boring repetition
30 of activities
24
22
20 Lack of
motivating tasks
10
4 No problems
0

76
 Chart 12: Main problems in teachers’ vocabulary teaching
It is shown in the chart that a great number of students (48.72%) did not feel
their teachers motivated them enough. 21.79% reported that there was boring
repetition of activities in their classrooms. Teachers’ ineffective demonstration
was also a problem to 36 students. Poor pronunciation and limited vocabulary of
teachers, though not as serious as other problems, are still listed.

Discussion
One explanation for this can be drawn from the interviews with the teachers.
They demonstrated that they expected “a high level of intrinsic motivation for
students of this age” (Quoted from a teacher’s response in the interview). For
more discussion about students’ motivation, see the discussion for part 1.2 of
this chapter (page 48). With regards to students’ opinions, it is suggested that
teachers consider more carefully about the matter of building up motivation for
their students.

Summary
Reponses to research question 3 show a positive result regarding teachers’
efforts in promoting learner autonomy in vocabulary learning and appreciation
of the students towards those efforts. However, the issue of student motivation
still remains as a big question for teachers and educators.

To sum up, in this chapter answer to each research question has been
consecutively provided via a thorough analysis and discussion of the collected
data. Major findings will be summarized and some suggestions will presented as
suggestions by the teachers, the students and the researcher in the next chapter –
CONCLUSION.

77
 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

In the previous chapters, the introduction, the literature, the implementation and
the results with discussions have been reported in great detail. In this chapter, a
summary of findings together with pedagogical implications, limitations and
contributions of the research and suggestions for further studies will be put
forward.

1. Major findings of the research

With exhaustive analysis of the data collected from questionnaires, interviews
and classroom observation, the researcher comes up with some major findings in
answer to the research questions as follows:

Firstly, first-year mainstream students at ED, CFL, ULIS perceived themselves

as students with a potential but unexploited capacity of autonomy in vocabulary
learning. They are confident of their ability to learn vocabulary autonomously.
At the same time, they acknowledge and appreciate cooperation in the process
of vocabulary learning. Positive results regarding the act of goal setting, group
work, reflection and independence have been reported. However, both teachers
and students do not perceive the students as highly autonomous learners due to a
major problem concerning motivation. Although intrinsic motivation does exist,
it does not last long. Rather, it is triggered if the students are exposed to
interesting and communicative materials. The reason is probably due to
students’ contentment with their current repertoire of vocabulary, lack of a
build-up from extrinsic motivation and inability to realize the benefits and
learning opportunity hidden in tasks. Some metacognitive skills are introduced
but not thoroughly enough for the students to “absorb” and make those skills
their own.
78
Secondly, a modern approach is more apparent in learning materials rather than
the learning methods and learning environment. Of all learning materials, the
Internet proves to be the most popular one. Authentic materials also receive
great attention from the learners. In terms of learning methods, some classic
techniques such as keeping a vocabulary notebook, doing vocabulary exercises
and immerging in language input are the most popular. Other more modern
techniques seem to be rather neglected. Although there is no difficulty in
implementing pair group and group work, students still prefer individual
learning.

Finally, the techniques utilized by teachers in order to foster learner autonomy in

vocabulary learning, as perceived by the students, cover a wide range of
activities with less to more authority given to the students. However, lack of
motivating activities is notified by the students as one of the most serious issues
in vocabulary instructions.

2. Pedagogical implications
It is necessary to acknowledge the contribution of first-year mainstream students
and their teachers in this part. As well as raising their voices about the current
issues regarding the research topic, they suggested solutions to the problems
basing on their own experiences in the matter. This is a significant step towards
a better awareness and achievement in promoting learner autonomy in
vocabulary learning. However, there existed a number of obstacles which were
yet to be discussed. These issues are, therefore, open to solutions with further
research onto the topic.

From the research findings raised many issues which are closely related to
success of fostering learner autonomy in vocabulary learning. These issues will

79
be summarized and solved in the following table. Of those issues, it is clear that
raising motivation in vocabulary learning for the students emerges as the key
matter. Therefore, the matter of motivation will be reserved afterwards for a
more thorough solution.

