1 Chapter 7

Q1.

Distinguish between temporary and permanent hardness?

Ans.
Soft water
1. It readily lather with soap.
2. It will not form insoluble scum
with soap.
3. It does not affect the cleaning
action of soap.
4. It does not contain dissolved
salts of Ca and Mg.

Hard water
It does not readily lather with soap.
It forms insoluble scum with soap.
It affects the cleaning action of soap.
It does not contain dissolved salts of
Ca and Mg.

Q2. Explain hardness of water?

Ans.
Hardness of water is due to the presence of dissolved minerals of Ca2+, Mg2+,
Iron and other heavy elements. Specifically due to Calcum Sulphate, Calcium
Bicarbonate, Calcium chloride, Magnesium Sulphate, Magnesium Bicarbonate and
Magnesium chloride.
It can also be defined as soap consuming capacity of water.
Q3. What is meant by degree of hardness of water?
Ans.
Degree of hardness is extent of hardness.
It is expressed as weight in grams of CaCO3 equivalents corresponding to
hardness causing salts present in one million gram of water. That is parts per million
(ppm). Or it can be expressed as weight in milligrams of CaCO3 equivalents
corresponding to hardness causing salts present in one litre of water.
Unit of hardness = ppm or mg/L
Q4. What are the different units used to express degree of hardness. Give their inter
relationship.
Ans.
ppm (parts per million) = parts of CaCO3 equivalents in one million part of
water. That is weight in grams of CaCO3 equivalents in one million (106) gram of
water.
mg/L (milligram per litre) = weight in milligrams of CaCO3 equivalents in one
litre of water.

2 Chapter 7

Cl
of water.

(degree Clark) = weight in grams of CaCO3 equivalents in 70,000 gram

Fr

(degree French) = weight in grams of CaCO3 equivalents in 105 gram of

water.

1 ppm = 1 mg/L = 0.1Fr

= 0.07 Cl

Q5. Distinguish between temporary and permanent hardness?

Ans.
Temporary hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of
Calcium, and Magnesium divalent ions.
It can be eliminated by mere boiling.

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3 + H2O + CO2

MgCO3 Mg(OH)2 + CO2

Permanent Hardness is due to the presence of dissolved chlorides and sulphates of

Calcium, Magnesium, Iron and other heavy elements.
It cannot be eliminated by boiling.

Q6. Why CaCO3 is used as standard for expressing degree of hardness?

Ans.
a. CaCO3 is stable, non-hygroscopic and is obtained in pure form. Therefore a
standard hard water solution can be prepared by dissolving accurately
weighed CaCO3 in dilute HCl and make up to a known volume.
b. CaCO3 is insoluble in water. Therefore it can be easily precipitated in water
treatments.
c. Molecular weight of CaCO3 is 100, so mathematical calculations are easy

3 Chapter 7

Explain the ion exchange method for water softening?

Or
Give a detailed account of the ion exchange method for softening of water?
Or
Describe how water is purified by ion exchange method for industrial purpose?
Ans.
Ion exchange synthetic resin can be used for water purification. They are cross linked organic
polymers with micro-porous structure. They have large number of functional groups that have ion
exchange properties.
Two types of ion exchange resins:
a. Cation exchange resin (Res-H)
They have acidic functional groups like COOH or SO3H. Hypothetical example,

These resins can exchange their H+ ions with

cations in water.
M
2 Res-H + Ca2+ Res2Ca + 2H+
2 Res-H + Mg2+ Res2Mg + 2H+

b. Anion Exchange resin (Res-OH)

They have basic functional groups like CH2-NMe3+OHThese resins can exchange their OH- ions
with anions in water.
M
2 Res-OH + SO42- Res2SO4 + 2OHRes-OH + Cl- Res-Cl + OH-

The H+ ions obtained from cation exchanger react with OH- obtained from anion exchanges
to form water.

4 Chapter 7

Process
Service Cycle:

Step1: The hard water is passed through a cylindrical tank packed with cation exchange resin
bed. The cation exchange removes cations like Ca2+ and Mg2+ etc from water and equivalent
amount of H+ ions are released from resin to water.
Step2: The hard water is then passed through another column packed with anion exchange
resin. It removes all hardness causing anions like SO42-, Cl- and HCO3- from water and
equivalent amount of OH- ions are released from resin to water.
Regeneration Cycle:
After some time the resin get exhausted.
The exhausted cation exchange resin is regenerated by passing a solution of dil HCl.
Res2Ca + 2HCl
2 Res-H + CaCl2
Res2Mg + 2HCl
2 Res-H + MgCl2
The exhausted anion exchange resin is regenerated by passing a solution of dil NaOH.
Res2SO4 + 2NaOH
2 Res-OH + Na2SO4
ResHCO3 + NaOH
Res-OH + NaHCO3
ResCl + NaOH
Res-OH + NaCl

Advantages:
It produces water of very low hardness (2 ppm)
It can be used for highly acidic and alkaline water.
Disadvantages:
Costly.

5 Chapter 7

Q2. Explain the EDTA method for estimation of hardness?

Or
Explain how temporary hardness is estimated?
Ans.
Complexometric titration: A type of volumetric analysis based on complex formation.
Complexing agent is EDTA (ethylene-diamine-tetracetic-acid) -- 4 acidic proton (YH4)

Titrant used is disodium salt of EDTA (Na2H2Y or H2Y2-). Disodium salt is obtained in high purity.
EDTA can combine with metal ion in 1:1 ratio to form a chelate structure.

