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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

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CONTENTS
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Introduction
Instructional Theories
Designing Instruction
E-Learning
Web Tools and Technologies
Self-Instructional Materials
Distance Education
Technology Integration in Schools

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

Define what is an instructional theory

Explain the characteristics of Gagnes nine events
Elaborate on the attributes of Merrills Component Display Theory
Discuss the features of Kellers ARC Theory

MODULE OVERVIEW

Preamble
What is an instructional
theory?
Gagnes Nine Events of
Instruction

Merrills Component
Display Theory
Kellers ARC Theory

Key Terms
Summary
References

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

PREAMBLE
This chapter focuses on instructional theories and how they enhance learning.
Instructional theories are based on learning theories but they are different in that they
are more prescriptive. The three instructional theories examined are: Gagnes nine
events, Merrills component display theory and Kellers ARCS theory of instruction.

WHAT IS AN INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY?

Oftentimes, students are confused with learning theories, instructional theories

and instructional design. Refer to Figure 2.1 by Bichelmeyer (2003) in the article
Instructional Theory and Instructional Design Theory: What's the difference and why
should we care? in which she attempts to show the interrelationships between the
three concepts as consisting of three successive layers. Each layer draws from and
refers to the previous layers.

LEARNING THEORIES are explanations and description of how organisms

learn. Learning theories may be classified according to following schools of
thought: behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism and humanism. For
example the Theory of Meaningful Learning proposed by David Ausubel
(1968) states that learning is enhanced when new information is related or
subsumed with old information or ones cognitive structure.

INSTRUCTIONAL THEORIES describe specific events (i.e. instructional

strategies) outside of the learner that facilitates learning, rather than describing
what goes on inside a learners head when learning occurs. Referring to the
Theory of Meaningful Learning, an instructor could develop an instructional
strategy that facilitates learning. An advance organiser (in the form of a
story or graphic organiser) could be used to establish the connection between
new information and old information and if this is successful it becomes an
instructional theory.

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN refers to the systematic and reflective process

of translating principles or theories of learning and instructional theory into
instructional plans. It is a description of the steps involved in designing and
developing instruction. An instructional designer is somewhat like an
engineer. Both plan their work based upon principles that have been successful
in the past the engineer on the laws of physics, and the designer on
principles of learning and instruction. Both try to design solutions that are not
only functional but also attractive or appealing to end users,
[Instructional design will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 3]

Instruction and instructional design are not the same thing. While both
instruction and instructional design are based on and derived from theories of
learning, these are two different activities based on different contexts, different

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

objectives, different activities and different concerns. Questions of how instructional

designers should design instruction, how instructors should deliver instruction, and
ultimately of how learners learn are very different, and each is a very important
question in its own right (Bichelmeyer, 2004)..

INSTRUCTIONAL

LEARNING
THEORIES

INSTRUCTIONAL
DESIGN

THEORIES

Figure 2.1 The Interrelationships between Learning Theories, Instructional

Theories and Instructional Design
As pointed out by Winn (1997), just like any successful practitioner or
researcher needs to be well-versed in the underlying theories of his or her discipline; a
good instructional designer should know both learning theories and instructional
theories. An analogy would a house and its foundation which are closely related.
Perhaps that is why, as teachers or instructors we are often asked: What is the
theoretical foundation of your instructional method or strategy? While there are
several instructional theories, we will discuss FIVE main theories.
LEARNING ACTIVITY

What is the relationship between learning theories, instructional

theories and instructional design?