Issue Reasons Solutions

The Teachers expect high Teachers’ and learners’ roles should
cooperation level of independence be made explicit to the learners at the
between from learners when beginning of the course and be well
teachers and learners are not revisited during the course.
students is not equipped enough.
really Learners are reserved Teachers should spend some time at
effective to contact teachers the beginning of the course and
for further throughout the course to get more
information. rapport and understanding from
students.
Students do Students are modest It is necessary to create an
not show due to traditional encouraging and open learning
confidence in beliefs and values environment in which honest
vocabulary reflections are highly appreciated. Fun
mastery vocabulary contests may be organized
so that proficient learners are realized
and honored.
Metacognitive Class time is limited, Opening more workshops and training
skills are not metacognitively skills sessions beyond the class time. In
well are mentioned just these training programmes, studying
understood briefly at class as skills should be elaborated thoroughly
and applied teachers expect with practice so that students know

80
by the students to find out exactly what to do when they work on
students more for themselves. their own.

Internet The easy availability Students should be trained on how to

emerges as of the Internet, the fully exploit the Internet for their
the most wide coverage it learning. With reference to the current
popular provides and the sketchy curriculum on technology, it is
sources while increasing stress on suggested that exploiting the Internet
other modern authentic and should be included as one of the major
sources such communicative input part in the curriculum. Besides,
as comic have affected what teachers should pay more attention
books and e- materials students elaborating on “new” materials such as
materials also choose as their comic books and e-materials.
earn vocabulary learning
increasing sources.
popularity.
Individual Group work is often It is necessary that teachers stress
learning and run too fast for fun competence and understanding rather
friendly rather than than speed and competition in games
discussion are effectiveness in and group work.
preferred to learning.
arranged
group work
and pair
work.
Students Students are not Teachers may create a class library,
prefer introduced ask students to choose one (some)
incidental thoroughly and book(s) that they like and write book

81
vocabulary guided step by step review/ book recommendations.
learning but about incidental
have few vocabulary
chances to do acquisition.
so
Students’ Students rely too Teachers may create groups and
passiveness in much on their require them to submit detailed
getting teachers to get sources and useful techniques in
learning skills information. learning vocabulary.
for themselves

Table 6: Implications for some issues emerging from the research

The matter of improving students’ motivation in vocabulary learning

As defined by Bomia, 1997, p.1 (cited in Brewster and Fager, 2000, p.4),
motivation “refers to a student’s willingness, need, desire and compulsion to
participate in, and be successful in, the learning process”. Motivation is often
divided into two categories:
1. Extrinsic motivation: when a student is driven by an external factor such as
rewards or avoidance of punishment.
2. Intrinsic motivation: when a student is driven by internal factor such as
curiosity, interest, enjoyment, intellectual or personal goals.

The problem reported from the research, that teachers expect a high level
motivation from students while students feel they need to be motivated, is a
universal one:
If left to run their typical course, teachers tend to magnify children’s initial levels of
motivation. This is fine for students who enter the classroom motivationally “rich”;
they will “get rich.” However, for students whose motivation is low, their typical
82
 classroom experiences may result in its further deterioration (Skinner and Belmont,
1991, p. 31).

A review on the literature would provide many techniques for teachers to

improve their students’ motivation. Within the scope of this research, the
researcher proposes three main ways which are most practical and related to the
context and the students’ wishes (as expressed from the interviews):

1. Reinforcing extrinsic motivation

- Reward excellence and improvement in vocabulary storage and gain
- Cite real-life examples in which vocabulary helps successful
communication and higher achievement

2. Enhancing intrinsic motivation

- Show the beauty and expressiveness of the language
- Show the richness and diversity of the artistic expressions in that
language, from film and popular culture
- Introduce cultural factors related to the vocabulary items
- Comprehensible and interesting input: “The best methods are those that
supply comprehensible input in low anxiety situations, containing
messages that students really want to hear.” (Krashen, 1981)
- Ensure students know how to find out vocabulary items related to their
lives
- Design projects that allow students to share their vocabulary repertoire,
vocabulary learning techniques and sources.