Indicator used is Eriochrome-Black-T (EBT)

EBT is added to hard water sample to be analyzed. At pH 10, EBT complexes with metal ions to form
wine red coloured M-EBT complex.
The hard water is titrated against EDTA. Free metal ions (Ca2+, Mg2+) complexes with EDTA. Towards
the endpoint, no free metal ions available (only M-EBT and M-EDTA complexes). M-EBT complex is
less stable than M-EDTA complex. Therefore M-EBT complex decomposes to EBT and free the metal
ion. The metal ion complexes with EDTA. At pH 10, free EBT is blue in colour. So at the endpoint
colour change is from wine red to blue.

To maintain the pH at 10 we use basic buffer solution (NH4OH - NH4Cl).

Procedure:
Step1: Preparation of Standard Hard water solution: Dissolve accurately weighed X g of CaCO3 in
dilute HCl and make upto 1000 ml in a standard flask. The weight required is calculated from the
equation weight per litre = Normality x equivalent weight. Let the normality of this solution is N1.

6 Chapter 7
Step2: Prepare the EDTA secondary solution:
disodiumsalt and make upto a known volume.

Weigh the required amount (Y g) of EDTA

Step3: Standardize the EDTA solution (Finding out the normality of EDTA N2): Burette is filled with
EDTA. Pipette out a known volume of standard hard water (V1 ml) into a conical flask. Add 10 ml of
buffer solution. Add few drops of EBT indicator. Titrate against EDTA solution till wine red colour
changes to blue. We get the EDTA consumed (V2 ml).  =

 

Step4: Estimate the total hardness of unknown water sample: Pipette out a known volume of hard
water sample (V3 ml) and titrate against EDTA using the same procedure used for standardization.
We get the EDTA consumed (V4 ml). From this we can calculate the normality of sample waterN3.
 =

 


Hardness = N3 x 50000 ppm

Step5: Estimate the permanent hardness of unknown water sample: Pipette out a known volume of
hard water sample (V5 ml). Boil it to precipitate Ca- and Mg-bicarbonates as calcium carbonate and
magnesium hydroxide. Filter it and quantitatively remove the precipitates by washing with distilled
water. To the washing add 10 ml of buffer and few drops of EBT indicator. Titrate against EDTA
solution. Volume of EDTA consumed (V6 ml). From this we can calculate the normality of temporary
hardness removed sample water N5.
 =

 


Temporary Hardness = Total hardness Permanent Hardness.

Q4. Explain the various steps of purification of municipal water?

Ans.
Water from most of the natural sources is not fit for drinking. They contain various types of
impurities. So the water should be purified before use. The water which is safe for drinking purpose
is called POTABLE water.
Characteristics of potable water:
a. It should be clear and odourless.
b. It should be free from disease producing micro organisms and germs.
c. It should be free from objectionable dissolved gases like H2S, NH3 etc.
d. It should be free from dissolved minerals like nitrates, nitrites etc.
e. It should be reasonably soft.
f. Total dissolved solids should be less than 500 ppm.

Steps in municipal water treatment

7 Chapter 7

Screening:
Water is passed through bar screens or mesh screens to remove floating
materials like wood pieces, leaves etc.
Sedimentation:
Water is allowed to stand undisturbed in big tanks for 6 to 12 hrs. During
this most of the suspended insoluble particles settle under the force of gravity.
Coagulation:
Finely divided particle exist as colloidal suspension which will not settle
under the influence of gravity. They can be made to settle down by adding certain chemicals called
coagulants. Common coagulants are alum, sodium aluminates etc.
Filtration:
It removes colloidal impurities, remaining insoluble impurities and bacterial
impurities. Sand filters are used for this purpose.
Removal of Micro Organisms: Disinfection or Sterilization:
By disinfection disease producing
bacteria and germs are destroyed. Chemicals used for disinfection or sterilization are called
disinfectants. Chlorine, chloramines, bleaching powder, ozone etc are important disinfectants.
Disinfection can be achieved by passing UV radiation.

8 Chapter 7
Q. Explain different methods user for disinfection of municipal water?
Ans.
Disinfection or Sterilization:
By disinfection disease producing bacteria and germs are destroyed.
Chemicals used for disinfection or sterilization are called disinfectants. Chlorine, chloramines,
bleaching powder, ozone etc are important disinfectants. Disinfection can be achieved by passing
UV radiation.
Chlorination: Widely used sterilization process. Here chlorine gas or chlorine water is
used for disinfection. The apparatus used is chlorinator.
The chlorine reacts with water to form hyprochlorous acid (HOCl). This HOCl decomposes to
HCl and nascent oxygen [O]. The chlorine, HOCl and [O] are powerful germicides. The nascent
oxygen is a strong oxidizing agent which oxidizes all other organics mater present in water.
Advantages
Effective and economic
It leaves no salt impurities
Chlorine is available in pure form
It requires little space for storage.
Disadvantages
Excess chlorine if present causes unpleasant taste and odour. It causes irritation to
mucous membrane.
Excess chlorine is removed by passing the chlorinated water through activated charcoal.

Break Point Chlorination:

It is also called free residual chlorination. It is a controlled
chlorination process. Only the required amount of chlorine dose is added. Break point chlorination
curve has four stages.

