CHAPTER 11

Basic Concepts of Hazard

Objectives:
At the end of the text, students are anticipated to:

define what hazard is and its basic context in human safety

identify types of hazards from which category it falls;
give possible situations that belong under certain types of hazards; and
explain the impact of various hazards on different exposed elements

Hazards do exist everyday even people unknowingly notice it. These do not choose any
location because everywhere you see various types of hazards even in school, roadways,
workplace, restaurant and etc. As much as we want to assure prevention or control of accidents,
property damage and injuries, each one of us is called to prepare whenever these events happen.
One way of doing so is to identify which situation belongs to a certain type of hazard; and by
that, one may able to delve hazard assessment as thorough as possible because in the end, you
cannot protect others against hazards that you are unaware of. Basic concept of hazards must
then be introduced to impart essential context of these subject matter.

A hazard is any source of potential damage, harm

adverse health effects on something or someone under certain
conditions at work. This can cause harm or adverse effects to
individuals as health effects or to organizations as property or
equipment losses.

or

Figure 1. Physical hazards

at workplace

Sometimes, a hazard is referred to as being the actual harm or the health effect it caused
rather than the hazard. For example, the disease tuberculosis (TB) might be called a hazard by
some but in general the TB-causing bacteria would be considered the "hazard" or "hazardous
biological agent".
Workplace hazards can come from a wide range of sources. General examples include
any substance, material, process, practice, etc. that has the ability to cause harm or adverse health
effect to a person under certain conditions. See Table 1.

Table11.1
Examples of Hazards and Their Effects
Workplace Hazard

Example of Hazard

Example of Harm Caused

Thing

Knife

Cut

Substance

Benzene

Leukemia

Material

Asbestos

Mesothelioma

Source of Energy

Electricity

Shock, electrocution

Condition

Wet floor

Slips, falls

Process

Welding

Metal fume fever

Practice

Hard rock mining

Silicosis

As shown in Table 11.1, workplace hazards also include practices or conditions that
release uncontrolled energy like:

an object that could fall from a height (potential or gravitational energy),

a run-away chemical reaction (chemical energy),

the release of compressed gas or steam (pressure; high temperature),

entanglement of hair or clothing in rotating equipment (kinetic energy), or

contact with electrodes of a battery or capacitor (electrical energy).

Hazard is classified according to modes:

Dormant - the situation presents a potential hazard, but no people, property, or
environment is currently affected. For instance, a hillside may be unstable, with the
potential for a landslide, but there is nothing below or on the hillside that could be
affected.
Armed - people, property, or environment are in potential harm's way.
Active - a harmful incident involving the hazard has actually occurred. Often this is
referred to not as an "active hazard" but as an accident, emergency, incident, or disaster.

One must consider the very first step to protecting himself. It is through recognizing these
hazards in the even in workplace as well as the condition you are currently in. This is where
hazard assessment takes into account. Hazard assessment is the evaluating and ranking

potential hazards by their estimated frequency and intensity, and determining a margin of safety.
Risk analysis is based on hazard assessment. Thus, taking into consideration these six main
categories of hazards:
Risk assessment is the process where you
identify hazards, analyze or evaluate the
risk associated with that hazard, and
determine appropriate ways to eliminate or

Figure 11.2. An example of workplace hazard

1. Safety Hazards - are unsafe working conditions that that can cause injury, illness and death.
Safety hazards are the most common workplace hazards. They include:
a) Anything that can cause spills or tripping such as cords running across the floor or ice
b) Anything that can cause falls such as working from heights, including ladders,
scaffolds, roofs, or any raised work area
c) Unguarded machinery and moving machinery parts that a worker can accidentally
touch
d) Electrical hazards like frayed cords, missing ground pins, improper wiring
e) Confined spaces
2. Biological Hazards - include exposure to harm or disease associated with working with
animals, people, or infectious plant materials. Workplaces with these kinds of hazards
include, but are not limited to, work in schools, day care facilities, colleges and universities,
hospitals, laboratories, emergency response, nursing homes, or various outdoor occupations.
Types of things you may be exposed to include:
a) Blood and other body fluids
b) Fungi/mold
c) Bacteria and viruses
d) Plants
e) Insect bites
f) Animal and bird droppings

3. Physical Hazards - can be any factors within the environment that can harm the body
without necessarily touching it. They include:
a) Radiation: including ionizing, non-ionizing (EMFs, microwaves, radio waves, etc.)
b) High exposure to sunlight / ultraviolet rays
c) Temperature extremes hot and cold
d) Constant loud noise
4. Ergonomic Hazards occur when the type of work, body positions and working conditions
put a strain on your body. They are the hardest to spot since you dont always immediately
notice the strain on your body or the harm that these hazards pose. Short-term exposure may
result in sore muscles the next day or in the days following the exposure, but long term
exposure can result in serious long-term illness. Ergonomic Hazards include:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Improperly adjusted workstations and chairs

Frequent lifting
Poor posture
Awkward movements, especially if they are repetitive
Having to use too much force, especially if you have to do it frequently
Vibration

5. Chemical Hazards are present when a worker is exposed to any chemical preparation in the
workplace in any form (solid, liquid or gas). Some are safer than others, but to some workers
who are more sensitive to chemicals, even common solutions can cause illness, skin
irritation, or breathing problems. Beware of:
a) Liquids like cleaning products, paints, acids, solvents especially if chemicals are in an
unlabeled container.
b) Vapors and fumes that come from welding or exposure to solvents
c) Gases like acetylene, propane, carbon monoxide and helium
d) Flammable materials like gasoline, solvents, and explosive chemicals
e) Pesticides
6. Work Organization Hazards - hazards or stressors that cause stress (short term effects) and
strain (long term effects). These are hazards associated with workplace issues such as
workload, lack of control and/or respect, etc. Examples include:
a) Workload demands
b) Workplace violence
c) Intensity and/or pace
d) Respect (or lack thereof)
e) Flexibility
f) Control or say about things

g) Social support or relations

h) Sexual harassment
Other types of hazards include the following. These are additional information to assess
and identify hazards that might occur around especially in your workplace.
a) Chemical hazards
Chemicals can affect the skin by contact or the body either through the
digestive system or through the lungs if air is contaminated with chemicals,
vapour, mist or dust. There can be an acute (immediate) effect, or a chronic
(medium to long-term) effect from the accumulation of chemicals or substances in
or on the body.
b) Noise hazards
Excessive noise can disrupt concentration, interfere with communication,
and result in loss of hearing. High impact noises are particularly damaging. Noise
can also mask out signals, affecting communication or danger warnings.
c) Radiation hazards
Equipment such as radioactive gauging devices or the radioactive trace
element used in analytical chemistry produce Ionizing radiation. Non-ionizing
radiation covers infrared radiation (heat-producing processes), lasers, ultraviolet
radiation (welding, sunlight), and microwaves (high-frequency welders, freeze
drying).
d) Electrical hazards
These include the risk of injury from all forms of electrical energy.
e) Lighting hazards
Inadequate lighting levels are a potential safety hazard. A common
problem area is the reaction time needed for the eyes to adjust from a brightly lit
to a darker environment such as a forklift driver coming indoors from bright
sunlight. Temporary lighting is often inadequate.
f) Vibration hazards
This includes whole-body vibration for example, truck drivers, people
standing on vibrating platforms, and operators of mobile equipment and also
more localized vibration effects from such equipment as hand tools, chainsaws,
and pneumatic hammers.
g) Temperature hazards
Extremes of cold or heat can cause problems such as tiredness,
vulnerability to infections or reduced capacity to work.
h) Biological hazards
These include insects, bacteria, fungi, plants, worms, animals and viruses.
For example, poultry workers exposed to bird feathers and droppings to which
they are allergic can contract a medical condition. Brucellosis is a well-known
problem in New Zealand associated with people handling meat and meat products
infected with Brucella. Hepatitis and the AIDS virus are other biological hazards.

