ELE Questions

Part I Fossils
My questions are essay-style questions about big-picture issues of evolution and
earth history. I am looking for you to present a coherent argument based on
facts, written in essay form, with diagrams if they are helpful. I am not looking
for a whole litany of specific trivia, like names of individual fossil species or the
exact time periods that certain groups lived or the exact places where certain
fossils are found. Use a selection of important facts in your essays, but think
big-picture instead of an over-emphasis on details. All of my questions can be
answered in a couple of paragraphs. I am not looking for pages and pages of
exposition. I'm also not looking for information not related to the question. I know
some of you have learned a lot in class and want to show off that knowledge,
which is great. But, many students write a lot of irrelevant information in
their responses--for example, if I ask about which group of dinosaurs birds
originated from, I am looking for "theropods" or "meat-eating dinosaurs like
Velociraptor", not "theropods, which are a type of dinosaur, which are a type of
archosaur, which evolved in the early Triassic after the end-Permian extinction,
which was the biggest mass extinction of all time, which was caused by massive
volcanic eruptions, which took place in Siberia."
Part II Global and Environmental Change
4)
a) Explain all of the terms in the following equation, that describes a simple
model for the surface temperature of the Earth:
(30%)

S ( 1 )
T s= 0
2 ( 2 )

1
4

Answer should include the names of all the terms (Ts S0 , , and ), a brief
explanation of each and where appropriate the units.
Common error was confusing the emissivity,, with albedo, , and saying the
emissivity was the earths surface emission rather than the emissivity (or
absorbance) of the atmosphere
b) How does the equation in (a) compare to the planetary emission
temperature equation, and what does the emission temperature represent for
the Earth system?
(30%)
Answer should include the equation for the emission temperature. The
comparison should refer to the lack of an emissivity term in the emission
temperature equation and that it represents a planet with no greenhouse
effect. For the earth system this is effectively the temperature at the top of
the atmosphere.
c) What might cause the parameters

and

to change? Explain 2

drivers of change for each.

(40%)
Common mistakes here were: not providing 4 things that will cause albedo to
change (things that change the colour of the earth as seen from space);
confusing the emissivity and albedo emissivity can only be changes by

changing the composition of the atmosphere; and not providing explanations

as to why these might change.

5)
a) Write a sequence of balanced chemical equations to demonstrate the
control that weathering of rocks has on global climate. State all assumptions
you make.
(40%)
This question requires equations for the weathering of both carbonate and
silicate rocks as well as the equations of the precipitation reactions that occur
when the products of weathering reach the ocean. It would also be
appropriate here to include the equations for the reactions of CO 2 with water
because these are important for the production of carbonic acid.
The most common source of lost marks was not stating assumptions.
Importantly these should include the assumed balance of weathering and
precipitation of CaCO3, but could also include the assumed compositions of
rocks.
b) What is the relative importance of weathering of carbonate vs. silicate
rocks, on the Earths climate over timescales of millions of years?
(30%)
You should refer to the equations in part a here to show the differences
between carbonate and silicate weathering on CO2 (only silicate weathering
should draw down CO2 on long timescales). You should also not that if the
weathering is not balanced, by precipitation of CaCO 3, then both types of
weathering can have short term (10,000s of years) effects on the carbon
drawdown.
c) Over long (million year timescales) explain the other Earth system
processes that counterbalance the effect of weathering on Earths average
surface temperature? (30%)
It is important here to stick to the long timescale geological processes, and
not on the short term carbon cycle. (burial rates of organic carbon,
precipitation of marine carbonates, long term changes in rates of volcanism
(metamorphism also can release CO2))

6)
a) Over the past 200 years how have changes in solar irradiance, volcanic
eruptions, and greenhouse gas forcings affected the global average surface
temperature of the Earth?
(40%)
This question was largely answered quite well. Answers should have noted the
different magnitudes of these climate forcings and their different timescales
of action. You could use a figure here to illustrate your answer.
b) What scientific arguments have been used to attribute the changes in
surface temperature, over the last 60 years, to anthropogenic activities rather
than natural variability?
(40%)
This was by far the worst answered part of my questions. The question
requires you to be specific about the scientific arguments that are used to
attribute climate change to human activities. Providing a narrative that we
have put lots of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere which have caused
warming is not answering the question and got no marks.
Specifically you should refer to:
The evidence that the CO2 in the atmosphere is anthropogenic in origin
The evidence that the recent warming is caused by the greenhouse
gasses
o This should include descriptions of the modelling approaches and
a referral to the fundamental science that predicts a rise in
temperature for an increase in atmospheric CO 2.
o Also appropriate would be evidence that the current warming is
exceptional compared to past changes.
c) In addition to surface temperature change, what other major changes are
expected to occur in the climate system over the next 100 years?
(20%)
Any reasonable list of expected changes in the atmosphere and/or ocean
would be appropriate I expected 4.