3. Improving attitudes towards the learning situation

- Make sure that tasks are challenging and, at the same time, manageable.

83
 - For the currently used reading portfolio: Students are being asked to
find at least 10 new words from the reading text and design an exercise
with them. However, some students reflected that submission was the end
and there was no follow-up activity. In some classes, students were asked
to share and design games with the words in class, which motivated them
more with the assignment.
- Give prompt and constructive feedbacks on students’ performance
regarding vocabulary.

In the research, while teachers said that their students are not motivated, more
efforts should go from the bottom up, that is to begin with extrinsic motivation.
An expectation of an immediate high level of motivation and learner autonomy,
in this context, is not very realistic.

The suggestions provided in table 6 also help to make vocabulary learning more
accessible and applicable for the students, which, in turn, leads to increased
motivation in their development of vocabulary.

In short, this part provides some suggestions to the issues emerging from the
research results. However, it is believed by the researcher that the most
important factor is the effort from all participants, namely the faculty, the
teachers and the students in seeking a mutual understanding and cooperation in
the development of learner autonomy in vocabulary learning.

3. Limitations

It is unavoidable that there are some limitations of the research due to the
limited scope, the time constraint and other objective factors.

84
Firstly, not all first-year mainstream students directly participated in the study.
The participants were just chosen randomly from some classes to represent
others. This is to make sure the collection and analysis of data is manageable to
the researcher. Thus, the researcher sought to survey two teachers from
unsurveyed classes so as to confirm the situation in other classes and increase
the representativeness of data.

Secondly, the limited number of teachers involved in the study is another

limitation. Therefore, it must be admitted that some interesting techniques
utilized by the teachers may be overlooked.

Since the researcher was fully aware if these limitations, most of the findings
were considered initial findings, offering the opportunities for further research in
the future to further validate the findings.

4. Suggestions for further studies

As aforementioned, the limitation of this research lies in the limited number of

participants. Therefore, further studies could employ a larger number of
participants to increase the validity of the data and conclusion. In addition, since
the application of learner autonomy remains rather awkward in Vietnam
educational context, other researchers may wish to explore the situation in other
universities with different proficiency, majors or specializations of students.
Another direction is to find out about the development of learner autonomy, not
in vocabulary learning, but in other areas such as reading, listening, speaking or
writing.

Moreover, since the paper placed its focus on students’ perception of the
development of learner autonomy in vocabulary learning, other researchers may
85
wish to measure some collected data in a quantitative way, for example the ‘real
competence’ in vocabulary compared to students’ modest self-assessment. This
may require experimental studies. Expectedly, the results of such studies would
be extremely helpful in providing a complete picture about current situation of
applying learner autonomy in Vietnam educational setting.

86
 APPENDIX 1: DEFINTIONS OF LEARNER AUTONOMY IN SECOND
LANGUAGE LEARNING (Adapted from Finch, 2001)

Author Definition of Learner Autonomy

Holec “…To say of a learner that he is autonomous is therefore to say

(1980: 4) that he is capable of taking charge of his own learning and nothing
more.”

Hunt, Gow Autonomous learners are “involved in identifying problems and

& Barnes making relevant decisions for their solutions through access to
(1989:209) sufficient sources of information.”

Wenden “… ‘successful’ or ‘expert’ or ‘intelligent’ learners have learned

(1991:15) how to learn. They have acquired the learning strategies, the
knowledge about learning, and the attitudes that enable them to use
these skills and knowledge confidently, flexibly, appropriately and
independently of a teacher. Therefore, they are autonomous.”

Dickinson “…an attitude towards learning in which the learner is prepared to

(1992) take, or does take, responsibility for his own learning.”

Littlewood “We can define an autonomous person as one who has an

(1996:428) independent capacity to make and carry out the choices which
govern his or her actions. This capacity depends on two main
components: ability and willingness. … Ability depends on
possessing both knowledge about the alternatives from which
choices have to be made and the necessary skills for carrying out
whatever choices seem most appropriate. Willingness depends on
having both the motivation and the confidence to take
responsibility for the choices required."