i) Ergonomic hazards
Ergonomics (the fit between people and their work) covers risk of injury
from manual handling procedures, incorrectly designed desks or workstations,
audio and visual alarms, and color coding control mechanisms.
j) Physical hazards
These include a wide range of injury risks as diverse as being caught in
or by machinery, buried in trenches or hurt by collapsing machinery. This
category also includes the hazards from working in confined spaces, being hit by
flying objects, caught in explosions, falling from heights and tripping on
obstacles.
k) Other hazards
Include stress, fatigue, the effects of shift work, and even assaults from
other people.
Most of the time, hazard is linked to risk. Hazard assessment requires clear definition of
these basic and essential aspects of safety assurance. A hazard means a situation or thing that
has the potential to harm a person. Hazards in your business may include: noisy machinery, a
moving forklift, chemicals, electricity, working at heights or a repetitive job at your workplace.
While a risk is the possibility that harm (death, injury or illness) might occur when exposed to
a hazard in your workplace.
Safety risk management under these terms introduces Risk Control. Risk control
means your business taking action to eliminate health and safety risks so far as is reasonably
practicable, and if that is not possible, minimizing the risks so far as is reasonably practicable.
Eliminating a hazard will also eliminate any risks associated with that hazard in your workplace.
Classifying hazards
By its nature, a hazard involves something that could potentially be harmful to a person's
life, health, property, or the environment. One key concept in identifying a hazard is the presence
of stored energy that, when released, can cause damage. Stored energy can occur in many forms:
chemical, mechanical, thermal, radioactive, electrical, etc. Another class of hazard does not
involve release of stored energy, rather it involves the presence of hazardous situations.
Examples include confined or limited egress spaces, oxygen-depleted atmospheres, awkward
positions, repetitive motions, low-hanging or protruding objects, etc.
There are several methods of classifying hazard, but most systems use some variation on
the factors of "likelihood" of the hazard turning into an incident and the "seriousness" of the
incident if it were to occur. (This discussion moved away from hazard to a discussion of risk.)
A common method is to score both likelihood and seriousness on a numerical scale (with
the most likely and most serious scoring highest) and multiplying one by the other to produce a
comparative score.

Risk = Hazard Vulnerability / Capacity

This score identifies hazards that require mitigation. A low score on likelihood of
occurrence may mean that the hazard is dormant, whereas a high score indicates it may be an
"active" hazard.
An important component of "seriousness if incident occurred" is "serious to whom?"
Different populations may be affected differently by accidents. For example, an explosion has
widely differing effects on different populations, depending on the distance from the explosion.
These possible effects range from death from overpressure or shrapnel, to inhalation of noxious
gases (for people downwind), to exposure to a loud noise.

Hazard Classification System

The hazard class of dangerous goods is indicated either by its class (or division) number
or name. Placards are used to identify the class or division of a material. The hazard class or
division number must be displayed in the lower corner of a placard and is required for both
primary and subsidiary hazard classes and divisions, if applicable. For other than Class 7 or the
OXYGEN placard, text indicating a hazard (for example, "CORROSIVE") is not required. Text
is shown only in the U.S. The hazard class or division number and subsidiary hazard classes or
division numbers placed in parentheses (when applicable), must appear on the shipping
document after each proper shipping name.
Class 1 - Explosives
Division 1.1 Explosives with a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.2 Explosives with a projection hazard
Division 1.3 Explosives with predominantly a fire hazard
Division 1.4 Explosives with no significant blast hazard
Division 1.5 Very insensitive explosives with a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.6 Extremely insensitive articles
Class 2 - Gases
Division 2.1 Flammable gases
Division 2.2 Non-flammable, non-toxic* gases
Division 2.3 Toxic* gases
Class 3 - Flammable liquids (and Combustible liquids [U.S.])

Class 4 - Flammable solids; spontaneously combustible materials; and Dangerous

when wet materials/Water-reactive substances
Division 4.1 Flammable solids
Division 4.2 Spontaneously combustible materials
Division 4.3 Water-reactive substances/Dangerous when wet materials
Class 5 - Oxidizing substances and Organic peroxides
Division 5.1 Oxidizing substances
Division 5.2 Organic peroxides
Class 6 - Toxic* substances and Infectious substances
Division 6.1 Toxic* substances
Division 6.2 Infectious substances
Class 7Radioactive materials
Class 8Corrosive substances
Class 9Miscellaneous hazardous materials/Products, Substances or Organisms

Physical Hazards, and their Adverse Health Effects

Important issues concerning physical

hazards include those relating to health effects of
electromagnetic radiation and ionizing radiation. If one
excludes the occupational environment, then noise and
other physical hazards may present a nuisance to many
inhabitants, and impair general well-being.
a. Electromagnetic radiation ranges from low
frequency, relatively low energy, radiation
Figure 11.3 Physical Hazards
such as radio and microwaves through to
infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. These last as well as other
forms of radioactivity such as high energy subatomic particles (e.g. electrons - Beta
rays) can cause intracellular ionization and are therefore called ionizing radiation.
Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation carries an increased risk of skin cancer such as
melanoma, and of cataracts which are to an extent exposure related. Some pollutants
such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as refrigerants or in aerosol propellants or in
the manufacture of certain plastics can damage the "ozone layer" in the higher
atmosphere (stratosphere) and thus allow more UV light to reach us, and harm us

directly. Ultraviolet light may also cause harm indirectly by contributing to an increase
in ozone in the troposphere (the air we breathe) - see below under chemical hazards, or
elsewhere in connection with air quality.
b) Radioactivity is associated with an exposure dependent risk of some cancers notably
leukemia. Contrary to popular belief however, most radiation to which the average
person is exposed is natural in origin, and, of the man-made sources, medical diagnosis
and treatment is on average the largest source to the individual. A very important issue is
the extent to which radon gas arising from certain rock types beneath dwellings can
contribute to cancer risk. According to some estimates it could result in a few thousand
cancer deaths per year in the U.K. (but still probably less than one twentieth of the
cancer deaths alone caused by tobacco smoking).
c) Ionizing radiation from the nuclear industry and from fallout from detonations
contributes less than 1% of the annual average dose to inhabitants of the U.K. The
explanation for leukaemia clusters around nuclear power plants is not yet resolved.
Similar clustering can occur in other parts of the country. The effect of viral infections
associated with population shifts may be important but requires further study.