9 Chapter 7

Stage I:
No residual chlorine in the sample. All chlorine added is consumed for
oxidation and destruction.
Stage II.
The amount of residual chlorine increases with increasing dose of chlorine.
Some organic compounds defy oxidation at lower chlorine concentrations. chloro-organics and
chloramines are formed.
Stage III.
Amount of residual chlorine decreases with increase in applied chlorine
dose. Here the chlorine added is consumed for oxidation of chloro-organics and chloramines etc.
Complete oxidation and disinfection occur at break point.
Stage IV. The applied chlorine dose is not consumed so left us residual chlorine.
Advantages:
It destroys all pathogens.
It oxidizes all organic compounds, ammonia and other reducing substances.
Remove colour, bad taste and odour from water.
Prevents the growth of algae, weed etc.
UV rays disinfection:
UV disinfection means exposing water to UV radiations.
Short wave length UV radiations have germicidal acitivity.
The germicidal activity is proportional to UV dose = UV light intensity x time.
Source for short wavelength UV radiation is a mercury lamp.
Irradiation of UV light result in a photochemical damage to DNA/RNA.
It destroys all pathogens.
Simple to install and requires little supervision
Absence of chemical smell and taste in purified water.
No disinfection byproducts.
Does not require any facilities for the storage and transport of chemicals.
Disadvantages
Expensive method.
It does not improve the taste, odour and colour of water.

10 Chapter 7

Scale and Sludge formation:

Boilers convert water into steam. The dissolved solids remain in boilers. The concentration
of dissolved salts increases progressively. They start precipitating out.
Sludge: If the precipitate is loose and non-sticky then it is called sludge. They occur in the
form of suspension. Common sludge deposits are MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4 etc.
Sludge formation can be prevented by, using soft water, by frequent blow down operation
(cleaning at regular intervals), sludge deposits can also be removed by scrapping with a wire brush.
Disadvantages of sludge formation:
Wastage of fuel - Sludge deposits are poor conductors of heat. Sludge also elevate
the boiling point.
Lowers the safety of boilers:

Overheating may result in a crack.

Choking of pipes. The sludge precipitates in colder regions, bents, joints etc and will
result in choked flow.
Scale: If the precipitate is hard and sticky, then it is called scale. They stick very firmly to the
inner walls of the boiler, hence very difficult to remove. Examples of common scale deposits are
CaCO3, Mg(OH)2, CaSO4, calcium and magnesium silicates etc.
Removal of scales:

Soft scales are removed by using scrubbers and wire brush.

Brittle scales can be removed by giving thermal shock.
Scales can be dissolved in suitable chemicals (CaCO3 can be
dissolved in dil HCl, CaSO4 can be dissolved in EDTA solution.
Disadvantages of scale formation:
Wastage of fuel:
Scale deposits are poor conductors of heat.
Lowers the safety of boilers:
Overheating may result in a crack.
Choking of pipes:
The scale deposit will result in choked flow.
Explosion of boilers: Uneven expansion of boiler metal and scale result in the
development of crack on the scales. Sudden entry of the water through these cracks to very hot
metal result in the conversion of water into steam. These leads to the development of high pressure
inside the boiler and the boiler may explode.

11 Chapter 7
Priming and Foaming:
Priming:
Boiler convert water to steam. The steam generated may carry small
droplets of water. This wet stem formation is called priming. It occurs when the boiler design is
faulty, presence of suspended and dissolved impurities in water, oscillating steaming rate and high
level of water in boiler. It can be avoided by a proper boiler design, maintaining a steady steaming
rate, use of softened water and maintaining a low level of water.
Foaming:
Formation of small bubbles at the surface of water that persist for longer
time. These bubbles are carried along with steam. Clay, oil, grease etc in the water result in the
formation of bubbles. It can be avoided by adding anti foaming agents (castor oil) or coagulants
(alum).
Disadvantage of priming and foaming: The liquid droplet and bubbles carried by steam may
carry dissolved solids and suspended impurities and will get deposited in engine valves, turbine
blades and decreases their life span. It also leads to corrosion.

Q. Explain RO process for desalination of brakish water? (Reverse osmosis,

super filtration, membrane filtration)
Ans.
Brakish water is the water which contains high concentrations of dissolved
salts, example sea water. The process of removal common salt from water is called
desalination.
Osmosis: In a system where two solutions which differ in their concentration
are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, solvent molecules pass through the
membrane from the side having lower solute concentration to the side having higher
solute concentrations. This spontaneous flow depends on osmotic pressure and
concentration gradient.

Reverse Osmosis: If we apply an external pressure in excess of the osmotic

pressure on the concentrated side, the solvent flow is reversed. That is solvent is

12 Chapter 7

forced to move from the side having higher solute concentration to the side having
lower solute concentrations.
This principle can be used for desalination of sea water.

Pure water is separated from dissolved minerals. This membrane filtration is called
super filtration.

Q. Explain different steps involved in sewage treatment.

Ans.
Sewage is the liquid waste. It contains Human waste, household waste, industrial waste, fertilizers
etc. Major portion of sewage is water and rest is constituted by organic and inorganic matter. They
can be either biodegradable or non-biodegradable.
The artificial process of sewage treatment is sewerage. Harmful compounds are converted into
harmless compounds before discharge.
The various steps involved are shown in the scheme below.

Preliminary process
a. Screening: In this process large floating matter like wood piece, leaves, plastic etc and
large solids are removed. Screening is done using bar screens or mesh screens.
b. Sedimentation or settling process: Suspended solids and colloidal impurities are
removed from sewage. Sometime coagulants like alum are added to precipitate colloidal
impurities. Sewage is kept undisturbed in big tanks for several hours, particles settle
down due to the force of gravity.

