Practical No.

Page No.:

AIM:

To study microwave components and its three-dimensional view with brief

explanation including its construction and function.

APPARATUS:

Active Components:
1. Reflex Klystron.
2. Gunn Oscillator.
3. Schlocky Diode.
4. Crystal Diode.
5. Probe Detector.
Passive Components:
1. Rectangular waveguide with rectangular flange.
2. Rectangular waveguide with circular flange.
3. Matched Termination.
4. Isolator.
5. Circulator.
6. 90 degree twister.
7. E-plane bend.
8. H-plane bend.
9. E-plane Tee.
10. H-plane Tee.
11. Magic Tee.(Hybrid Tee).
12. Directional Coupler.
13. H-sectorial Horn.
14. E-sectorial Horn.
15. Pin modulator
16. Fixed Attenuator.
17. Variable Attenuator.
18. Detector mount.
19. Direct reading frequency meter.
20. Slotted line.

THEORY:

Active Components:
1. Microwave Sources
Generally there are two types of microwave sources available in the microwave
laboratory. They are,
i.

Reflex Klystron: It is a vacuum tube, operating at X-Band.

ii.

Gunn Oscillator: It uses solid state Gunn Diode, for Microwave

generation, also at X-Band.

Practical No.:

Page No.:

i.

Reflex Klystron
The concept of microwave frequency is explained using fig1. Here the
electron beam injected from the cathode is first velocity modulated by
cavity gap voltage, V0 and as a result from bunches. All electron bunches,
repelled by the repeller voltage Vr, pass through the cavity gap in
bunches, during retarding phase of alternating field and give their kinetic
energy to the energy of the field in the cavity. Oscillator output energy is
then taken from the cavity.

It is a low power generator of 10 to 500 milliwatt output at a

frequency range of 1 to 25 GHz, though a particular Reflex Klystron
will generate a single frequency and due to fix cavity, change of
frequency is not possible. This means different Reflex Klystrons are
available at different frequencies. The efficiency of such Klystrons is
very poor, i.e. only about 20-30%. They are widely used in laboratory
as microwave oscillator for experiments in microwave measurements.
Also used in microwave receiver as local oscillator in commercial and
military applications (in Doppler Radars and Missiles).
ii.

Gunn Oscillator
For LC oscillator, resonance frequency is given by fc= 1/2
, i.e. as L
or C changes, fr also changes. A waveguide is also a type of a
transmission line, whose equivalent circuit contains L and C. here, the
value of L and C depends upon the length of waveguide. So, as the length
changes, the resonant frequency also changes according to the above
equation. Here, changing the position of moving plunger (fig2) with the
help of a micrometer changes the length of the closed waveguide, called

Practical No.:

Page No.:

resonator. But no oscillator can generate frequency without an active

device, like diode or transistor. So, all LC oscillator circuits have some
active device. In this case also, Gunn diode is used as an active device.
So, microwave frequency is generated and is launched inside the
waveguide by the lead connected to the Gunn diode. A BNC connector is
used to provide the Gunn bias, as shown in fig 2.

Microwave Sources
There are two types of detector diodes.
i.

Schottky Diode
Schottky diode is a metal semiconductor barrier diode, which is
constructed on a thin silicon (n+type) substrate by growing n-type active
layer of about 2 micron thickness. A thin SiO2 layer is grown thermally
over this active layer. Metal-semiconductor junction is formed by
depositing metal over SiO2. Such diodes are not very popular.

ii.

Crystal Diode
The crystal diode essentially consists of a pointed tungsten wire (~0.08
mm dia.) made in the form of a spring that is pressed against the surface
of a silicon (p-type) wafer (~1.6 mm square) suitably doped with
impurities making a rectifying contact. Crystal diode and its typical
equivalent circuit are shown here (fig 4). Due to such a construction, it is
also known as point contact diode.
The equivalent circuit parameters are described below
Rs, Ls Series lead resistance and inductance
Cs Case capacitance
Rj, Cj Effective resistance and capacitance for the junction

Practical No.:

Page No.:

Most of the detector diodes used in the microwave laboratory are diodes.
For such diodes, the forward I-V characteristics is approximately
parabolic for input signal power<10W. such a characteristic follows a
square law, I V2 as shown in fig 5. If microwave signal voltage, v=
Vcost is applied across the diode, the diode current is given by
i= I0 (eav-1)
Where, I0 = diode reverse saturation current
a = 1/nVT
n = constant = 1.1 for schottky diode, = 1.4 for crystal diode
VT = thermal voltage = 26 mV at room temperature
Using series expansion for eav, neglecting higher order terms and
simplifying.
i=I0 [aVcost +

(1+cos2t)]

Filtering out the a.c. components by the detector circuit,

i

I0
I

V2

Thus, diode output current is proportional to the square of electric value,

V at the location of the diode. So, it is direct measure of microwave input
power. Due to this, it is also called square law detector. For a large power
input (>10W), the V-I characteristic becomes more linear, so that input
power needs to be attenuated for operation in the square law region.