Chemical Hazards, and their Adverse Health

Effects
If one includes tobacco smoke as an environmental
hazard then it probably represents the single biggest known
airborne chemical risk to health, whether measured in terms of
death rates or ill-health (from lung cancer, other lung disease
such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema, and disease of the
heart, especially, and of blood vessels and other parts of the
body). To a much lesser degree of risk, these adverse effects
apply to non-smokers exposed passively to side stream tobacco
smoke.
a) General airborne pollution arises
from a variety of causes but can
usefully be subdivided into pollution from combustion or from other sources. The
image shows the silhouette of a power station - an important source of airborne
products of combustion.

Figure 11.4 Chemical Hazards

b) Combustion of coal and other solid fuels can produce smoke (containing polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons - PAH) and sulphur dioxide besides other agents such as those
also produced by:

i.

ii.

iii.

Combustion of liquid petroleum products which can generate carbon

monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and other agents. Industry and incineration
can generate a wide range of products of combustion such as oxides of
sulphur and nitrogen, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins etc.
Combustion of any fossil fuel generates varying amounts of particulate
matter. It also adds to the environmental burden of carbon dioxide - an
important "green house" gas but in these low concentrations it does not
affect human health directly.
Undoubtedly tens of thousands of deaths have resulted from acute
pollution episodes (e.g. the smogs in large cities in the early 1950s).
Nowadays some people e.g. asthmatics can be adversely affected by
excursions in levels of urban air pollution (notably ozone) in some major
cities. What is still unclear is the extent to which urban airborne pollution
in the majority of cities complying with current air quality guidelines,
contributes to ill health, i.e. whether the air quality guidelines are stringent
enough, to protect all the population.

c) Health effects of concern are asthma, bronchitis and similar lung diseases, and there is
good evidence relating an increased risk of symptoms of these diseases with
increasing concentration of sulphur dioxide, ozone and other pollutants. Moreover,
there is increasing evidence to suggest that pollution from particulate matter at levels
hitherto considered "safe" is associated with an increased risk of morbidity and
mortality from cardiopulmonary disease especially in people with other risk factors
(such as old age, or heart and lung disease).

d) Products of combustion and other harmful airborne pollutants can also arise within
the home. Thus nitrogen dioxide generated by gas fires or gas cookers can contribute
to an increased respiratory morbidity of those living in the houses. Certain modern
building materials may liberate gases or vapors such as formaldehyde at low
concentration but which might provoke mild respiratory and other symptoms in some
occupants.

e) Some natural phenomena such as volcanic eruptions can present serious risks to
health. Fortunately they are rare but can be catastrophic.
f) Water can be an important source of chemical hazards. It can leach lead from pipes
especially if the water is soft. There is good epidemiological evidence that this can
have a relatively small but measurable harmful effect especially on neurological

function even at levels hitherto considered "acceptable". Other adverse effects can
arise from chemicals added to the water.

Biological Hazards, and their Adverse Health Effects

These generally fall into two broad categories: those
which produce adverse health effects through infection
and those which produce adverse effects in non-infective
(allergic) ways.
As regards microbiological hazards in water,
substantial improvements in the health of the population
have resulted historically from the supply of drinking
water free from disease causing organisms such as
Figure 11.5 Biological Hazards
cholera. Similar improvements can be expected in the
health of the inhabitants of developing countries if microbiologically safe water is provided by
avoidance of contamination, and appropriate purification including disinfection (usually by
chlorination). Occasional outbreaks of waterborne infection still arise from contamination of
drinking water by soiled water (usually coliforms).

a) There can be other opportunities for further bacteriological contamination. Thus

Legionella can grow in sumps or dead legs in the plumbing system and may then be
dispersed as aerosols from showers.

b) Recreational water which is heavily contaminated with pathogens, notably coliform

bacteria has been shown to be associated with an increased risk of gastrointestinal and
other infectious illness, usually self-limiting.

c) So-called "clinical" waste is not merely an occupational hazard of health care workers
but is becoming an increasingly more important risk, for example for children finding
blood stained needles.

d) Many allergens such as grass pollen grains, or faecal material from house dust mites
may cause attacks of asthma or "hay fever" (allergic rhinitis). There is evidence that
high exposure to these allergens early in life, increases the risk of suffering from
asthma later on.

Some hazards, such as unguarded machinery, pose immediate dangers: a worker could
lose a finger or arm. Other types of hazards, such as ergonomic hazards can injure a worker over
a long period of time, but the full extent of the damage (such as chronic strain or a muscle
impairment) may not show up until after several months or years of exposure to the hazard.
Both types of hazards need to be fixed. Some require immediate attention because
exposure to them can cause injury to you and fellow workers now. They can be quickly fixed by
cleaning up the floor, putting a guard back on or installing a guardrail, for instance. Hazards that
can hurt you in the long term also need to be identified and reported promptly. Interim solutions
should be sought right away, such as rotating tasks with other workers, but permanent
elimination of the hazard may take a little more time to achieve.
When a hazard is recognized, assessing its potential to cause injury and the extent of the
hazard is a necessary step in determining how the hazard can be addressed.

Chapter Quiz:
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)

What is hazard?
Differentiate hazard and risk.
What is the importance of hazard assessment?
How do you classify hazards?
Give at least 5 examples of hazards.
How can hazard affect different exposed elements in terms of health?

CHAPTER 12
Earthquake and Other Related Hazards
.
Learning Objectives:
Identify various potential earthquake hazards
Recognize the natural signs of an impending tsunami
Analyze the effects of the different earthquake hazards
Interpret different earthquake hazard maps
Apply precautionary and safety measures before, during, and after an earthquake
Recognize the elements of the fire triangle in different situations
Analyze the different causes of fire
Observe precautionary and proper procedures in addressing a fire incident
Apply basic response procedures during a fire incident

Follow the emergency and evacuation plans

Discuss the different geological hazards
Analyze the causes of geological hazards
Interpret geological maps
Apply mitigation strategies to prevent loss of lives and properties
EARTHQUAKE

An earthquake is the sudden movement in the ground that releases elastic energy stored
in rocks. (Ammon, 2010)
Earthquakes pose little direct danger to people, contrary to what some people may
believe. Plenty of Seismologists have stated that People cannot be shaken to death by
earthquakes. Earthquakes dont kill people; buildings do. (Nelson, 2014) Instead, there are
earthquake hazards that could happen to people that may result to injury, permanent disability, or
even worse, death.
Earthquakes that happen on isolated places rarely cause any deaths. So, earthquake
hazard risks depend on three factors: population density, construction standards, and emergency
preparedness.
Earthquake hazards include any physical phenomenon associated with earthquakes that
may produce adverse effects on human activities.
Primary earthquake hazards direct hazards brought about by earthquakes; they
happen immediately.
o
o
o
o

Ground shaking
Landslides
Liquefaction
Surface rupture

Secondary earthquake hazards those caused by primary hazards, and are often more
catastrophic.
o
o
o
o

Tsunami
Seiche
Flooding
Fire

PRIMARY EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

Ground shaking is the most common danger during an earthquake. Buildings and other
structures can be damaged by the shaking which may result in deaths and injuries of plenty of

people. Cliffs and sloping grounds may also become destabilized. In addition to that, highstacked items and crates may also hurt and bury anyone nearby. Ground shaking will vary over
an area due to such factors as topography, bedrock type, and the location and orientation of the
fault rupture.