13 Chapter 7
Secondary or biological treatment:
It is biodegradation process under aerobic or anaerobic condition.
Aerobic degradation : Trickling filter method:
During aerobic degradation the aerobic bacteria convert Carbon content in organic matter is
carbon dioxide, Nitrogen to ammonia then to nitrate or nitrite. One of the commonly
employed aerobic digestion method is Trickling filter method

It consists of a rectangular or circular tank of about 2 m depth. The filtering media is

a bed of gravel, broken bricks or coal. The sewage is allowed to trickle down by means of a
rotating arm distributor. The aerobic bacteria grow on the top surface. Biodegradable
matters are aerobically decomposed. About 90 % BOD can be removed.

Anaerobic degradation: UASB process (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket process):

During anaerobic degradation process large portion of carbon is converted into methane
and remaining carbon is converted into carbon dioxide. Commonly employed anaerobic
degradation process is UASB process (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Bed or Blanket process).
Bottom of UASB reactor contains sludge blanket. Sludge blanket is biologically
formed granules. These granules are colonies of bacteria. The sewage for treatment is fed
from the bottom. In the anaerobic decomposition biogas is formed. The biogas is collected
from the gas collecting dome at the top of the reactor.

Tertiary or Advanced treatment:

The main function of this treatment is to decrease the amount of nitrogen and phosphorus
compounds and disinfection.

14 Chapter 7
Precipitation: The biologically treated sewage is mixed with lime (CaO). The phosphorous
contents will precipitate as Calcium Phosphate.
Nitrogen Stripping (Degasification): Ammonia gas is removed by passing the effluent
through a series of heated baffle plates.
Disinfection: After the removal of P and N, the effluent is chlorinated to kill all pathogens.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN and OXYGEN DEMANDING WASTE
Dissolved oxygen is the oxygen that is dissolved in water. Dissolved oxygen is essential for
aquatic life.
It enters water through two natural process a. Diffusion from atmosphere b. Photosynthesis by
aquatic plants.
DO of 5-6 ppm is required to support a healthy aquatic ecosystem.
Factors influence the level of DO.
1. Temperature: Cold water holds more DO than warm water.
2. Decomposable waste. Most of human related waste or natural wastes are biodegradable.
During the decomposition of such waste in water the aerobic bacteria consumes the DO and
level of DO considerably fall down. These waste are called oxygen demanding waste.

Q. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):

BOD is the amount of oxygen required by microbes for biodegradation of organic waste under
aerobic condition.
BOD is related to the amount of biologically oxidisable impurity present. Ie it is an indication of
quality of water.
BOD is Milligrams of oxygen consumed per litre of sewage water during 5 days of incubation at 20oC.
Procedure:
One litre of sewage water is taken. It is mixed with fresh water. Dissolved oxygen (DO) content is
measured using a DO meter or titration.
Close the bottle. Incubate it at 20oC for 5 days. Find out the DO content.
The difference in Dissolved Oxygen in mg/L is BOD.

15 Chapter 7

Q. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

It is the amount of oxygen required for the chemical oxidation of all oxidisable impurities present in
sewage. It is related to the amount of biologically oxidisable and other oxidisable impurities present
in sewage.
COD is milligrams of oxygen equivalent to all oxidisable impurities present in one litre of sewage. The
oxidation is carried out using strong oxidizing agents like potassium dichromate.
Procedure:
Oxidizable impurities in sewage can be determined by oxidation with potassium dichromate. The
amount of oxygen that is equivalent to dichromate consumed is COD.
Step1: A known volume of sewage is treated with known excess of potassium dichromate + dil
sulphuric acid + a catalyst and refluxed for two hours. Then find out the amount of un-reacted
potassium dichromate by back titrating against Mohrs Salt.
Step2: A blank experiment is conducted with fresh water with the same amount of potassium
dichromate used for step 1.
From the difference of values (Step 2-Step 1) COD can be calculated.

Q. Distinguish between BOD and COD ?

ANS:

BOD

COD

1. Amount of oxygen required for the biological

oxidation of biodgreadable matter .

Amount of oxygen equivalent for the

chemical oxidation of all oxidizable impurities.

2. Aerobic bacteria oxidizes the impurities.

Oxidizing agents are used.

3. BOD determination takes five days.

COD determination takes 2-3 hours.

4. it is equivalent to biologically oxidizable

impurities.

It is equivalent to all oxidizable impurities

5. BOD value < COD value.

COD value > BOD value.

6. Maintaining 20oC for analysis is must.

High temperature is usually opted.

16 Chapter 7
Q. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic oxidation process?
Ans:.

Aerobic oxidation

Anaerobic oxidation

1. Natural Biological degradation by microbes

in presence of oxygen.

Natural biological degradation by microbes

in the absence of oxygen.

2. During oxidation pollutants are broken down

CO2, H2O, Nitrates, Phosphates and biomass

broken down to methane gas, CO2, Acetic

acid and relatively little amount biomass.

3. Products are non-combustible.

Biogas is formed.

4. Products does not have offensive smell.

Most of the products have offensive smell.

4. Is a fast process.

Is relatively slow.

