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3 AUTHORS:
Rama Murthy Yanamandra
Sunil Tripathy
Tata Steel
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C. Raghu Kumar
TATA STEEL, INDIA, JAMSHEDPUR
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Minerals Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mineng
Research and Development Division, Iron and Ferroalloys Research Group, Tata Steel Ltd., Jamshedpur 831 001, India
Raw Material Technology Group, Tata Steel Ltd., Jamshedpur 831 001, India
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 23 July 2010
Accepted 5 December 2010
Available online 7 January 2011
Keywords:
Chromite ore
Chromite deposits
Chromite beneciation
Gravity concentration techniques
Multi-gravity separator
a b s t r a c t
Supply of world chromite (chrome ore) has come under severe pressure over the past year driven by
strong demand for ferrochrome used in ferroalloy production for making stainless steel. Many of the strategic minerals are inputs into products in fast-changing markets. This article reviews the major process
ow sheets in practice for the recovery of chromite values from various types of ores and critical issues
related to chromite ore beneciation. The comprehensive condensation of pertinent facts is intended to
provide a single reference source rather than the reader perusing many articles. Emphasis is placed on
different processes developed in identifying and solving critical plant problems.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sources of chromite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
World chromite ore scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Indian chromite ore scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commercial chromite ore beneficiation processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chromite ore beneficiation practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Process plant/concentrator bottlenecks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Review of the research works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.
Reduction in tailing losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.
Beneficiation of low and sub-grade chromite ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.
Recovery of ultrafine chromite particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.
Reprocessing of stockpiled tailings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.
Achievement of required grade and ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
Chromium is one of the modern industrys essential element
and important raw material for the production of special steel
and ferrochrome alloys. Around 90% of mined chromite ore is converted into different grades of ferrochrome by the metallurgical
industry. Stainless steel industry consumes about 80% of ferro-
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its with reserves of about 140 million tonnes and resources of 1 billion tonnes. Kazakhstan has podiform deposits in the Southern Ural
Mountain region with reserves of 320 million tonnes. The ores vary
greatly in chromium content and in Cr:Fe ratios. Indias output is
from podiform bodies on the east coast of the Orissa state. Its reserves are put at 27 million tonnes with a further resource of
67 million tonnes. In Brazil, production is concentrated in Bahia
and Minas Gerais. These are mainly stratiform deposits with reserves of 14 million tonnes and resources of 17 million tonnes. Chinas chromium resources are in podiform and stratiform deposits
but are largely unknown in terms of possible reserves and resources. In the year 2008, world chromite ore production was
24 million tonnes against 22 million tonnes in the year 2007. The
following breakdown is shown in Fig. 1a and the world chromite
and ferrochrome production (20022008) is presented in Fig. 1b.
Within the total volume of ore and concentrates produced in
2008, 95% were metallurgical grade, 2% chemical grade and the
balance of 3% were refractory and foundry grade.
2.2. Indian chromite ore scenario
Chromite deposits occur in several Indian states like Tamilnadu,
Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Orissa in the form of discontinuous bands, lenses and pockets in different host rock associations.
Though insignicant in the context of world resources, India is endowed with appreciable quantities of good grade chrome ores.
Around 90% of the chromite resources of India are concentrated
in Sukinda valley of Jajpur district and Boula-Nuasahi belt of Orissa
state. The Indian deposits are typically characterized as ferruginous
and siliceous type ores. The ores of Sukinda valley are mostly high
grade, soft and friable in nature besides few quantities of hard lumpy ore, formed in separate bands. These are mainly associated with
laterite, altered ultramac rock, nickeliferrous limonite, goethite
and talc serpentine schist. Based on physical characteristics, Orissa
chrome ores are broadly classied as:
Lumpy and granular: This type of ore is hard, compact, medium
to ne grained.
Friable ore: This is soft, powdery in nature, mostly of high grade
(Cr2O3 > 50%) with very small gangue minerals and is the bulk
constituent of all brown ore horizons in Sukinda Belt.
Ferruginous ore: Considerable portion of ore bodies in the
Sukinda belt and Boula-Nuasahi complex are lateritised giving
rise to ferruginous chrome ore where goethite and to some
extent hematite form the gangue minerals.
Fig. 1. (a) World chromite ore production. (b) World chromite and ferrochrome production (20022008).
377
Due to inconsistent feed quality the efciency of existing beneciation circuits are going down thereby losing a considerable
quantity of values as wastes. Further, the process circuit has to bear
the load of unwanted nes throughout the circuit, which not only
affects the quality of the product but also results in the loss of considerable quantity of values into tailings. From the mineral conservation point of view it is now obligatory to use the high grade
378
resource judicially along with the high grade tailings, which were
generated and deposited in the tailing dams in due course of time.
Generation of consistent quality of product by optimizing the
existing ow sheet as well as development of new process ow
sheet for the utilization of tailings is another big challenge for
the process engineers. The present article reviews all those research works that have been done, outlines the approaches that
have been taken and indicates the considerable success that has
been achieved. The discussion concentrates on the process ow
sheets which have been developed to ease the solving of problems
in the Indian chromite ore beneciation plants. Emphasis is placed
on different processes developed in identifying and solving those
problems, and analysis of the data generated by the researchers.
5. Review of the research works
The critical issues related to the chromite process plants investigated by various researchers have been categorized as:
5.1. Reducing the tailing losses (920% Cr2O3).
5.2. Beneciation of low and sub-grade chromite ore (1030%
Cr2O3).