Figure 12.1. Ground shaking

Landslides are the downward sliding of a dry mass of earth from mountains or cliffs. It may
cause falling rocks and debris that may injure people, and destroy buildings and vehicles, and
block roads. They are frequently triggered by strong ground motions. They may result in billions
of dollars worth of damages and may cause plenty of casualties.

Figure 12.2. Landslides

Liquefaction is the mixing of sand or soil and groundwater during the shaking of a moderate or
strong earthquake. If liquefaction occurs beneath a building, the ground becomes very soft,
similar to that of a quicksand. The building may then start to lean, tip over, or sink into the
ground. The ground firms up again once the earthquake has passed and water has settled back
deep underground.

Figure 12.3. Liquefaction

Surface rupture is when the earths surface breaks. It causes permanent damage and cannot be
turned back to normal. It is an offset of the ground when fault rupture extends to the earths
surface. Any structure built across the fault is at risk of being broken as the two sides of the fault
slip past each other. (PNSN)

Figure 12.4. Surface rupture

SECONDARY EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
Tsunami is a series of waves, called the wave train, made in a body of water by a disturbance
that moves the whole water column. Tsunamis can impact coastlines, destroying both properties
and lives of the people.
A tsunamis trough, the low point beneath the waves crest, often reaches shore first. When it
does, it produces a vacuum effect that sucks coastal water seaward and exposes harbor and sea
floors. This retreating of sea water is an important warning sign of a tsunami, because the waves
crest and its enormous volume of water typically hit shore five minutes or so later. Recognizing
this phenomenon can save lives. (National Geographic)
There are natural signs of a tsunami that may be observed. If noticed, then it is highly advised
to move to higher ground. (Australian Government, 2009).

Feel the earth shake. A large undersea earthquake may be felt prior to tsunami by an
ongoing shaking of the ground in coastal regions.

See the ocean drop. The sea level may drop prior to the rapid-moving water.

Hear an unusual roaring sound.

Figure 12.5. Tsunami

Seiches are like small tsunamis. They are standing waves in an enclosed or partially enclosed
body of water. They occur on lakes that are shaken by an earthquake and are usually only a few
meters high, but strong enough to knock down houses and tip over trees.

Figure 12.6. Seiche

Flooding is the overflowing of water that fills the land that is usually dry. It can be the result of
earthquakes and tsunamis. The damage done to dams and reservoirs by the earthquake can also
cause flood due to the fast outpouring of water from the reservoir.

Figure 12.7. Flooding

Fire can be caused by broken gas lines and power line or by tipped over wood and coal stoves as
an effect of the earthquake.

Figure 12.8. Kobe Earthquake Rashomon Fire

EARTHQUAKE HAZARD MAPS
Hazard maps are developed to illuminate areas that are affected or vulnerable to a particular
hazard. They are tools that when properly utilized by planners, developers, and engineers, can
save lives and economic losses by avoiding exposure to some hazards while designing other
development to mitigate or neutralize the potential negative effects of these hazards.
The map was made as a part of GSHAP (Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Project). It shows
the degree of earthquake intensity in a location during a given time span. This map can be used
to prepare for evacuation plans, as well as to educate the public on the proper response during an
earthquake.

Figure 12.9. Global Seismic Hazard Map (From GSHAP)

PRECAUTIONARY AND SAFETY MEASURES
Earthquakes do not happen on a daily basis in a single area. They happen without any warning.
Preparation is the key to living with earthquakes. Preparations can be long-term or short-term,
community or personal. The Hartford Financial Services enumerates safety tips to be considered
before, during, and after an earthquake.
Before an Earthquake

Know your risk. Research the area and find out the risks that the surroundings may give
when in an earthquake.

Reinforce your house. If you're in a high risk area, take steps to reinforce your house.
Secure any furniture such as bookshelves and cabinets to the walls to minimize risk of
falling over during a quake. Secure cabinet doors to help keep dishes and other contents
from falling out.

Create a disaster plan to protect yourself and your family. Earthquake preparedness
can help reduce anxiety and minimize injury. Know where to take cover in your house
and how to communicate with other family members after the earthquake if you're not
together.

Put together an emergency kit. Your kit should include non-perishable food, water, first
aid supplies, flashlights, camping supplies, extra batteries, blankets and any personal
items you may need (medications, toiletries, clothing). If you have pets, make sure they
also have adequate supplies.

During an Earthquake

Stay away from windows and furniture that could fall over. One of the biggest
hazards during an earthquake is falling debris and furniture. Avoid areas in your house
where you might be exposed to these hazards.

Take cover in a safe place in your house. Get under a sturdy table or desk to avoid
being hit by anything. Remember to cover your head.

Do not try to go outside until after the shaking stops. You may be hit by falling debris
when outdoors.

When driving, pull over a clear area. Do not stop when inside a tunnel, and when on or
under a bridge.

After an Earthquake

Be prepared for aftershocks. Earthquakes are often followed by aftershocks additional

quakes that follow the main event.

Check your gas lines and make sure there are no leaks. If you smell gas leaking, turn
off the gas if possible and call the gas company. Do not use an open flame in your house
until you are sure it is safe.

Check for damaged electrical wiring. Shut off the power if you see damaged wiring in
your house.

Keep your shoes on. You may have broken glass or spilled chemicals on the floor of
your house as a result of the earthquake.

Document the damage. If your insurance policy covers earthquake damage, make sure
you take photos or video of the damage to use in the claim process.

Volcanic eruption is one of the many agents that causes dramatic and violent changes in
the Earth. It is characterized by powerful explosive eruptions that not only affect the present state
of land and water surfaces within the radius of eruption but also cause sudden yet temporary
change in the Earths atmosphere due to the presence of sulfuric acid droplets in the atmosphere.
Volcanic eruption, due to the hazards it poses, often forces the community living around the
radius of the volcano to move to a different place for a certain period of time or sometimes
forever, abandoning their homes, properties and livelihoods.
VOLCANIC HAZARD
Volcanic hazard refers to any potentially dangerous volcanic process.
The following are the most common volcano-related hazards:
1. Pyroclastic Density Currents Rapidly moving, ground-hugging and gravity driven
mixture of hot gases and rock fragments that forms a dense fluid that moves along the
ground with an upper part that is less dense as particles fall toward the ground. The
behavior of the fluid depends upon the solids concentration relative to the amount of
hot gases of the solid-gas ratio.
Pyroclastic Flows High concentration density, non-turbulent and
confined to valleys flows
Pyroclastic Surges Low concentration density flows which can expand
over hill and valley like hurricane. Its temperature may be as high as 900
degrees Celsius or also maybe very low.
2. Lava Flows Molten rock flowing from a volcano or volcano vent. These can cause
severe burns and can destroy down vegetation and structures. Because of high
pressures, lava flowing from vents can crush or bury almost everything. Lava can be
very fluid or viscous depending on its temperature and composition.

Fluid Flows Move faster that they can form streams, rivers, or spread out
across the landscape.
Viscous Flows Cooler and travel in shorter distances and built up into lava
domes or plugs.

