Does the rate of

microbial growth
affect antibiotic
resistance?
JODIE PARSONS
WORD COUNT: 2936

1
Does the rate of microbial growth affect antibiotic resistance?

Bacteria are very important for everyday life processes, they are present
naturally almost everywhere. Theyre in all living things and also found in the soil
and in the air. A single teaspoon of soil contains about a billion bacterial cells.
(Microbeworld.org, 2016) The human mouth hosts around five hundred species of
bacteria. (ScienceDaily, 2016) Bacteria live on or in just about every material and
environment on Earth, and are essential to human life as without bacteria the
world would be lifeless. An example of this is vitamin K, which is a necessary
vitamin for blood clotting in humans, it is made naturally in the gut by bacteria.
(LD, 2015) Without these essential bacteria a person may bleed to death. Bacteria
is widely used for medical purposes and is grown in medical laboratory
conditions to help prevent and treat infections. They are also used for genetic
engineering, and producing insulin for diabetics. (insightmultimedia 2016) Some
bacteria even produce waste products that are beneficial to humans, such as
lactic acid. This is produced by intestinal bacteria and promotes digestion in
humans. Bacteria is also grown for commercial purposes and is used for making
yogurt, some types of beer and cheese. Other uses include modern sewage
disposal also known as Bioremediation. This is the process by which bacteria are
added to water or soil to convert toxic pollutants, such as pesticides and oil into
harmless substances. Ei.cornell.edu, (2016).
Bacteria are found in every habitable place on Earth. They are classed as
prokaryotes because they are single celled microbes. They contain no nucleus or
any membrane bound organelles, and have no obvious organised structure. A
bacteriums genetic information is contained in a single chromosome called the
nucleoid. (Biotopics.co.uk, 2016) Bacteria also contain separate pieces of DNA
called plasmids. A typical bacterium contains an outer cell wall and an inner cell
membrane, however there are some exceptions. Mycoplasmas do not have a cell
wall. (Rain-tree.com, 2016) Bacterial surfaces may also be covered by pili or
flagella. The pili is short and helps bacteria to attach to host surfaces whilst
flagella aid in motility. (Goering, R., et al 2002) Bacteria are relatively small and can
replicate quickly by a process called binary fission. Binary fission happens when
the parent cell of a bacterium makes a copy of its DNA and grows large in size
by doubling its cellular content. The cellular content is pushed to the end of the
cell, then a small fissure emerges at the centre of the parent cell eventually
splitting into two identical daughter cells. (Macroevolution.net, 2016) Certain
bacteria also undergo a process called budding. During budding the daughter
cells starts off as a bud, grows into the same size as the parent and then splits .
(Microbeworld.org, 2016) Reproduction is the consequence of growth.

(Classconnection 2016) An image of

a typical single bacterium

The diagram below shows

binary fission.

the process of

(Techhydra.com, 2016)

Many environmental factors can affect how bacteria grow, such as the nutrients
that are available, the temperature, pressure, p.H level and amount of light
present. (Disknet.com 2016). The optimal temperature for bacteria varies on the
type and there are three types. Psychrophilic, these are bacteria that reproduce
in cold conditions. Their optimal temperature ranges from fifteen to thirty
degrees Celsius. Mesophilic, these are bacteria that reproduce at room
temperature usually between thirty to thirty seven degrees Celsius. Thermophilic
bacteria prefer heat and have an optimum growth rate between fifty to sixty
degrees Celsius. (Disknet.com (2016). Bacteria also prefer to be at optimum p.H.
For a faster growth rate, the optimum p.H for most bacteria is between four and
eleven. (123helpme.com 2016) When food and factors of growth are plentiful,
survival of the fittest means survival of those bacterium that can divide the
fastest. Under optimal conditions a single prokaryotic cell can divide every
twenty minutes and can give rise to five billion cells in less than 11 hours.
(Leavingbio.net, 2016) Bacterias ability to divide so rapidly means that
populations of bacteria can adapt quickly to sudden changes in the environment.
This can be seen and tested in laboratory conditions, for example; populations of
bacteria maintained in a large vat can evolve within a few weeks by spontaneous
mutation and natural selection to utilise different types of sugar molecules and
carbon sources. (Morris, J. 1998) This could be potentially very problematic for the
human population. Antibiotics were found to be a useful medicine that inhibits