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

A) Gagnes Nine Events of Instruction

Robert Mills Gagn (1916-2002) was an educational psychologist is best

known for his Nine Events of Instruction which was introduced in 1965 in his book
Condition of Learning. He is credited with being the first to proposed an instructional
theory. The need for an instructional theory is best expressed by psychologist William
James in 1899 when he said,
You make a great, a very great mistake, if you think
psychology, being a science of the minds laws, is
something from which you can deduce definite
programs and schemes and methods of instruction for
immediate school room use (James, 1899, p.23).
Gagn based his theory on the works of John
Dewey, John Watson, Edward Thorndike, Ebbinghaus,
Ian Pavlov and Kohler. Initially he introduced eight
events of instruction which he modified in later editions
of his book in 1970 and again in 1977. He argued that
these changed were necessary with the onset of the
cognitive revolution which gained momentum in the
1970s with the churning out of several notable research
findings impacted our understanding of human learning.
Based on this theory and further research, he was
able to define what is good instruction and was
involved in applying his theory in the design of
computer-based training (CBT) and learning with
multimedia.
In the beginning, the theory by Gagn was based
Robert Gagn
on behaviouristic and gestalt principles but later the drew
[1916-2002]
substantially from information processing theory, one of
the family of cognitive learning theories, as his basis for describing the internal
processes and structures of learning that are affected by the external conditions and
events of instruction (Smith and Ragan, 1996).
The main emphasis of Gagns theory is to classify a set of events which he
argued facilitated instruction for different types of learning types from declarative
knowledge to psychomotor skills and attitudes. The strength of the theory is that no
single learning theory at this time appears to adequately explain or predict all of these
types of learning (Smith and Ragan, 1996).
The following are the Nine Events of Instruction proposed by Gagn which
has been used for designing instruction at the classroom level, designing e-learning
content, training modules and other instructional situations.

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

1. Gain Attention.
Gaining the learners attention focuses on concentrating reception in the
sensory register on the material to be learned. This can be done by appealing
to the learners curiosity or presenting a novel situation. Present a problem or a
new situation. Use an "interest device" that grabs the learner's attention. This
can be thought of as a teaser the short segment shown in a TV show right
before the opening credits that is designed to keep you watching and
listening). The ideal is to grab the learners' attention so that they will watch
and listen, while you present the learning point. You can use such devices as:
o Storytelling
o Demonstrations
o Presenting a problem to be solved
o Doing something the wrong way (the instruction would then show how
to do it the right way)
o Why it is important
2. Inform Learner of Objective.
Informing the learner of the objectives of the learning task helps facilitate the
learners use of executive control. Executive control allows a learner to select
effective strategies to learn the material. This allows the learner's to organize
their thoughts and around what they are about to see, hear, and/or do. There is
a saying:
o tell them what you're going to tell them,
o tell them, and
o tell them what you told them.
This CUES them and then provides a review which has proven to be effective.
e.g. describe the goal of a lesson, state what the learners will be able to
accomplish and how they will be able to use the knowledge.
3. Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge.
Stimulating a learners recall of previously learned information helps the
learner to retrieve this information and move it into working memory to help
the learner process new information. This allows the learners to build on their
previous knowledge or skills. Although we are capable of having our
"creative" minutes, it is much easier to build on what we already know. e.g.
remind the learners of prior knowledge relevant to the current lesson, provide
the learners with a framework that helps learning and remembering.
4. Present the Material.
Instructors should focus on emphasizing the most important features for
selective perception to ensure that the correct information is perceived. Chunk
the information to avoid memory overload. Blend the information to aid in
information recall. This is directly related to Skinner's "sequenced learning
events." This allows learners to receive feedback on individualized tasks,
thereby correcting isolated problems rather than having little idea of where the
root of the learning challenge lies. Bloom's Taxonomy and Learning Strategies