87
APPENDIX 2: ROLES OF TEACHERS AND LEARNERS TOWARDS
LEARNER AUTONOMY

Teachers’ roles Learners’ roles

Subsidiary Prominent

- facilitator - manager

- counselor - syllabus designer

- resource - evaluator

88
APPENDIX 3

Noted study

In a study carried out by Joanne Yim Ping Chuk (2004) in Hong Kong, the researcher decided
to explore how to design and use classroom activities to encourage learner autonomy. At the
phase 1 of the research, the students in her two classes were required to keep personal
vocabulary notebooks as records of learning. These notebooks would be included as part of
the continuous assessment grade. Soon after this was announced, as Chuk reported, both
classes raised questions about how this work would count towards the final course grade. The
not-at-all coincidence from these two classes brought the researcher to ask herself “Why is it
that grades seem to be the most important thing that matters to them?” The second phase of
the research reported students ignoring in-class activities while trying to finish the
assignments of the next class. Chuk remarked that “They seemed to be focused on the
products of learning i.e. quizzes, tests and grades rather than on the processes of learning
offered through learning opportunities in class.” Thus, this can be considered one of the
reasons why the students reported they did not perceive any improvement in their English by
the end of the term, although the lessons (as perceived by them) were well organized and
exciting. The result from Chuck’s research suggests that learner autonomy training activities
must be clear in objectives and more importantly, students must be trained first to understand
the importance of learning for their own sake, their own knowledge before/ at the same time
as being introduced to learning strategies.

89
APPENDIX 4

A personal reflection

In a reflection entry as a requirement in her PhD course for initial teacher

education, Burkert (2008) stated that it would have been extremely helpful for
her had she had the opportunity in her initial teacher education to experience
learner autonomy herself. Getting acquainted with the
theoretical literature is of course a prerequisite but by not enough. This
underlines the importance of providing would-be teachers with motivating
experiences in learner autonomy right when they are in the position of learners.
Burkert also suggested that teachers can be shown videos of autonomous
classrooms so that their motivation and trust in learners’ capabilities will be
increased.

90
APPENDIX 5

Student Survey Questionnaire

This survey is designed on the purpose of getting necessary data for my study on
“Developing learner autonomy in vocabulary learning for first-year students at
ED, CFL, ULIS”. Your personal information will be kept strictly confidential. Please give
your answers truthfully for a guaranteed success of the research.

Thank you so much for your participation.

Background information.

Your name: ………………………………………

You are in group:

You are:  Male
Female
Your major is: Teacher training
Interpreter training
Your age is:
You have been learning English for: years
Your email: ………………………………………
Your phone number: …………………………………

Part 1:

1. What do you think of learning English Vocabulary?

 A. Very important

 B. Important

 C. Not important at all

2. What are the main goals you get for yourself in learning vocabulary?
 A. For communication
 B. For general development of my English
 D. For exams and tests
 E. Others (Please specify)…………………………………………
3. You assess your mastery in Vocabulary as:
 A. Poor
 B. Fair
 C. Good
 D. Excellent

4. In your opinion, what is the job of your teacher in helping you learn vocabulary?

91
  A. Teacher should choose what to learn, how to learn and when to learn.
 B. Learners should be left to decide what to learn, how to learn and when to learn.
 C. Teacher and learners should discuss about what to learn, how to learn and when
to learn.
5. Please give reasons for your choice in question 3.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

6. When do you learn vocabulary?

 A. Whenever I have time.
 B. When my teacher asks me to.
 C. Before exams.
 D. Sometimes when I like to.
 E. When I meet an interesting vocabulary items.
 F. Never.
7. In your opinion, what vocabulary items would worth learning?
 A. Every item I meet.
 B. Items appearing in my textbooks.
 C. Items that teachers ask me to learn.
 D. Items that I repeatedly meet.
 E. Others (Please specify) ………………………………………….
8. What do you think you should study about a new word?
 A. Definition.
 B. Spelling.
 C. Usage.
 D. Examples.
 E. Collocations.
 F. Synonyms and antonyms.
 G. It depends.
 H. Others (Please specify) ………………………………………….
9. When there is an assignment task, I usually
 A. Get it done soon according to the requirement
 B. Do it as a boring duty
 C. Copy others’
For each of the items below, please tick or circle the number that reflects your
viewpoint/ habits on a five-point scale. If you have any further explanation,
please write at the end of the form.