3. Lahar Flows Belong the family of debris flow. Lahars are fluids composed of
mixtures of water and particles of all sizes from clay-size to gigantic boulders. It is
the abundance of solid matters that carries the water, unlike typical floods where the
abundance of water carries the solid fragments. Debris flows have the viscous
consistency of wet concrete, and there is a complete transition to watery floods.
Lahars are composed of volcanic particles and originate directly or indirectly from
volcanic action. These can be formed from pyroclastic surges or flows entering
watershed systems or flowing over snow and ice, by eruptions through crater lakes,
by heavy rains on loose volcanic debris that is, any process by which volcanic
particles can become saturated by water and move downslopes.
4. Debris Avalanche The rapid movement of a rocky material, snow and/or ice from
uphill to downhill. The moving particles may vary in size from small movements of
loose debris on the surface of a volcano to massive collapses of the entire summit or
sides of the volcano.
5. Volcanic Earthquakes - Earthquakes related to volcanic activity may produce
hazards which include ground cracks, ground deformation, and damage to manmade
structures. There are two general categories of earthquakes that can occur at a
volcano: volcano-tectonic earthquakes and long period earthquakes.
Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes are produced by stress changes in solid rock due
to the injection or withdrawal of magma - molten rocks that are found beneath the
Earth. These earthquakes can cause land to subside and can produce large ground
cracks. These earthquakes can occur as rock is moving to fill in spaces where magma
is no longer present. Volcano-tectonic earthquakes do not indicate that the volcano
will be erupting but can occur at any time. On the other hand, the second category of
volcanic earthquakes are long period earthquakes which are produced by the
injection of magma into surrounding rock. These earthquakes are a result of pressure
changes during the unsteady transport of the magma. When magma injection is
sustained a lot of earthquakes are produced. This type of activity indicates that a
volcano is about to erupt. Scientists use seismographs to record the signal from these
earthquakes. This signal is known as volcanic tremor.
The changes caused by these volcanic hazards are very destructive and its coverage is
very wide. These harmful effects cannot be eradicated because volcanoes are naturally occurring
landforms. Nonetheless, the destructions can be lessened when people leaving near the volcanic
locality are aware of the signs of impending volcanic eruptions allowing them to evacuate their
homes, safeguard their properties and save their lives before it is too late.

An impending eruption may be manifested in many ways. There can be an anomalous

rise of temperature or heat flow caused by the upward movement of magmatic material from the
inside of the volcano. The chemistry and composition of surface water and ground water may
change due to the disturbance created by ground movement. Also, there can be ground swelling
that can be detected by using precision instruments and techniques that measure minute changes
in slope, distance, or elevation at the ground surface. There is also an increase in the number of
tremors in and around the volcano. Even if theyre only seismic tremors, something is causing
them and that something might be the volcano building up to blow. Another is the increase in the
release of certain gases that are associated with impending eruption. This is well known by
volcanologists and is something they are always aware of and some of these gases are extremely
toxic. Their volumes of release can suddenly change from a few cubic meters per hour to several
magnitudes beyond that prior to an eruption and their toxicity can be fatal.
The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHILVOCS) released a list
indicating the physical indicators of impending volcanic eruption. These precursors may vary
from volcano to volcano.
1. Increase in the volcanic frequency of volcano quakes with rumbling sounds indicating the
occurrence of volcanic tremors
2. Increase in steaming activity; change in color of steam emission from white to gray due
to mixed ash
3. Crater will glow due to the presence of magma near it
4. Ground swells, ground tilt and ground fissure due to the intrusion of magma
5. Localized landslide, rock falls and landslides from the summit area even when there is no
heavy rain
6. Noticeable increase in the extent of drying of vegetation around the upper slope of the
volcano
7. Increase in the temperature of hot springs, wells, like in the case of Mount Bulusan, and
Crater Lake like near Taal Volcano.
8. Development of new thermal areas and/or reactivation of old ones
Precursors to volcanic activity may continue for weeks, months, or even years before
eruptive activity begins, or they can subside at any time and not be followed by an eruption.
Thus, monitoring of volcanic precursors may provide a general warning that volcanic activity in
a specific area is becoming more likely, but it often does not pinpoint the nature or timing of an
eruption or even its certainty and intensity.
In analyzing such hazards, visual presentations are made to aid in the interpretation. In
general, a hazard map refers to a map describing the areas at risk of natural disasters, such as
sediment-related disasters, floods, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions. On the other hand, hazard maps
produced by municipal governments usually contain the following information in addition to the
areas at risk of disasters: sketches of evacuation routes and shelters, evaluation of disaster
possibility and frequency, a warning and evacuation system, and disaster-related basic
information.

Figure12.10. A map showing the distribution of volcanoes in the Philippines. Most of the
volcanoes found in Mindanao are inactive. Some volcanoes in the country are potentially active
and active but most are inactive.
The following are the hazard maps of Taal Volcano, one of the most famous and active
volcanoes of the Philippines. Taal Volcano has 33 recorded eruptions since 1572 to 1977 and is
permanently monitored by PHILVOCS. The details of the maps are found next to it.

Figure12.11. Taal Volcano Ballistic Projection Hazard Map

Figure12.12.
Base Surge Hazard Map

Taal Volcano

Figure12.13. Taal Volcano Seiches/Lakewater Oscillation and Fissuring Hazard Map

Source: http://satreps.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/volcano/volcano-hazard-maps
These maps are importance because they convey a composite picture of what will likely
to happen if a volcanic eruption will occur. It displays the impact and the severity and extent of
the effects of the eruption.
The effects of volcanic eruption can become lesser with the aid to the following
precautionary measures before, during and after the eruption. This should be observed properly
in order to maximize its benefits and consequently minimize the hazardous impacts of the
eruption.

Precautionary Measures on Volcanic Eruption

Before:
Each one should be aware of the dangers that volcanic eruptions pose to lives and be
prepared to face whatever circumstances the eruption may bring.

Prepare all necessary things to bring once evacuation is needed. Those in danger zones
are warned when to evacuate. Once given the signal refrain from saying you will be all
right. Refusing to evacuate will pose more serious problems.

Store as much food, water, light sources and batteries that are very useful in case of
emergency.

Volcanic eruptions have ash falls so be prepared for masks or anything to cover nose and
mouth.

Prioritize the safety of kids before other things. If you have relatives or friends who are
far from the volcano, take your children there until such time that your place is safe.

During:
If a lahar, pyroclastic flow, or lava flow is headed toward you

Leave the area immediately. If you are warned to evacuate because an eruption is
imminent, evacuate.
If you can drive rather than walk, use your vehicle to evacuate. When driving keep doors
and windows closed, drive across the path of danger if you can or away from the danger
if you cannot, and watch for unusual hazards in the road.

If you are indoors

Close all windows, doors, and fireplace or woodstove dampers.

Turn off all fans and heating and air conditioning systems.
Bring pets and livestock into closed shelters

If you are outdoors

Seek shelter indoors.

If caught in a rock fall, roll into a ball to protect your head.
If near a stream or river, be aware of rising water and possible mudflows in low-lying
areas. Move up-slope as quickly as possible.
Seek care for burns right away. Immediate care can be lifesaving.