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

can be used to help sequence the lesson by helping you chunk them into levels
of difficulty.
5. Provide guidance for learning.
Instructors should provide scaffolding to help the learner to encode
information and provide the learner with possible cues for retrieval.
(Scaffolding is support and guidance that allows learners to participate in
activities outside of their zone of proximal development. This can include
asking questions and using direct and indirect prompts). This is not the
presentation of content, but are instructions on how to learn. This is normally
simpler and easier than the subject matter or content. It uses a different
channel or media to avoid mixing it with the subject matter. The rate of
learning increases because learners are less likely to lose time or become
frustrated by basing performance on incorrect facts or poorly understood
concepts.
6. Elicit performance.
Instructors should ask the learner to demonstrate the skill. This allows the
learner practice retrieving the information they have learned. This practice
should make retrieving the information at a later date more easily accessible.
Practice by letting the learner do something with the newly acquired
behaviour, skills, or knowledge.
7. Provide feedback.
Instructors should provide feedback to learners, allowing the learner to correct
their behaviour. Show correctness of the learner's response, analyze learner's
behaviour. This can be a test, quiz, or verbal comments. The feedback needs to
be specific, not, "you are doing a good job" Tell them "why" they are doing a
good job or provide specific guidance.
8. Assess performance.
Instructors should assess a learners performance because it activates the
learners retrieval of information form long-term memory and makes
reinforcement possible. Test to determine if the lesson has been learned. Can
also give general progress information
9. Enhance retention and transfer.
Instructors should have learners practice retrieval of information they have
learned (through reviews and applications of the information) which will
provide the learner with cues and strategies for their recall of information.
This will enhance retention and transfer of the information to new instances.
(Gagne, 1977, 1985). Inform the learner about similar problem situations,
provide additional practice, put the learner in a transfer situation, review the
lesson.
The events are designed to support learner process information. The events
may be considered as steps but they do not have to occur sequentially, but good

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

instruction should contain all of the steps. See Figure 2.2 which gives an example of
what the instructor should do at each step or event.
How are you
doing..

Today we are
going to..

1. Gain attention

2. Inform learner of
objective

There are 3
main reasons
..

Yesterday we
discussed the.
3. Stimulate
recall of prior
knowledge

4. Present
information

This is how you can

remember.

5. Provide
guidance

Now it you turn to

explain how.

O6. Elicit
performance

Yes you correct but

you need to.
7. Provide
feedback

OWe will now have a

performance test.

8. Assess
performance

ONow we will
apply it to .

9. Enhance retention
with transfer

Figure 2.2 Example of instructor behaviours at each step of the

instructional process

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) Briefly explain the Nine Events for Instruction proposed by

Gagne.
b) Give your own example for each of the nine events or steps.

B) Merrills Component Display Theory

David Merrill obtained in PhD from the University

of Illinois in 1964 and has held many different professorial
appointments in instructional systems theory. Merrill has
published extensively in the area of instructional design
and presently is the president of Utah University. Merrills
most well-known contribution to instructional design is the
Component Display Theory (CDT) which is based on the
same assumptions as Gagnes theory, that different classes
of learning outcomes require different procedures for
teaching and assessment.
Merrill's Component Display Theory (CDT)
describes the micro elements of instruction (single ideas
and methods for teaching them). Merrill classifies learning
into two dimensions: Content and Performance (see the
matrix below).

Facts

David Merrill

CONTENT
Concepts Principles

Procedures

Remembering
PERFORMANCE Using
Finding
A) CONTENT
Content consists of facts, concepts, procedures, and principles. Content ranges from
facts, which are the most basic forms of content, to principles. It is the actual
information to be learned. What are the four types of content?

Facts - logically associated pieces of information. Some examples are

names, dates, and events.

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

Concepts - symbols, events, and objects that share characteristics and are
identified by the same name. Concepts make up a large portion of
language and understanding them is integral to communication.
Procedures - a set of ordered steps, sequenced to solve a problem or
accomplish a goal.
Principles - work through either cause-and-effect or relationships. that
explain or predict why something happens in a particular way.

B) PERFORMANCE
Performance is, made up of remembering, using, and finding. Performance is
classified with remembering as being the simplest form of performance, to finding
(generalities) the most advanced. Performance is the manner in which the learner
applies the content. The three types of performance are:

Remembering - the learner is required to search and recall from memory a

particular item of information,
Using - the learner directly apply the information to a specific case and
Finding - the learner uses the information to derive a new abstraction
(concepts, principles, etc.).

By forming a matrix using content and performance, the instructor determines which
elements on the matrix are the goals for the learner.