3
the growth or destroys microorganisms such as bacteria and have been used to
treat many illnesses, ranging from minor infections to those that would usually
result in death such as tuberculosis and meningitis. (Pulugurtha, 2015) Currently
there is major concern with the overuse of antibiotics, according to the European
Centre for Disease Control and Prevention antibiotic overuse is one of the factors
that contribute towards the growing number of bacterial infections which are
becoming resistant to antibacterial medications, and is considered a public
health threat worldwide. The ECDC issued a statement on the 19 th November
2012 stating that an estimated twenty five thousand people die each year from
antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections. (Ecdc.europa.eu 2016).
Most antibiotics are inhibitors of protein synthesis. Many of the most effective
antibiotics used in modern medicine are compounds made from fungi that act by
inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis. (Cs.stedwards.edu, 2016) Most of the
antibiotic drugs exploit the structural and function of prokaryotic ribosomes.
Antibiotics do not affect eukaryotic ribosomes so can be taken in high doses
without any toxicity to humans, this is because different antibiotics bind to
different regions of bacterial ribosomes, they inhibit different steps in the
synthetic process. Those medicines that act on eukaryotic cells cannot be used
as antibiotics as these are toxic. (Medical News Today 2015) Penicillin was one of the
first antibiotics to be discovered and used as a form of medicine, it is now
considered to be less effective than before it was first discovered. Stronger
antibiotics have since been discovered and developed each with their own
benefits, humans must continue to replace these antibiotics with stronger ones
to defy the super germs in treatment. (Albionmonitor.com, 2016) This is because
the bacteria mutate or evolve. Microevolution happens by variation, adaption
and recombination of existing traits. In a population of bacteria, the genes within
the cell are freely mixed, but when exposed to the certain antibiotic most of the
bacterium die, but some through genetic recombination manage to resist the
antibiotic. These bacteria then reproduce initially passing on the resistance to
the daughter cells. This causes the population to have lost the ability to produce
cells that are sensitive to the antibiotic. (ScienceDaily, 2016) There is evidence
that when certain microorganisms become stressed, mutation occurs rapidly. The
bacteria produce a variety of strains increasing the odds that some bacteria will
survive. Some scientists suggest that resistance to antibiotics was present well
before human discovery of the medicine. (Harun Yahya 2016) In 1845 sailors on an
ill-fated Arctic expedition were found deeply frozen in 1986. The preservation
was almost immaculate and six strains of the nineteenth century bacteria were
found lying dormant in the sailors intestines. These bacteria were able to be
revived. When tested the bacteria were found to be resistant to penicillin. Which
then confuses scientists understanding of how and why antibiotic resistance is
occurring. (Icr.org, 2016)
It is believed that certain lifestyle choices can alter the bacteria in the body,
making it more prone to rapid mutation. Studies suggest that bacteria respond to
certain types of music. Although bacteria do not have the ability to hear, they
respond to certain types of vibration. A study undertaken by NASA. NASA, (2016). to
investigate the response of bacteria to vibrational acceleration on the E.coli

4
bacterium. The cells were grown in containers and growth was monitored by
density readings and plate counts. They found some interesting results. E.coli
reproduced faster when exposed to certain types of vibration, there was a large
significant increase in the growth rate. Oxygen consumption within the
containers was measured and the results indicated that the container had no
effect on oxygen consumption, just the vibrations did. The E.coli cultures were
then tested with 12 different antibiotics to identify any changes in antibiotic
resistance. It was shown that due to the increase in growth rate E. coli had an
increased susceptibility to certain antibiotics such as Gentamycin and Polymyxin
B. This study may suggest that humans, that listen to certain types of music
that give off certain vibrations may be causing the bacteria within their bodies to
speed up the growth rate, causing mutations to happen a lot more frequently
than if these vibrations were not present. The purpose of these studies are vital,
because if humans understand how sounds affect cell metabolism and which
metabolic pathways are affected by specific sound frequencies we may be able
in the future to use sound waves to control cell growth and physiology. Slowing
down the rate of mutations and thus slowing down the speed in which antibiotic
resistance occurs. Another study by baker suggest that if we experiment on how
fast bacteria grows over certain period of time, trying different types of music,
then the bacteria will response because it constitute a large domain of
prokaryotic microorganisms which are perceptive to changes in vibration. (Baker,
2014)

Many experiments also suggest sunlight plays a huge role in the growth rate in
some bacteria. Solar radiation is the visible and near-visible radiation emitted
from the sun. A study by Alonso on the effect of natural sunlight on bacteria
(Alonso-Saez et al., 2006) shows that ultraviolet light can degrade DNA and kill or
inhibit bacterial growth. Different bacteria have different susceptibility to UV
light. The study showed that Bacillus cereus, which can be found in soil, is a lot
more resistant to sunlight than E.coli which is found in the colon which does not
get any sunlight exposure. An experiment conducted to determine if light
increased the growth of the bacteria found that after a period of 1-3 days E.coli
growth rate was higher when the agar dish was covered than when exposed to
light in an incubator. Web.horacemann.org, (2016). Suggesting that instead of using
antibiotics, UV treatments for certain bacteria that infect humans could be a
possible treatment.
It is a known fact that antibiotic resistance is occurring, and is a major public
health concern. MRSA also known as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
Is a super bug and has been circulating for more than 45 years, now most
staph infections are caused by MRSA, which is resistant to methicillin. (Knott,
2016) According to the CDC there has been a 300% increase of these infections in
just 10 years. (Cdc.gov, 2016) A change has had to occur in the medical world, and
traditional antibiotics are no longer prescribed. MRSA however is just the tip of
the iceberg, there are far more threatening drug-resistant bacteria currently
existing. Such as P. aeruginosa these type of bacterium have an impermeable
outer membrane and antibiotics struggle to penetrate the cell wall. (Lin et al., 2010)
P.aeruginosa also evolves very quickly causing multiple drug resistance. Luckily