If your eyes, nose, and throat become irritated from volcanic gases and fumes, move
away from the area immediately. Your symptoms should go away when you are no longer
in contact with the gases or fumes. If the symptoms continue, consult your doctor.

Protecting yourself during ash fall

Stay inside, if possible, with windows and doors closed.

Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants.
Use goggles to protect your eyes. If ash is continually falling, you may not be able to
shelter indoors for more than a few hours, because the weight of the ash could collapse
the roof of your building and block air intakes into the building. Listen to authorities for
advice on leaving the area when ash fall lasts more than a few hours.
Exposure to ash can harm your health, particularly the respiratory tract. To protect
yourself while you are outdoors or while you are cleaning up ash that has gotten indoors,
a disposable particulate respirator may be considered.
Keep your car or truck engine switched off. Avoid driving in heavy ash fall. Driving will
stir up ash that can clog engines and stall vehicles. If you do have to drive, keep the car
windows up and do not operate the air conditioning system. Operating the air
conditioning system will bring in outside air and ash.

After:

Pay attention to warnings, and obey instructions from local authorities. For example, stay
indoors until local health officials tell you it is safe to go outside.
Listen to local news updates for information about air quality, drinking water, and roads.

Turn off all heating and air conditioning units and fans, and close windows, doors, and
fireplace and woodstove dampers to help keep ash and gases from getting into your house.

Stay away from ash fall areas, if possible. Avoid contact with ash as much as you can.
Keep your skin covered to avoid irritation from contact with ash.

Wear goggles to protect your eyes from ash.

Do not travel unless you have to. Driving in ash is hazardous to your health and your car.
Driving will stir up more ash that can clog engines and stall vehicles.
Replace disposable furnace filters or clean permanent furnace filters frequently.
If your drinking water has ash in it, use another source of drinking water, such as
purchased bottled water, until your water can be tested.

Clear roofs of ash. Ash is very heavy and can cause buildings to collapse. Be very
cautious when working on a roof. Ash can be slippery and make it easy to fall.
FIRE

Figure 12.14. Fire Triangle

Four elements that must be present at the same time to produce fire.

Enough oxygen to sustain combustion

Enough heat to raise the material to its ignition temperature
Some sort of fuel or combustible material
The chemical, exothermic reaction that is fire

Figure 12.14. Fire Causes by Month

Appliances & equipment Cooking; heating; washing machines & dryers; air
conditioners and fans; and more.

Arson and juvenile fire setting Children playing with fire and intentional fires.

Candles Causes and trends in home fires involving candles, candle fire frequency in
other occupancies, and selected published incident descriptions

Chemical and gases Natural gas and LP-gas home and non-home fires; spontaneous
combustion.

Electrical Includes home structure fires involving electrical distribution or lighting

equipment

Fireworks Includes injury patterns and trends, including shares by type of fireworks,
based on reports to hospital emergency rooms

Holiday Christmas trees, holiday lights and decorations.

Household products Mattresses, bedding and upholstered furniture

Lightning Fires and Lightning Strikes Information on incident type, and when and
where the incidents occurred.

Smoking materials Fires involving smoking materials (i.e., tobacco products), including
data from other countries, and what materials are most often ignited

This checklist can help you spot fire hazards in your home. It will also help you prepare your
family to quickly escape a fire:
Smoke Detectors

Put smoke alarms/detectors in strategic locations in your home, such as the kitchen, near
bedrooms, and near fireplaces or stoves. Install at least one smoke alarm on every floor of your
home, including the basement.

Replace batteries in smoke detectors once a year. Check your alarm twice a year. A good
way to remember: when daylight saving and standard time change each spring and fall.

For people with hearing impairments, special smoke alarms with strobes and/or vibration
are available. You can buy these online and through local fire equipment distributors.

Install new smoke alarms when they are 10 years old or older (sooner if one is damaged
or not working).
Fire Prevention Strategy

Keep a fire extinguisher near the kitchen and have it checked yearly. Learn how to use it.
Put out food or grease fires in a pan with a lid or another pot.

Teach children safety rules for matches, fires, electrical outlets, electrical cords, stoves,
and chemicals. Keep matches and flames, such as candles or lanterns, out of the reach of children.

Buy children's sleepwear made of flame-retardant fabric. Dress children in flame- and
fire-retardant clothing. Older adults need to be careful about wearing clothing with loose material
that could catch on fire.

POTENTIAL FIRE HAZARDS

Cooking Equipment

Keep an eye on anything you're cooking if the setting is higher than "warm."
Keep potholders, plastic utensils, towels, or other non-cooking equipment away from the
stove, because these items can catch fire.
Roll up or fasten long, loose sleeves while cooking.
Store candy or cookies away from the stove so kids won't be tempted to climb on it to get
to the treats.
Cigarettes, Lighters and Matches
Smoking materials are the leading cause of home fire deaths. The tools used to light them are
also a fire hazard, so:

Keep lighters and matches in a locked cabinet out of sight and reach of children, and
remind children that they are tools for adults, not toys.

Make sure that cigarette butts are fully extinguished before emptying ashtrays. Never
place a cigarette butt directly into a trashcan without dousing it with water first.
Furnaces, Fireplaces, and Space Heaters
Furnaces should be inspected annually. Keep boxes, paper, and other flammables away from the
furnace. An outdoor shed is better.
There are other potential household fire hazards, so keep in mind that:

Fireplaces should be protected with screens or tempered glass doors. Keep kindling at
least three feet away from the fireplace. Have the chimney inspected yearly and cleaned if
necessary.
Wood-Burning Stoves

Make sure wood-burning stoves are properly installed and meet your town's building and
fire codes.

Do not burn trash or other items in the stove. Never use gasoline or other flammable
liquids to start a stove fire. Burn coal only if recommended by the manufacturer.

Remember that wood and coal stoves get very hot. If you have young children living in
or visiting your home, supervise them carefully and consider installing a temporary stove guard to
help prevent burns.
Kerosene Heaters

Learn local and state codes and regulations about the use of kerosene heaters. These
heaters are illegal for home use in some areas.

Use kerosene only. Never use gasoline in your heater. Gasoline is highly volatile, greatly
increasing the risk of fire. Refill kerosene heaters outside after they have cooled down.
Gas-Fired Space Heaters
These heaters should not be used in small, enclosed areas -- especially bedrooms -- because there
is potential for explosion or carbon monoxide poisoning.

Follow the manufacturer's instructions for lighting the pilot. Otherwise, gas vapors can
accumulate and ignite, burning your hand or face.
Other Hazards

Use proper fuses in electrical boxes, do not overload outlets, and use insulated and
grounded electrical cords.

Keep trash cleaned up in attics, basements, and garages.

Be careful with gas equipment such as lawn mowers, snow blowers, and chain saws.

Avoid fireworks. Think of safety first when dealing with fireworks.