Facts

CONTENT
Concepts Principles

Remembering
PERFORMANCE Using
Finding
PRESENTATION FORMS (Primary)
Rules
Examples
Recall
Practice
PRESENTATION FORMS
(Secondary)
Prerequisites
Objectives
Helps
Mnemonics
Feedback

Procedures

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

Figure 2.3 Techniques for presentation of the content and performance

indicators
The matrix is set up to determine the level of performance needed for an area
of content. For each of the categories in the matrix, it can be assumed in CDT that
there is a combination of primary and secondary presentation forms that will provide
the most effective and efficient acquisition of skills and knowledge available (see
Figure 2.3). The theory specifies that instruction is more effective when it contains all
the necessary primary and secondary forms. Thus, a complete lesson would consist of
an objective, followed by some combination of rules, examples, recall, practice,
feedback, helps, and mnemonics appropriate to the subject matter and learning task.
The theory is primarily designed for use by groups of learners. Several
components are provided so that a wide variety of learners may participate, however
each learner only needs the components which specifically work for her to achieve the
goals of instruction.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

b) Briefly explain the Component Display Theory proposed by

Merrill.
c) With specific examples, illustrate how you could use the
CDT in teaching your subject area.

C) Kellers ARCS Instructional Theory

John M. Keller introduced the ARCS Instructional

Theory in 1983 in book titled Development and use
of the ARCS model of motivational design published
in the Netherlands. Currently he is a professor at
Florida State University and was inspired by the
ideas of Gagne on instructional theory. According to
Keller, there are four steps in the instructional design
process Attention, Relevance, Confidence, &
Satisfaction (ARCS). His theory focuses on the
processes that influence motivation and performance
and was influenced by both behavioural and
cognitive psychology.

John M. Keller
1. ATTENTION: Attention can be gained in two ways:

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories
o Perceptual arousal uses surprise or uncertainly to gain interest. Uses
novel, surprising, incongruous, and uncertain events.
o Inquiry arousal stimulates curiosity by posing challenging questions or
problems to be solved. Stimulates information seeking behaviour by
posing or having the learner generate questions or a problem to solve.
Maintain interest by varying the elements of instruction (Keller, 1983).
Methods for grabbing the learners' attention include:
Specific examples - Use a visual stimuli, story, or biography.
Active Participation or Hands-on - Involve the learners with role playing,
games, lab work, or other simulations that allows them to get them involved
with the material or subject matter. Note that active participation should
almost always be included!
Incongruity and Conflict - Pose facts or statements that run contrary to the
learner's previous experiences. Play devils advocate while discussing the
subject to be covered.
Inquiry - Stimulate curiosity by posing questions or problems for the learners
to solve. It may include such activities as brainstorming or performing team
research.
Humour - Break up monotony and maintain interest by lightening the subject.
However, too much humour distracts from your main topic. The goal is to
hold your learner's attention, not to become a stand up comedian.
Variability - Combine a variety of methods in presenting material. For
example, a 15 lecture, watch a video, then divide the classroom into groups to
review the material and to answer questions posed by it. Using a variety of
methods reinforces the material and helps to incorporate a variety of learning
styles.
The first step, gaining the learner's attention, is normally relatively easy; the key is to
then maintain their attention at an optimal level after grabbing them. You have to
keep them from becoming bored nor over stimulate them (arousal).
2. RELEVANCE: Emphasise relevance within the instruction to increase motivation
by using concrete language and examples with which the learners are familiar. They
are six major strategies for accomplishing this:

Experience - Tell the learners how the new learning will use their existing
skills. We best learn by building upon our preset knowledge or skills.
Present Worth - What will the subject matter do for me today?
Future Usefulness - What will the subject matter do for me tomorrow?
Needs Matching - Take advantage of the dynamics of achievement, risk
taking, power, and affiliation.
Modelling - First of all, "be what you want them to do!" Other strategies
include guest speakers, videos, and having the learners who finish their work
first to serve as tutors.

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

Choice - Allow the learners to use different methods to pursue their work or
allowing s choice in how they organise it.

