10.

1 Acids and Bases in Aqueous

Solution
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions,
H+, when dissolved in water. (Arrhenius definition)
Hydronium ion: The H3O+ ion formed when an acid
reacts with water.

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10.2 Some Common Acids and

Bases

A base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions,

OH-, when dissolved in water. (Arrhenius definition)
Bases can be metal hydroxides that release OH- ions
when they dissolve in water or compounds that
undergo reactions with water that produce OH- ions.

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Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is manufactured in greater

quantity than any other industrial chemical. It is the
acid found in automobile batteries.
Hydrochloric acid, HCl, is stomach acid in the
digestive systems of most mammals.
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, is used to manufacture
phosphate fertilizers. The tart taste of many soft
drinks is due to the presence of phosphoric acid.
Nitric acid, HNO3, is a strong oxidizing agent that is
used for many purposes.
Acetic acid, CH3CO2H, is the primary organic
constituent of vinegar.

Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, or lye, is used in the

production of aluminum, glass, and soap. Drain
cleaners often contain NaOH because it reacts with
the fats and proteins found in grease and hair.
Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 , or slaked lime, is
made industrially by treating lime (CaO) with water.
It is used in mortars and cements. An aqueous
solution is often called limewater.
Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, or milk of
magnesia, is an additive in foods, toothpaste, and
many over-the-counter medications. Many antacids
contain magnesium hydroxide.
Ammonia, NH3, is used primarily as a fertilizer. A
dilute solution of ammonia is frequently used around
the house as a glass cleaner.

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10.3 The Brnsted-Lowry Definition

of Acids and Bases
A BrnstedLowry acid can donate H+ ions.
Monoprotic acids can donate 1 H+ ion, diprotic
acids can donate 2 H+ ions, and triprotic acids can
donate 3 H+ ions.

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Conjugate acidbase pair: Two substances whose

formulas differ by only a hydrogen ion, H+.
Conjugate base: The substance formed by loss of
H+ from an acid.
Conjugate acid: The substance formed by addition
of H+ to a base.

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A BrnstedLowry base accepts H+ ions.

Putting the acid and base definitions together, an
acidbase reaction is one in which a proton is
transferred. The reaction need not occur in water.

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10.4 Water as Both an Acid and a

Base
Water is neither an acid nor a base in the Arrhenius
sense because it does not produce appreciable
concentrations of either H+ or OH-. In the Brnsted
Lowry sense water is both an acid and a base.
In its reaction with ammonia, water donates H+ to
ammonia to form the ammonium ion.

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10.5 Some Common Acid-Base

Reactions

When water reacts as a BrnstedLowry base, it

accepts H+ from an acid like HCl.
Substances like water, which can react as either an
acid or a base depending on the circumstances, are
said to be amphoteric.

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Acids react with metal hydroxides to yield water and

a salt in a neutralization reaction. The H+ ions and
OH- ions are used up in the formation of water.
HA(aq) + MOH(aq)H2O(l) +MA(aq)
Carbonate and bicarbonate ions react with acid by
accepting H+ ions to yield carbonic acid, which is
unstable, and rapidly decomposes to yield carbon
dioxide gas and water.
H2CO3(aq)H2O(l) + CO2(g)
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Acids react with ammonia to yield ammonium salts,

most of which are water-soluble.
Living organisms contain a group of compounds
called amines, which contain ammonia-like nitrogen
atoms bonded to carbon. Amines react with acids
just as ammonia does. Methylamine, an organic
compound found in rotting fish, reacts with HCl:

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10.6 Acid and Base Strength

Strong acid: An acid that gives up H+ easily and is
essentially 100% dissociated in water.
Dissociation: The splitting apart of an acid in water
to give H+ and an anion.
Weak acid: An acid that gives up H+ with difficulty
and is less than 100% dissociated in water.
Weak base: A base that has only a slight affinity for
H+ and holds it weakly.
Strong base: A base that has a high affinity for H+
and holds it tightly.
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 The stronger the acid, the weaker its conjugate base;

the weaker the acid, the stronger its conjugate base.
An acidbase proton transfer equilibrium always
favors reaction of the stronger acid with the stronger
base, and formation of the weaker acid and base.
The proton always leaves the stronger acid and
always ends up in the weaker acid, whose stronger
conjugate base holds the proton tightly.