Problem: A water sample is having 500 ppm of permanent hardness and 100 ppm
temporary hardness. What will happen to the value of permanent hardness and
temporary hardness if we add 168 ppm of NaHCO3.
Ans: Addition of NaHCO3 will not change the total hardness but increases the
temporary hardness at the expense of permanent hardness.
Total Hardness = 500 + 100 ppm = 600 ppm.
Mol.Wt of NaHCO3 = 23 + 61 = 84.
84 ppm of NaHCO3 168 ppm x

/
 /

= 100 ppm

Therefore by adding 168 ppm of NaHCO3 the temporary hardness increases to 200
and permanent hardness decreases to 400 ppm

17 Chapter 7

Q. 50 ml of standard hard water containing 1mg of CaCO3/ml consumed 20 ml of

EDTA. 50 ml of sample water consumed 25 ml of EDTA. Calculate the total
Here you are provided with standard hard water solution, u have to
hardness.
standardize EDTA then find out the total hardness
Soln: Standard Hard water

1mg of CaCO3 per ml

That means 1ml Std Hard water contains 1mg of CaCO3

Standardization of EDTA.
Taken 50 ml of Std hard water, that contains 50 x 1 mg of CaCO3
It consumed 20 ml of EDTA
That is 20 ml EDTA 50 x 1 mg of CaCO3
Then, 1 ml EDTA 50 x 1 / 20 = 2.5 mg of CaCO3
Estimation of total hardness
1 ml of EDTA solution is equivalent to 2.5 mg of CaCO3,
25 ml of EDTA is consumed for 50 ml of sample water.
25 x 2.5 mg of CaCO3 in 50 ml of sample water.
Then

25 x 2.5 x 1000/50 mg of CaCO3 in 1000 ml of sample water.

Then hardness = 1250 ppm.

Or
Standard hard water = 1 mg of CaCO3 / ml that is in 1000 ml it will contain 1000 mg
of CaCO3. Hardness of standard hard water = 1000 ppm.
Volume factor of water=

   ! "! # !  ! $%$

 & "! # ! $$

Volume reciprocal factor of EDTA=

=1

 /012 3 ! /$$

 /012 3 !  !

*+(, '()
*+(, ,.(

=
$%$




4657
4'5
4657
'()



=  = 1.25
Total Hardness = Volume factor of water x Volume reciprocal factor of EDTA x
Hardness of standard hard water. = 1.25 x 1 x 1000 = 1250 ppm

18 Chapter 7

Q. 50 ml of standard hard water containing 1mg of CaCO3/L consumed 20 ml of

EDTA. 100 ml of sample water consumed 25 ml of EDTA. Calculate the total
hardness.

Standard hard water = 1 mg of CaCO3 / L that is in 1000 ml it will contain 1 mg of

CaCO3. Hardness of standard hard water = 1 ppm.
Volume factor of water=

   ! "! # !  ! $%$

 & "! # ! $$

=
Volume reciprocal factor of EDTA=

=





*+(, ,.(



 /012 3 ! /$$

 /012 3 !  !

*+(, '()

= 0.5

=
$%$

4657
4'5
4657
'()

= 1.25

Total Hardness = Volume factor of water x Volume reciprocal factor of EDTA x

Hardness of standard hard water. = 0.5 x 1.25 x 1 = 0.625 ppm

19 Chapter 7

Q. In a hardness estimation by EDTA method 50 ml of a sample water required 30

ml of std EDTA solution. Calculate hardness of sample water? Given that 1ml of
EDTA solution is equivalent to 1.8 mg of CaCO3.
Here you are provided with a standardized EDTA
Soln:

1 ml of EDTA solution is equivalent to 1.8 mg of CaCO3

30 ml of EDTA is consumed for 50 ml of sample water.
30 x 1.8 mg of CaCO3 in 50 ml of sample water.

Then

30 x 1.8 x 1000/50 mg of CaCO3 in 1000 ml of sample water.

Then hardness = 1080 ppm.

.....................................................................................................................................
Q. 50 ml of standard hard water containing 1mg of CaCO3/L consumed 20 ml of
EDTA. 50 ml of sample water consumed 25 ml of EDTA. Calculate the total
hardness.
Here you are provided with standard hard water solution, u have to
standardize EDTA then find out the total hardness
Soln: Standard Hard water

1mg of CaCO3 per litre

That means 1000 ml Std Hard water contains 1mg of CaCO3

Then

1 ml Std Hard water contains 1/1000 mg = 0.001 mg of CaCO3

Standardization of EDTA.
Taken 50 ml of Std hard water, that contains 50 x 0.001 mg of CaCO3
It consumed 20 ml of EDTA
That is 20 ml EDTA 50 x 0.001 mg of CaCO3
Then, 1 ml EDTA 50 x 0.001 / 20 = 0.0025 mg of CaCO3
Estimation of total hardness
1 ml of EDTA solution is equivalent to 0.0025 mg of CaCO3,
25 ml of EDTA is consumed for 50 ml of sample water.
25 x 0.0025 mg of CaCO3 in 50 ml of sample water.
Then

25 x 0.0025 x 1000/50 mg of CaCO3 in 1000 ml of sample water.

Then hardness = 1.25 ppm.

..................................................................................................................................

20 Chapter 7

Q. 50 ml of standard hard water containing 1mg of CaCO3/ml consumed 20 ml of

EDTA. 50 ml of sample water consumed 25 ml of EDTA. Calculate the total
Here you are provided with standard hard water solution, u have to
hardness.
standardize EDTA then find out the total hardness
Soln: Standard Hard water

1mg of CaCO3 per ml

That means 1ml Std Hard water contains 1mg of CaCO3

Standardization of EDTA.
Taken 50 ml of Std hard water, that contains 50 x 1 mg of CaCO3
It consumed 20 ml of EDTA
That is 20 ml EDTA 50 x 1 mg of CaCO3
Then, 1 ml EDTA 50 x 1 / 20 = 2.5 mg of CaCO3
Estimation of total hardness
1 ml of EDTA solution is equivalent to 2.5 mg of CaCO3,
25 ml of EDTA is consumed for 50 ml of sample water.
25 x 2.5 mg of CaCO3 in 50 ml of sample water.
Then

25 x 2.5 x 1000/50 mg of CaCO3 in 1000 ml of sample water.