In certain cases you should nominate persons to implement the fire action plan and give them
adequate training in fire fighting and evacuation procedures. The following items should be
considered where appropriate:

Fire evacuation strategy

Action on discovering a fire

Action on hearing the fire alarm

Calling the fire brigade

Power/process isolation

Identification of key escape routes

Fire wardens/marshals

Places of assembly and roll call

Fire fighting equipment provided

Training required

Personal Emergence Evacuation Plan

Liaison with emergency services

Fire evacuation strategy

You need to consider how you will arrange the evacuation of the premises in the light of your
risk assessment and the other fire precautions you have or intend to put in place.
Simultaneous Evacuation
In most premises, the evacuation in case of fire will simply be by means of everyone reacting to
the warning signal given when a fire is discovered, then making their way, by the means of
escape, to a place of safety away from the premises. This is known as a simultaneous evacuation
and will normally be initiated by the sounding of the general alarm over the fire warning system.
Vertical Phased Evacuation.
In some larger complex premises, the emergency arrangements are designed to allow people who
are not at immediate risk from a fire to delay starting their evacuation. It may be appropriate to
start the evacuation by initially evacuating only the area closest to the fire and warning other

people to stand by. This is normally done by immediately evacuating the floor where the fire is
located and the floor above. The other floors are then evacuated one by one to avoid congestion
on the escape routes. The rest of the people are then evacuated if it is necessary to do so. The fire
warning system should be capable of giving two distinctly different signals (warning and
evacuation) or give appropriate voice messages.

voice alarm systems

fire control points

compartmentation of the premises using fire-resisting construction

sprinklers in buildings where the top floor is 30 metres or more above ground level

Staff Alarm Evacuation (Silent Alarm)

In some cases it may not be appropriate for a general alarm to start immediate evacuation.
(Cinemas and Theatres) This could be because of the number of members of the public present
and the need for the staff to put pre-arranged plans for the safe evacuation of the premises into
action.
Defend in Place
This strategy may be considered in blocks of flats were each flat is a minimum 60 minutes fire
resisting compartment. It may also be considered in hospitals or nursing homes were patients are
connected to life supporting equipment and cannot be moved. The concept allows the occupants
to stay put and allow the fire service to extinguish the fire.
Action on hearing the fire alarm
The plan should instruct all personnel upon on hearing the fire alarm to act in accordance with
the agreed FEEP strategy and if a fire wardens scheme is in force they, on hearing the alarm,
should proceed to pre-determined positions to assist members of the public and staff to leave the
building by the nearest safe route.
Calling the fire brigade
The Fire Service should also be informed immediately, either by switchboard operator or person
discovering fire, dependant on conditions.

Work Time Switchboard operator to be conversant with the emergency evacuation plan,
also should ensure necessary extensions switched through, when switchboard is
unattended.

Other Times Remainder of Staff (Cleaners, caretakers etc) also to be conversant with
procedure. In any case the senior official should ensure that Fire Service is called in the
event of an outbreak of fire.

Power/process isolation
Close Down Procedure Adopt your own Close Down procedure as appropriate
Identification of key escape routes
In premises where members of the public or persons unfamiliar with layout of the premises are
present there should be means available to identify the key escape routes. They could include
schematic drawings supplemented with a satisfactory emergency escape signs.
Fire Wardens/Marshals
The Responsible Person where necessary to safeguard the safety of employees should nominate
employees to implement certain fire safety measures which will include the fire evacuation. The
general term used for these people are fire wardens or fire marshals.
The need for fire wardens depends on the size and complexity of the premises. You may require
one on each floor or department with a chief fire warden coordinating their actions to make sure
all persons are accounted for in the event of a fire.
The duties and responsibilities of Fire Wardens/Marshals
A senior official in each building [Chief Fire Warden] should be given the responsibility of
maintaining a high standard of fire precautions and the overall responsibility for the action in the
event of fire. He/she should have a nominated deputy.
Evacuation fire wardens should be appointed for each room/department/floor as applicable and
each warden should have a nominated deputy.
Places of assembly and roll call
Personnel should assemble at a pre-determined assembly point.
1

Pre-determined assembly points should be arranged and a roll call of staff to be taken.
The person who is in charge of the assemble point should report to the person who as
been nominated the fire service liaison person indicating all persons accounted for or
whose missing and where they were last seen.

Another consideration when selecting the location for an assemble site is to fully
understand the fire emergence evacuation plan. Calculate the number of staff that would
need to assemble and if it was a multi-occupied building you would need to co-operate
with the other occupants.

It is also very important to be familiar with the surrounding topography.

The assemble point should be far enough away from the building not to put staff in
danger of radiated heat and falling debris. Give ample room so you do not interfere with
fire
fighting
operations
and
do
not
jeopardise
the
actions
of the fire service.

Be close enough to ensure that the nominate person who is in charge of the assemble
point; can communicate with the nominated fire liaison person who should be located
near the main entrance. This could be simple talking to him direct, or the use of runners
or electronic communications (pack sets, mobile phone)

The area chosen should be larger enough to accommodate all the staff, if this cannot be
found you may have to consider additional sites. Open areas are ideal like pedestrian
areas also car parks could be considered but be aware of the dangers.

It should not be in an enclosed area and the staff should be able to disperse without the
need to pass close to the premises on fire.

Inclement weather needs to be considered and some form of shelter or other weather
protection may be necessary as the staff are most likely to have evacuated without
collecting their out of doors clothing.

Use appropriate signs where this is feasible as it leaves no doubts in the minds of staff

Fire fighting equipment provided

A nominated fire team if available or any trained competent person should where possible attack
fire with appropriate equipment however fire fighting is always secondary to life safety.
DO NOT PUT ANY PERSONS AT RISK.
Training required
The emergency evacuation plan should be the subject of frequent training so all employees are
familiar with its contents and there should be regular evacuation drills. You are required to carry
out this fire training and it is recommended that you keep a record of the results of that training.
This will assist you if you are ever required to prove your actions in the future.
The fire emergency evacuation plan must be included in the instruction and training you need to
give your employees. Effective fire routine is dependant on regular instruction, training, practice,
etc. Regular drills should be carried out using varying escape routes assuming the normal
evacuation route is not available.

Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan (PEEP)

In order to assist disabled or sensory-impaired people to escape from fire it may be necessary for
staff to be trained in the correct procedures to cope with this eventuality. Advice on the specific
needs of disabled and sensory-impaired people can be obtained from organizations representing
the various groups. The address and telephone number of these organizations can be found in the
telephone directory, listed under the appropriate disability. You must take account not only of the
people
in
your
premises
(employed
or otherwise) who may be able to make their own escape, but also those who may need
assistance to escape, e.g. by having adequate staffing levels especially in premises providing
treatment or care.
Liaison with emergency services
You should arrange all the necessary contacts with external emergency services and make them
familiar with your fire action plan.
There should be senior person nominated to meet the fire and rescue service when they arrived to
provide them with any information they require. S/he should have an intimate knowledge of the
premises and be in contact with the person conducting the roll call at the assemble point.
Geological Hazards
Geology comes from two Latin words, g, means earth, and logia, means the study
of, and Hazard from the Arabic word ( az-zahr), meaning the dice or chance
(Wiktionary, 2015). Geological hazards, also known as Geohazard, are naturally occurring
phenomenon that results to destructive effects on the area of disaster. These hazards may be
associated to either natural conditions or man-made activities (Saudi Geological Survey, 2015).
Several geological hazards may occur in a year within an area. These hazards causes great
impact and damages on different parts of the world; larger destructions are left on cities that are
more developed, such as loss of lives, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption and environmental damage.
Engineering geologists, who are knowledgeable in understanding landforms and earth
processes, and earth-structure interaction, have classified the different geological hazard
according to the nature of its cause and effects (National Park Service, 2013):
Coastal
Hurricane/Tsunami
Upland/Landslide
Flooding
Soil Risks & Hazards
Avalanche
Mineral/Geochemical

The different types of geological hazards are discussed below:

Coastal Hazards

Coastal Hazards are further subdivided into four categories: chronic,

catastrophic, tsunami, and earthquake hazards (Oregon Geology, N.D.). Coastal Hazards
are result of tremendous impacts done by other natural disaster, such as storms and
tsunamis, on the coastal environment and beaches. However, it is also worth of noting
that storm events are also necessary to maintain different coastal condition such as
sediment deposition and sea level rise (National Park Service, 2011).