Practical No.:

Page No.:

In order to work as a detector, these diodes should be mounted across the

waveguide with other end of waveguide be shorted. (fig6). Movement of
the adjustable plunger can vary the distance between the diode and
shorted end and tune the detector at the desired frequency..

These microwave detector diodes are sensitive and operate with RF

signal without any dc bias. The diode is mounted in a waveguide or a
coaxial line which contains matching elements, so that VSVR < 1.3 and
the microwave power is absorbed without appreciable reflection. An RF
bypass capacitor in the output circuit is constructed so that microwave do
not pass to measuring instrument, such as VSVR meter, which is a high
gain, low noise amplifier tuned to modulating frequency of 1KHz. The
output impedance of the detector circuit is designed either high (50-200
ohms) or low (2.5-10 ohms).
iii.

Probe Detector
This is an arrangement as shown in Fig.6, where a probe is placed in the
allotted waveguide. With the help of mechanical arrangement, the probe
is moved along the axis of the slotted waveguide measuring the field at
different distances from the load end. The current picked up by the probe
then passes through a crystal diode, whose output is fed to corresponding

Practical No.:

Page No.:

meter. The detector circuit is matched, using short circuit stub, as shown
in Fig.9.

Fig .9
2. Modulator
In any communication system, basic reason for doing modulation is to
make possible the transmission of low frequency signals (e.g. voice
signals) to long distances with the help of high frequency signals as
carrier. In other applications of microwaves, of course, same reason
stands true, e.g. Satellite Communication, Microwave Communication
using LOS towers, etc. But, in the microwave bench used in the
laboratory, there is no question of long distance, as required for
modulation. The reason here is different.
The microwave detector used in microwave bench works on the principle
of envelope detection. That means, if unmodulated carrier (microwave)
is applied to the detector, the detector output is envelope of the sine
wave, i.e. dc. Similarly, if we give modulated signal [microwave as
carrier + low frequency (1 kHz) modulating signal] then detector output
will be its envelope, i.e. 1 kHz signal. This 1 kHz signal will be given to
VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) Meter for measurement of power
in dB.
Now, the argument is reversed. If the VSWR Meter is to be used, then 1
kHz must be applied to it. This 1 kHz can only be obtained from detector,
if the input to the detector is modulated wave with 1 kHz as modulating
signal.
Hence, the microwave as carrier is to be modulated with
1 kHz
modulated signal. This 1 kHz modulating signal is taken as a pulse train

Practical No.:

Page No.:

(square wave) of 1 kHz frequency, because pulses contain more power as

compared to simple sine wave. One of the examples, where pulses
provide high power is radar.
There are two systems of providing modulation, which can be used in
Microwave Bench.
i. Giving Modulated Power Supply To The Oscillator
The dc beam voltage, V0 in case of Reflex Klystron and dc bias voltage
for Gunn Oscillator, generates microwave frequency as CW. Now, if the
dc beam voltage/dc bias voltage to be given to Reflex Klystron/Gunn
Oscillator respectively is modulated by 1 kHz square wave, oscillator
output is available as modulated microwave frequency as shown in
graph.
For this purpose, modulation knob on Klystron Power Supply has to be
put on INT and similar setting must be made in Gunn Power supply.
ii. Using PIN Diode
This itself is a separate component where a PIN diode is mounted across
a waveguide.

As shown in Fig.10, carrier wave (CW) is introduced by the waveguide

and the modulating wave (1 kHz square wave) is given by the BNC
connector. The modulated signal is available at the end of the waveguide,
i.e. PIN modulator.
iii. Concept Of Antenna Transmission And Reception Used In
Microwave Bench
As current flows in an antenna, it is converted into electromagnetic field
and propagated into free space.