Then hardness = 1250 ppm.

Or
Standard hard water = 1 mg of CaCO3 / ml that is in 1000 ml it will contain 1000 mg
of CaCO3. Hardness of standard hard water = 1000 ppm.
Volume factor of water=

   ! "! # !  ! $%$

 & "! # ! $$

Volume reciprocal factor of EDTA=

=1

 /012 3 ! /$$

 /012 3 !  !

*+(, '()
*+(, ,.(

=
$%$




4657
4'5
4657
'()



=  = 1.25
Total Hardness = Volume factor of water x Volume reciprocal factor of EDTA x
Hardness of standard hard water. = 1.25 x 1 x 1000 = 1250 ppm

..................................................................................................................................

21 Chapter 7

Q. Calculate the hardness of 0.01 M AlCl3 solution .

Hardness (in ppm) = Molarity x Valency of Hardness causing salt x 50000 ppm
(Al3+)

= Normality x 50000 ppm

Soln: Hardness (in ppm) = 0.01 M

x 50000 = 1500 ppm

..................................................................................................................................
Q. Calculate the hardness of 0.01 N AlCl3 solution .
Hardness (in ppm) = Molarity x Valency of Hardness causing salt x 50000 ppm
(Al3+)

= Normality x 50000 ppm

Soln: Hardness (in ppm) = 0.01 N

x 50000 = 500 ppm

..................................................................................................................................
Q. Calculate the hardness of 0.01 M CaCO3 solution .
Hardness (in ppm) = Molarity x Valency of Hardness causing salt x 50000 ppm
(Ca2+)

= Normality x 50000 ppm

Soln: Hardness (in ppm) = 0.01 M

x 50000 = 1000 ppm

..................................................................................................................................
Q. The hardness of a solution is 1000 ppm. Calculate the molarity solution .
Hardness (in ppm) = Molarity x Valency of Hardness causing salt x 50000 ppm
(Take standard Ca2+CO3

= Normality x 50000 ppm

valence)
Soln: Molarity =

;!  $ &&

3< .







= 0.01 M

..................................................................................................................................

22 Chapter 7

Q. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness of water sample having the
following analysis.

Soln:
>?@ABCDD EFB G?GH3 CJKFL?MCBNDO
= P Q?DD RS ?@ABCDD U@RAKVFBW DKXDN?BVC .

QY RS G?GH /L?MCBVZ
QY RS >?@ABCDD U@RAKVFBW DKXDN?BVC/L?MCBVZ

Total hardness (due to Mg(HCO3)2 = 73 mg/L, Ca(HCO3)2 = 162 mg/L, CaSO4 = 136 mg/L, MgCl2 = 95
mg/L, CaCl2 = 111 mg/L)
[RN >?@ABCDD EFB G?GH3 CJKFL?MCBNDO
100
100
100
100
]W 2
]W 2
]W 2
]W 2
.
+ 162
.
+ 136
.
+ 95
.
= 73
^ 162
^ 136
^ 95
^ 146
2
2
2
2
100
]W 2
+ 111
.
^ 111
2
= 50

+ 100 + 100 + 100 +

100 = 450 UU]

Temporary hardness (due to Mg(HCO3)2 = 73 mg/L, Ca(HCO3)2 = 162 mg/L)

100
100
]W 2
]W 2
[C]U >?@ABCDD EFB G?GH3 CJKFL?MCBNDO = 73
.
+ 162
.
^ 162
^ 146
2
2
= 50 + 100 = 150 UU]
Permanent hardness = Total temporary hardness = 450 - 150 = 300 ppm.

..................................................................................................................................

23 Chapter 7

Q. Calculate the temporary, permanent and total hardness of water in ppm having the following
composition. Ca2+ = 200 ppm, Mg2+= 96 ppm, HCO3- = 976 ppm, Cl- = 146 ppm and SO42- = 96 ppm,
Na+ = 112 ppm?
Note: Total hardness depends on the amount of calcium and magnesium ions (no need to
consider the anions). Temporary hardness is due to bicarbonate anion. For permanent hardness take
the difference.
Ans.
>?@ABCDD EFB G?GH3 CJKFL?MCBNDO
= P Q?DD RS ?@ABCDD U@RAKVFBW DKXDN?BVC .

QY RS G?GH /L?MCBVZ
QY RS >?@ABCDD U@RAKVFBW DKXDN?BVC/L?MCBVZ

Total hardness (Ca2+ = 200 ppm, Mg2+= 96 ppm)

100
100
2
>?@ABCDD EFB G?GH3 CJKFL?MCBNDO = 200 UU].
+ 96 UU]. 2 = 900 UU]
40
24
2
2
Temporary hardness (due to HCO3- = 976 ppm)
100
>?@ABCDD EFB G?GH3 CJKFL?MCBNDO = 976 UU]. 2
61
1

800 UU]

Permanent hardness = Total temporary hardness = 900 - 800 = 100 ppm.

..................................................................................................................................