5
for humans it is unlikely that you can catch these infections easily. Most occur in
hospitals with people who have a very weak immune system. The problem of
antibiotic resistance is not just the bacterial mutation rates and how fast
mutation occurs, but because of the pressures that antibiotics impose. If
antibiotics cannot fight the bacteria they are meant to kill, infections will last
longer, and instead of getting better infections will be allowed to spread. This will
mean that it is very likely that humans will be passing on the resistant strains to
family members. If a drug-resistant bacterium were to evolve and there is no
antibiotic present to conquer it then a large portion of the human population
could die from untreatable serious infections. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics
and other drugs is however inevitable. Tuberculosis which was thought to be
eradicated in the 1940s is on the increase. (Cdc.gov, 2016) Multidrug-resistant
strains of bacteria will continue to be a major world health concern, keeping
scientists forever busy.
Reducing the spread of antibiotic resistance is problematic but there are steps
most people can make to reduce it. The over prescription of antibiotics is one of
the main causes, so making sure antibiotics are not prescribed for simple viral
infections like the common cold or a runny nose, or even a sore throat is vital to
tackling resistance. (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015) Taking herbal
remedies or simple pain relieving medication would be more suitable. Another
way to reduce the spread of antibiotic resistance is to take the full course when it
is prescribed even when feeling better, this is to make sure the antibiotic has
inhibited all of the present bacteria. If the antibiotic is stopped halfway through
the course then this contributes to the evolution of bacteria, it essentially will
weed out the weaker bacterium. (Emedexpert.com, 2016) When an antibiotic is
prescribed it is very closely calculated to ensure that the antibiotic will destroy
all of the bacteria present. A study by Ted Cohen found that taking the
recommended daily dose at the same time every day subjects the bacteria to a
constant bombardment of inhibitors, which kills the bacteria more effectively.
(Cohen, 2014) One of the leaded causes of drug resistance is failure to complete
prescribed antibiotics. WebGeek, (2016).
The uncertainty of how bacteria will evolve in the future is a worry. Are we really
heading for an antibiotic apocalypse or will we somehow stumble across a new
type of antibiotic? Englands chief medical officer stated that the rise of
antibiotic resistance is comparable to the threat of global warming (BBC News,
2016) The world is on the verge of a post-antibiotic era, and recently scientists
have discovered bacteria in patients resistant to all types of antibiotic. In 2015 a
review on antimicrobial resistance called for a large fund to help pharmaceutical
companies produce and develop at least 15 new antibiotics, as antibiotic
resistance requires a global solution. (amr-review.org, 2016) However it has been
significantly underestimated the scientific difficulty of developing new antibiotics,
a new antibiotic has not been discovered since the 1980s. ( BBC News 2016).
Antibiotics are so widely used, even in surgery. Cancer treatments such as
chemotherapy and radiotherapy damages the immune system and antibiotics
are prescribed to provide a much needed boost alongside the bodys own
defences. (Cancer.org, 2016) Anyone with an organ transplant faces a lifetime of

6
drugs to suppress the immune system and antibiotics are used to protect them.
The consequences of not having any antibiotics available are massive. However
there is hope, just as bacteria are subject to evolution so are the cells in a
humans body. Eventually over long periods of time the immune system will be
able to naturally fight off the bacteria that cause fatal illnesses, but were more
than likely to invest time and money into finding an alternative way of
medicating. One study in Beijing by Zhang H (Zhang H, 2016) showed promising
signs of not needing to use antibiotics anymore to combat bacterial infections.
They did this by using bacteriocins, these are protein antibiotics produced by the
bacteria itself to kill closely related species. It was thought at first bacteriocins
could not be useful clinically as injecting a foreign bacterial protein into a patient
was more than likely to induce a severe immune system response that would
inactivate the antibiotic, but recent data published by the guardian newspaper
shows this is not the case. James, R. (2015). Bacteriocins are promising and have
already been designed to kill target bacteria, fungi and even tumour cells. This
offers a ray of hope in the present gloom, but also finding ways to reduce the
spread is just as important. The rate of microbial growth does affect antibiotic
resistance in some sense. If we can slow down the rate in which certain bacteria
grow, especially those that cause fatalities then we can slow down the spread of
antibiotic resistance. It is inevitable that eventually all antibiotics will not work,
but slowing down this process may bide us a lot more time in finding an
alternative.

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