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Undecided Agree strongly agree

Part 2:

92
1. I set goals for myself in each study period. 1 2 3 4 5

2. When I find a word which is difficult to understand, I try to figure it out rather than asking
for a translation from teachers/friends. 1 2 3 4 5

3. New words appearing in reading, listening, speaking do not prevent me from successful
communication. 1 2 3 4 5
4. When I consider a word important, I try to work with its other aspects rather than just
getting to know its meaning. 1 2 3 4 5
5. I enjoy doing vocabulary learning activities very much.
1 2 3 4 5
6. Vocabulary learning activities do not hold my attention.
1 2 3 4 5
7. I feel competent with my vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5
8. I find it hard to work in groups. 1 2 3 4 5
9. I like to work more with vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5
10. I feel comfortable to contact my teacher if I have problems regarding vocabulary.
1 2 3 4 5
11. Are you willing to do more than what is required by your teacher in vocabulary learning?
1 2 3 4 5
12. Are you willing to discuss your own progress in vocabulary learning?
1 2 3 4 5
13. Are you flexible to adapt yourself to new way of learning vocabulary?
1 2 3 4 5
14. Are you willing to use the school library as a source of getting more vocabulary?
1 2 3 4 5
15. Are you willing to work independently with self-study books for improving vocabulary?
1 2 3 4 5

Part 3:

1. Does the teacher provide you with opportunities to gradually take control of your learning
vocabulary? 1 2 3 4 5
2. Does the teacher provide you with opportunities for you to reflect on your learning
process? 1 2 3 4 5
3. Does the teacher help you to be aware of your role as important in the success of learning
vocabulary? 1 2 3 4 5
4. Does your learning environment encourage interactions and group work?
1 2 3 4 5
5. Does the teacher help you build up self-confidence in learning vocabulary?
1 2 3 4 5
6. Does the teacher encourage you to keep a diary of your experiences in learning vocabulary?
1 2 3 4 5
7. Does the teacher instruct you how to use the university’s resource centers such as libraries?
1 2 3 4 5
8. What does your teacher normally do at class to help/get you to learn vocabulary?
 A. Read the words and give definitions
 B. Give examples of the words
93
  C. Organize group work
 D. Organize games
 E. Have students read newspapers/magazines/books in English
 F. Introduce vocabulary learning software
 G. Introduce ways to learn vocabulary effectively at home
 H. Encourage students to learn vocabulary at home
 I. Introduce different sources from which students can learn new words
 J. Others (Please specify) ………………………………
9. What’s the main problem in your teacher’s vocabulary teaching?
 A. Limited vocabulary
 B. Poor pronunciation
 C. Ineffective demonstration
 D. Boring repetition of activities
 E. Lack of motivating tasks
 F. Others (please specify)………………………………….

Part 4
1. What are your usual sources for vocabulary learning?
 A. Televisions
 B. The Internet
 C. Course materials
 D. Newspapers and magazines
 E. Novels
 F. Comic books
 G. E-materials
 H. Others (Please specify) ………………………………..
2. How do you learn vocabulary?
 A. Keep a notebook of new vocabulary items and review regularly.
 B. Read the course book several times.
 C. Do vocabulary exercises in books I find for myself.
 D. Make a sentence with every new word.
 E. Design vocabulary exercises for myself.
 F. Try to read and listen in English as much as possible.
 G. Make a map showing the relationship of words that need to be learned.
 H. Use flashcards.
 I. Draw pictures related to the words.
 J. Invent rhymes related to the words.
 K. I don’t learn vocabulary.
 L. Others (Please specify) …………………………………….
3. In what way would you prefer to learn vocabulary?
 A. Listening to the teacher’s lecture.
 B. Learning by myself.
 C. Discussing with my classmates.
 D. Working in pairs or in groups.
 E. Coming to tutorials.