24 Chapter 7

Q. Calculate the temporary, permanent and total hardness of water in ppm having the following
composition. Ca(HCO3)2 = 4ppm, Mg(HCO3)2 = 6 ppm, CaSO4 = 8ppm, MgSO4 = 10 ppm and Na HCO3
= 3 ppm?
Note: Total hardness depends on the amount of calcium and magnesium salts. If NaHCO3 is
present in water, the temporary hardness increases at the expense of permanent hardness therefore
consider NaHCO3 when calculating temporary hardness.
Ans.
>?@ABCDD EFB G?GH3 CJKFL?MCBNDO
= P Q?DD RS ?@ABCDD U@RAKVFBW DKXDN?BVC .

QY RS G?GH /L?MCBVZ
QY RS >?@ABCDD U@RAKVFBW DKXDN?BVC/L?MCBVZ

Total hardness (due to Ca(HCO3)2 = 4ppm, Mg(HCO3)2 = 6 ppm, CaSO4 = 8ppm, MgSO4 = 10 ppm)
100
100
100
100
2
2
2
+ 6 UU].
+ 4 UU].
+ 4 UU]. 2
>?@ABCDD EFB G?GH3 CJKFL?MCBNDO = 4 UU].
162
146
136
120
2
2
2
2
= 20.8 UU]

Temporary hardness (due to Ca(HCO3)2 = 4ppm, Ca(HCO3)2 = 6 ppm, NaHCO3 = 3ppm)

100
100
100
2
2
>?@ABCDD EFB G?GH3 CJKFL?MCBNDO = 4 UU].
+ 6 UU].
+ 3 UU]. 2
162
146
84
2
2
1
= 8.4 UU]
Permanent hardness = Total temporary hardness = 20.8 - 8.4 = 12.4 ppm.

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25 Chapter 7

Pblm: Calculate the hardness of given sample of water, if 50 ml of sample water

gives endpoint with 20 ml of EDTA solution. 20 ml of standard hard water of
concentration 0.02 M gives end point with 25 ml of EDTA solution.
Standardization (Finding the concentration of EDTA solution using standard hard water)
Molarity of Standard hardwater solution M1 = 0.02 M
Volume of Standard hardwater solution taken V1 = 20 ml
Volume of EDTA consumed V2 = 25 ml
Molarity of EDTA M2 ?
M1 V1 = M2 V2
Then M2 = ( M1 V1 ) / V2
= ( 0.02 x 20 ) / (25)

= 0.016 M

Estimation (Finding the concentration of Sample water)

Molarity of EDTA solution M1 = 0.016 M
Volume of EDTA solution consumed for estimation V1 = 20 ml
Volume of sample water taken V2 = 50 ml
Molarity of sample water M2 ?
M1 V1 = M2 V2
Then M2 = ( M1 V1 ) / V2
= ( 0.016 x 20 ) / (50)

= 0.0064 M

Hardness in ppm is Molarity x 100000 = 0.0064 x 100000 = 640 ppm

Pblm: Find the BOD of water sample containing 60 mg of carbohydrate (CH2O) per
litre
Ans : CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O
30 g of CH2O 32 g of O2
Therefore, 1 g of CH2O
Then, 60 mg/L of CH2O
BOD = 64 ppm.

Mol. Wt of CH2O = 12 + 1+1 + 16 = 30 g

Mol. Wt of O2 = 32 g

g of O2





d 60 g of O2 = 64 ppm.

26 Chapter 7
Problem: Estimate the COD of a solution containing 500 mgIL of butanol (C4H9OH).
Ans:
C4H9OH + O2
4 CO2 + 5H2O
C4H9OH + 6O2
4 CO2 + 5H2O
Molecular weight of C4H9OH ( 12 x 4 + 1 x 9 + 16 + 1 = 48 + 9 + 16 + 1 = 74)
74 g of C4H9OH require () 6 x 32 = 192 g of oxygen
500 mg/L of C4H9OH require =

e
f

500 ]W/M = 1297 ppm

@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
Problem: 100 ml of sewage water is diluted to 500 ml with dilution water, the initial DO was 7.5
ppm. The dissolved oxygen level after 5 days of incubation was 3.5 ppm. Find the BOD of sewage.
Ans
1 

BOD = (DOstep1-DOStep2)   g"h # = (7.5 3.5 ) 500/100 = 20 ppm

@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
Problem: 100 ml of water sample after reaction with fixed amount of acidified K2Cr2O7 consumes
15 ml of 0.1 N Ferrous solution. For blank titrations the ferrous solution consumed is 25 ml. Find
COD of water sample.
Ans
Volume of water sample taken V1 = 100 ml
Normality of water sample N1 = ........
Volume of ferrous solution equivalent to oxidisable impurities V2= 25-15 = 10 ml
Normality of ferrous solution N2 = 0.1 N
Then N1 V1 = N2 V2
N1 = (N2 V2)/ V1

= (0.1 x 10 )/100 = 0.01 N

Wt per litre of Oxygen = Normality x Equivalent Weight of Oxygen g/L

0.01 x 8 = 0.08 g/L = 0.08 x 1000 mg/L = 80 ppm
COD = 80 ppm
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

27 Chapter 7

Questions:

1. Differentiate between aerobic and non aerobic decomposition of biodegradable

organic matter present in a water body.
How could you determine total biodegradable organic matter in sewage?
What is break point chlorination?
Name three substances used for sterilization of water.
What is brackish water?
What is potable water?
What are the salts responsible for the temporary and permanent hardness of
water?
8. Mention any two disinfectants.
9. What is meant by softening of hard water?
10. What is the principle behind EDTA titration?
11. Give any four requirements for potable water?
12. Give the advantages of RO process and ion exchange process?
13. What are the chemicals used for regeneration of ion exchange resins?
14. What is disinfection? What are the different methods of disinfection?
15. Give the advantages of RO process and ion exchange process?
16. What is break point chlorination? What is its significance?
17. What are the chemicals used for regeneration of ion exchange resins?
18. What is ion exchange method? Explain the concept.
19. What is reverse osmosis? Bring out the methodology behind it.
20. Why is water softened before using in the boilers? List out the disadvantages of
using hard water in boilers.
21. Every soft water is not a demineralized water whereas every demineralized water is
a soft water. Justify.
22. Define desalination and explain a method used for desalination?
23. Explain with chemical reaction of the demineralization or ion exchange process.
24. Explain the reaction which happens in determination of hard water using EDTA?
25. Define BOD of a sewage? What are its significances? How is it determined
26. Define COD of the sewage? How it is different from BOD? How it is determined?
27. Justify the following statement, COD is greater than BOD.
28. Justify the following statement, Disinfection is necessary before discharge treated
sewage.
29. What is dissolved oxygen?
30. How is hardness of water expressed?
31. Establish the relation between ppm and mg/liter.
32. How is temporary or carbonate hardness removed?
33. What are the advantages of ion exchange method?
34. How will you regenerate the column in DM process?
35. What are ion exchange resins? How are they useful in removing hardness of water?
36. List the essential requirements of potable water.
37. Explain the principle behind the colour change from wine red to blue of the
indicator in the EDTA titration of hardness estimation of water.
38. What is EDTA? Write its structure and uses.
39. Name the substance (compound) responsible for disinfection during chlorination.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

28 Chapter 7

40. Define hardness of water? Why do we express hardness in terms of CaCO3.

41. Differentiate between the terms, desalination and deionisation in water chemistry.
42. Explain how water is disinfected by chlorine. Mention the advantages and
disadvantages of chlorination process.

43. What is reverse osmosis? How is sea water purified by this method?
44. What is meant by break point chlorination? What is its significance in water
treatment?
45. Q. Why is UV radiation superior to other disinfection methods?
46. Q. Why is rain water a purest form of natural water?
47. Q. Give an account of how water becomes hard.
48. Q. What do you understand by hardness of water?
49. Q. What is the cause of hardness of water?
50. Q. Distinguish between temporary and permanent hardness
51. Q. Why hardness is expressed in terms of CaCO3 equivalents. How is it calculated?
52. Q. What are the units of hardness? What is the relation between these units?
53. Q. Why NH4OH NH4Cl buffer solution is added in determination of hardness of
water by EDTA method?
54. Q. What type of ligand is EDTA? Give the structure of EDTA.
55. Q. Why the complex of Ca2+ or Mg2+with EDTA is more stable than the complex of
Ca2+ or Mg2+ with EBT?
56. Q. What are Ion Exchange Resins?
57. Q. What do you mean by Cation and Anion Exchangers?
58. Q. How exhausted ion-exchange resins are regenerated?
59. Q. What do you mean by the term disinfection?
60. Q. What is break point chlorination?
61. Q. What do you understand by hardness of water? What is its cause?
62. Q. Comment on the statement hardwater is not a health problem but a nuisance.
63. Q. Give the chemical reactions involved in determination of hardness of water by
EDTA titration.
64. Q. Give the chemical reaction involved during
65.
(i)
softening of water by ion-exchange resins, and
66.
(ii)
regeneration of exhausted ion-exchange resins.
67. Q. Disuses any two methods of disinfection of water.
68. Q. Define the term desalination. With neat diagram, describe desalination by
reverse osmosis process.
69. Q. What are the disadvantages involved in the UV treatment of water?
70. Q. Describe the procedure for finding the COD of water?
71. Q. Distinguish between BOD and COD?
72. Q. Explain the significance of BOD.
73. Q. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic treatments of sewage.
74. Q. What are the different units in which hardness is expressed? Give relationship
between them.
75. Q. What lathering of soap is difficult in hard water?
76. Q. What is the main advantage of RO process over ion exchange process.
77. Ans: Reverse Osmosis process removes all impurities both ionic and non-ionic
where by ion-exchange process one can remove only ionic impurities.
78. Q. Write two balanced equations to describe what occurs to temporary hardness
causing substance when hard water is heated?
79. Q. How is permanent hardness of water determined?

29 Chapter 7

80. Q. Why does hard water consumes lot of soap?

81. Q. What are the salts responsible of temporary and permanent hardness?
82. Q. Why is rain water a purest form of natural water?
83. Ans: Rain water is obtained by a process similar to distillation hence it is the purest
form of natural waters.
84. Q. Why the complex of Ca2+ or Mg2+ with EDTA is more stable than Ca2+ or Mg2+ EBT complex?
85. Q. 1ppm = .......mg/L = .......0Fr = .......0Cl
86. Q. Exhausted cation exchange resin is regenerated by passing ---------------------.
87. Q. A sample of permanent hard water contains microorganisms. Name one method
each to remove hardness and microorganisms.
88. Q. Name a method which is used to remove salty impurities as well as non-ionic
impurities from water?
89. Q. What are the advantages of break-point chlorination?
90. Q. Explain the changes taking place when water with. i. Temporary hardness is
boiled. ii. Permanent hardness is boiled.
91. Q. What are the advantages of using ion exchange resin method?
92. Q. What is the effect of temperature on the electrical conduction of metallic and
electrolytic conductors?
93. Q. Explain the USAB and trickling filter methods of sewage treatment.
94.
Q. What are specifications of potable water?