Landslide

Landslide is also referred to as mass wasting. According to the

geologists of the National Park Service (2003), mass wasting refers to down-slope
movement of earth materials due to gravity.

Figure 12.15. Anatomy of Landslide

Many landslide happen in terrain or mountainous regions, but they can

also occur in low relief areas. Some of the most common landslide are rotational slide,
translational slide, block slide, and debris flow.

Soil Risks and Hazards

Soil-related hazards may refer to various particular threats, such as

corrosion, drought, dust, falling rock, frost action, radon potential, and a lot more. Soil
surveys are conducted as part of monitoring the soil condition in an area (Muckel, 2004).

Mineral/Geochemical

Mineral lands abandoned from past mineral exploration, extraction,

processing, and transportation have leave disturbances through the facilities, structures,
and improvements in the area. These improvements imposes hazards and impacts to the
area, and should be treated correspondingly to mitigate, reclaim, and restore the area
(National Park Service, 2015).

Hurricane

Major storms are accompanied by strong winds, heavy rains and large
waves. Large storms that begin from or near the equator are called tropical cyclones,
while those that have wind speed of not less than 74mph (119 km/h) are called
hurricanes. These storms causes significant damage (National Weather Service, 2015).
Tsunami

On the other hand, tsunami is a result of any large displacement of the sea
surface leading to a series of water waves. One of the most common cause of tsunami is
the sea floor uplift from an earthquake (Enchanted Learning, N.D.).
Avalanche

There are different types of avalanche: wet, slab, powder or loose snow,
cornice fall, ice, glide, and slush. Avalanche occur when the strength of a snow cover has
been exceeded by the gravity that pulls down the snow in a hill.

Figure 12.16. Avalanche Slab Formation

Avalanche happens due to four factors: a steep slope, a snow cover, a

weak layer in the snow cover, and a trigger (National Snow and Ice Data Center, N.D.).

The geological hazards can be classified simpler into two major geologic hazard
categories (Organization of American States, N.D.):
Geologic

Hazards They Cause

Event

A. Ground shaking

B. Surface faulting

C. Landslides and liquefaction

Earthqu

1. Rock avalanches
ake

2. Rapid soil flows

3. Rock falls

D. Tsunamis
Volcanic

A. Tephra falls and ballistic

Eruption
projectiles

B. Pyroclastic phenomena

C. Lahars (mud flows) and

floods

D. Lava flows and domes

E. Poisonous gases

Geologic Map
Rock units, bedding planes, faults, folds, foliations, and other geological features
in an area can be represented in a special-purpose, also known as geologic map or
geological map (U.S. Department of Interior, 2014). Geological maps are placed on top
of a base map or those regular maps. The base map helps the reader to locate the desired
location he/she intends to find. Colors, lines, and special symbols are used in order to
represent features in the map.

Figure 12.17. Geological map sample

How to interpret geological maps?

Geologic maps are slice of three-dimensional structures (Dutch, N.D.).
Interpreting these maps doesnt require one to be professional but it would entail having a
knowledge of the technical symbols used in these maps (Alden, N.D.):

Step 1: On the Ground Topography:

One thing geologists would take into consideration is the topography of

the land. This would include the contours of the land. In other words, the topography is
more or less a general overview of what the land looks like.
Step 2: Analyzing Contours

Contours are an important feature of a geological map and represent

various elevations in an area. Through the contours, one can still figure out accurately the
shape of hill slopes and gradient despite the map being flat. The map can be converted
into three-dimensional with the numbers on the contour map.
Step 3: Topographic Map Symbols

More than the contours, topographic maps contain symbols to represent

different features such as natural landscapes, buildings, and many more. The map below
is from the U.S. Geological Survey, made in 1947. In the map, blue dash-dotted line
indicate intermittent stream, while red shades are used to show areas with homes.


Figure 12.18. Symbols on Topographic Map
Step 4: Symbolizing Geology on Geologic Maps
Rock types, geologic structures, and more are also included in a geologic

map.
Step 5: Contacts, Faults, Strikes and Dips on Geologic Maps
These are series of lines use to symbolized various rock units or
formations.
Step 6: Geologic Age and Formation Symbols

Below are the list of letter symbols used to identify the name and age of
rock units in an area:

Figure 12.19. Age symbols

Step 7: Geologic Map Colors

Colors are not necessary in a geologic maps; some maps are represented in
black and white. Nevertheless, colors would make a map easier to read for a user.
Legends can be used to identify the meanings each color stands for.
Geological Hazards Mitigation
The application of geologic engineering theories to lessen the outcome of
geologic hazards is referred to as the geological hazards mitigation. Tierra Group
International, Ltd. (N.D.), a group committed to minerals industry, have laid out the
corresponding mitigating measures for different geologic hazards:
Avalanche Mitigation

Hazard Area Identification, Hydrodynamic Modeling (Run-out

Analyses), Retention and Deflection Structures, Planning, Permitting
Landslides (Debris and Mudflows, Rock Fall)

Identification, Monitoring, Modeling, Forensics, Mitigation

Slope Stabilization

Retaining Walls, Mechanically Stabilized Earth, Soil and Rock Anchors

(bolts), Gabions, Earth Buttresses
Ground Improvement

Grouting Programs, Dynamic Compaction, Slurry Walls, Subterranean

Dewatering, Seismic Design (Liquefaction)
Flooding

Probability, Inundation Studies, Predictive Modeling, Erosion Prevention

Learning Activities:

Answers:
1. Geohazard
2. Landslide
3. Tsunami
4. Geologic
5. Contours
6. geology
7. Coastal
8. Tropical cyclones
9. Hurricanes
10. avalanche


Identify which of the following precautionary measures should be considered
before, during and after a volcanic eruption. Place your answers on appropriate box.
1

Store as much food, water, light sources and batteries that are very useful in case of
emergency.
Seek cover in case of ash falls rock falls.
Prepare all necessary things to bring once evacuation is needed.
Clean everything around your house and check all damages incurred.
Wait for further announcements related to the volcano activities.
Avoid all low-lying places because lava flows and mudflows are more likely to pass
them.
Prepare for masks or anything to cover nose and mouth.
Use masks while cleaning ash and other debris.

2
3
4
5
6
7
8

BEFORE

DURING

AFTER

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