94
Part 5
It is important that your handwritten comments in this section are constructive in relation to
teaching and learning issues.

1. What is the most serious issue in your learning of English vocabulary?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

2. What do you think of the classroom activities the teacher has employed in vocabulary
instructions?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………

3. In your opinion, how can the teacher better prepare you for learning vocabulary on your
own?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….............................................................................

Thank you a lot for your cooperation!

95
APPENDIX 6

Teacher Survey Questionnaire

This survey is designed on the purpose of getting necessary data for my study on
“Developing learner autonomy in vocabulary learning for first-year students at
ED, CFL, ULIS”. Your personal information will be kept strictly confidential. Please give
your answers truthfully for a guaranteed success of the research.

Thank you so much for your participation.

Background information.

Your name: ………………………………………

You are teaching group(s): …………………………

You are:  Male
Female
Your class(es)’ major is (are): Teacher training
Interpreter training
Your age is: ………………………..
You have been teaching English for: ………………… years
Your email: ………………………………………
Your phone number: …………………………………

Part 1:

1. What do you think of teaching English Vocabulary for first year students at ED, ULIS?
 A. Very important

 B. Important

 C. Not important at all

2. What do you think are the main goals your students get in learning vocabulary?
 A. For communication
 B. For general development of English
 D. For exams and tests
 E. Others ( Please specify)…………………………………………
3. You assess your facilitation in the vocabulary learning process as:
 A. Poor
 B. Fair
 C. Good
 D. Excellent

4. In your opinion, what is the job of the teacher in helping your students learn vocabulary?

 A. Teacher should choose what to learn, how to learn and when to learn.

96
  B. Learners should be left to decide what to learn, how to learn and when to learn.
 C. Teacher and learners should discuss about what to learn, how to learn and when
to learn.

5. Please give reasons for your choice in question 3.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6. When do you require vocabulary learning?

 A. Whenever my students have time.
 B. Sometimes when I like to.
 C. Before exams.
 D. Sometimes when I feel the word is vital in understanding my lessons.
 E. When they meet an interesting vocabulary item.
 F. Never.
7. In your opinion, what vocabulary items would be considered worth learning BY YOUR
STUDENTS?
 A. Every item they meet.
 B. Items appearing in their textbooks.
 C. Items that I ask them to learn.
 D. Items that they repeatedly meet.
 E. Others (Please specify) ………………………………………….
8. What do you think your students should study about a new word?
 A. Definition.
 B. Spelling.
 C. Usage.
 D. Examples.
 E. Collocations.
 F. Synonyms and antonyms.
 G. It depends.
 H. Others (Please specify) ………………………………………….
9. When there is an assignment task, your students usually
 A. Show their care for assessment and marks.
 B. Show their enthusiasm as seeing a learning opportunity.
 C. Express indifference.
 D. Express disagreement.
 E. Others (Please specify)……………………………………………

For each of the items below, please tick or circle the number that reflects your
viewpoint on a five-point scale. If you have any further explanation, please
write at the end of the form.

1 2 3 4 5
97
Strongly disagree Disagree Undecided Agree strongly agree

Part 2:

1. I set goals for myself when I intend to teach vocabulary.

1 2 3 4 5
2. The goals of vocabulary instructions are made clear to my students at the beginning of the
semester and of each lesson. 1 2 3 4 5

3. When my students find a word which is difficult to understand, I try to help them figure it
out for themselves rather than giving immediate answer.

1 2 3 4 5
4. I teach my students how to compensate for words they do not know.
1 2 3 4 5
5. My students can decide which words are important and ask for more explanation than just
a definition. 1 2 3 4 5
6. My students enjoy doing vocabulary learning activities very much.
1 2 3 4 5
7. Vocabulary learning activities do not hold my students’ attention.
1 2 3 4 5
8. My students feel competent with their vocabulary.
1 2 3 4 5
9. I find it hard to have my students work in groups.
1 2 3 4 5
10. My students like to work more with vocabulary.
1 2 3 4 5
11. I tell my students that I am willing to provide help for their vocabulary learning.
1 2 3 4 5
12. Are your students willing to do more than what is required by you?
1 2 3 4 5
13. Are your students willing to discuss their own progress in vocabulary learning?
1 2 3 4 5
14. Are your students flexible to adapt themselves to new way of teaching?
1 2 3 4 5
15. Are they willing to use the school library as a source of getting more vocabulary?
1 2 3 4 5
16. Are they willing to work independently with self-study books for improving vocabulary?
1 2 3 4 5