3. CONFIDENCE: Allow the learners to succeed! However, present a degree of

challenge that provides meaningful success:

Provide Objectives and Prerequisites - Help students estimate the

probability of success by presenting performance requirements and evaluation
criteria. Ensure the learners are aware of performance requirements and
evaluative criteria.
Grow the Learners - Every learning journey begins with a single step that
builds upon itself. This allows a number of small success that gets more
challenging with every step. Learners should understand that there is a
correlation between the amount of energy they put into a learning experience
and the amount of skill and knowledge they will gain from that experience.
Feedback - Provide feedback and support internal attributions for success.
Learner Control - Learners should feel some degree of control over their
learning and assessment. They should believe that their success is a direct
result of the amount of effort they have put forth.

4. SATISFACTION: Satisfaction is based upon motivation, which can be intrinsic or

extrinsic. Provide opportunities to use newly acquired knowledge or skill in a real or
simulated setting. Provide feedback and reinforcements that will sustain the desired
behavior. If learners feel good about learning results, they will be motivated to learn.
Some basic rules are:

Do not annoy the learner by over-rewarding simple behaviour.

If negative consequences are too entertaining the learners may deliberately
choose the wrong answer.
Using too many extrinsic rewards may eclipse the instruction.

Notice that satisfaction is closely related to confidence. If you allow the learners to
build confidence, satisfaction will follow if the task remains challenging.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a. Briefly describe the ARCS instructional theory proposed

by Keller.
b. Illustrate how you would use the instructional model in
teaching a lesson in your subject area.

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

KEY TERMS

Instructional theory
Nine events
Gain attention
Elicit performance
Provide guidance
Provide feedback
Present information
Assess performance

Component Display Theory

Content
Performance
Presentation forms
ARCS Theory
Attention
Relevance
Confidence
Satisfaction

SUMMARY

Instructional Theories describe specific events (i.e. instructional strategies)

outside of the learner that facilitates learning, rather than describing what goes
on inside a learners head when learning occurs.

The main emphasis of Gagns theory is to classify a set of events which he

argued facilitated instruction for different types of learning types from
declarative knowledge to psychomotor skills and attitudes.

The events are designed to support learner process information. The events
may be considered as steps but they do not have to occur sequentially, but
good instruction should contain all of the steps.

Merrill's Component Display Theory (CDT) describes the micro elements of

instruction and classifies learning into two dimensions: Content and
Performance.

The matrix is set up to determine the level of performance needed for an area
of content. For each of the categories in the matrix, it can be assumed in CDT
that there is a combination of primary and secondary presentation forms that
will provide the most effective and efficient acquisition of skills and
knowledge available.

According to John Kellers ARCS Model of Motivational Design, there are

four steps for promoting and sustaining motivation in the learning process:
Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS).

The first step, gaining the learner's attention, is normally relatively easy; the
key is to then maintain their attention at an optimal level after grabbing them.

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Chapter 2: Instructional Theories

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EFFE
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NC
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Bichelmeyer, B. (2003) Instructional Theory and Instructional Design Theory:
What's the difference and why should we care? Department of Instructional Systems
Technology, Indiana University.
Clark, D. R. (2004), Instructional System Design Concept Map. Retrieved September
30, 2007 from http://nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/ahold/isd.html
Gagne, Gagne, R. (1985). The Conditions of Learning and the Theory of Instruction,
(4th ed.), New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Keller, J. M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.),
Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Merrill, M. D. (1983). Component Display Theory. In C. M. Reigeluth (ed),
Instructional Design Theories and Models: An Overview of their Current States.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Reigeluth, C. (1983). Instructional-design theories and models: A new paradigm of
instructional theory. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Zipperer, E., Klein, G., Fitzgerald, R., Kinnison, H. (2003). Training and Training
Technology Issues for the Objective Force Warrior. U.S. Army Research Institute for
the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Research Report 1809.
Winn, W. (1997). Advantages of a theory-building curriculum in instructional
technology. Educational Technology. 37(1), 34-41.