Practical No.:

Page No.:

The current at microwave frequency is generated by microwave source

and flows in the probe located in the middle of the waveguide at
Dominant Mode in case of reflex Klystron. Similarly, in case of Gunn
Oscillator, current flows through the lead conductor in the waveguide and
propagates down the Microwave Bench. The propagation in the
waveguide is unlike propagation in free space. It is in zigzag fashion. The
wave is reflected from top and bottom plates as it propagates down the
waveguide. Fig.11 shows the probe acting as transmitting antenna.
As the microwave propagates from the probe or lead of Gunn diode
down the waveguide, it passes through many components. At the
receiving or terminating end, it ultimately passes through a detector,
which may be a crystal detector or a probe detector. In both the cases, the
detector acts as a receiving antenna. Here as soon as the electromagnetic
field touches the crystal or probe antenna, the current at microwave
frequency is induced which passes through the diode detector. This
induced current is converted to dc or ac depending upon whether the
signal is CW or modulated wave, respectively.
Passive Components:
1.

Waveguide: A hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for

transmitting electromagnetic waves by successive reflections from the inner
walls of the tube is called a waveguide. It has rectangular opening at both
the ends and can have rectangular or circular flange. Because of the skin
effect problem at microwave frequencies, waveguides are always kept
hollow and its inner surface is usually coated with either gold or silver to
improve the conductivity and minimize losses.

Practical No.:

Page No.:

2.

Matched termination: All the incident waves are absorbed and ideally no
power is reflected back from the matched termination. A material known as
ferrite is used at the termination side.

3.

Isolator: An isolator is a two port device that transfers energy from input
to output with little attenuation and from output to input with very high
attenuation.

4.

Circulators: 3 port circulator is shown in figure. Circulator is defined with

ports arranged such that energy entering a port is coupled to an adjacent port
but not coupled to the other ports. Circulator can have any number of ports.

5.

900 twister: Used to rotate the plane of polarization of a waveguide

transmission line. The 3-D diagram of the twister is shown.

Practical No.:

Page No.:

6.

Bends: In measurements, it is often necessary to bend a waveguide by some

angle. 900 waveguide bends in E and H plane are shown in figure. For
special requirements, bending angle of 300, 450 ,600 and 1200 in either plane
is possible.

7.

Tee: A T-junction is an intersection of three waveguides in the form of

English alphabet T . There are several types of Tee junctions mainly the H
plane Tee, E-plane Tee and the Magic Tee. These are used to divide
microwave energy from one input into two output lines, or combine
microwave energy from two inputs to one output.

8.

H plane Tee: The axis of its side arm is shunting the E-field or parallel to
the H field.

9.

E-plane Tee: The axis of its side arm is shunting the H-field or parallel to
the E field

10. Magic Tee: Combination of E-plane and H-plane Tee. This Tee is also
known as Hybrid Tee.

Practical No.:

Page No.:

11. Directional Coupler: Consists of two waveguides with sectional joints at

900 with coupling element mounted into common board. At microwave
frequencies, the directional couplers are a easy tool to sample the
microwave energy traveling in one direction. Attenuation measurement,
reflectrometer setup, power measuring, source leveling and network analysis
are few areas in which couplers are used.

12. Horn Antennas: Figure shows a standard pyramidal, E-plane and H-plane
horns. These horns are intended for general purpose radiators and are also
used to determine gain of antenna under test.

Practical No.:

Page No.:

13. Attenuators: Attenuators are required to adjust the power flowing in a

waveguide. Attenuators are available in fixed and variable form.
14. Fixed attenuator: Any amount of fixed attenuation can be supplied
between 3 to 40 dB. These attenuators are calibrated at centre frequency of
respective frequency band.

15. Variable attenuator: Variable attenuators provide a convenient means of

adjusting power level very accurately.
16. Detector mount: The crystal detector can be used for the detection of
microwave signal. At a low level of microwave power, it gives a square law
characteristic and can be used with a high gain selective amplifier having a
square law meter calibration.

Practical No.:

Page No.:

17. Frequency meter: Reaction cavity type frequency meters are intended for
moderate accuracy applications in microwave measurements. It permits full
power flow down the transmission line except at the precise tuned
frequency. Direct reading frequency meter measures frequencies accurately.
Their long scale length and numbered calibration marks provide high
resolution which is particularly useful when measuring frequency
differences of small frequency changes

CONCLUSION