5.3. Recovery of unrecoverable ultrane chrome particles.
5.4. Reprocessing of stockpiled tailings containing valuables.
5.5. Concentrate with required Cr2O3 content and Cr/Fe ratio.
5.1. Reduction in tailing losses
The critical area of concern in any chrome ore beneciation
plant is the grinding circuit followed by beneciation circuit comprising gravity units such as wet shaking tables and spirals. The
effectiveness of grinding circuit depends on the consistent feed
quality. Any variation in feed reduces the performance of the subsequent unit operations. Such variations in feed/ore characteristics
reduce the efciency of the beneciation circuits resulting in the
loss of ne values into tailings. Recovery of the valuable minerals
contained in ne particles is a complex problem in mineral processing and particularly in gravity separation. With decreasing particle size (<100 lm), the force associated with the water ow
becomes dominant over that associated with gravity. With conventional methods depending on the liberation particle size of the ore,
signicant amounts of ne chromites are lost to the tailings. For
this reason, all of the methods are only partly successful in the ne
particle size range (Gence, 1999). Mozley multi-gravity separator
(MGS) can be used with success for reducing ne chromite losses
in the gravity tailings of Turkish chromite gravity plants, based
on the fact that 105 lm fraction amounts to 846.4% of the total,
with a Cr2O3 content of about 1021% Cicek et al. (1998, 2000,
2002). Typical chromite recovery values using the MGS can be
about 6580%. Preliminary economical evaluations shows that
MGS chromite nes recovery units have pay back times of less than
one year. Based on the results, they developed a ow sheet. The
grinding circuit efciency uctuates due to the variation in ore
characteristics, resulting in an inefcient separation, with a loss
of ne chromite into tailing. In order to recover the same otation
is the only alternative method. Numerous references are listed in
the literature to oat chromite with cationic and anionic collectors
(Atak, 1982; Atalay et al., 1989; Foot et al., 1986; Guney et al.,
1991, 1993). Based on this fact, the research work of Sysila et al.
(1996), shows that by treating slime feed in otation the tailing
losses can be reduced to 1.210% Cr2O3.
5.2. Beneciation of low and sub-grade chromite ore
From the mineral conservation point of view it is necessary to
maximize the utilization of lean grade ore and minimize the high
chromite is possible in aqueous solution of sodium oleate to recover the ultrane (<10 lm) chromite particles.
5.4. Reprocessing of stockpiled tailings
The high value of chromite in the tailings of gravity chromite
concentration plants has been reported by many investigators.
During the earlier concentration of valuable minerals in many
plants, large volumes of tailings were produced and these tailings
_
lu (2002).
may be harmful to the environment Ozkan and Ipekog
Recovery of values from these tailings of gravity concentration
plants is one of the challenging issues for the process engineers.
A number of research investigations were carried out to determine
the most economic process applicable and ow sheets were developed to address the same problem.
The research work of Cicek et al., evidenced that the ne chromite particles can be recovered from the stockpiled tailings of
Turkish chromite gravity plants with a Cr2O3 of about 814.4%.
By treating the same in a new process circuit which invariably consists of multi-gravity separator (MGS) as the major ne gravity
concentrator, chrome concentrate of around 48% of Cr2O3 with a
recovery of 51.6% can be achieved. Guney et al., illustrate that by
introducing shaking table for 1 + 0.1 mm size fraction and highintensity wet magnetic separator (HIWMS) and column otation
for treating 0.1 mm size fraction, ne chrome particles that are
present in the gravity tailings of Turkish chromite gravity plants,
chrome concentrate of 4548% Cr2O3 and a tailing loss of below
7% Cr2O3 with a overall plant recovery of 6065%, can be recovered
with success, based on the fact that 83% of the chromite exist in
0.1 mm fraction with a Cr2O3 content of about 2022.11%.
The research work of Bhima Rao et al., shows that tailings of
chromite gravity plants of Sukinda region of India, which invariably contains 11.7% Cr2O3, can be beneciated to produce a chrome
concentrate of 46% Cr2O3 content with a recovery of 38%, by using a
combination of Bartles Mozley (BM) table and cross belt separator.
Mohan Rao et al. (2006), concludes that incorporation of additional circuit in the chromite gravity plant comprising of hydrocyclone for desliming and two stage multi-gravity separators can
produce marketable grade concentrate with an increased chromite
recovery of 85% from the original recoveries of 70%. The tailings so
produced will analyse <12% Cr2O3. If Cr/Fe ratio required is >1.6, it
is essential to add magnetic separation to the circuit additionally.
5.5. Achievement of required grade and ratio
To achieve a consistent concentrate production of 5052% Cr2O3
content and 2.8 Cr/Fe ratio with a recovery of 38%, from a feed
grade containing 25% Cr2O3 and 0.81 Cr/Fe, a combination of
shaking table and WHIMS can be used Murthy et al., (1994). The
investigations carried out by Bhima Rao et al. (1997), reveals that
Cr/Fe ratio of off-grade chromite samples of Orissa, India, can be
improved to 1.853.0 with a recovery around 1030%, by highintensity magnetic separation of the washed ores. Based on their
result, they have developed a new process ow sheet. Magnetic
separation studies carried out by Abubakre et al. (2007) on Ankha
chromite ore shows that the Cr2O3 content has increased to 48%
from 36.84% with a maximum Cr:Fe ratio of 6.2:1.
6. Conclusion
The recovery of ne chromite values from tailings has been the
subject of recent investigations. For sustainability of high grade
chromite resources and to satisfy the continuous demand in the future needs, beneciation of lean/sub-grade ores as well as tailings
is imperative. This challenge has given rise to the need for develop-
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