Part IV Global Biogeochemical Cycles

10)
a) Write a set of balanced equations that describe the reactions that occur
when CO2 is dissolved in water.
(30%)
All of the equations including the disassociation of carbonic acid into
bicarbonate and carbonate are required. Often missing was the initial
dissolution reaction CO2 (g) CO2 (aq). Note the double headed reaction arrow
indicating and equilibrium reaction should be present for all reactions and the
subscripts denoting phase.
b) What is the effect of increasing atmospheric CO 2 on the pH of the ocean?
Refer to your answer in (a).
(20%)
The most common mistake was confusing the sign of the change in pH. pH =
-log[H+] (note the minus) so more H+ leads to a lower pH (more acidic). You
should refer to the equations in part a and to get full credit you should also
mention that seawater has a high alkalinity so the pH change would be
buffered.
c) What is Henrys Law, and what environmental parameter can change the
solubility constant of CO2 in water?
(20%)
You should include both the equation for Henrys Law (defining all the terms)
and a description of what is means.
d) The ocean typically has a higher concentration of dissolved inorganic
carbon than river water. Using your answer to (a) explain why this is.
(30%)
A lot of you though because the ocean is large it will have a higher
concentration. This is wrong. It will have more DIC because it is big but this
will be diluted by the large amount of water. The key to this question is the
high alkalinity (and higher pH) of seawater.
DIC comprises CO2(aq), HCO3-(aq), and CO32-(aq). Only the CO2 can exchange with
the atmosphere, so if proportionally more of the DIC is HCO 3-(aq), and CO32-(aq)
then more DIC can be stored in the ocean for any given CO 2 concentration in
the atmosphere. The proportions of CO 2(aq), HCO3-(aq), and CO32-(aq) in DIC is
determined by the alkalinity and the pH. A diagram of the pH dependence of
carbon speciation would be good here. Additional reasons why the ocean has
more carbon stored in it are that5 the deep ocean was last in contact withy
the atmosphere in polar regions which are cold therefore more CO2 will go
into the water, and deep water is isolated from the surface for a long time so
will gain DIC from decaying organic matter.

11)
a) What are the main chemical forms of nitrogen in (i) the atmosphere, and (ii)
the ocean? Comment on the biological usefulness of each of these species.
(40%)
Only gaseous species should be in the atmosphere, ionic species will only be
very minor components.
Nitrate and ammonium (NO3- and NH4+) are in the ocean but nitrate is the
major nutrient
b) Briefly describe the process of nitrogen fixation, and how this occurs in the
natural environment.
(30%)
A brief description of what fixation is, is required here. Fixation is not the
uptake of nitrogen by organisms and the production of organic matter,
specifically it is the conversion of boi-inert N 2 gas into bio-available forms
nitrate and ammonia).
Also for each of the pathways you should include a description of the process,
and equation, and some comment on the physical and environmental
conditions required).
c) Briefly describe the process of denitrification and the typical conditions in
the natural environment where this occurs.
(30%)
As with the fixation question the appropriate equation, description and the
environmental conditions are required. Examples of the types of places in the
environment where this occurs and the bacteria that drive the reactions would
also be appropriate.

12)
a) What are the major natural sources of sulphur to the atmosphere, and the
ocean? (20%)
Many of you missed out on river runoff as a source to the oceans and
atmospheric dust as a source to the ocean in addition to the volcanic source.

b) The total natural flux of sulphur to the ocean is 90 Mt (90 x 10 6 tonnes) per
year. If the total stock of sulphur in the ocean is 1.28 Pt (1.28 x 10 15 tonnes),
what is the residence time of sulphur in the ocean and how does this explain
the typical concentration-depth profile of sulphur in the ocean?
(50%)
In doing this calculation you should spell out the formula for residence time
qand note the assumption of steady state that you are making. You should
make sure that your answer has the correct units and number of significant
figures (14,222,222.22 years is inappropriately precise).
A sketch concentration profile would be appropriate here to show how the
concentrations changes.
In your answer you should refer to the magnitude of the residence time
relative to the mixing time of the oceans to explain the water column
variability.
What would local changes in the addition /removal of water (evaporationprecipitation) do to the concentration profile?

c) What are the climatic and environmental effects of atmospheric sulphur

species? (30%)
You should refer here to the climatic and environmental impacts of S in the
atmosphere
SO2 is not a greenhouse gas it oxidises rapidly in the atmosphere to form
sulphuric acid which acts as cloud condensation nuclei promoting clouds with
smaller droplets which are whiter and cool the planet. This will also cause a
lowering of the pH of rainfall which can change the pH of soil.