Part 3:

1. Do you provide your students with opportunities to gradually take control of learning
vocabulary? 1 2 3 4 5
2. Do you provide your students with opportunities to reflect on their learning process?
1 2 3 4 5
3. Do you help your students to be aware of their role as important in the success of learning
vocabulary? 1 2 3 4 5
98
4. Is the learning environment where interactions and group work encouraged?
1 2 3 4 5
5. Do you help your students build up self-confidence in learning vocabulary?
1 2 3 4 5
6. Do you encourage your students to keep a diary of experiences in learning vocabulary?
1 2 3 4 5
7. Do you instruct your students how to use the university’s resource centers such as
libraries? 1 2 3 4 5

8. What do you normally do at class to help/get your students to learn vocabulary?

 A. Read the words and give definitions
 B. Give examples of the words
 C. Organize group work
 D. Organize games
 E. Have students read newspapers/magazines/books in English
 F. Introduce vocabulary learning software
 G. Introduce ways to learn vocabulary effectively at home
 H. Encourage students to learn vocabulary at home
 I. Introduce different sources from which students can learn new words
 J. Others (Please specify) ………………………………
9. What’s the main problem in guiding your students to learn vocabulary for themselves?
 A. Students’ motivation
 B. Students’ inactiveness
 C. Students’ proficiency
 C. Lack of modern facilities
 D. No problem
 E. Others (please specify)………………………………….

Part 4
1. What do you think can be rich vocabulary learning materials?
 A. Televisions
 B. The Internet
 C. Course materials
 D. Newspapers and magazines
 E. Novels
 F. Comic books
 G. E-materials
 H. Others (Please specify) ………………………………..

2. What have you asked your students to do for themselves?

 A. Keep a notebook of new vocabulary items and review regularly.
 B. Read the course book several times.
 C. Do vocabulary exercises in books they find for themselves.
 D. Make a sentence with every new word.
 E. Design vocabulary exercises for themselves.
 F. Try to read and listen in English as much as possible.
 G. Make a map showing the relationship of words that need to be learned.

99
  H. Use flashcards.
 I. Draw pictures related to the words.
 J. Invent rhymes related to the words.
 K. None of the above
 L. Others (Please specify) …………………………………….
3. In what way would you think your students prefer to learn vocabulary?
 A. Listening to the teacher’s lecture.
 B. Learning by themselves.
 C. Discussing with their classmates.
 D. Working in pairs or in groups.
 E. Coming to tutorials.

Part 5
It is important that your handwritten comments in this section are constructive in relation to
teaching and learning issues.

1. What is the most serious issue in your promoting learner autonomy for your students in
vocabulary learning?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

2. How do you think of the activities you have carried out in order to foster learner autonomy
in vocabulary learning?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

3. In your opinion, how can you better prepare your students for learning vocabulary
autonomously?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………….............................................................................

Thank you a lot for your cooperation!

100
APPENDIX 7

Questions for Semi-Structured Student Interview

1. What do you think about your ability to learn vocabulary autonomously?

2. What do you often do to learn new vocabulary items? Which way do you find
the most effective? Why?

3. Up to now what your teacher(s) has (have) done to help you learn vocabulary
on your own? What do you think of your teacher’s help?

4. What is the most serious problem in your learning vocabulary autonomously?

What the teachers can do to help you solve this problem?

101
APPENDIX 8

Questions for Semi-Structured Teacher Interview

1. What do you think about your students’ ability to learn vocabulary
autonomously?

2. What is the most serious issue in their learning vocabulary autonomously?

3. What have you done to help, encourage or push them to learn vocabulary
autonomously at home? What are their responses and what is the result?

4. What do your students still lack in order to learn vocabulary autonomously?

102
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