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10.8 Dissociation of Water

Like all weak acids, water is slightly dissociated into
H+ and OH- ions. At 25oC, the concentration of each
ion is 1.00 x 10-7 M in pure water.
The ion product constant for water, kw, is:
kw = [H3O+][OH-]= 1.00 x 10-14 at 25oC.
Acidic solution: [H3O+] > 10-7 M and [OH-] < 10-7 M
Neutral solution: [H3O+] = 10-7 M and [OH-] = 10-7 M
Basic solution: [H3O+] < 10-7 M and [OH-] > 10-7 M

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10.9 Measuring Acidity in Aqueous

Solution: pH
The concentrations of H3O+ or OH- in solution can
vary over a wide range. A logarithmic scale can be
easier to use.
pH = -log [H3O+ ]
pOH = -log [OH- ]
[H3O+ ] = 10-pH
[OH- ] = 10-pOH
Acidic solution: pH < 7 pOH > 7
Neutral solution: pH = 7 pOH = 7
Basic solution: pH > 7 pOH < 7
pH + pOH = 14.00 at 25C
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10.11 Laboratory Determination of Acidity

10.10 Working with pH

An antilogarithm has the same number of digits that the
original number has to the right of the decimal point.
A logarithm contains the same number of digits to the
right of the decimal point that the original number has.

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A much more accurate way to determine pH uses an

electronic pH meter like the one shown below.
Electrodes are dipped into the solution, and the pH is
read from the meter.

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(a) The color of universal indicator in solutions of

known pH from 1 to 12. (b) Testing pH with a paper
strip. Comparing the color of the strip with the code
on the package gives the approximate pH.

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10.12 Buffer Solutions

Buffer: A combination of substances that act
together to prevent a drastic change in pH; usually a
weak acid and its conjugate base.
Rearranging the Ka equation shows that the value of
[H3O+] depends on the ratio [HA]/[A-].
[H3O+] = Ka [HA]/[A-]
Most H3O+ added is removed by reaction with A- ,so
[HA] increases and [A-] decreases. As long as these
changes are small, the ratio [HA]/[A-] changes only
slightly, and there is little change in the pH.
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When 0.010 mol of acid and 0.010 mol of base are

added to 1.0 L of pure water and to 1.0 L of a 0.10 M
acetic acid0.10 M acetate ion buffer, the pH of the
water varies between 12 and 2, while the pH of the
buffer varies only between 4.85 and 4.68.

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10. 13 Buffers in the Body

The pH of body fluids is maintained by three major
buffer systems. The carbonic acidbicarbonate
system, the dihydrogen phosphatehydrogen
phosphate system, and a third system that depends
on the ability of proteins to act as either proton
acceptors or proton donors at different pH values.
The carbonic acidbicarbonate system is the
principal buffer in blood serum and other
extracellular fluids. The hydrogen phosphate system
is the major buffer within cells.
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A change in the breathing rate provides a quick

adjustment in the bicarbonate buffer system.
When the CO2 concentration in the blood starts to
rise, the breathing rate increases to remove CO2,
thereby decreasing the acid concentration.
When the CO2 concentration in the blood starts to fall,
the breathing rate decreases and acid concentration
increases.

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Each day, acid produced in the body is excreted in the

urine. The kidney returns HCO3- to the extracellular
fluids, where it becomes part of the bicarbonate reserve.

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10.15 Titration
The pH of a solution gives the H+ concentration but
not necessarily the total acid concentration.
The H+ concentration gives only the amount of acid
that has dissociated into ions, whereas total acid
concentration gives the sum of dissociated plus
undissociated acid.
In a 0.10 M solution of acetic acid the total acid
concentration is 0.10 M, yet the H+ concentration is
only 0.0013 M because acetic acid is a weak acid that
is only about 1% dissociated.
The total acid or base concentration of a solution can
be found by carrying out a titration procedure.
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Reading the buret gives the volume of base. The

molarity and volume of base yields the moles of base.
The coefficients in the balanced equation allow us to
find the moles of acid neutralized. Dividing the moles of
acid by the volume of the acid gives the acid molarity.

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(a) A measured volume of the acid solution is placed

in the flask along with an indicator.
(b) The base of known concentration is then added
from a buret until the color change of the indicator
shows that neutralization is complete.

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